Chapter 14- Age of Nation States Chapter 15- European Supremacy Crimean War Ottoman Empire made deal w/ Russians protect Orthodox Christians in the empire - Ottomans = Weak (military weak, Islamic, but did have good resources) ⋆ European countries agreed to protect Ottomans because they didn’t want enemies/neighbors to control it - Everyone wanted to control Ottomans resources, therefore no one got them Russians declared part of the Ottoman empire theirs because Orthodox Christians lived there - Ottomans declared war on Russia Britain and France aid Ottomans in the war - Very costly and inefficient war - First war with photography (introduced knowledge or how bad war was) War ends when France and Britain overpower Russians - Russia loses land and power to protect Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire Effects of the War: France, Russia, and Britain’s allying with Austria ends when Austria does not help anyone in war. ⋆ War proves Russia isn’t invincible in war ⋆ Showed need for reform in weak Ottoman Empire ⋆ Idea emerges that leadership in British and French armies should be based on merit not class/money ⋆ Showed everyone needed a stronger military Italian Unification (Mid 19th C.) Italian peninsula was divided and controlled by Hapsburgs Nationalists wanted to unite Italy - Struggled to agree on ways to unite Italy - Didn’t want Italy to be controlled by outsiders ⋆ First half 19th C.- Italy= Republican ⋆ Second half 19th C.- Italy= Monarchist Romantic Republicans Wanted to unify Italy under a liberal republican government - No foreign or local leadership - Failed; turned into guerilla warfare Carbonari- A secret Republican society post congress of Vienna Young Italian Society- led by Mazzini (1831), nationalist group who opposed Austria Roman Republic- (1849) When Giuseppe Mazzini and Garibaldi took over Rome and forced the pope out of office Charles Albert of Piedmont replaced by Victor Emmanuel II - Charles failed to drive Austrians out Victor’s PM (1852)= Cavour - Strong Moderate Monarchist - Enlightenment ideals, classical economics, utilitarianism - Rejected Republicanism - Favored Italian Unification for economic reasons - Cavour insisted on industrialism - Reformed agricultural estates French Sympathies & Ally Cavour allied with Napoleon III and France - France helped with Crimean war and opposed Mazzini (Cavour approved) Plotted war against Austria in 1858 War with Austria (1859) Piedmont sends an army to Austria - France aids them Austria gets beat @Magenta and Solterino - People in Austria were revolting against leadership…making Austria weaker Napoleon III feared Piedmont’s power growing…after war only gave them a small portion of Italy - Cavour was upset, but couldn’t do anything about it ⋆ Piedmont’s power grew when groups chose to ally for Italian unification with Piedmont Garibaldi’s Campaign Garibaldi took 1000 troops to Sicily (May 1860) - Took over most of Southern Italy Cavour feared republicanism and Garibaldi, sent troops to stop them - Garibaldi hands over dictatorship to Cavour - This helps unify Italy - France accepts unified Italy (preferred Italy unified to Hapsburg Italy) New Italian State 1861: Victor Emmanuel= King of Italy Republicans were still unpleased North= Industrialized, South= Poor + Serfs - Urban working class in North and land owners + peasants in the South Constitutional Monarchy, with bicameral legislature - Government = Inefficient - Used “Transformio”- bribery of political enemies - Rome annexed in Franco-Prussian war by Italy in 1870 Before Unification in Italy - Italians identified with their city-states not nationality - City states were often governed by foreign powers - Spain, France, and Roman Empire fought with city states for control of Italy - Renaissance thinkers inspired thoughts of unification in Italy - Napoleons invasion of Italy during French Revolution caused Italians to appreciate their independence - Northern Italy was controlled by Austrians and Southern Italy was controlled by France Giuseppe Mazzini - Early revolutionary spokesman - Believed Italian unification was a job given by God - Goal: Utopian Italian Republic Cavour - Responsible for most of the political acts that led to Italian unification Giuseppe Garibaldi - Guerilla leader - Wanted liberty for everyone - Republican beliefs but developed into advocator for a dictatorship Italian city states started to rebel against their foreign rulers Charles Albert of Piedmont called war against of Austria - Marks official start of Italian wars of independence - Austria won - Charles Albert abdicated to Victor Emmanuel 1859, Piedmont and France allied and declared war against Austria - France feared Prussian involvement and they made a deal to end war with Austria - Left Piedmont with more power but Austria still had some control in Italy Garibaldi prompted annexation of Sicily, which occurred in his name - People were angry with Cavour who was siding with France - Sicily is forced to resign to Cavour who was gaining control of all of Italy Franco-Prussian War helped give Italians almost sole control of Italy - Rome was still controlled by France - Italy had Rome in 1870 Italians faced issues when they had to run their own government German Unification German unification was achieved through a series of domestic and political changes - Also Prussia grew weaker - Unified in 1850 1858: William I becomes king - Less idealistic than brother - Enlarged Prussian military Prussian Parliament (created in 1850) - Refused to approve new taxes or increase army - Monarchy v. Parliament (government gridlock) Otto Von Bismarck= PM of Prussia - Prussian Joker Noble - Served on diets (very reactionary) and ambassador to Russia/France - Conservative (fought liberal Parliament) Used Prussian constitution to fight parliament and tax the people without their approval - Wanted to expand the military - Military + Bureaucracy supported him - Wanted Prussia to have a strong industrial base Bismarck Wanted WAR! Schleswig-Holstein Problem (Schleswig and Holstein = separate duchies ruled by King of Denmark) After Napoleonic Wars, Germans were more nationalistic - Talk of forming a single state between Schleswig and Holstein - Danish people in Schleswig said NO (wanted to be apart of Denmark) Uprising broke out in March 1848 by Schleswig-Holstein’s German majority - Prussia aided the uprising Denmark and Prussia went to war 1848-1850 - Great Powers forced Prussia to accept the London Protocol of 1852 - Schleswig and Holstein given back to Denmark Blood and Iron Speech, Otto von Bismarck (September 1862) (as Minister President of Prussia) - Unification of German territories - Bismarck just been appoint PM by King Wilhelm I - Speech given to House of Budget Committee about need for strong military to solve German unification Danish War (1864) Bismarck didn’t want all German speaking territory to unify - Wanted a small German unification Used Schleswig-Holstein issue to push Austria - 1863: Denmark moves to incorporate both Schleswig and Holstein - Small States in German confederation proposed going to war to stop this Denmark proposed waging war against Denmark (with Prussia and Austria allying) - Went to war and defeated Denmark (1864) - Bismarck’s political influence grew Austro-Prussian War (1866) August 1865: Austria and Prussia negotiate at Convention of Gastein - Austria in charge of Holstein - Prussia in charge of Schleswig Bismarck attempted to bring Prussia into war with Austria 2 years after Danish War - Supported Russian’s in Polish Revolt (got their support) - Persuaded Napoleon III to be neutral in Austro-Prussian conflict - (April 1866) Bismarck promised Venetia to Italy if they attack Austria (June 1, 1866) Austria appealed to German Confederation to intervene in the dispute between Austria and Prussia - Bismarck used this to go to war (claimed Austria violated 1864 alliance by requesting German confederation to intervene) - Starts Seven Weeks War Seven weeks war starts in summer 1866 and ends with Treaty of Prague in August 1866 - Austria barley lost anything - Austrian Hapsburgs were excluded from all German affairs - Left Prussia as major power in German states The North German Confederation 1867: Prussia annexes German states (that were allies of Austria once upon a time) North German Confederation= All German states N. of main river - Confederation legislature- 2 houses (1. federal council, 2. Lower house) - 1871: Constitution of N. German confederation (not very liberal) - Germany is a conservative monarchy supported by aristocracy and military - 1866: Prussian Parliament approves old budget, basically saying goodbye liberalism Franco-Prussian War Bismarck wanted southern states to join German confederation In 1868 a military coup puts Prince Leopold (family of Prussian ruler William I) on throne - France try’s to get Prussia to renounce Leopold’s new position - Leopold’s father renounces him - July 13th, France wants to make sure Leopold doesn’t become king, William I refuses to do this and sends Bismarck a telegram about the meeting - Bismarck (who wants