Illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of the behavioural approach to psychotherapy
Behavioural approach to psychotherapy has many advantages and disadvantages as cited in this essay.
Behavioral therapy is a natural extension and application of many of Skinner's views focusing on observable behavior. The first criticism pertains to the lack of attention that behavior therapy gives to emotion. Behavioral practitioners hold that empirical evidence has not shown that feelings must be changed first in order to achieve measurable progress. In general, behavioral practitioners do not encourage their clients to experience their emotion, although some will work with aspects of emotion. Critics argue that emotions play a significant part in behavioral responses and should not be ignored. The strict emphasis on overt behavior to the exclusion of an inner life was a core concept that Skinner held throughout his career.
So hence, if there is not an inner life or at least one worth attending to, then it would follow that insight into one's motives or origins of behavioral responses would be of little value. This criticism states that behavior therapy ignores the importance of self or self-consciousness to the exclusion of overt behavioral responses. Skinner rejected the idea that such internal agents such as an ego or self allow us to make independent and free choices or derive any true benefit for examination of internal processes. This viewpoint, however, does not adequately take into account the reflective nature and imagination of the individual. A person cannot, as critics suggest, simply turn off his or her ability to reflect on past events or what propels them toward or causes them to back away from various choices.
Another criticism of behavior therapy is that it treats symptoms rather than causes. The psychoanalytic assumption is that early life events are the source of present difficulties. Behavior therapists may acknowledge the existence of past life events but do not place particular importance to those events in the maintenance of current problems. Instead, the behavioral practitioner emphasizes changing environmental circumstances and how those environmental forces reinforce particular behaviors. Critics respond with the argument that it is natural for humans to conceptualize a cause and effect relationship in behavior. This is an example of sequential learning and is used in many ways to describe the process of progress.
A final therapeutic criticism of behavior therapy involves the use of control and manipulation by the therapist toward the client. The therapist assumes a position of power with the client where he or she, through the process of reinforcement, can potentially manipulate the client's behavior responses. This criticism is largely a misunderstanding of contemporary behavior therapy. If applied in a strictly Skinnerian model, the potential for manipulation would be greater. However, all therapeutic approaches give some degree of control to the therapist, who hopes to facilitate change in the person seeking help. Most modern behavior therapists are not attempting to control their clients or manipulate them. In fact, many use techniques aimed at increased self-direction and self-control.
The many criticisms of various aspects of behavior therapy may be grouped under three main headings:

1. Moderm learning theory is not sufficiently advanced and specific to make application to the treatment of mental disorders possible.
2.
2. Theories such as those of Wolpe, Skinner and others do not provide a way of applying learning theory to these problems.
3.
3. The results of behavior therapy have not been shown to be superior to those achieved with more orthodox methods.
Behaviorism refers to a psychological approach which emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation. The approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, and states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment.
All behavior is learned from the environment: Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior, to the near exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on learning.
We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as 'learning theory').
Therefore, when born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).
Psychology should be seen as a science:
Theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained through careful and controlled observation and measurement of behavior. Watson (1913) stated that:
'Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is … prediction and control.' (p. 158).
The components of a theory should be as simple as possible. Behaviorists propose the use of operational definitions (defining variables in terms of observable, measurable events).
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion:
While behaviorists often accept the existence of cognitions and emotions, they prefer not to study them as only observable (i.e., external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically measured.
Therefore, internal events, such as thinking should be explained through behavioral terms (or eliminated altogether).

There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals:
There's no fundamental (qualitative) distinction between human and animal behavior. Therefore, research can be carried out on animals as well as humans (i.e., comparative psychology).
Consequently, rats and pigeons became the primary source of data for behaviorists, as their environments could be easily controlled.
Behavior is the result of stimulus-response:
All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus-response association).
Watson described the purpose of psychology as:
'To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction.' (1930, p. 11).
 Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on conditioning
 after originally studying digestion in dogs.
Watson (1913) launches the behavioral school of psychology, publishing
 an article, Psychology as the behaviorist views it .
Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka

Little Albert) to fear a white rat.
Thorndike (1905) formalized the Law of Effect.
 Skinner (1936) wrote The Behavior of Organisms and introduced the concepts of operant conditioning and shaping.


