164 Bilingual Suplemental KEY TERMS
Flashcards Exercise
Active Vocabulary
The words a learner can understand and use independently.
Alphabetic Writing System
A writing system in which each symbol represents a phoneme of the language is an alphabetic
system.
Phonology
The study of the sound systems in a language is known as phonology. An example would be to
identify all the sounds that “a” makes.
Morphology
Morphology is the structure of meaningful units and patterns in words. An example is:“talk” is one
morpheme, and “talked” has 2 morphemes “talk” and “ed”.
Bound Morpheme
A morpheme that cannot stand alone as an individual word, but can be used only in combination
with other morphemes is a bound morpheme.
Syntax
The manner in which words and other structural elements of a language are arranged to construct
sentences is called syntax.
Lexicon
The terms used in a particular profession, subject or style: vocabulary.
Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning; some words can have multiple meanings.
Discourse
Conversations or verbal expression in speech or writing are known as discourse.
Function
Communicative competence theory has given rise to communicative language teaching involving
social function of language. This can include requesting, telling a story, expressing joy or
disappointment and expressing an opinion.
Register
Ways of using language that may vary according to purpose, situation, audience, and the social
characteristics of the speaker. Registers are casual, formal, frozen, consultative, or intimate.
Social language
This refers to the ability to carry on a conversation in familiar, predictable face-to-face situations.
Usually developed by the time a child enters school.
Academic language
This refers to the ability to understand and produce increasingly complex oral and written
language. As students progress they are required to understand linguistically and conceptually
demanding texts in the content areas (mathematics, social studies, science, and literature).
nterrelatedness of listening, speaking, reading, and writing
The relationships between listening, speaking, reading, and writing during development are
complex relationships of mutual support. Practice in one process contributes to the overall base of
second language knowledge. It is important to provide exposure to functional meaningful uses of
both oral and written language.
Interrelatedness of listening, speaking, reading, and writing
The relationships between listening, speaking, reading, and writing during development are
complex relationships of mutual support. Practice in one process contributes to the overall base of
second language knowledge. It is important to provide exposure to functional meaningful uses of
both oral and written language.
Language proficiency
Proficiency in language is assessed to determine a students’ ability to function in the language.
Proficiency in comprehension, speaking, reading, and composition in the English language is the
goal of English as a Second Language Programs.
Linguistics
Linguistics refers to the structural aspects of language.
Psycholinguistics
This is the study of the relationship of language and the mind. The area of psycholinguistics
includes how language is acquired and processed in the human mind.
Nonlinguistic
This includes gestures, facial expressions, and body language and their relationships to a language.
Dialect
It is a variation of a language used by a particular group of people.
Sociolect
A variety of language related to a specific social class.
Idiolect
This refers to an individual’s particular speech.
Language
This type of language is characterized by a well-ordered system of rules that each adult member of
the language community comprehends in speaking, listening, and writing.
Written language
Activities should focus on language acquisition through materials that are meaningful,
personalized, or culturally relevant.
Oral language
Oral language should focus on cooperation, open-ended communication, interaction, and the
teacher should act as a facilitator.
Affective
The area of development encompasses social, emotional, and personality characteristics and the
development of self-concept which includes positive identity with a student’s cultural and
language heritage.
Cognitive
Relating to, being, or involving conscious intellectual activity (such as thinking, reasoning, or
remembering).
Developmentally Appropriate
These are instructional practices that are age appropriate for the learner. The practices support
cognitive, emotional, social, and physical development.
Idiomatic expressions
Expressions that are peculiar to or characteristic of a given language. Idiomatic expressions are
difficult to translate literally, so this can pose a problem for L2 learners.
Stages of first language development
* Crying – cries of hunger, distress, etc.
* Babbling – first exploring every sound humanly possible, then to echolalic which are the sounds
common to the language the child hears
* Telegraphic speech-abbreviated speech, accompanied by gestures
- The stages of language development are universal and progress from the simple to the complex.
Second language acquisition
People learn a second language by using what they already know about their first language and by
going through some of the same stages of first language development.
Stages of language acquisition
Level I Pre-Production
pictures to communicate
- Minimal comprehension, no verbal production. Uses gestures or
Level II Early Production - Limited comprehension, one to two word responses, short phrases
Level III Speech Emergence
speech
- Increased comprehension, simple sentences, some errors in
Level IV Intermediate Fluency - Very good comprehension uses more complex sentences,
engages in conversation and produces connected narrative
Level V Proficiency
- Very good comprehension with near native speech, few, if any,
errors in speech, understands complex language
Cognates
Cognates are words that are related in meaning and form to words in one or more languages due
to their common historical morphemic source. An example, animal in English and animales in
Spanish are cognates.
Expressive language
Language that is generated in the form of speaking, writing, or signing (sending messages) is
expressive.
Receptive language
The ability to understand a message (receiving a message) is receptive language.
Code switching
The alternate use of two languages interchangeably or simultaneously that occurs among
bilinguals. It includes any switch between two languages at the level of words, sentences, or blocks
of speech.
Affective filter
Controls the extent to which an individual internalizes input by converting it into learning. It has
been described as an imaginary filter in the brain and when raised it may negatively influence
language acquisition, academic success, and classroom behavior and action.
Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
* Vocabulary an essential component of reading proficiency
* Based on applied linguistics theory and practice
* Begin with spoken language
* Language is practiced situationally
* Simple grammar taught before complex grammar
* No translation allowed
* Accuracy in pronunciation, grammar is crucial
* Learner listens and repeats
Communicative Language Teaching
* Communicative proficiency: meaning is paramount
* May use native language for clarification
* Communication encouraged from beginning
* Language has categories of functional and communicative meaning, as well as grammatical and
structural features
* Course content reflects needs of students
* Learner-centered approach
Total Physical Response
* Language taught through motor activity
* Verbs are the focus
* Stimulus-response view of learning
* Oral proficiency at first
* Imperative drills (commands) are major activity
* Learners are listeners and performers
* Reduce stress
* First and second language learning similar
* Silent period
The Silent Way
* Learner should discover and create, problem solve
* Uses colored rods and charts
* Learner is active, teacher is silent for most part
* Vocabulary is central
* Near-native fluency, correct pronunciation, mastery of prosodic elements
* Lessons planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary
Community Language Learning
* Based on Counseling-Learning Theory; Rogerian
* Affective realm: teacher responsible for secure learning environment
* Language alternation: present in native language, then in target language
* Interaction between learners, between learners and others (teacher or peers)
* Mostly oral proficiency
* Content based on what learners want
* Learners reflect on feelings about language class
Natural Approach
based on “traditional” approaches: communication without relying on native language
meaning, vocabulary, communication
based on Krashen’s Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
comprehensible input, Monitor Hypothesis, low affective filter, natural order, silent period
designed for beginning learners
Suggestopedia
ties to yoga and Soviet psychology
decoration, furniture, comfortable arrangement of classroom
reclining chairs, dramatic presentation of readings with music
music and musical rhythm central; Baroque music preferred
30 days, 10 units, 4 hours/day, 6 days/week
Dialogues are focus, translated to native language
Imitation, question and answer, role play
Notional-Functional
pragmatics of language
organized around functions of language: agree, argue, question, compliment, express emotions
learn communication strategies for various situations
notional categories of language: time, quantity, space, matter, etc.
