7
Introduction to C++
7.1
Introduction
C++ is an extension to C Programming language. It was developed at AT&T Bell
Laboratories in the early 1980s by Bjarne Stroustrup. It is a deviation from traditional
procedural languages in the sense that it follows object oriented programming (OOP)
approach which is quite suitable for managing large and complex programs.
An object oriented language combines the data to its function or code in such a way
that access to data is allowed only through its function or code. Such combination
of data and code is called an object. For example, an object called Tutor may contain
data and function or code as shown below:
Object : Tutor
DATA
Name
Dept
Empcode
|
|
|
FUNCTION
Tot_pay ( )
Deductions ( )
Net_pay ( )
|
|
|
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The data part contains the Name, Dept and Employee code. The function part
consists of three functions: To_pay ( ), Deductions ( ) and Net_pay ( )
Thus, the various objects in the object-oriented language interact with each other
through their respective codes or functions as shown in Fig. 7.1
Object A
Object B
Data
Data
Function
Function
Function
Function
Data
Data
Object C
Object D
Fig. 7.1: The Object-oriented approach
It may be noted here that the data of an object can be accessed only by the functions
associated with that object. However, functions of one object can access the
functions of other objects.
7.2 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you would be able to:
l
learn about C++ character set, tokens and basic data types
l
explain the utility of different types of operators used in C++
l
identify the difference between implicit and explicit conversions
l
explain about Input/Output streams supported by C++
l
explain the structure of a C++ program
l
write a simple program in C++
Introduction to C++ :: 3
7.3
C++ Character Set
Character set is a set of valid characters that a language can recognise. A character
represents any letter, digit or any other special character. The C++ has the following
character set.
Letters
A-Z, a-z
Digits
0-9
Special Characters
Space
+-*/^\()[]{}=!=<>
. ‘ " $ , ; : % ! & ? _ # <=
White spaces
>=
@
Horizontal tab (—>), Blank space,
Carriage return (< ) Newline, form feed.
7.4
Basic Data Types
Every program specifies a set of operations to be done on some data in a particular
sequence. However, the data can be of many types such as a number, a character,
boolean value etc. C++ supports a large number of data types. The built in or basic
data types supported by C++ are integer, floating point and character type. A brief
discussion on these types is given below:
7.4.1 Integer type (int)
An integer is an integral whole number without a decimal point. These numbers are
used for counting. For example 26, 373, -1729 are valid integers.
Normally an integer can hold numbers from -32768 to 32767. However, if the need
be, a long integer (long int) can also be used to hold integers from -2, 147, 483, 648
to 2, 147, 483, 648.
7.4.2 Floating point type (float)
A floating point number has a decimal point. Even if it has an integral value, it must
include a decimal point at the end. These numbers are used for measuring quantities.
Examples of valid floating point numbers are: 27.4, -927., 40.03
A float type data can be used to hold numbers from 3.4*10-38 to 3.4*10+38 with six
or seven digits of precision. However, for more precision a double precision type
(double) can be used to hold numbers from 1.7*10-308 to 1.7*10+308 with about 15
digits of precision.
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7.4.3 Character Type ((Char)
It is a non numeric data type consisting of single alphanumeric character. Examples
of valid character types are : ‘A’, ‘9’, ‘P’, ‘8’, ‘&’.
It may be noted here that 9 and ‘9’ are of different data types. The former is of type
int and later of type char.
7.5 Tokens
A token is a group of characters that logically belong together. The programmer can
write a program by using tokens. C++ uses the following types of tokens.
l
Keywords
l
Identifiers
l
Literals
l
Punctuators
l
Operators
7.5.1 Keywords
There are some reserved words in C++ which have predefined meaning to complier
called keywords. Some commonly used keywords are given below:
List of Keywords
asm
double
new
switch
auto
else
operator
template
break
enum
private
this
case
extern
protected
try
catch
float
public
typedef
char
for
register
union
class
friend
return
unsigned
const
goto
short
virtual
continue
if
signed
void
default
inline
sizeof
volatile
delete
int
static
while
do
long
struct
Introduction to C++ :: 5
7.5.2 Identifiers
Symbolic names can be used in C++ for various data items used by a programmer
in his program. For example, if a programmer wants to store a value 50 in a memory
location, he/she choose any symbolic name (say MARKS) and use it as given below:
MARKS = 50
The symbol ‘=’ is an assignment operator. The significance of the above statement
is that ‘MARKS’ is a symbolic name for a memory location where the value 50 is
being stored.
