Unit 1: History and Approaches 1.1: Introduction to Psychology and Its Purposes WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Word derives from the following: ▪ Greek: Psyche + Logos Modern definition: ▪ The scientific study of behavior and mental processes ▪ Overt—easily seen; not hidden ▪ Covert—hidden WHY IS PSYCHOLOGY CONSIDERED A SCIENCE? Science studies observable phenomena ▪ Behavior is observable ▪ Applies the scientific method Psychologists prefer scientific observation ▪ Based on empirical evidence ▪ Systematically gathered ▪ Intersubjective Psychologists make data-driven decisions ▪ Treatments based on empirical evidence ▪ Intuition is not always correct in explaining behavior PSYCHOLOGY’S FOUR GOALS Describe ▪ Most basic goal ▪ First step in research psychology ▪ Requires precise use of language and definitions Explain ▪ Provides reasons for behavior ▪ Involves a theory Prediction ▪ Predicting behavior indicates we understand it to some degree (classical conditioning) ▪ Suggests how a set of conditions might influence behavior ▪ Control ▪ Can be used to provide treatment (e.g., behavioral therapy, medications, etc.) ▪ Shows we understand the underlying mechanisms of behavior 1.2: The Early Years and Today A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: BEGINNINGS Wilhelm Wundt ▪ Considered the “Father of Psychology” ▪ 1879: Established lab in Leipzig, Germany ▪ Studied conscious experience: reactions to various stimuli ▪ Used introspection A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: STRUCTURALISM Edward Titchener ▪ Brought Wundt’s ideas to the U.S. ▪ Renamed ideas structuralism ▪ Tried to analyze “structure” of mental life ▪ Like Wundt, used introspection A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: STRUCTURALISM Introspection proved to be a poor methodology ▪ Structuralists frequently disagreed over observations ▪ No objective way to settle disagreements ▪ Introspection still useful in some studies (e.g., hypnosis, meditation, problem solving, moods). A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: FUNCTIONALISM William James ▪ Broadened psychology’s scope ▪ Inspired by Darwin and natural selection theory ▪ Studied how the mind functions to help us adapt ▪ Applied the term functionalism A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIORISM John Watson ▪ Deemed introspection as unscientific ▪ Objected to study of the “mind” ▪ Psychology must study observable behavior objectively ▪ Adopted Ivan Pavlov’s concept of conditioning ▪ Observed relationship between stimuli and response A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: RADICAL BEHAVIORISM B.F. Skinner ▪ Believed mental events were unnecessary to study behavior ▪ Studied relationship between actions, rewards, and punishments ▪ Emphasized positive reinforcement vs. punishment ▪ Worked with animals A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: GESTALT Max Wertheimer ▪ Mistake to analyze psychological events in pieces; many experiences cannot be broken into smaller units ▪ “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” ▪ Influenced perception, personality A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY Sigmund Freud ▪ Behavior is largely influenced by unconscious wishes, thoughts, and desires; especially sex and aggression A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY Sigmund Freud ▪ Repressed thoughts are revealed in dreams, emotions, and slips of the tongue ▪ First to appreciate that childhood affects personality ▪ Created psychoanalysis, the first psychotherapy or “talking cure” ▪ All thoughts and actions are determined; nothing is an accident A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: HUMANISM Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow ▪ Rejected Freudian focus on unconscious ▪ Uncomfortable with behaviorists’ focus on conditioning ▪ Studied unique aspects of the person ▪ focus on subjective human experience. ▪ Each person has innate goodness and is able to make free choices (contrast with Skinner and Freud’s determinism). A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: HUMANISM Abraham Maslow ▪ Studied those with exceptional mental health ▪ Emphasized self-actualization ▪ Making use of talents and abilities ▪ Maximizing full potential A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: MODERN HUMANISM Seek to understand how humans perceive ourselves and experience the world Concerned with: ▪ Self image ▪ Self-evaluation ▪ Frame of reference A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: THE ROLE OF DIVERSITY Women and ethnic minorities have made notable contributions: ▪ Margaret Washburn ▪ 1894, awarded first Ph.D. ▪ 1906, published The Animal Mind A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: THE ROLE OF DIVERSITY Women and ethnic minorities have made notable contributions: ▪ Francis Cecil Sumner ▪ 1920, first African American to earn psychology degree