Sheltered English
to facilitate access to core curriculum for L2 learners
intermediate level of English required
slow but natural levels of speech
clear enunciation, short sentences
controlled vocabulary
visuals
frequent comprehension checks
low level of anxiety
cooperative learning should be integral part
content is not watered down
SDAIE
Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English
Strategies that have been developed to foster second language development and academic
learning by using the second language for instruction making sure it is comprehensible to second
language learners.
SIOP
Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol
This model of sheltered instruction offers teachers a model for lesson planning and
implementation that provides English language learners with access to grade-level content
standards.
Cooperative Learning
The process of grouping where small groups (3 to 5) work tougher to achieve mutual learning
goals.
Promoting Literacy
Promote literacy in the L1 and L2 by providing a print-rich environment, opportunities for
collaboration, engaging literature in a meaningful way and opportunities for writing purposefully.
Features of a Supportive L2 Classroom
Classrooms that are characterized by the following features will support second language
acquisition.
1.
The classroom should provide a positive and comfortable learning environment.
2.
The focus in the classroom should be on using language to learn about something else.
3.
The classroom should provide for frequent opportunities for interactions between
teachers and individual students.
4.
There should be planned opportunities for meaningful interactions between peers.
5.
Children need to become problem solvers rather than recipients of information.
6.
Language in the classroom should model new ways to express meaning.
Best Practices for L2 Part 2
•
Many literacy-related skills and strategies learned in the first language (L1) transfer to the
second language (L2)
•
Use language during instruction that is comprehensible and meaningful to students
•
Use non-verbal cues that include gestures, facial expressions, dramatic play, and physical
responses
•
Create an instructional program that meets the needs of your students.
•
Use peer tutoring, small group instruction, and include parents and community leaders as
role models.
Content-based ESL instruction
Content-based ESL provides a dual curriculum; the focus is on acquiring content knowledge with
language development also comprising a major component. The subject matter and objectives are
basically the same as those for all other students, but the delivery system is modified. Current ESL
methodology is used to ensure the comprehension of the content for all students regardless of
language level.Content-based ESL is an effective approach for acquiring English. Language is best
acquired when students are using it to learn something other than language. ESL students use it to
negotiate meaning with their peers and teachers in a meaningful context. This approach
encourages the integration of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills and requires the use
of higher order thinking skills.
Effective Classroom Management
When designing a system of classroom management, be aware of the cognitive and learning styles
of your students. Some groups can handle an authoritarian style of teaching, while others would
respond to a more democratic style of teaching. Allow for open communication and encourage
oral participation. Create a spirit of positive interdependence where students work well together
in small group settings.
Teaching strategies for a variety of ESL environments and situations
•
Use standards-based instruction. This will help you focus on high expectations for all
students
•
Use sheltered or (SDAIE) Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English. This type of
teaching focuses on grade appropriate, cognitively demanding, core curriculum.
•
Use cooperative learning. It is an instructional organizational strategy in which students
work collaboratively in small groups to achieve academic and social learning goals.
•
Use thematic instruction. Use themes or topics as focal points for organizing curriculum
content. Challenge students but support and encourage them.
Scaffolding
When children are learning a first language, parents sometime help young children verbally
elaborate on a topic, thereby facilitating communication at a more sophisticated level. When a
parent provides a scaffold, elaborating on what the child has said, they are unconsciously
modeling linguistic and conversational patterns through natural social interactions with the child.
The same process can take place in the classroom with a second language learner acquiring
English. The teacher will encourage interactions and then support and elaborate therefore
scaffolding for the L2 learner.
Speaking and Oral Language Opportunities
•
When learning a second language, oral language plays a key role.
•
When students work and play together, their conversations are based on concrete, here
and now topics of interest.
•
Interactions are opportunities for L2 learners to negotiate meaning through requests for
clarification, reference to objects at hand, and other face-to-face communication strategies.
•
The language used in the interactions becomes comprehensible and usable as input for
second language acquisition.
Linguistic environment
The environment should support L2 acquisition.
Give instructions clearly and precisely.
Use open-ended questions and encourage responses.
Provide activities where the language is predictable or repetitive
Use activities that involve real conversation and focus on meaning.
Rely on cooperative learning.
Conversational support
The environment should be relaxed and encouraging.
Make sure to use activities which require real conversation.
Use whole class and small group activities where the L2 learner can join in as much as possible.
Give extended time for responses.
Providing comprehensible input for language minority students
1.
Use visual aids and manipulatives.
2.
Speak slowly and clearly, emphasizing key words.
3.
Give visual directions using gestures.
4.
Model the task.
5.
Plan hands-on activities.
6.
Plan units based on students’ interests.
7.
Plan thematic units of study.
8.
Integrate all areas of the curriculum.
9.
Plan lessons that incorporate and provide for all learning styles.
10.
Use literature that has pattern, repetition, and that is predictable.
11.
Structure classroom and lessons to provide for cooperative teamwork.
Transfer of language skills from L1 to L2
People learn a second language by using what they already know about their first language and by
going through some of the stages of first language development. Content area knowledge,
concepts, and skills can be transferred to another language. When a child is literate and educated
in their first language, they will transfer those skills to their second language.
Individual differences
People acquire a second language and are influenced by many factors. Personality traits can
influence L2 acquisition. Literacy experiences in the L1 will influence L2 acquisition. Age may
influence L2 acquisition. Learning a language as a child generally means native-like pronunciation.
Cultural background
Whether a child is immigrant or native born, each child brings his/her own history and culture to
the classroom. Be sensitive to cultural differences and recognize that some students may not wish
to be identified as different from their classmates.
Learning styles
Learning styles have more influence than may be realized. One's preferred styles guide the way
they learn. They also change the way one internally represents experiences, recall information,
and even the chosen words. Planning for different learning styles represented in a classroom can
assist the teacher in targeted, instructional planning that anticipates the learning styles and helps
to make modifications that are cross-culturally sensitive and can be effective in reducing the need
for re-teaching.
Providing appropriate feedback
Feedback should focus on meaning, not grammar, syntax, or pronunciation. It should be given
frequently and be presented in a comprehensible manner. Teachers should provide students with
prompts or strategies and use activities and tasks students can complete. Indicate when students
are successful and assign activities that are reasonable and not frustrating. Allow the use of native
language responses, when the context is appropriate. Be sensitive to common problems in second
language acquisition.
Cognitive Style - Field independent learners
1.
Prefer factual information
2.
Prefer individual activities
3.
Independent learning activities
4.
Analytical processing
5.
See the teacher as a resource, not a model
Cognitive style - Field sensitive learners
1.
Socially perceptive
2.
Like a supportive environment
3.
Attentive to persons and things in surroundings
4.
Responsive to external directions
5.