A symbolic name is generally known as an identifier. The identifier is a sequence
of characters taken from C++ character set. The rules for the formation of an identifier
are:
(i)
An identifier can consist of alphabets, digits and/or underscores.
(ii)
It must not start with a digit.
(iii)
C++ is case sensitive, i.e., upper case and lower case letters are considered
different form each other. It may be noted that TOTAL and total are two
different identifier names.
(iv)
It should not be a reserved word.
7.5.3 Literals
Literals (often referred to as constants) are data items that never change their value
during the execution of the program. The following types of literals are available in
C++.
(i)
integer-constants
(ii)
character-constants
(iii)
floating-constants
(iv)
string-literals
(i)
Integer constants
Integer constants are whole numbers without any fractional part. It may contain
either + or – sign, but decimal point or commas does not appear in any integer
constant. C++ allows three types of integer constants.
l
Decimal (Base 10)
l
Octal (Base 8)
l
Hexadecimal (Base 16)
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l
Decimal integer constants
It consists of sequence of digits and should not begin with 0 (zero). For
example 124, - 179, + 108.
l
Octal integer constants
It consists of sequence of digits starting with 0 (zero). For example, 014,
012.
l
Hexadecimal integer constant
It consists of sequence of digits preceded by ox or OX. For example OXD,
OXC. The suffix l or L and u or U attached to any constant forces it to be
represented as a long and unsigned respectively.
(ii)
Character constants
A character constant in C++ must contain one or more characters and must be
enclosed in single quotation marks. For example ‘A’, ‘9’, etc. C++ allows nongraphic
characters which cannot be typed directly from keyboard, e.g., backspace, tab,
carriage return etc. These characters can be represented by using a escape
sequence. An escape sequence represents a single character. The following table
gives a listing of common escape sequences.
Escape Sequence
Nongraphic Character
\a
Bell (beep)
\b
Backspace
\f
Formfeed
\n
Newline or line feed
\r
Carriage return
\t
Horizontal tab
\v
Vertical tab
\?
Question mark
\\
Backslash
\’
Single quote
\”
Double quote
\ xhh
Hexadecimal number
(hh represents the number in
hexadecimal)
Octal number (00 represents
the number in octal)
Null
\ 000
\0
Introduction to C++ :: 7
(iii)
Floating constants
They are also called real constants. They are numbers having fractional parts. They
may be written in fractional from or exponent form.
A real constant in fractional form consists of signed or unsigned digits including a
decimal point between digits. For example 3.0, -17.0, -0.627 etc.
A real constant in exponent form has two parts: a mantissa and an exponent. The
mantissa is either an integer or a real constant followed by letter E or e and the
exponent which must be an integer. For example 2E03, 1.23E07.
(iv)
String Literals
A sequence of character enclosed within double quotes is called a string literal.
String literal is by default (automatically) added with a special character ‘\O’ which
denotes the end of the string. Therefore the size of the string is increased by one
character. For example “COMPUTER” will be represented as “COMPUTER\O” in
the memory and its size is 9 characters.
7.5.4 Punctuators
The following characters are used as punctuators in C++.
Brackets [
]
opening and closing brackets indicate single and
multidimensional array subscript.
Parentheses ( )
opening and closing brackets indicate functions calls, function
parameters for grouping expressions etc.
Braces {
}
opening and closing braces indicate the start and end of a
compound statement.
Comma
,
it is used as a separator in a function argument list.
Semicolon ;
it is used as a statement terminator.
Colon :
it indicates a labelled statement or conditional operator
symbol.
Asterisk *
it is used in pointer declaration or as multiplication operator.
Equal sign =
it is used as an assignment operator.
Pound sign #
it is used as pre-processor directive.
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7.5.5 Operators
Operators are special symbols used for specific purposes.
C++ provides six types of operators.
l
Arithmetical operators
l
Relational operators
l
Logical operators
l
Unary operators
l
Assignment operators
l
Conditional operators
l
Comma operator
Arithmetical operators
An operator that performs an arithmetic (numeric) operation: +, -, *, / , or %. For
these operations always two or more than two operands are required. Therefore
these operators are called binary operators. The following table shows the arithmetic
operators.
