Chapter 11, The Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase
 From Kingdom to Republic
 Founded in the 8th century bce, Rome was a small city-state ruled by a single king
 Late in the 6th century, the city’s aristocrats deposed the king and instated a republic
 A form of gov’t where delegates represented the interests of various groups of ppl
 The Roman Republic survived for more than five hundred years
 Under this gov’t, Rome established itself as the dominant power in the Med basin
 The Etruscans and Rome
 Romulus and Remus
 According to legend, the city owed its existence to the flight of Aeneas, a refugee from Troy who
migrated to Italy when the Greeks destroyed Troy
 Two of his descendants, Romulus and Remus were raised by a she-wolf after being abandoned
 In 753, Romulus founded the city of Rome, establishing himself as its first king
 Historians believed differently
 Beginning around 2,000 bce, Indo-Europeans crossed the Alps, settling in the Italian peninsula
 Like other Indo-Europeans, these migrants:
 Blended w/the Neolithic inhabitants
 Adopted farming
 Established tribal federations
 Sheepherders and small farmers occupied much of the peninsula
 Bronze metallurgy around 1800 bce, iron about 900 bce
 The Etruscans
 During the middle centuries of the first millennium bce, Italy went through rapid political and econ
development
 The main ppl who drove this change were the Etruscans
 Dominated much of Italy between the 8th and 5th centuries
 Migrated to Italy from Anatolia
 Settled in Tuscany around modern Florence, soon controlling much of the territory from the Po
River valley to the areas around Naples in the south
 Built thriving cities and established alliances between their settlements
 Manufactured high-quality bronze and iron, worked gold and silver into jewelry
 Built a fleet and traded actively the western Med
 During the late 6th century, the Etruscans encountered challenges from another ppl, and their
society declined
 Greeks defeated the Etruscans at sea, while Celtic peoples attacked them from Gaul (France)
 The Kingdom of Rome
 The Etruscans deeply influenced the early dev of Rome
 Rome was a monarchy during the early days, and several of those were Etruscans
 Ruled Rome through 7th and 6th centuries bce
 Provided the city with paved streets, public buildings, defensive walls, and large temples
 Etruscan merchants drew a large volume of traffic to Rome, partly due to its geographic advantages
 Rome enjoyed easy access to the Med by the Tiber River
 Since it wasn’t on the coast, was not open to easy attack or invasion
 Already, the trade routes of Italy converged on Rome
 When the Etruscans declined, Rome was in a strong position to play a stronger role in Italy and
the larger Med
 The Roman Republic and its Constitution
 Establishment of the Republic
 In 509 bce, the Roman nobles deposed the last Etruscan king
 Replaced him with an aristocratic republic
 At the heart of the city, they built the Roman forum, a political and civic center where leading
citizens tended to gov’t business
 v
 Later, the election of consuls was transferred to the Senate
 Since the Senate and consuls represented the interests of the patricians, there was constant
tension between the elites and the common people, known as plebeians
 Conflicts between Patricians and Plebeians
 During the early 5th century bce, relations between the classes became so strained that the
plebeians threatened to secede from Rome and establish a rival settlement
 To maintain the state, the patricians granted the plebeians the right to elect officials known as
tribunes to represent their interest in the Roman gov’t
 Originally chose two tribunes, would rise to ten
 Tribunes had the power to intervene in all political matters
 Possessed the right to veto measures they judged unfair
 In 449 bce, patricians made a further concession by promulgating Rome’s first set of laws, the
Twelve Tables
 Drew upon Greek laws in establishing a framework for the social organization of the Roman
state
 Served as the foundation for a long tradition of Roman law making
 Despite the new-found voice of the plebeians in the tribunes, the patricians continued to dominate
Rome
 Tensions between the classes persisted for the whole life of the republic
 During the 4th century bce, plebeians became eligible to hold almost all state officers
 Gained the right to have one of the consuls come from their ranks
 By the early 3rd century bce, plebeian-dominated assemblies won the power to make decisions
binding on all of Rome
 Like 5th century Athens, republican Rome gradually broadened the base of political participation
 Constitutional compromises eased class tensions but did not solve all political problems confronted
by the republic