Like personal interactions with the teacher
Constructivism
This is a belief that learning takes place based on the process of stage change brought about as the
child constructs knowledge.
Effective literacy strategies
In literate societies, literacy development begins well before a child enters school. Exposure to
environmental print, modeling the forms and functions of print, reading, writing, and verbal
interactions all provide models for literacy development.
Literacy development
The ability to read and write with high levels of proficiency through the effective use of
grammatical, syntactic, graphophonic, semantic and pragmatic systems is literacy development.
Daily routines
Daily routines enhance awareness of the forms and functions of print. The use of routines in the
classroom can highlight for your students how literacy serves everyday purposes.
High-frequency words
Words that are used often in text are high frequency words. Beginning readers will build a
vocabulary of recognized sight words and high frequency words.
Early literacy goals
Any student; regardless of age, who is beginning to read and write in English needs to develop:
•
Awareness and appreciation of the variety of purposes reading and writing serve in
everyday life.
•
Understanding of relationships between print and oral language, including the alphabetic
principle.
•
Knowledge of print conventions, such as left-to-right, top to bottom, sequencing.
•
Knowledge of specific sound/symbol correspondence, or phonics
•
Ability to recognize a growing number of sight words
Biliteracy
The ability to read and write with high levels of proficiency in two languages through the
appropriate and effective use of the grammatical, syntactic, graphophonic, semantic, and
pragmatic systems of two languages.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
This is the structure of learning from the simple to the complex. Benjamin Bloom developed a
schedule of applications of learning moving from the lowest level of thinking to the highest:
Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analyzing, Synthesis, and Evaluation.
Pre-teach vocabulary
Select the vocabulary that is essential for the lesson. Introduce the words (3 to 6) at a time. Don’t
overload the student with long lists of vocabulary.
Link prior knowledge
Use what students already know by relating instruction to the student’s own experiences. Use
brainstorming or clustering activities to develop a frame of reference for cognitively demanding
material.
Hands-on
Use a variety of manipulatives, demonstrations, and experiments that allow the students to touch
and use. The materials LEP students need “hands-on” experience to complement and support the
lesson and to help them better understand abstract ideas. Always move from the concrete to the
abstract.
Realia
Actual physical objects
Visual support
LEP students need visuals (pictures, videos, demonstrations, charts, etc) to help them understand
abstract ideas.
Content area learning
The teaching of reading and writing skills in both L1 and L2 are fundamental to full development of
cognitive-academic language proficiency. These can be taught in the content areas as well as the
ESL classroom.
Cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP)
Academic language which takes approximately 5 to 7 years to acquire. It is known as classroom
English. This is the kind of proficiency required for abstract, analytical thinking and the expression
of complex meaning, with limited support from external context.
Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS)
This is conversational language which relies heavily on nonlinguistic cues and context clues,
gestures, intonation, and shared knowledge. It is primarily social and may take two to three years
to acquire.
Formative Assessment
The ongoing assessment that teachers use to assess the process of learning is formative
assessment. Teachers can use this information to make decisions about what needs to be taught.
Informal Assessment
This refers to alternate forms of assessment that can be used in conjunction to formative
assessment. They may include portfolio assessment, writing samples, anecdotal records, and
checklists.
Diagnosis
The process of determining or analyzing a students’ performance level or level or language
proficiency.
Proficiency
Implies a high degree of competence achieved through training and practice. Assessment of
language can help to determine level of proficiency.
Tests used in ESL programs in Texas
•
BINL (Basic Inventory of Natural Language) – A language test often used for initial
assessment
•
BSM (Bilingual Syntax Measure) – A language test often used for initial assessment
•
IDEA (Idea Language Proficiency Test) – A language test often used for initial assessment
•
LAS (Language Assessment Scale) – A language test used for initial assessment
Chapter 89
Chapter 89 includes the Commissioner’s Rules concerning Limited English Proficient students. It
describes the plan for educating limited English proficient students in Texas.
LPAC
Language Proficiency Assessment Committee. Districts are required to establish and operate a
language proficiency assessment committee. The local board will have on file policy and
procedures for the selection, appointment, and training of members of the LPAC.
HLS - Home Language Survey
This survey is required of every student enrolling in Texas public schools. Two questions are
required.
“What language is spoken in your home most of the time?”
“What language does your child (do you) speak most of the time?”
The HLS is used to establish the student’s language classification for determining whether the
district is required to provide a bilingual or ESL program.
ELL
English Language Learner
NEP
Non-English Proficient
NES
Non-English speaker. A student who has little or no proficiency in the English language.
CLD
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse students
PHLOTE
Primary Home Language Other than English
Assessment for Bilingual and ESL Programs
The orderly process of gathering, analyzing, interpreting, and reporting student performance,
ideally from multiple sources over a period of time.
Rubric
Numerical scale that is used for scoring. It includes a range of benchmarks, achievement, or
proficiencies.
Self assessment
Student’s monitor their own progress by using anecdotal reflections, checklists, or evaluation
rubrics.
Sheltered English
This type of instruction develops lessons according to LEP students’ proficiency in English. English
instruction in subjects other than language can provide a rich source of comprehensible input for
LEP students.
LEP identification
Each state determines the criteria for identifying LEP students. A Home Language Survey is used to
identify LEP students.
Exit
To determine if a student can exit a bilingual or ESL program, a district will determine the criteria
for assessing academic success, test and the LPAC authorizes exit.
Monitoring
Once a student has exited a program, the LPAC will continue to monitor a student to determine
the student’s academic success on state performance assessments and success in the classroom.
The importance of native language
"The native language serves as the foundation for English language acquisition. Cognitive skills
transfer from one language to another. Students literate in their first language will apply these
skills to the second language”. (TEKS)
Lau v. Nichols
The decision found that LEP students were denied an equal education because their instruction
was given in a language they could not understand. The court ruled that school districts “must
take affirmative steps to rectify the language deficiency in order to open instructional programs to
these students”. (1974)
Bilingual Education Act
The Bilingual Education Act (BEA) (81 Stat. 816), also known as Title VII of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Amendments of 1967 (Pub.L. 90–247), approved by the 90th United States
Congress on January 2, 1968, and was the first United States federal legislation recognized the
needs of limited English speaking ability (LESA) students. It was introduced in 1967 by Texas
senator Ralph Yarborough and was signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson on January 2, 1968.
While some states, such as California and Texas, and numerous local school districts around the
country already had policies and programs designed to meet the special educational needs of
elementary and secondary school students not fluent in the English language, this act signaled that
the federal government now also recognized the need for and value of bilingual education
programs in U.S. public education. The BEA was passed on the heels of the Civil Rights movement,
and its purpose was to provide school districts with federal funds, in the form of competitive
grants, to establish innovative educational programs for students with limited English speaking
ability.
First bilingual school
In 1694, German-language school is founded in Germantown, Philadelphia.