Operators
Meaning
Example
Result
+
Addition
8+ 5
13
-
Subtraction
8- 5
3
¹
Multiplication
8¹ 5
40
/
Division
8/ 5
1
%
Modulus/Remainder
8%5
3
Note : There is no operator which gives exponent in C++
Relational operators
The relational operators are used to test the relation between two values. All relational
operators are binary operators and therefore require two operands. A relational
expression returns zero when the relation is false and a non-zero when it is true.
The following table shows the relational operators.
Introduction to C++ :: 9
Relational operators
<
<=
==
>
>=
!=
Meaning
Less than
Less than or equal to
Equal to
Greater than
Greater than or equal to
Not equal
Example 1
int x = 2; Int l = 1;
int y = 3;
int z = 5;
The following statements are true
(i)
l==1
(ii)
x<y
(iii)
z>y
(iv)
y>=1
(v)
x!=1
(vi)
l<=1
Logical operators
The logical operators are used to combine one or more relational expression. The
following table shows the logical operators.
Operators
Meaning
||
OR
&&
AND
!
NOT
The NOT operator is called the unary operator because it requires only one operand.
Example 2
int x = 5; int z = 9; int y = 7;
(x > y) & & (z > y)
The first expression (x > y) evaluates to false and second expression (z > y) evaluates
to true. Therefore, the final expression is false.
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In AND operation, if any one of the expression is false, the entire expression is false.
In OR operation, if any one of the expression is true, the entire expression is true.
In NOT operation, only one expression is required.
If the expression is true, the NOT operation of true is false and vice versa.
Unary operators
C++ provides two unary operators for which only one variable is required.
For Example 3
a = - 50;
a = - b;
a = + 50;
a = + b;
Here plus sign (+) and minus sign (-) are unary because they are not used between
two variables.
Assignment operator
The assignment operator ‘=’ stores the value of the expression on the right hand
side of the equal sign to the operand on the left hand side.
Example 4
int m = 5, n = 7;
int x, y, z;
x = y = z = 0;
In addition to standard assignment operator shown above, C++ also support compund
assignment operators.
C++ provides two special operators viz ‘++’ and ‘- -’ for incrementing and
decrementing the value of a variable by 1. The increment/decrement operator can
be used with any type of variable but it cannot be used with any constant.
With the prefix version of these operators, C++ performs the increment or decrement
operation before using the value of the operand. For instance the following code.
int sum, ctr;
sum = 12;
ctr = 4;
sum = sum + (++ctr);
will produce the value of sum as 17 because ctr will be first incremented and then
added to sum producing value 17.
Introduction to C++ :: 11
Similarly, the following code
sum = 12;
ctr = 4;
sum = sum + ( - - ctr);
will produce the value of sum as 15 because ctr will be first decremented and then
added to sum producing value 15.
With the postfix version of these operators, C++ first uses the value of the operand
in evaluating the expression before incrementing or decrementing the operand’s
value. For example, the following code
sum = 12;
ctr = 4;
sum = sum + (ctr + +);
will produce the value of sum as 16 because ctr will be first used in the expression
producing the value of sum as 16 and then increment the value of ctr by 1 (ctr
becomes now 5)
Similary, the following code
sum = 12;
ctr = 4;
sum = sum + (ctr - -) will produce the value of sum as 16 because ctr will be first
used with its value 4 producing value of sum as 16 and then decrement the value
of ctr by 1 (ctr becomes 3).
Let us study the use of compound assignment operators in the following table :
Operator
+=
-=
%=
/=
=
Example
A+=2
A-=2
A%=2
A/=2
A
=2
Example 5
int x = 2; / / first
x + = 5; / / second
In the second statement, the value of x is 7
Equivalent to
A=A+2
A=A-2
A=A%2
A=A/2
A=A 2
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Conditional operator
The conditional operator ?: is called ternary operator as it requires three operands.
The format of the conditional operator is:
Conditional_expression ? expression1 : expression2;
If the value of conditional_expression is true then the expression1 is evaluated,
otherwise expression2 is evaluated.
Example 6
int a = 5;
int b = 6;
big = (a > b) ? a : b;
The condition evaluates to false, therefore big gets the value from b and it becomes
6.
The comma operator
The comma operator gives left to right evaluation of expressions.
It enables to put more than one expression separated by comma on a single line.