A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: THE ROLE OF DIVERSITY Women and ethnic minorities have made notable contributions: ▪ Inez Beverly Prosser ▪ 1933, first African American female to receive Ph.D. HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY TIMELINE PSYCHOLOGY TODAY: THREE PERSPECTIVES Biological ▪ Behavior can be explained through internal physical, chemical, and biological principles ▪ Uses brain scans to gather data (CT, MRI, PET) ▪ Includes evolutionary psychology and study of genetics PSYCHOLOGY TODAY: THREE PERSPECTIVES Cognitive or Psychological ▪ Behavior results from psychological processes ▪ Includes cognitive psychology and consciousness ▪ Incorporates psychodynamic and humanistic views ▪ Positive Psychology ▪ Study of human strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior PSYCHOLOGY TODAY: THREE PERSPECTIVES Sociocultural ▪ Many thoughts and behaviors are influenced by one’s culture ▪ Psychologists need to be aware of the impact cultural diversity may have on our behaviors ▪ What is acceptable in one culture might be unacceptable in another ▪ Cultural Relativity ▪ Social Norms CONTEMPORARY WAYS TO LOOK AT BEHAVIOR CONTEMPORARY WAYS TO LOOK AT BEHAVIOR CONTEMPORARY WAYS TO LOOK AT BEHAVIOR 1.3: History of Psychology Strengths and Weaknesses Biopsychological View Strengths • It is very scientific. • Experiments used are measurable, objective, and can be repeated to test for reliability. • Researchers have more control over the variables. • It is deterministic. • It increases the likelihood of being able to treat people with abnormal behavior and provides explanations about the causes of behavior. Weaknesses • It focuses too much on the “nature” side of the nature/nurture debate. • It is nomothetic. • It develops theories about disorders and generalizes them to apply to everyone. • It does not take into account the view that humans are unique. Cognitive View Strengths • It looks at thought processes, which were ignored by other psychologists, especially behaviorists • Cognitive theories have been applied to cognitive therapies such as Rational Emotive Therapy. This therapy has been successful in changing irrational thoughts into rational thoughts so that behavior improves. Weaknesses • It is reductionist. • It is too mechanical; it compares humans to computers in that they have similar processes. Behavioristic View Strengths • It has successfully applied classical and operant conditioning. • Systematic desensitization is based on classical conditioning and is useful for treating phobias. • It uses scientific methods of research. Weaknesses • It focuses too much on the “nurture” side of the nature/nurture debate. Sociocultural View Strengths • Cognitive development is a social process. This approach has demonstrated the strong effect of social influences on people’s behavior. Weaknesses • The sociocultural view is reductionist. • It fails to acknowledge the role of individual differences within a social setting. • It has been argued that some research has been unethical. Psychodynamic View Strengths • It takes both nature and nurture into account • It focuses on the effects that childhood experiences have on the developing personality. • It also led to other psychologists to develop theories on childhood. Weaknesses • It is unfalsifiable; assumptions cannot be scientifically measured or proved wrong. • It is deterministic; it suggests that behavior is pre-determined and that people do not have free will. 1.4 Kinds of Psychologists and What They Do Psychologists • What is a psychologist? – Highly trained professional – Specialized in methods, knowledge, and theories of psychology – Usually have masters or doctorate. – Adhere to ethical code respecting people’s privacy, dignity, confidentiality, and welfare Psychologists • What is a psychologist? (cont’d) – Clinical Psychologists • Possess Ph.D. or equivalent • Treat psychological problems • Conduct research on therapies and mental illnesses – Counseling Psychologists: • Treat milder problems (e.g., poor adjustment at work or school) Other Mental Health Professionals • Psychiatrists – M.D. – Can prescribe medications – Treats mental disorders using psychotherapy • Psychoanalysts – M.D. or Ph.D. – Additional Freudian psychoanalytic training Other Mental Health Professionals • Counselors – Masters + 1-2 years supervised counseling experience – Advisers who help solve problems with marriage, career, school, or work • Psychiatric Social Workers: – M.S.W. – Evaluate patients and families, conduct therapy, visits to homes, school, jobs Major Subfields/Domains in Psychology • • • • • • • • • • • Biological Clinical Cognitive Comparative Developmental Educational and School Evolutionary Industrial-Organizational Personality Social Positive Specialties in Psychology • Not all psychologists perform therapy • Some work in the following areas: – Basic research – Applied research – Work in college or university settings – Consulting