1974 Lau v. Nichols
Suit by Chinese parent in San Francisco leads to ruling that identical education does not constitute
equal education under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. School districts must take affirmative
steps to overcome educational barriers faced by non-English speakers. Established that the Office
for Civil Rights, under the former Department of Health, Education and Welfare, has the authority
to establish regulations for Title VI enforcement. A Supreme Court ruling that impacted language
minority students.
1982 Pyler v. Doe
Under the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, the state does not have the right to
deny a free public education to undocumented immigrant children. A Federal Court decision that
impacted language minority students.
1974 Serna v. Portales
The 10th Circuit Court of Appeals found that Spanish surnamed students’ achievement levels were
below those of their Anglo counterparts. Ordered Portales Municipal Schools to implement a
bilingual/bicultural curriculum, revise procedures for assessing achievement, and hire bilingual
school personnel. A Federal Court decision that impacted language minority students.
1978 Clintorn v. Brentwood
The Federal District Court for the Eastern District of New York rejected the Brentwood School
District’s proposed bilingual program on the grounds that it would violate “Lau Guidelines” by
unnecessarily segregating Spanish-speaking students from their English-speaking peers in music
and art. The court also objected to the program’s failure to provide for exiting students whose
English language proficiency was sufficient for them to understand mainstream English instruction.
A Federal Court decision that impacted language minority students.
1978 Rios v. Reed
The Federal District Court for the Eastern District of New York found that the Pastchogue-Medford
School District’s transitional bilingual program was basically a course in English and that students
were denied an equal opportunity by not receiving academic instruction in Spanish. The court
wrote: “A denial of educational opportunities to a child in the first years of schooling is not
justified by demonstrating that the educational program employed will teach the child English
sooner than a program comprised of more extensive Spanish instruction.” A Federal Court decision
that impacted language minority students.
1981 Castaneda v. Pickard
Reputed to be the most significant court decision affecting language minority students after Lau.
In responding to the plaintiffs’ claims that Raymondville, Texas Independent School District’s
language remediation programs violated the Equal Educational Opportunities Act (EEOA) of 1974,
the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals formulated a set of basic standards to determine school district
compliance with EEOA. The “Castaneda Test” includes the following criteria:
(1) Theory: The school must pursue a program based on an educational theory recognized as
sound or, at least, as a legitimate experimental strategy;
(2) Practice: The school must actually implement the program with instructional practices,
resources, and personnel necessary to transfer theory to reality;
(3) Results: The school must not persist in a program that fails to produce results. A Federal Court
decision that impacted language minority students.
1983 Keys v. School District #1
A U.S. District Court found that a Denver public school district had failed to adequately implement
a plan for language minority students—the second element of the “Castaneda Test.” A Federal
Court decision that impacted language minority students.
1987 Gomez v. Illinois
The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that State Education Agencies are also required under
EEOA to ensure that language minority students’ educational needs are met, by demonstrating
that the educational program employed will teach the child English sooner than a program
comprised of more extensive Spanish instruction. A Federal Court decision that impacted language
minority students.
Theoretical foundations of ESL education
There are three prominent theoretical frameworks to be considered when discussing language
acquisition and development: Behaviorist, Nativist and Interactionist theories.
Behaviorist
One of three prominent theoretical foundations of ESL education. The behaviorist point of view
says that language learning is determined by stimuli from the environment. Children reproduce
language, or what they think they hear which is reinforced by attention from parents, caregivers,
or others. The behaviorist perspective supports the premise that second language learners acquire
language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement of syntax and morphology.
Interactionist
One of three prominent theoretical foundations of ESL education. Interactionist theorists combine
nativist and behaviorist beliefs. This would support the premise that language is a product of both
genetic and environmental factors.
Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Acquisition/Learning Distinction
“Picking up” a language versus conscious linguistic knowledge of language
Natural Order of Acquisition
People acquire language in a predictable order.
Monitor Hypothesis
Language learning only serves to “edit” speech that has been acquired. Fluency comes from
acquired, not learned, language.
Input Hypothesis
A person acquires language through comprehensible input: the message.
Attitude Hypothesis
Certain personalities and motivations enable some people to perform better in language
acquisition
Aptitude Hypothesis
This hypothesis correlates with ability of an individual to learn language.
Filter Hypothesis
Less anxiety and stress present in the classroom causes input to be readily received.
L1 Hypothesis
Known structures in L1 are substituted when L2 structures are unknown.
Individual Variation
Individuals vary in how much they monitor L2 output.
i+1
Comprehensible input that contains one or more structures the next step above what is readily
understood.
Foreign language
Refers to studying a language in a manner that is devoid of practical application and practice in
real situations. Dialogues, folklore, history, etc. may be the content used in learning the non-native
language.
Communicative competence
Includes language that is needed to handle various situations; it is deliberately taught to students.
Students create and/or memorize that language appropriate for such language-use situations as
ordering in restaurants, talking to the principal or applying for a job.
Natural approach
The method whereby language is deliberately taught as a prerequisite to lesson understanding.
The vocabulary is taught with concrete referents and movements at first, visuals later, and with
verbal descriptions eventually. The lessons are contrived. An attempt is made to have these
lessons emphasize the language of real classroom and community situations.
Sheltered
Refers to the teacher’s attempt to help students learn the crucial concepts of a discipline in a
protected manner. Language is adjusted to a simpler syntactical level; vocabulary is controlled;
pacing of instruction is slowed; and conceptual load regulated. Remedial reading-like techniques
are employed in making the language of lessons comprehensible.
Structured immersion
A program in which teachers deliberately help students come to understand prefabricated lessons
and the language used to explain them. Only one language is used. Teachers plan for the active
participation in lessons by speakers of a second language.
Immersion
Takes place in a single language environment, in which attempts are made to help the child or
student make sense of situations, lessons, and experiences. Focus is on the language in each
lesson. Little attention is paid to the language of the lesson.
Submersion
Takes place in an environment in which only one language is used. The child or student is in a sinkor-swim situation in which no attempt is made to help that individual understand either the
language that is heard or the situational context in which it is employed. Lessons can be both
linguistically and cognitively demanding.
Bilingual Education
Bilingual Education is school instruction using two languages, generally a native language of the
student and a second language. The amount of time that each language is used depends on the
type of bilingual program, its specific objectives, and student’s level of language proficiency.
English as a Second Language
ESL refers to programs that provide instruction in English.
Dual language
It is an educational setting where all students are expected to attain literacy in two languages.
These programs may also be identified as two-way bilingual education. Content instruction is
provided in both languages; literacy in both languages is an expectation for all students.
Transitional programs
Promote monolingualism in English.
Additive Bilingual Education
Program models that aim to maintain and develop students’ native language, as well as develop
students’ second language. The primary goal of these program models is high levels of bilingualism
and biliteracy by adding another language to the students’ linguistic and cognitive repertoire.
Additive bilingual programs include dual language, maintenance, developmental, and heritage
language programs.
Program Models for SLLs
Native Language and English
Bilingual
Immersion Programs
Dual Language
Two-way immersion
Two-way bilingual
Enrichment
These programs are for English language students (who speak the same language) and native
English speaking students. These programs are considered to be additive because they support
both bilingualism and biliteracy in L1 and English.