Example 7
int i = 20, j = 25;
int sq = i * i, cube = j * j * j;
In the above statements, comma is used as a separator between two statements
/ expressions.
7.6 The sizeof operator
As we know that different types of variables, constant, etc. require different amounts
of memory to store them. The sizeof operator can be used to find how many bytes
are required for an object to store in memory.
For Example 8
sizeof (char) returns 1
sizeof (int) returns 2
sizeof (float) returns 4
if k is integer variable, the sizeof (k) returns 2.
The sizeof operator determines the amount of memory required for an object at
compile time rather than at run time.
Introduction to C++ :: 13
7.7 The order of Precedence
The order in which the Arithemetic operators ( +, -, ¹, / , %) are used in a given
expression is called the order of precedence. The following table shows the order
of precedence.
Order
Operators
First
( )
Second
*, / , %
Third
+, -
The expression in the following example is calculated from left or right.
Example 9
5 + 4 / 3 * (5 - 3) /2
= 5+4/3*2/2
= 5+1*2/2
= 5+2/2
= 5+1
= 6
The following table shows the precedence of operators.
++, - - (post increment / decrement)
Highest
++ (Pre increment) - - (Pre decrement), sizeof
( ), ! (not), - (unary), + (unary)
¹, /, %
+, <, <=, >, >=
= =, ! =
&&
?:
=
Comma operator
Lowest
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In-Text Questions 7.1
1.
2.
Fill in the blanks
(a)
A keyword is a ................................... word of C++.
(b)
Pascal is a ............................. language whereas C++ is an
..................... language
(c)
An identifier must not start with a .............................
(d)
............................. constants are whole numbers without any fractional
part.
(e)
A sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes is called a
.................................. literal.
Mark True (T) or False (F) for the following:
(a)
An identifier name can start with the underscore ‘–’.
(b)
A token is a group of characters that logically belong together.
(c)
Literals are data items that generally change their value during
program execution.
(d)
An escape sequence represents a single character.
(e)
The symbol # is used as pre-processor directive.
3.
List out the various types of token used in C++.
4.
List out the data types supported by C++.
7.8 Type Conversion
The process in which one pre-defined type of expression is converted into another
type is called conversion. There are two types of conversion in C++.
l
Implicit conversion
l
Explicit conversion
7.8.1 Implicit conversion
Data type can be mixed in the expression.
Example 10
double a;
int b = 5;
float c = 8.5;
a = b * c;
Introduction to C++ :: 15
When two operands of different type are encountered in the same expression, the
lower type variable is converted to the higher type variable. The following table shows
the order of data types.
Order of data types
Data type
order
long double
(highest)
double
float
long
int
char
(lowest)
The int value of b is converted to type float and stored in a temporary variable before
being multiplied by the float variable c. The result is then converted to double so that
it can be assigned to the double variable a.
7.8.2 Explicit conversion
It is also called type casting. It temporarily changes a variable data type from its
declared data type to a new one. It may be noted here that type casting can only
be done on the right hand side of the assignment statement.
T_Pay = double (salary) + bonus;
Initially variable salary is defined as float but for the above calculation it is first converted
to double data type and then added to the variable bonus.
7.9 Constants
A number which does not charge its value during execution of a program is known
as a constant. Any attempt to change the value of a constant will result in an error
message. A constant in C++ can be of any of the basic data types. const qualifier
can be used to declare constant as shown below:
const float Pi = 3.1215;
The above declaration means that Pi is a constant of float types having a value
3.1415.
Examples of valid constant declarations are:
const int rate = 50;
const float Pi = 3.1415;
const char ch = ‘A’;
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7.10 Variables
A variable is the most fundamental aspect of any computer language. It is a location
in the computer memory which can store data and is given a symbolic name for
easy reference. The variables can be used to hold different values at different values
at different times during the execution of a program.
To understand more clearly we should study the following statements:
Total = 20.00;
... (i)
Net = Total - 12.00; ... (ii)
In statement (i), a value 20.00 has been stored in a memory location Total. The
variable Total is used in statement (ii) for the calculation of another variable Net. The
point worth noting is that the variable Total is used in statement (ii) by its name not
by its value.
Before a variable is used in a program, it has to be defined. This activity enables
the compiler to make available the appropriate type of location in the memory. The
definition of a variable consists of the type name followed by the name of the variable.