war with France) edits telegram to make it look like William insulted France France declares war on Prussia in July 1870 - Napoleon III thought it could strength support for France - Southern German states ally with Prussia - September: Battle of Sedan, France looses and German forces capture Napoleon - (Jan 28) Paris surrenders, (Jan 18) German Empire proclaimed with William I as emperor Overall Results: Powerful unified Germany rises, rich in resources and education and talent German Empire is stronger than Prussia German= Conservative, bad news for liberals Shows French and Hapsburg weakness - France returns to republicanism Hapsburgs work on domestic reform The Hapsburg Empire Austria before 1800’s was very powerful, power declined throughout 19th c. - Defeats and diplomatic conflict made Austria weaker than European powers - Isolated from other powers - Hapsburgs didn’t embrace industry like other countries - They were agrarians Emperor Francis Joseph- Ruled Hapsburg Empire (2nd half 1800’s) - Honest and hardworking leader - Committed to maintaining tradition, only accepted change when forced to 1850’s, his ministers wanted to centralize the administration - Vienna abolished internal tariffs - Divided Hungary into military districts - Let Catholic church dictate education - Centralization of power failed because local aristocrats had their own interests Austria lost Russia as ally when they didn’t support them in Crimean war France defeated Austria in 1859, Prussia defeated Austria in 1866 - Austria needed domestic reform (wanted to maintain empire but allow regions power to rule) Formation of Dual Monarchy October Diploma (1860) - Created a federation among states in empire - Local diets (dominated by landed classes) and an imperial parliament created - Hungarian nobles rejected the plan February Patent (1861)- Revised October Diploma - Bicameral imperial parliament (Upper chamber appointed by emperor, lower chamber has indirect elections) - Hungary disliked the loss of their control over their land - In place for 6 years - Ministers worked for emperor (ignored parliament) - Emperor had too much power When Prussia beats Austria in 1866, Emperor forced to compromise with Hungarians - Compromise of 1867, transformed Hapsburg empire into dual monarchy called Austria-Hungary Francis Joseph was king of Hungary too - Shared monarch, army and foreign relations, but were two separate states - Delegates from each state met yearly to discuss common issues Unrest of Nationalities Hungarians - Political loyalty based on nationality - Denied national rights to non-Hungarians Rest of Empire - Legitimacy to rule came from emperor - Nationalist wanted same rights as Hungarians Nationalists disliked compromise of 1867 - Gave Austria + Hungary power to ignore smaller nationalities - Czech’s wanted a triple monarchy (Francis joseph said yes but Hungarians said no) Basic Law- Austrians had basic civil rights - Had liberal components (but not significant to please the nationalists) - Czechs wanted equal rights (part of basic law) Francis Joseph PM made Czech and German equal languages in Bohemia - Made people learn Czech (part of basic law) 1907- Francis Joseph has universal male suffrage in Austria (not Hungary) - People still didn’t have faith in constitutional rule because there were still so many parliamentary issues Nationalism was important in late 1800’s, many Austrians still thought domestic ties were more important - Language defined nationalism - Education helped spread language and therefore nationalism - Germans in Austria wanted to join German empire - Other groups wanted to join Italy or Russia Russia in the 19th C. Alexander II was tsar Russia’s defeat in Crimean War showed need for reform - Alexander used this to try and implement top-down reform - He was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionaries At end of Crimean War Alexander II announced plans to abolish serfdom - Took another give years, serfs free in 1861 - Abolished by Emancipation Manifesto - Serfs were still largely controlled by landlords Reform in the Government Local councils were led by nobility and they acted as the government Russia’s legal system reformed to have equality before the law, impartial hearings, judicial independence, and trial by jury Military was reformed by relaxing discipline and lowering required years of service Repression in Poland Russia and Poland have history of tension - Poles rose in Polish January Insurrection - Alexander II suppressed the revolt then implemented Russian reform in