Maintenance
Developmental
Enrichment
Heritage language
These programs are for English language students who speak the same language. (ie. Spanish
speakers learning English). These programs are considered to be additive because they support
bilingualism and biliteracy in L1 and English.
Transitional --Early exit
These programs are for English language students who speak the same language. They are
considered subtractive because they support the linguistic outcome of monolingualism in English.
Transitional -- Late Exit
These programs are for English language students who speak the same language. These programs
are considered subtractive because they promote the linguistic outcome of monolingualism in
English.
ESL (English as a Second Language)
This program was designed for English language learners who speak the same language or speak
different languages.
Types of ESL Programs
Self-contained
Some ESL programs are designed to meet the needs of second language students by assigning
them to a classroom where there are other L2 learners and a teacher who is certified to teach ESL.
Types of ESL Programs
Pull-out
This type of program is designed to serve second language students by taking the students from
the regular classroom and teaching them in a small group where there are other L2 students with
similar proficiency.
Types of ESL Programs
Submersion
This program is also known as “sink-or-swim.” Students are placed in mainstream English
classrooms regardless of the different languages they speak.
Advocacy
To speak in favor of an issue. A bilingual or ESL teacher will become an advocate for second
language learners and the programs designed to support second language development.
Cultural diversity
This is the presence of different cultural groups in an area. Cultural diversity affects the classroom
and creates a climate in both the diversity and the similarities of groups and individuals are
appreciated.
Linguistic diversity
The presence of different language groups in an area.
Affective
(Feelings)
The instruction in the classroom should instill confidence, self assurance, and a positive identity
with a students’ cultural and language heritage.
Acculturation
A process whereby an individual or group of individuals incorporates one or more cultural traits of
another group. but does not give up its own way of life. This does not mean the loss of the original
cultural identity.
Cultural bias
Good intentions, but lacking a solid foundation of cultural knowledge can cause cultural bias.
Teachers must educate themselves on culture to avoid bias.
Stereotyping
This is the idea that all members of a cultural group are the same. It usually promotes negative
feelings about a particular culture or group.
Prejudice
An attitude about others which is formed unfairly, and discrimination, the behavior arising from
prejudice, go hand in hand.
Ethnocentrism
Members of one cultural group believe their way of life is better than that of any other group.
Respect for diversity
The teacher knows how to use diversity inside and outside the ESL classroom to create an
environment that nurtures a sense of community, respects differences, fosters an appreciation of
their own culture and the culture of others.
Assimilation
A group of people gives up most of their culture and way of life and take on the culture of another
group.
Bicultural identity
The development of cultural values and socialization practices of the majority culture and the
culture of the student is bicultural identity. It is the ability to cope with the differing demands of
more than one culture.
Self-esteem
A second language student should have pride in regards to language and culture. Self-esteem is
pride in oneself.
Inhibition
Second language students may restrain or hold back when using a second language. The
environment or perceptions of fear may cause inhibition.
Motivate
This means to stimulate to action or provide with an incentive. Second language students need to
be motivated to learn the L2. Many factors influence motivation.
Home / school community environment
In regards to second language acquisition, the home/school/community relationship should
support the acquisition of the second language. It should also support literacy development in the
L1
ARD
Admission, Review, and Dismissal committee as established for students in special education.
Affective Programs
These programs make it possible for a student to move gradually from cognitively undemanding
tasks for which the materials are heavily context embedded, offering many clues, to cognitively
demanding tasks for which the materials are context reduced, offering few clues.
Communicating with families
It is a responsibility of our schools and teachers to foster an open-door policy at school and take
an active role in maintaining home-school communication.
Community Resources
Use community resources to expand the knowledge base of students and explore new areas of
interest with teachers and parents. Community representatives can also keep the school informed
of issues and upcoming community events.
Cross-cultural competence
This is the ability to understand and follow the cultural rules and norms of more than one system.
The ability to respond to the demands of a given situation in a culturally acceptable way is known
as cross-cultural competence.
Audio-Lingual Method
uses native speaker
combines structural linguistics and behaviorism
language learning is habit formation
begin with spoken language
mechanical aspects stressed: drill and practice
accurate pronunciation, mastery of grammatical structures
Prior knowledge
Consists of information and experiences a learner has and uses to relate to new information. Prior
knowledge enhances comprehension.
Imaginative process
It refers to the use of creative drawing, painting, collage, photography, and other art forms to help
explore the possibility of understanding the world through its images and symbols.
Cognitive process
It refers to the ways of processing information and developing self awareness as it relates to the
exploration of the environment though movement, sight, sound, and taste.
Comprehension
Understanding the meaning of spoken language and written language often through the use of a
taxonomy such as Bloom's.
Fluency
The ability to read text-sources with speed, accuracy, voice expression, and adequate
comprehension.
Invented Spelling
Young students write words the way the words sound. An example would be a first grade student
spelling was as “wuz” and kitty as “kti”.
Predictable Books
Books that allow the reader to predict text meaning from pictures and frequency of word patterns
used in the text.
Semantics
Acquiring the literal or inferential meaning of text-sources.
Sight Words
Words used very often that students can pronounce instantly on sight without using other
decoding strategies (examples are: the, them, mom, when, etc.).
Story Map
A graphic representation of the various elements presented in narrative text-sources.
Thematic Units
Instructionally generated learning activities that center on an umbrella topic of interest (pumpkins,
bats, apples, butterflies, etc.) with a variety of content areas brought to relate to that topic.
Top-down/Bottom-up Model
Top-down model suggests that the learner predicts meaning of a word and then identifies a word;
the bottom-up model suggests that the learner first identifies a word then considers the meaning
of the word.
Whole Language
An instructional philosophy of teaching and learning that teachers use to incorporate a more
natural approach to assist students in gaining literacy skills (students learn through experiences,
integration of various contents, etc.).
Native Language / Primary Language
The language a student learned in the home. Primary language (first language) is also referred to
as L1.
Target Language / Second Language
A second language that is being acquired or learned. For English language learners in the United
States, the target language is English. L2 is the target language a student learns.
The importance of native language
“The native language serves as the foundation for English language acquisition. Cognitive skills
transfer from one language to another. Students literate in their first language will apply these
skills to the second language.” (TEKS)
Lau v. Nichols
Applies to knowledge of legal and philosophical foundations of bilingual education. The decision
found that LEP students were denied an equal education because their instruction was given in a
language they could not understand. The court ruled that school districts “must take affirmative
steps to rectify the language deficiency in order to open [their] instructional program to these
students.” (1970)
Plessy v. Ferguson
Applies to knowledge of legal and philosophical foundations of bilingual education. Upheld
bilingual programs as a means of integration (1982)
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
Applies to knowledge of legal and philosophical foundations of bilingual education. The Supreme
Court ordered school desegregation. (1954)
First bilingual schools
Applies to knowledge of legal and philosophical foundations of bilingual education. In 1694,
German-language school is founded in Germantown, Philadelphia.