 When faced w/civil or military crises the Roman Senate appointed an official who wielded absolute
power for 6 months
 Known as the dictator
 By provided strong leadership during times of difficulty, the republican constitution enabled Rome to
maintain a stable society throughout most of the Republic’s history
 Meanwhile, by allowing various constituencies a voice in gov’t, the constitution also helped prevent
the emergence of class tensions that would tear Rome asunder
 The Expansion of the Republic
 Intro
 While Rome dealt with internal problems, external challenges mounted
 For example, during the 5th century bce, Rome faced threats not only from ppl living in the
neighboring hills but also from the Etruscans
 Beyond Italy were the Gauls, a powerful Celtic people who invaded Italy several times
 Between the 4th and 2nd centuries bce, a remarkable expansion of power and influence transformed
Rome from a small, vulnerable city-state to the center of an enormous empire
 First, the Romans consolidated central Italy
 During the 5th and early 4th centuries bce, the Romans founded a large regional state in central
Italy
 At the expense of the declining Etruscans and other neighboring peoples
 Etruscans gave them access to the iron industry built by the Etruscans, greatly expanding
the amount of land controlled by the Romans
 During the late 4th century bce, the Romans built on their conquest, emerging as the predominant
power in the Italian peninsula
 The Romans secured control of the peninsula due to:
 Established military colonies in the regions they overcame
 Created a generous policy toward the peoples they conquered
 Instead of ruling those they vanquished, the Romans:
 Exempted them from taxation
 Allowed them to govern their own internal affairs
 Could trade with Rome and take Roman spouses
 Some gained Roman citizenship and rose to high positions in Roman society
 The Romans forbade conquered peoples from making military or political alliances except w/Rome
 Required them to provide soldiers and military support
 These policies provided the political, military, and diplomatic support Rome needed to put down
occasional rebellions and to dominate affairs throughout the Italian peninsula
 Expansion in the Mediterranean
 With Italy united under its control, Rome began to play a major role in the affairs of the Med region
 Also had conflicts with other Med powers
 The principal power in the western Med during the 4th and 3rd centuries bce was Carthage
 Originally a Phoenician colony, Carthage had a strategic location that enabled it to trade actively
and built a strong regional empire in the western Med
 From the wealth generated by that commerce, Carthage became the dominant political power in
 North Africa (except Egypt)
 Southern part of the Iberian peninsula
 Western region of grain-rich Sicily
 The three Hellenistic empires continued to dominate the eastern Med
 The prosperity of these empires supported a thriving network of maritime commerce in the
eastern Med
 Commercial wealth enabled rulers to maintain powerful states and armies (ex. Carthage)
 The Punic Wars
 The Romans clashed first with Carthage
 Between 264 and 146 bce, they fought three wars collectively known as the Punic Wars in a
battle for regional supremacy
 Friction first arose from econ competition, esp over Sicily, an important source of grain
 In the 2nd Punic War, the very survival of Rome was in jeopardy after Carthaginian general
Hannibal Barca devastated the Italian peninsula for 15 years
 The rivalry ended after Roman forces subject Carthage to a long siege
 After they conquered the city, the Romans burned most of it to the ground, forcing 50k
survivors into slavery
 With their victory after Carthage, Rome became the dominant power brokers in the western Med
region
 They also annexed Carthaginian possessions in north Africa and Iberia
 Areas rich in grain, oil, wine, silver, and gold
 Used these resources for continued expansion
 Shortly after the beginning of the Punic Wars, Rome became caught up in disputes in the eastern
Med
 This arose partly because pirates the ambitious local rulers ignored the weakening Hellenistic
rulers, threatening regional stability
 On several occasions, Rome dispatched armies to protect the interests of their citizens and
merchants
 These brought them into conflict with the Antigonids and Seleucids
 Between 215 and 148 bce, Rome fought five major wars, mostly in Macedon and Anatolia, against
the Antigonids and Seleucids
 They did not immediately annex the lands in the eastern Med, but rather entrusted them to allies
in the region
 By the middle of the 2nd century, Rome was the preeminent power in the entire Mediterranean
 From Republic to Empire
 xzs
