Pamantasan ng Cabuyao COLLEGE OF EDUCATION CHAPTER 1 Introduction Reading comprehension is the process by which we understand the texts we read according to John R. Kirby, Ph.D. It is the purpose of reading, why we teach it, and why we care about it. It is also the prerequisite for meaningful learning from text. Reading comprehension is the application of a skill that evolved for other purposes (listening or oral comprehension) to a new form of input (text). Unlike listening comprehension, reading comprehension is not something for which our brains have evolved. Whereas oral comprehension seems to develop “naturally” with minimal deliberate intervention, reading comprehension is more challenging and requires deliberate instruction. Humans have been accomplished in oral comprehension for 100,000 years and more (Donald, 1991), and virtually all humans do it; reading comprehension has only been practiced for 5,000 years, and for most of that time the majority of humans did not do it (Olson, 1994). It should not be surprising that reading comprehension is difficult. The application of comprehension to text amplifies our mental capacities. It is fundamental to full participation in society, now and for the foreseeable future. Reading comprehension is the act of understanding what you are reading. While the definition can be simply stated the act is not simple to teach, learn or practice. Reading comprehension is an intentional, active, interactive process that occurs before, during and 1. Pamantasan ng Cabuyao COLLEGE OF EDUCATION after a person reads a particular piece of writing. Reading comprehension is one of the pillars of the act of reading. When a person reads a text, he engages in a complex array of cognitive processes. He is simultaneously using his awareness and understanding of phonemes (individual sound “pieces” in language), phonics (connection between letters and sounds and the relationship between sounds, letters and words) and ability to comprehend or construct meaning from the text. In addition, John Kruideneir elaborated that reading comprehension is an active process and the reader must interact and be engaged with the text for it to work well. It is also strategic process which can be taught. As reading comprehension takes place, words are decoded and associated with their meaning in the reader’s memory, phrases and sentences are processed rapidly or fluently enough to that the meanings derived from one word, phrase or sentence are not lost before the next is processed. Yet, reading comprehension can be described as understanding a text that is read, or the process of constructing meaning from a text. Reading fluency is commonly defined as reading accurately at a quick rate with appropriate prosody – a simple sounding definition. In fact, this definition hides complex processes and skills needed to produce the seemingly effortless performance of a fluent reader. Using both theory and empirical research, the presence and role of underlying processes and knowledge such as decoding fluency, processing speed, vocabulary, letter sound fluency, and sight word fluency are discussed. In addition, reading fluency is a topic that has received considerable attention in recent years. Since the Report of the National Reading Panel was published in 2000, attention has shifted from phonemic awareness and 1. Pamantasan ng Cabuyao COLLEGE OF EDUCATION decoding to those areas where less consensus has been established, including reading fluency. As a result of the renewed interest in this topic, the lack of agreement on what reading fluency actually is has been brought to the forefront. Reading fluency is often defined as accurate reading of connected text at a conversational rate with appropriate prosody (Armbruster, Lehr & Osborn, 2001; Hudson, Lane & Pullen, 2005; National Reading Panel, 2000) and is often measured as a combination of rate and accuracy – the number of correct words read aloud in one minute (Fuchs, Fuchs & Maxwell, 1988; Shinn, Good, Knutson, Tilly, & Collins, 1992; Torgesen, Rashotte& Alexander, 2001). Reading fluency is the power to read quickly and accurately. The more fluent a reader, the more he or she automatically groups and recognizes words. Fluent readers excel at oral reading, which is highlighted by smooth and natural expression. Furthermore, reading fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and reading comprehension. Since fluent readers don’t have to concentrate on decoding the actual words, they can focus their attention on what the text actually means. They can make mental connections throughout the text, as well as apply those connections to their personal backgrounds and experiences. Simply, fluent readers recognize the words and comprehend their overall meaning at the same time. Vocabulary plays an important part in learning to read. It is basically the key to reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. As children learn to read more advanced texts, they must learn the meaning of new words that are not part of their oral vocabulary. 