Lau Remedies
Applies to knowledge of legal and philosophical foundations of bilingual education. The office of
Civil Rights task force issues the Lau Remedies, requiring bilingual education as a remedy where
districts have violated English learners’ civil rights.
TITLE III Part A
Applies to knowledge of legal and philosophical foundations of bilingual education. The original
and first Bilingual Education Act of 1968 was subsumed in the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 as
Title III. Among numerous purposes of Title III, the following are the most significant:
1. To help ensure that children who are limited English proficient attain English proficiency and
meet the same challenging state academic content and student academic achievement standards
as all children are expected to meet;
2. To assist all limited English proficient students to achieve at high levels in core academic
subjects;
3. To develop high quality language instruction programs designed to assist state educational
agencies in teaching limited English proficient children;
4. To assist state educational agencies and local educational agencies to develop and enhance
their capacity to prepare limited English proficient children to enter all-English instructional
settings;
5. To streamline language instruction educational programs into a program carried through
formula grants to state educational agencies and local educational agencies.
Title III
Or the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act, of
the federal No Child Left Behind Act replaced the ESEA’S Title VII (the Bilingual Education Act). It
replaced the system of federally administered, competitive grants for school programs with
“formula grants” administered by state agencies. A formula grant provides funding to states based
on the number of limited English proficient and immigrants reported by each state, similar to the
formula grant funding that is carried out under Chapter I for economically disadvantaged children.
The pedagogical emphasis of the new title is on English, rather than the cultivation of bilingualism.
LEP
Limited English Proficient
Home Language Survey
A survey conducted by the district administered in English and Spanish or other languages as
determined by the district. The survey asks what language is spoken in the home and what
language the child speaks most of the time.
Identify
Each school district shall identify limited English proficient students based on criteria established
by the state.
Assess
Each school district shall assess achievement for essential skills and knowledge in accordance with
the Texas Education Code, Chapter 39.
Placement
After a student has been identified and assessed, students will be placed in an appropriate
bilingual or English as a second language program.
Cultural diversity
Representation of several cultural groups in one area would be referred to as culturally diverse.
Assimilation
A process whereby an individual or group of individuals completely take on the traits of another
culture, leaving behind the ancestral culture.
Bicultural identity
The development of cultural values and socialization practices of the majority culture and the
culture of the student. It is the ability to cope with the differing demands of more than one
culture. It does not mean giving equal time to both cultures in terms of behaviors.
Subtractive Bilingual Education
Program models that aim to replace students’ native language with a second language. The
primary goal is monolingualism in the second language. This is accomplished by subtracting the
home language from the students’ linguistic and cognitive skills. Subtractive program models
include transitional, structured English immersion, and newcomer centers.
Bilingual - Additive Programs
Immersion Programs
Dual language
Two-way immersion
Two-way bilingual
Enrichment
Programs for English language students (who speak the same language) and native English
speaking students. These programs are considered to be additive because they support both
bilingualism and biliteracy in L1 and English.
Maintenance - Additive Programs
Developmental
Enrichment
Heritage language
Programs for English language students who speak the same language (i.e. Spanish speakers
learning English). These programs are considered to be additive because they support bilingualism
and biliteracy in the L1 and English.
Transitional -- Early Exit
Programs for English language students who speak the same language. They are considered
subtractive because they support the linguistic outcome of monolingualism in English.
Transitional -- Late Exit
These programs are for English language students who speak the same language. These programs
are considered subtractive because they promote the linguistic outcome of monolingualism in
English.
English as a Second Language Programs
All programs in this category are considered subtractive because they promote monolingualism in
English.
Newcomer Centers
English language learners in these centers may speak the same or different languages. They are
designed to promote survival English and are for short term placement.
Best Practices for Second Language Instruction (Part I)
When designing effective language and literacy instruction for second language learners (L2), be
sure you include the following:
•Create an academically challenging environment
•Have high expectations for learning and achievement
•Facilitate the development of essential language skills at the students level of proficiency in
English
•Support the development of literacy skills at the student’s level of proficiency in English
•Provide second language learners with meaningful opportunities to use English and interact with
peers.
Best Practices for Second Language Instruction (Part II)
When designing effective language and literacy instruction for second language learners (L2), be
sure you include the following:
•Develop literacy through instruction that builds on language, comprehension, print concepts, and
the alphabetic principle.
•Many literacy-related skills and strategies learned in the first language (L1) transfer to the second
language (L2)
•Use language during instruction that is comprehensible and meaningful to students
•Use non-verbal cues that include gestures, facial expressions, dramatic play, and physical
responses.
•Create an instructional program that meets the needs of your students.
•Use peer tutoring, small group instruction, and include parents and community leaders as role
models.
Use ESL strategies in content area instruction
•Activate and build background knowledge. Link student’s experiences to information that is
relevant to content instruction.
•Use graphic organizers, charts, objects, manipulative, and other visuals, videos, or pictures to
help students better comprehend structure and content.
•Encourage students to participate in oral discussions to help enhance comprehension.
•Allow English language learners to express their thoughts in their native language. This practice
allows students to participate and use all of their language resources.
Dual language
Refers to a model where all students are expected to attain literacy in two languages. These
programs may also be identified as two-way bilingual education. Content instruction is provided in
both languages; literacy in both languages is an expectation for all students.
Two-way bilingual education/ immersion
Refers to programs in which native and non-native speakers of English work together, with all
students learning content and language through two languages.
Maintenance Programs
Promotes the maintenance of both the L1 (first language) and L2 (second language).
Transitional Programs
Promotes the monolingualism in English
Appropriate Instructional Environment
The learning environment in the Bilingual or ESL classroom should be:
•Learner-centered with active engagement of the learner
•Rely on cooperative learning
•Such that allows for learner choice
•Designed for opportunities of open communication and for students to negotiate meaningful
language exchanges
•Such that allows ample verbal interaction with peers and authentic learning experiences
•Such that allows recognition of culture and language
Inappropriate Strategies/ Concurrent translation
Concurrently translating each line of a message is an ineffective manner of delivering instruction.
Delivery includes stating everything twice, once in English (the target language) and once in the
native language (L1). The language learner will wait for the translation and thus not learn English
(the target language).
Language Experience Approach
Students can build on stories that are dictated individually, in small groups or as a whole class. The
students are able to read their own stories with minimal difficulty because they know the content
and the meaning.
Reciprocal Reading Comprehension Strategies
The strategy teaches students how to make predictions about reading. It also includes asking
clarification questions and summarizing. This strategy has shown to improve the reading
comprehension of students with reading problems and those students who are English Language
Learners (ELLs).
Pattern Language and Predictable Books
Pattern language or predictable books, songs, and poems are appropriate for developing readers
and second language learners. The learners hear songs, poems and stories and they become
comfortable with both oral and written language.
Preview/Review
This strategy provides students with comprehensible input by presenting a brief synopsis and
review of the lesson in the students’ native language before and after the concepts are presented
in the second language.