 The need to administer conquered lands strained the capacities of the republican constitution
 During the first century bce and first century ce, Roman civil and military leaders gradually
dismantled the republican constitution
 Imposed a centralized imperial form of gov’t on Rome and its empire
 Imperial Expansion and Domestic Problems
 In Rome, patterns of land distribution caused serious political and social tensions
 Similar to classical Greece and China
 Conquered lands fell into the hands of wealthy elites
 Organized enormous plantations known as latifundia
 Since they enjoyed economies of scale and employed slave labor often, owners of latifundia
operated at lower costs than those who owned smaller land
 Often had to mortgage their lands or sell to their wealthier neighbors
 The Gracchi Brothers
 During the 2nd and 1st centuries bce, relations between the classes became so strained that they led
to violent social conflict and civil war
 The chief proponents of social reform in the Roman republic were the brothers Tiberius and Gaius
Gracchus
 The Gracchi Brothers worked to limit the amount of conquered land that any individual could
hold
 Those who owned more land than allowed would lose some of it to be allocated to small farmers
 The Gracchi had little success
 Most members of the wealthy and ruling classes considered the brothers dangerous radicals
 Found ways the halt their efforts
 Fearing that the brothers might gain influence over the course of Roman affairs, Tiberius was
assassinated in 132 bce and Gaius was executed in 121 bce
 The experiences of the Gracchi brothers showed that the constitution of the Roman republic,
originally built for a small city-state, might not be suitable for a large and growing empire
 Formal political power remained in the hands of a small, privileged class of Rome
 Their policies reflected their interests of their class rather than the empire as a whole
 For the centuries following the assassinations of the Gracchi brothers, Roman politicians and
generals jockeyed for power and position as they sought to mobilize support
 Several military commanders recruited personal armies, but not from the typical army pool of
small farmers, but from landless rural residents and urban workers
 Since these men had no wealth, they were loyal to no one but the generals, placing their
interests of the army before the state
 Most important of these generals were:
 Gaius Marius, who sided w/social reformers who wanted a redistribution of land
 Lucius Cornelius Sulla, a veteran of foreign campaigns who allied with the conservative and
aristocratic classes
 Civil War
 During the first century bce, Rome fell into civil war
 In 87 bce, Marius marched on Rome, placed the city under military occupation, and hunted down
his political enemies
 After Marius died the following years, Sulla made plans to take his place


In 83 bce, he seized Rome and initiated a slaughter of his enemies
Encouraged the Roman populace to kill those individuals on sight and confiscate their
properties
 During a reign of terror that lasted five years, Sulla brought about the murder or execution of 10,000
individuals
 By the time Sulla died in 78 bce, he had imposed an extremely conservative legislative program
 Weakened the influence of the lower classes and strengthened the hand of the wealthy in
Roman politics
 Because Sulla did not address Rome’s most serious problems, it had no chance to succeed over a
long term
 Latifundia continued to pressure small farmers
 Increasingly left the countryside and swelled the ranks of the urban lower classes
 Poverty in the cities, especially Rome, led to periodic social eruptions when the price of grain rose
or the supply fell
 The urban poor increasingly joined the persona armies of ambitious generals
 These generals themselves posed threats to social and political stability
 In this chaos, Gaius Julius Caesar inaugurated the process by which Rome replaced its republican
constitution with a centralized imperial form of gov’t
 The Foundation of Empire
 Intro
 A nephew of the general Marius, Julius Caesar favored liberal policies and social reforms
 Despite this, he escaped the reign of Sulla and the conservatives who followed him
 His survival was due in part to his youth, but partly also due to a well-timed excursion to Greece
 During the 60s bce, Caesar played an active role in Roman politics as a member of an unofficial but
powerful triumvirate known as the First Triumvirate
 Spent enormous amounts on sponsoring public spectacles (gladiator battles), helping him build
a reputation and win election to posts in the republican gov’t
 This also helped him stay in the public eye and helped to publicize his interest in social reform
 During the next decade, Caesar led a Roman army to Gaul which he conquered and brought into