1. Pamantasan ng Cabuyao COLLEGE OF EDUCATION Vocabulary is central to English language teaching because without sufficient vocabulary students cannot understand others or express their own ideas. Wilkins (1972) wrote that “… while without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (pp. 111-112). This point reflects to experiences with different languages; even without grammar, with some useful words and expressions, it can often manage to communicate. Lewis (1993) went further to argue, “Lexis is the core or heart of language” (p.89). Particularly as students develop greater fluency and expression in English it is significant for them to acquire more productive vocabulary knowledge and to develop their own personal vocabulary learning strategies. Vocabulary knowledge is fundamental to being an independent and successful reader and writer and is comprised of the words that are understood when heard or read. Vocabulary development is not a natural outcome of having a birthday or the number of years spent at school and while some words may be incidentally learned, other useful and important words do not necessarily teach themselves. In fact, researchers indicate that while some words may be learned incidentally the effects can be modest (Elley, 1989; Tobins&Ehri, 1994 in Spencer; Goldstein & Kaminski, 2012). The National Early Literacy Panel (2008) suggests there is a strong correlation between early vocabulary development and later academic success while Catts, Fey, Zhang, &Tomblin, 2001, p.18 identify that “… children who have limited vocabulary in kindergarten are at high risk of later reading difficulty.”. Limitations in vocabulary knowledge have been suggested to be a putative cause of reading comprehension failure (e.g., Cromley&Azevedo, 2007) and many 1. Pamantasan ng Cabuyao COLLEGE OF EDUCATION interventions for poor reading comprehension involve strategies designed to increase vocabulary knowledge (e.g., Beck, 1982). As researchers we decided to focus on these factors, for it plays a vital role in the development of the learners’ reading skill, so they can become competent enough for the demands of the society in the future. That’s why we agreed to conduct a study in Cabuyao Integrated High School in which we found out that there were a disturbing number of students who cannot comprehend well, and this is according to the data that we gathered from the school’s Philippine Informal Reading Inventory (Phil-IRI). Statement Of The Problems The main purpose in conducting this study is to assess the interaction between reading fluency and vocabulary in the prediction of reading comprehension in Cabuyao Integrated National High School in the City of Cabuyao. This study intends to answer the following questions: 1. What is the demographic profile of the students in terms of: 1.1. Sex; 1.2. Parent’s highest educational attainment ; and 1.3. Final grade in English (Grade 9)? 2. What is the level of reading fluency of the respondents in terms of: 2.1. Speed; 1. Pamantasan ng Cabuyao COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2.2. Accuracy; 2.2.1 Reading without errors 2.3. Expression; and 2.4. Comprehension 3. What is the level of Vocabulary of the respondents in terms of: 3.1. Familiarity; 3.2. Applying to Reading; and 3.3. Applying to Communication 4. Is there any relationship between the reading fluency and vocabulary on the reading comprehension of the students? 5. What intervention plan could be suggested in order to improve the student’s reading comprehension? Theoretical Framework This study is anchored on Jean Piaget’s Schema theory which cognitivist learning theories describe how knowledge is acquired, process and organized. Schema theory is an explanation of how readers use prior knowledge to comprehend and learn from text (Rumelhart, 1980). Later schema was introduced in reading by Rumelhalt (1980), Carrell 1. Pamantasan ng Cabuyao COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (1981) and Hudson (1982) when discussing the important role of background knowledge in reading comprehension. 1. Pamantasan ng Cabuyao COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 1. Pamantasan ng Cabuyao 1. COLLEGE OF EDUCATION Conceptual Framework INPUT Demographic profile of the respondents in terms of : Sex Parents Educational Attainment Final grade in english (grade9) Level of Reading Fluency of the Respondents in terms of : Speed Accuracy Expression Comprehension Level of Vocabulary of the respondents in terms of : PROCESS OUTPUT Data Collection and Organization Statistical Treatment of Data Correlation Analysis and Interpretation Familiarity Applying to reading Applying to communication FEEDBACK Figure1. Conceptual Model Reading Comprehension Program Pamantasan ng Cabuyao COLLEGE OF EDUCATION Research Paradigm The research paradigm contains the input,process and output. The input shows the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of their, sex, perent’s educational attainment and Final grade in English (grade 9). Also the level of reading fluency of the respondents in terms of speed, accuracy , expression and comprehension. Next is the level of the respondents vocabulary in terms of familiarity,applying to reading and to communication. 1.