For example, a variable Total of type float can be declared as shown below:
float Total;
Similarly the variable Net can also be defined as shown below:
float Net;
Examples of valid variable declarations are:
(i)
int count;
(ii)
int i, j, k;
(iii) char ch, first;
(iv) float total, Net;
(v)
long int sal;
7.11 Input/Output (I/O)
C + + supports input/output statements which can be used to feed new data into
the computer or obtain output on an output device such as: VDU, printer etc. It
provides both formatted and unformatted stream I/O statements. The following C
+ + streams can be used for the input/output purpose.
Stream
Description
cin
console input
cout
console output
Introduction to C++ :: 17
In addition to the above I/O streams, two operators << and >> are also used. The
operator << is known as put to or bit wise shift operator. The operator >> is known
as extraction or get from operator.
Let us consider a situation where the user desires to display a message “My first
computer” on the screen. This can be achieved through the following statement:
cout << “My first computer”;
Once the above statement is carried out by the computer, the message “My first
computer” will appear on the screen.
Similarly the following program segment defines a variable sum of integer type,
initializes it to value 100 and displays the contents of the variable on the screen.
.
.
.
int sum;
sum = 100;
cout << “The value of variable sum=”;
cout << sum;
.
.
.
Once the above program segment is obeyed by the computer, the following output
is displayed on the screen:
The value of variable sum = 100
From the above discussion we see that cout is the standard output stream of C++
by virtue of which output can be displayed on the screen. However the put to operator
<< is also required to hand over the contents of the variable to cout as shown in
Fig. 7.2
cin is the standard input stream (keyboard) and it can be used to input a value
entered by the user from the keyboard. However, the get from operator >> is also
required to get the typed value from cin as shown in Fig. 7.3 and store it in the
memory location.
Let us consider the following program segment:
.
.
.
int marks;
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cin>> marks;
.
.
.
In the above segment, the user has defined a variable marks of integer type in the
first statement and in the second statement he is trying to read a value from the
keyboard. Once this set of statements is obeyed
Variable
Memory
sum
VDU
Cout
100
Output
stream
Put to
operator
Fig. 7.2 Usage of cout and < <
Variable
marks
Memory
Input
stream
Get from
operator
Cin
Fig 7.3 Usage of cin and >>
by the computer, whatever is typed on the keyboard (say 87) is received by the cin
standard input stream. cin then hands over the typed value to get from operator >>
which ultimately stores it in memory location called marks. The contents of this
variable can be displayed on the screen by the statements given below:
cout << “marks=”;
cout << marks;
Introduction to C++ :: 19
We can use more than one output or put to operators within the same output
statement as shown below. The activity is known as cascading of operators:
cout << “marks =” << marks;
The output of this statement will be
marks = 87
7.12 Structure of C++ Program
The structure of a C++ program is given below:
# Include <header file>
main ( )
{
...............
...............
...............
}
A C++ program starts with function called main ( ). The body of the function is
enclosed between curly braces. These braces are equivalent to Pascal’s BEGIN
and END keywords. The program statements are written within the braces. Each
statement must end by a semicolon (statement terminator).
A C++ program may contain as many functions as required. However, when the
program is loaded in the memory, the control is handed over to function main ( )
and it is the first function to be executed.
Let us now write our first program:
// This is may first program in C++
/* this program will illustrate different components of a simple program in
C++*/
# include <iostream.h>
void main ( )
{
cout <<“This is may first program in C++”;
cout << “\n......................................”;
}
When the above program is compiled, linked and executed the following output is
displayed on the VDU screen.
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This is my first program in C++
....................................................
Various components of this program are discussed below:
(i)
Comments
First three lines of the above program are comments and are ignored by the
compiler. Comments are included in a program to make it more readable.
If a comment is short and can be accommodated in a single line, then it is
started with double slash sequence in the first line of the program. However,
if there are multiple lines in a comment, it is enclosed between the two
symbols /* and */
Everything between /* and */ is ignored by the complier.
(ii)
Include <iostream.h>
The lines in the above program that start with symbol ‘#’ are called directives
and are instructions to the compiler. The word include with ‘#’ tells the compiler
to include the file iostream.h into the file of the above program. File iostream.h
is a header file needed for input/output requirements of the program.
Therefore, this file has been included at the top of the program.