Poland Alexander II was not a popular ruler After an assassination attempt he tried to turn Russia into a police state Opposed by populist movement who wanted social revolution for peasants Land and Freedom society attempted radical acts to further their movement and Alexander responded by saying they needed harsher punishments Alexander was eventually killed by radicals and replaced by his son (a conservative) Chapter 15 Migration and Population Trends Rural people moving to cities European population grows until 1910 - Agriculture support had met its population demand - Population rose in underprivileged area (if not for WWI would have caused food shortage) 1846-1932: 50 million Europeans left for America 2nd Industrial Revolution (1800’s) New sources of power emerge: steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil Germ (bacteria) theory discovered - This advanced medicine New Industries Bessemer Process- Mass production of steel Solway Process- Alkali production for soaps, dyes, and plastics Electricity! Gottlieb Daimler- modern internal combustion engine for automobiles Henry Ford- American cars with the assembly line Great Britain- 1860’s Industry expanded greatly - Reform groups (ex. Reform League) formed to handle this Economic Difficulties (Late 1800’s) Bad weather and foreign competition made industry hard - No economic growth, unemployment high, strikes occurring - Bank failures in Germany effected European economy (shows how transportation connected Europe) Industry expansion helped Europe out of economic struggle by 1890’s Social Reputation with Middle Class Industry owners/managers were living like aristocrats Entrepreneurs and Professional people were starting to live luxuriously like nobles Middle class became very diverse - White Collar Workers (Petite Bourgeoise): lower middle class workers - Petite Bourgeoise had money to spend on goods, but also had to work Redesign of Cities Paris: Rebuilt for political purposes (to discourage riots and barricades) - Rebuild created government jobs Department stores, office complexes, apartments, and subways were built Arts and Architecture were built (ex. Paris opera, Eiffel tower, basilica of the sacred heart) Suburbs developed - Cities crowded, suburbs were middle class housing outside the city Urban Sanitation Cities were susceptible to illness Cholera was bad- illness caused filth and smells in cities - Effected all classes - Spread by tainted drinking water - Got so bad government forced to intervene and make regulations Housing Reform/Middle Class Housing laws were put in place by government Middle class reformers wanted cheap decent housing for lower classes - Government lowers interest and makes public housing projects Private groups start to attack housing problems in cities Women’s Movement Suffragist= Women who support votes for women Suffragette= Radical supporter of women’s rights (At this point in history) women can’t own property, divorce was very difficult and men gained legal control of kids, contraception and abortion were illegal, women can’t go to universities, women lacked secondary education, women were considered “radical reformers” if they had professional jobs New Employment for Women Low wage jobs emerged for women - Secretaries, clerks, shop keepers - Mostly for single women Jobs had no childcare or maternity leave Industries preferred unmarried women Women were the first to be fired, had low wages, and were exploited New technology provides jobs specifically for women - Ex. Telephone switch operator Prostitution Women displaced in work force turned to prostitution - It was legal in most of Europe Low skill work with little education - Customers= working class men Middle Class Women Domestic Role: Raise kids and oversee domestic management Religious: Raise kids under religion Charity: Volunteered if they had free time Sexuality: (Less sexual repression in marriage) spread of contraceptives and high cost of kids led to smaller families Rise of Feminism Some women didn’t support the movement - Sensitive to class and economic interests that the movement went against - Cared about nationalism - Religious views conflicted with feminist outlook Women’s suffrage movement in Britain grew - Ex. Millicent Fawcett= Moderate led the suffrage society - Ex. Emeline Pankhurst= Radical, social and political movement leader 1918 Britain- Women gained right to vote - Suffrage movement in Britain inspired and influence USA movement - Women’s work during WWI gave them right to vote Women couldn’t vote in France till 1945