Total Physical Response (TPR)
This method of language teaching relies on teachers’ and students’ physical movements to teach
and learn vocabulary and concepts in the second language.
Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers are effective tools to organize and remember information and concepts. They
may also be referred to as Advance Organizers.
Sensitivity to diverse cultural backgrounds
A major focus of bilingual programs is the development of positive inter-social and intercultural
relationships between the members of the two language groups. This also includes developing
relationships with parents, community members, students, and teachers.
Regional language differences
The differences may reflect differences in language history. There may be references to regional
dialects and stereotypes.
Paralinguistics
The study of behaviors that contribute to linguistic communication. This would include behaviors
such as body movements and voice pitch, duration, tone, and loudness.
Linguistic
Describes the structural aspects of language. Much of the basic vocabulary needed to examine
language acquisition and language proficiency comes from the field of linguistics.
Bilingualism
The ability to speak and understand more than one language.
Multilingualism
The ability to speak and understand more than two languages.
Cultural Mismatch
This model suggests that members of minority groups do not succeed in school because the
characteristics of their culture are incongruent with those of the mainstream group and the school
system.
Scaffolding
The use of supporting aids and activities that enables the student to perform tasks that would
otherwise be too complex for his or her abilities.
Neurolinguistics
The study of language and the brain. Neurolinguists study brain development and function and
how language abilities are linked.
Sociolinguistics
The study of how language works in society. Sociolinguists study the language dynamics of
interactions between people. It takes into consideration dialect differences and differences in the
use of register.
Similarities between L1 and L2 Learning
Both:
Are predisposed
Are developmental, have stages
Are at a subconscious level
Need context embedded experiences, acquired through actual use
Have higher levels of receptive language than productive language
Need extra-linguistics clues
Are processes
Focus on communication/meaning
Need appropriate feedback and collaboration
Require positive reinforcement
Thrive in informal atmospheres
Cognition
The process of thinking that creates opportunities for problem solving, critical thinking, logical
inquiry, operations, concepts, and mental images.
Multiple Intelligences
Research that has been to study the ways student’s manifest their cognitive strengths in a variety
of ways. Multiple Intelligence theory goes beyond the traditional determination of intelligence
based on intelligence quotient (IQ) measures.
Language variation
Language is flexible, is responsive, and changes constantly. Since language is dynamic, it is possible
to change to meet the communication needs of the speaker.
Register
The use of different varieties of language, depending on the setting, their relationship to the
person to whom they are speaking, and the function of the interaction. A register is the
situationally appropriate form of the language. Registers include frozen, formal, casual,
consultative, and intimate.
Dialect
A variation of a language used by particular groups of people. Regional dialects often have specific
distinct vocabularies.
Phonics
Involves instruction in how the sounds of spoken language are represented by letters and spelling.
Phonological Awareness
The ability to recognize the sounds of spoken language and how they can be blended together,
segmented, and manipulated. It does not involve print. It begins before students have learned a
set of letter-sound correspondences by using manipulatives.
Syntax
The manner in which words and other structural elements of language are arranged to construct
the sentences of a language.
Semantics
The study of linguistic meaning.
Pragmatics
The study of the use of language in the context of social and related interactions.
Alphabetic Principle
The understanding that the sequence of letters in written words represents the sequence of
sounds (or phonemes) in spoken words. It is the key to learning to read in many languages,
including English and Spanish.
Context clues
Information from surrounding words, phrases, sentences, illustrations, and syntax that can be
used to help determine meanings of words.
Listening and reading comprehension
Ability to understand spoken and written language.
Scaffolding
A teaching technique used to promote the use of language and the development of
understanding. This may require reducing the linguistic demands of instructional and assessment
materials so that students can make connections and demonstrate what they know and
understand. It includes open-ended questioning, one on one conversations, and access to natural
language interactions.
Strategies
Plans that readers use and apply when hearing texts, reading aloud, or when reading
independently.
Cooperative Learning
An instructional strategy that facilitates a social and linguistically interactive learning environment.
Students work in groups to accomplish tasks. The group structure promotes natural interactions
and draw from the individual knowledge and talents of learners assigned to the group.
Cooperative learning facilitates communication, content mastery, and team building and
motivation.
Theories
There are several prominent theoretical frameworks to be considered when discussing language
acquisition and development.
Behaviorist
The behaviorist point of view says that language learning is determined by stimuli from the
environment. Children reproduce language, or what they think they hear which is reinforced by
attention from parents, caregivers, or others. The behaviorist perspective supports the premise
that second language learners acquire language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement
of syntax and morphology.
Nativist
This theory maintains that children are born with an innate capacity to acquire language. Nativists
believe that humans are genetically predisposed to acquire and transmit language. Chomsky
(1957) contends that the human brain has a built-in mechanism called the language acquisition
device (LAD) that infers the rules of languages when triggered by the stimulation of spoken
language. Once activated, children discover the regularities of language and begin to internalize
the rules of grammar. Nativists believe language is acquired and not learned.
Interactionist
Interactionist theorists combine nativist and behaviorist beliefs. This would support the premise
that language is a product of both genetic and environmental factors.
Constructivist
A theoretical perspective in which an individual’s prior experiences, beliefs, and knowledge
influence the interpretation and understanding of experiences. The focus is on how knowledge is
constructed rather than on products that are produced. Constructivism allows students to engage
in inquiry and discovery.
Language Status
The relative standing or position of a language in regards to the majority culture.
Self-esteem
A second language student should have pride in regards to language and culture. Self-esteem is
pride in oneself.
Inhibition
Second language students may restrain or hold back when using a second language. The
environment or perceptions of fear may cause a learner to shy away from participation.
Motivation
The ability to stimulate to action or provide with an incentive is known as motivation. Second
language students need to be motivated to learn the L2. Many factors influence motivation.
Home / school community environment
In regards to second language acquisition, the home/school/community relationship should
support the acquisition of the second language. It should also support literacy development in the
L1.
Cognates
Similarities of words in one language to the form and definition of words in a different language.
(e.g.”animals” (English) and “animales” (Spanish).
Effective developmentally appropriate ESL strategies ESL
An acronym for English as a Second Language. An educational setting where instruction for second
language learners is provided primarily in English. When needed, a word or two in a student’s
native language may be used to enhance understanding, but the target language is English and
English should be used as the language of instruction.
ESOL
The acronym for English for Speakers of Other Languages; the acronym is used interchangeably
with English as a Second Language
Literacy development
The ability to read and write with high levels of proficiency through the effective use of
grammatical, syntactic, graphophonic, semantic and pragmatic systems.
Biliteracy
The ability to read and write with high levels of proficiency in two languages through the
appropriate and effective use of the grammatical, syntactic, graphophonic, semantic, and
pragmatic systems of two languages.
Formal literacy assessment
Standardized tests, discrete point tests and integrative tests may be used to assess literacy.
Informal literacy assessment
Observation, anecdotal records, and interviews can be used to assess levels of literacy.
Transfer of literacy competency from L1 to L2
Students will transfer their knowledge and experiences in the first language to the second
language. Content area knowledge, concepts, and skills can be transferred to another language.