(iii)
void main ( )
The word main is a function name. The brackets ( ) with main tells that main
( ) is a function. The word void before main ( ) indicates that no value is
being returned by the function main ( ). Every C++ program consists of one
or more functions. However, when program is loaded in the memory, the
control is handed over to function main ( ) and it is the first function to be
executed.
(iv)
The curly brackets and body of the function main ( )
A C ++ program starts with function called main ( ). The body of the function
is enclosed between curly braces. These braces are equivalent to Pascal’s
BEGIN and END keywords. The program statements are written within the
brackets. Each statement must end by a semicolon, without which an error
message is generated.
Example 11
Write a C ++ program that reads two values x and y, exchanges their contents and
prints the output.
Solution: Let us assume x and y are of type int. We will use a variable temp of type
int as a temporary location. The program is given below:
# include <iostream.h>
main ( )
Introduction to C++ :: 21
{
int x, y temp;
// ... Read the values x and y
cout << “Enter the values:”;
cin >> x >> y;
// ... Exchange the contents
temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
// display the output now
cout <<"the exchanged values are:” << x << y;
}
In-Text Questions 7.2
1.
2.
3.
Fill in the blanks:
(a)
.......................... operators are used to test the relation between two
values.
(b)
C++ provides two ...................... operators for which one variable is
required.
(c)
The process in which one pre-defined type of expression is converted
into another type is called......................
(d)
A........................... does not understand the contents of a comment
and ignores it.
(e)
The operator ++ is known as ...................... operator.
Mark True (T) or False (F) in front of the following:
(a)
The computer value of an arithmatic expression is always a numerical
value.
(b)
‘\n’ is the remainder operator.
(c)
Arithmatic operations on characters is allowed in C++.
(d)
the output of logical AND operation is true if one of its operand is true.
(e)
+ = is a compound assignment operator.
Evaluate the following expressions.
(a)
5/3 * 6
(b)
6.0 * 5/3
(c)
6 * 5/3
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7.13 What you have learnt
In this lesson you learnt the features of object oriented programming, particulary
that of C++ language. We have explained the C+ character set, tokens which include
variables, constants and operators. In C++, the interchanging of data takes place
automatically or by the programmer (i.e., implicit & explicit call), which are given in
Type Conversion. The concept of input/output statement has been explained. The
concept of comment statement which makes the program more readable is also
given. At the end, you should be able to write a C++ program which will take input
from the user, manipulate and print it on the screen.
7.14 Terminal Questions
1.
What is the difference between a keyword and an identifier?
2.
Explain the following terms:
(i) Literals
(ii) Implicit conversion
3.
How many ways are there in C++ to represent an integer constant?
4.
State the rules for comment statement?
5.
What is an Escape sequence. Describe any two backslash character
constant?
6.
Explain briefly about stardard Input/Output stream of C++.
7.
Write the equivalent C++ expression for the following Alegbraic expression:
(i) 2AB + 2BC + 2CA
2A
(ii)
4
3
x2
(iii) b2 - 4ac
2a
8.
Evaluate the following C++ expression:
Int a, b=2, k = 4;
a = b * 3/4 + k/4 + 8 - b + 5/8;
Introduction to C++ :: 23
9.
What is the difference between:
num = 10
num = 10
10.
11.
Write an appropriate C++ statement for each of the following:
(i)
read the values of a, b and c
(ii)
write the values of a and b in one line followed by the value of c on
another line.
(iii)
write the values of a and b in one line separated by blanks and value
of c after two blank lines.
Write a program that will find out the square of a given number.
7.15 Feedback to In-Text Questions
In-text Questions 7.1
1.
2.
3.
(a) reserved
(b) structured, object-oriented
(c) digit
(d) Integer
(e) string
(a) T
(b) T
(c) F
(d) T
(e) T
Various type of tokens used in C++ are:
(i) Keywords
(ii) Identifiers
(iii) Literals
(iv) Punctuators
(v) Operators
4.
Data types are:
(i) Integer type (int)
(ii) Floating point type (float)
(iii) Character type (char)
24 :: Certificate in Computer Science
In-text Questions 7.2
1.
2.
3.
(a) Relational
(b) Unary
(d) Compiler
(e) Increment
(a) T
(b) F
(d) F
(e) T
(a) 6
(b) 10.0
(c) Conversion
(c) T
(c) 10