Clark Hull’s (1943) Principles of Behavior was published.
B.F. Skinner (1948) published Walden Two, in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles.



Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior begun in 1958.
Chomsky (1959) published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism,
"Review of Verbal Behavior."
Bandura (1963) publishes a book called the Social Leaning Theory and
Personality development which combines both cognitive and behavioral frameworks.
 B.F. Skinner (1971) published his book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity , where he argues that free will is an illusion.

Key Features
Stimulus-Response
Operant ConditioningSchedules of ReinforcementClassical
ConditioningNomotheticReductionism
Basic Assumptions
Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner.
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking.
Behavior is the result of stimulus–response (i.e., all behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus – response features).
Behavior is determined by the environment (e.g., conditioning, nurture).
Strengths
The behaviorist approach provides clear predictions. This means that explanations can be scientifically tested and support with evidence.
Real life applications (e.g., therapy)
Emphasizes objective measurement
Many experiments to support theories
Identified comparisons between animals (Pavlov) and humans (Watson &
Rayner - Little Albert)
Methodology / Studies
Contolled Experiment Little AlbertBobo Doll StudySkinner BoxPavlov's
DogsEthical Considerations
Areas of Application
Gender Role Development
Behavioral TherapyPhobiasEducationBehavior-
ModificationPsychopathologyDepression
Relationships
Moral Development
Aggression
Addiction
Limitations
Ignores mediational processes

Ignores biology (e.g., testosterone)
Too deterministic (little free-will)
Experiments – low ecological validity
Humanism – can’t compare animals to humans
Reductionist
An obvious advantage of behaviorism is its ability to define behavior clearly and to measure changes in behavior. According to the law of parsimony, the fewer assumptions a theory makes, the better and the more credible it is. Behaviorism, therefore, looks for simple explanations of human behavior from a very scientific standpoint.
However, behaviorism only provides a partial account of human behavior, that which can be objectively viewed. Important factors like emotions, expectations, higher-level motivation are not considered or explained. Accepting a behaviorist explanation could prevent further research from other perspective that could uncover important factors.
In addition, humanism (e.g., Carl Rogers) rejects the scientific method of using experiments to measure and control variables because it creates an artificial environment and has low ecological validity.
Humanistic psychology also assumes that humans have free will (personal agency) to make their own decisions in life and do not follow the deterministic laws of science . Humanism also rejects the nomothetic approach of behaviorism as they view humans as being unique and believe humans cannot be compared with animals (who aren’t susceptible to demand characteristics).
This is known as an idiographic approach.
The psychodynamic approach (Freud) criticizes behaviorism as it does not take into account the unconscious mind’s influence on behavior, and instead focuses on externally observable behavior. Freud also rejects the idea that people are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) and states that people are born with instincts
(e.g., eros and thanatos).
Biological psychology states that all behavior has a physical/organic cause. They emphasize the role of too, in addition to the environment. nature over nurture. For example, chromosomes and hormones (testosterone) influence our behavior
Cognitive psychology states that mediational processes occur between stimulus and response, such as memory , thinking, problem-solving, etc.
Despite these criticisms, behaviorism has made significant contributions to psychology. These include insights into learning, language development, and moral and gender development, which have all been explained in terms of conditioning.

The contribution of behaviorism can be seen in some of its practical applications. Behavior therapy and behavior modification represent one of the major approaches to the treatment of abnormal behavior and are readily used in clinical psychology.
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Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality
development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Chomsky, N. (1959). A review of BF Skinner's Verbal Behavior . Language,
35(1), 26-58.
Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory .
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Pavlov, I. P. (1897). The work of the digestive glands. London: Griffin.
Skinner, B. F. (1948). Walden two. New York: Macmillan.
Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity . New York: Knopf.
Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The elements of psychology. New York: A. G. Seiler.
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it . Psychological
Review, 20, 158-178.
Watson, J. B. (1930). Behaviorism (revised edition). University of Chicago
Press.
Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions . Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 3, 1, pp. 1–14.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning refers to learning by association, and involves the conditioning of innate bodily reflexes with new stimui.
Stimulus
Any feature of the environment that affects behavior. E.g. in Pavlov’s experiments food was a stimulus.
Response
The behavior elicited by the stimulus. E.g. in Pavlov’s experiments salivation was a response.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of behavior.
Positive Reinforcement