Stages of Language Proficiency
Preproduction
Early Production
Speech Emergence
Intermediate Fluency
Advanced Fluency
Preproduction
A stage of language proficiency. A receptive stage where very little language is being produced.
Learners are trying to make sense of the new environment and language. They can communicate
with gestures and actions.
Early Production
A stage of language proficiency. Learners at this stage speak, but are limited to words or short
phrases. The receptive vocabulary is developing, but is still limited and characterized by the ability
to answer short questions with one to two word responses.
Speech Emergence
A stage of language proficiency. Learners at this stage can speak in longer phrases and complete
sentences. There may be errors in syntax. They may not be able to express all that they know
about a topic.
Intermediate Fluency
A stage of language proficiency. Learners continue to develop fluency. They are able to engage in
conversations and produce connected narrative. The errors are usually of style or usage. They are
able to understand higher levels of content information and use more academic language.
Advanced Fluency
A stage of language proficiency. Learners have achieved a high level of language usage. They are
effective communicators both orally and in writing. They are comfortable with using the new
language in social and academic settings.
Prior knowledge links
Both bilingual and ESL programs promote utilizing students’ knowledge of the world as a starting
point and resource for learning.
BINL
(Basic Inventory of Natural Language). A language test often used in initial assessment and
placement.
BSM
(Bilingual Syntax Measure). A language test often used in initial assessment and placement.
IDEA
A language test often used in initial assessment and placement.
LAS
(Language Assessment Scales). A language test often used in initial assessment and placement.
Native Language
An individual’s primary, first, or home language (L1).
Comprehensible input
New language information that an individual is able to understand because efforts have been
made to draw on the individual’s cognitive and linguistic abilities as well as to accommodate his or
her cognitive and linguistic needs.
Comprehensible Content in the L2
There are several approaches of instruction used that incorporate the use of academic language
and the teaching of content.
Reciprocal Teaching
When students and teacher share the responsibilities of discussing concepts. It is an instructional
activity that is centered on shared dialogue that takes place between the students and the
teacher. The dialogue is structured and includes predicting, clarifying, questioning, and
summarizing.
Monitor
Learning about how we learn a language and gaining a conscious knowledge of its syntax and
usage, can serve as a monitor, or editing, function.
Silent Period
Stephen Krashen describes a period of time which may last as long as six months after entering
school when a student does not attempt to speak orally. The student will listen and receive
information, but will not speak. The amount of time varies from student to student. This is a
natural stage of beginning second language acquisition that can be observed in second language
learners. It is described as a receptive stage where the learner listens to messages in the
environment, but produces none of the new language.
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)
This is conversational language which relies heavily on nonlinguistic cues and context-gestures,
intonations, and shared knowledge. It is primarily social rather than intellectual. It may take a
language learner 2 to 3 years to develop.
Guarded vocabulary
Language in which the speaker makes a conscious effort to enunciate words, simplify sentence
structure, speak a little more slowly, emphasize key information, and pause momentarily between
sentences and main ideas.
Content Standards
Definition of what students are expected to know and demonstrate the understanding in a
particular content area. This includes the knowledge and skills that need to be taught in order for a
student to reach mastery. Standards may be found at the national, state, or local level. The
standards for Texas can be found on the Texas Education Agency website.
TEKS
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills have been developed by the Texas Education Agency.
English Language Arts (ELA) Standards
The standards were developed for English Language Arts to identify the standards that should be
taught to promote literacy. They include the descriptions of appropriate materials, instructional
strategies, and technology. These standards include oral language, phonemic awareness,
alphabetic principle, literacy development, decoding, and word analysis. They also address the
areas of reading fluency, comprehension, written communication, writing conventions, and
assessment.
Spanish Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEK)
The language arts curriculum in Spanish or other languages are used to promote L1 literacy. The
TEKS outline the required prerequisite knowledge at each grade level that is necessary for
students to attain content knowledge.
Assessments for Bilingual and ESL Programs
Anecdotal Observation
Observation
Anecdotal Record
Checklist
Observational chart
Portfolio
Rubric
Self assessment
Anecdotal Observation
Assessment used in Bilingual and ESL programs. Reflection of student’s progress based on the
analysis of the teachers’ observation.
Observation
Assessment used in Bilingual and ESL programs. Observe students’ academic, linguistic, social, and
performance behaviors. Observe students as they work in small groups, pairs, or alone.
Anecdotal Record
Assessment used in Bilingual and ESL programs. Running record of observed behavior or behaviors
over a period of time.
Checklist
Assessment used in Bilingual and ESL programs. List designed to record students’ behaviors or
criteria that the teacher observes and comments on.
Observational chart
Assessment used in Bilingual and ESL programs. List of criteria or behaviors that the teacher
observes and records.
Portfolio
Assessment used in Bilingual and ESL programs. Samples of students work collected over time that
shows growth and development.
Rubric
Assessment used in Bilingual and ESL programs. Numerical scale that is used for scoring. It includes
a range of benchmarks, achievement, or proficiencies.
Self assessment
Assessment used in Bilingual and ESL programs. Students monitor their own progress by using
anecdotal reflections, checklists, or evaluation rubrics.
Sheltered English
Sheltered instruction is an approach to teaching English language learners which integrates
language and content instruction.
The dual goals of sheltered instruction are: to provide access to mainstream, grade-level content,
and to promote the development of English language proficiency.
CALLA Approach
An instructional approach. Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach is an instructional
model developed by Chamot and O’Malley (1987, 1994) for content and language learning that
incorporates student development of cognitive learning strategies.
SIOP Model
An instructional approach. The Sheltered Instructional Observation Protocol (SIOP) was developed
for English language learners as a model for sheltered instruction. The SIOP operationalizes
sheltered instruction by offering teachers a model for lesson planning and implementation that
provides ELLs with access to grade-level content standards.
Technology
Provide computer-assisted instruction, including tutorial software, to increase opportunities for
practice and feed-back. It includes using tools to assist students with word processing and to
provide writing opportunities.
Content Area Strategies
The following helps provide comprehensible input for second language learners:
Use visuals aids and manipulatives
Speak slowly and clearly, emphasize key words
Give visual directions using gestures
Model the task
Plan hands-on activities
Plan units based on students’ interests
Plan thematic units
Integrate all areas of the curriculum
Plan lessons that incorporate and provide for all learning styles
Use literature that has pattern, repetition, and that is predictable
Structure classroom and lessons to provide for cooperative teamwork
Formative Evaluation
This type of evaluation is associated with the primary collection of data/information that is
analyzed and reported and can be used to help determine placement of a student in an
educational setting. The data is collected for the purpose of instruction and learning.
Summative Evaluation
This type of evaluation is used at the end of a unit, lesson or content class to assess student
learning. It can also be used as the final collection of data that is analyzed and reported to gauge
program effectiveness.
Standards-based Assessment
This type of assessment involves planning, collecting, analyzing, and reporting of a student’s
performance according to the Bilingual/ESL, national, state, or local standards.