Presenting the subject with something that it likes. e.g., Skinner rewarded his rats with food pellets.
Negative Reinforcement
Reward – in the sense of removing or avoiding some aversive (painful) stimulus. e.g., Skinner's rats learned to press the lever in order to switch off the electric current in the cage.
Punishment
Imposing an aversive or painful stimulus. e.g., Skinner’s rats were given electric shocks.
Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling.
The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
Reductionism
Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts.
Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems, and use the simplest explanations to understand how they work.
Behaviorism reduces all behavior (no matter how complex) to stimulusresponse associations.
Human behaviour is learned, thus all behaviour can be unlearned and new behaviors learned in its place. Behaviourism is concerned primarily with the observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. Therefore when behaviorsbecome unacceptable, they can be unlearned. Behaviorism views development as a continuous process in which children play a relatively passive role. It is also a general approach that is used in a variety of settings including both clinical and educational.
Behaviorists assume that the only things that are real (or at leastworth studying) are the things we can see and observe. We cannot see the mind ,the id, or the unconscious, but we can see how people act, react and behave. From behavior we may be able to make inferences about the minds and the brain,but they are not the primary focus of the investigation. What people do ,not what they think or feel , is the object of the study. Likewise the behaviorist does not look to the mind or the brain to understandthe causes of abnormal behavior. He assumes that the behavior representscertain learned habits, and he attempts to determine how they are learned.

The material that is studied is always behavior. Because behavioristsare not interested in the mind, or its more rarified equivalents such as psycheand soul, inferences about the conditions that maintain and reinforce humanbehavior can be made from the study of animal behavior. Animal research hasprovided a very important foundation for the behavioral approach. Thebehavioral researcher is interested in understanding the mechanisms underlyingthe behavior of both normal individuals and those with problems that might bereferred as "mental illness". When the behavioral model is applied tomental illness, it tends to be used for a wide variety of presenting problems. It is perhaps most effective in treating behavioral disorders and disorders ofimpulse control, such as excessive drinking , obesity, or sexual problems. Behavioral approaches may bequite useful in treatment of anxiety and have occasionally been helpful in themanagement of more severe mental disorders such as schizophrenia
Classical conditioning is demonstrated when a neutral stimulus acquiresthe eliciting properties of the unconditioned stimulus through pairing theunconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus. Behavior is controlled byassociation.
Operant conditioning is demonstrated when the reinforcing consequencesimmediately following the response increases its future likelihood; aversiveconsequences immediately following the response to decrease its futurelikelihood.
What does it assume?
Behaviorists assume that we can understand people by observing their behavior. This contrasts with the cognitive approach which looks at thought processes and other unobservable activities.
Behavior can be observed in terms of responses to certain stimuli. For example, a person being asked to hold a book (stimulus) would respond by holding the book.
This Stimulus-Response Theory forms the basis of conditioning, which suggests learning in humans and animals can take place through the association of a response with particular stimuli.
Behaviorism also assumes that we are born as a blank slate, or tabula rasa, and so equal at birth. It is environmental factors rather than genetic or biological differences that make us behave differently. Behaviorism very much represents the nurture aspect of the nature-nurture debate.

Flooding
If you jumped out of a plane, would you overcome your fear of heights? True or false: If your best friend is terrified of spiders, the best thing you can do to help her is lock her in a room with a tarantula until she stops freaking out.
Believe it or not, a lot of psychologists will tell you that the correct answer to that is True. The technique is called 'flooding', and it has a solid base in behavioral therapy. The underlying theory behind flooding is that a phobia is a learned fear, and needs to be unlearned by exposure to the thing that you fear.
By definition, a phobia is an unreasoning fear to a non-dangerous thing or situation. Somehow this non-dangerous thing has become associated with the panic response usually associated with mortal danger. By forcing the phobic to confront their fear, therapists reason, they will learn that there is nothing dangerous about it. One psychiatrist puts it this way:
If you give a horse an electric shock every time he puts his right forefoot on the floor, he will learn very quickly to keep that foot off the floor. If you then stop giving the shock, he will continue to keep that foot lifted off the floor. Why? Because he has no way of knowing that the floor is no longer electrified unless he is forced to put his foot down again. In the same way, a person who has developed a phobia of a particular thing or situation will go to extreme lengths to avoid that situation. As long as they avoid exposure to the thing that they fear, they have no way of knowing that it can't hurt them.
Introduction To Abnormal Psychology PS1110A Compulsory Coursework Essay Title Year 1 - Term 2
Hemis Number: 127844 Word Count: 1,571 "What are the advantages and disadvantages of the behaviourist approach to mental disorder?" The behavioural approach to psychology emphasises the effects that environmental stimuli can have on a person. Because of the importance of the environment, behavioural psychologists concentrate on the process of learning and any lasting change that occurs as a result of any experience. The origins of behaviourism can be traced back to a paper written by John Watson entitled, 'Psychology as the behaviourist views it' (Watson 1913). He emphasised the importance of the environment in our behaviour and there are three central ideas behind the theory. There is an emphasis on observable responses and environmental stimuli, a rejection to any concepts that are not evident from direct observation and a focus on experience and learning as the fundamental basis behind understanding behaviour. Behaviourists see people as biological organisms that are innately capable of responding to the environment in which they live.
Humans like many other organisms are capable of performing a wide range of complex responses, however these are seen as combinations of simpler responses in behaviourism. Continuity is assumed between humans and all other animals, which means that they are all capable of making similar responses even if those of humans are more complex. ...read more.
Behavioural therapy takes a practical, problem solving approach and it is a logical extension of behaviourism as applied to psychopathology. The therapist has three main roles; the first is to identify maladaptive learning, then to facilitate the unlearning of maladaptive responses and finally to teach the person more adaptive learning strategies. Techniques, which have been developed from classical conditioning to treat mental disorders, include systematic desensitisation, flooding and aversion therapy. Systematic desensitisation was devised by Wolpe (1958) and aimed to treat, fears, phobias and anxieties. The therapist works with the client and the client is told to make a hierarchical list of

feared situations starting with those that produce little fear and ending with those that are most frightening. Gradually over a number of sessions the client works their way up the list with graded exposure to all the situations having first been encouraged to relax. The idea behind this therapy is to replace the conditioned fear response with one of relaxation and it is therefore the pairing of relaxation with the feared stimulus that brings the desensitisation. This technique can either be used
'in vivo', which means the patient is actually exposed to the stimuli in real life, or 'in vitro' where images are used to create the fear response. Flooding which is also known as 'implosion' is quicker and may be more effective then systematic desensitisation. ...read more.
Bandura (1969) however argues that if 'underlying' is defined as 'not immediately obvious' then behavior therapists do look for underlying causes. The task is for the therapist to work with the client to find the most significant causes. According to social learning theory, phobias can develop through observing fears in others and modeling behavior upon those observations. For example if a parent reacts badly to the presence of a spider the shild will mimic that behaviour. Programmes of behaviour modification like 'token economy', do not offer a cure for mental disorders; instead they enable patients to 'fit' better into their social world. For example, chronic psychiatric patients sometimes have no motivation to maintain personal hygiene and therefore tokens can be earned for washing and brushing hair for example. The intention is to give the person back some dignity. The natural rewards that will replace the tokens to reinforce the behaviour are that others will be more sympathetic towards them. It has been suggested, however, that the so-called success of this therapy may have more to do with its need for closer interaction between the patient and the nurse, which suggests that the attention is therapeutic, not the technique. Behavioural methods have given the opportunity for nursing staff to become more involved in treatment, which may have increased their investment in helping the patient. Despite its scientific status, behaviourist methods are still susceptible to the problems of evaluation that all therapeutic approaches suffer.