the Roman Empire
 The conquest of Gaul helped precipitate a political crisis
 As a result of his victories, Caesar had become popular in Rome
 Conservative leaders attempted to maneuver him out of power and regain the initiative for their
own programs
 Caesar refused to stand aside, and in 49 bce he turned his army toward Rome
 By early 46 bce, he made himself master of the Roman state and named himself dictator
 He claimed this office for life rather than the six-month term
 Caesar then centralized military and political functions and brought them under his control
 He confiscated property from conservatives and distributed it to veterans of his army and other
supporters
 Launched large-scale building projects to provide employment for the urban poor
 Extended Roman citizenship to peoples in the imperial provinces
 Appointed Gauls to the Roman Senate
 Caesar’s policies pointed the way toward a centralized imperial gov’t for Rome and its empire, but
the transformation had to wait for a new generation of leaders
 Caesar alienated many members of the Roman elite classes, who considered him a tyrant
 In 44 bce, Caesar was assassinated by other Senators in the Roman forum
 The assassins were attempting to restore the republic, but the transition from the outmoded gov’t
was out of their hands
 Instead, they plunged Rome into a fresh era of civil conflict that went for 13 years
 Augustus
 When the struggles ended, power belonged the Octavian, a grand-nephew and protégé of Julius
Caesar and the dictator’s adopted son
 In a naval battle at Actium in Grece (31 bce), Octavian defeated his principal rival, Marc Antony,
who had joined with Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt
 In 27 bce, the Senate bestowed upon him the title Augustus, a term with strong religious
connotations suggesting the divine or semidivine nature of its holder
 During his 45 years of unopposed rule, Augustus fashioned an imperial gov’t that guided Roman
affairs for the next three centuries
 Augustus’ Administration
 Augustus’ gov’t was a monarchy disguised as a republic
 Liked Julius Caesar, Augusts ruled by centralizing power and military power
 He proceeded with more caution than his patron
 He preserved traditional republican offices and forms of gov’t, including members of the Roman
elite in his gov’t
 At the same time, he fundamentally altered the nature of the gov’t
 He accumulated vast powers for himself, ultimately taking responsibility for all important gov’t
functions
 Reorganized the military system, created a new standing army w/commanders who owed
allegiance directly to the emperor
 Eliminated the problem caused by the generals with personal armies
 Placed individuals loyal to him in all important positions
 Augustus served as emperor until his death in 14 ce
 During his long reign, he stabilized a land racked by civil war and enabled the institutions of
empire to take root
 Continuing Expansion and Integration of the Empire
 Intro
 During the two centuries that followed Augustus, Roman armies conquered distant lands and
integrated them into a larger economy and society
 At its high point, during the second century ce, the Roman Empire embraced all of the Med
basin, Gaul, Iberia, Britain, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia
 After Octavian conquered Egypt in 30 bce, Roman forces even moved deep into the Nile River
valley
 Roman expansion had dramatic effects in European lands embraced by the empire
 Egypt, Anatolia, Syria, and Mesopotamia had been sites of civilized societies
 Gaul, Germany, Britain, and Spain were sparsely populated lands occupied by cultivators who
lived in small villages
 When Roman soldiers, diplomats, governors, and merchants began to arrive in large numbers, they
stimulated the development of local economies and states
 Sought access to resources such as tin
 Encouraged local inhabitants to cultivate wheat, olives, and grapes
 Local ruling elites allied w/Roman representatives
 Used the wealth that came into their communities to control natural resources and build states
on a much larger scale than before
 Cities emerged where administrators and merchants conducted their business
 Paris, Lyon, Cologne, Mainz, London, Toledo, and Segovia all trace their origins to Roman
times
 The Pax Romana
 Within the boundaries of the Roman empire itself, a long era of peace facilitated economic and
political integration from the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century ce

Augustus brought peace not only to Rome by ending the civil disturbances that had plagued the
city for more than a century, but also the empire at large
 Augustus’ reign inaugurated the era known as pax romana (“Roman peace”) that persisted for two
and a half centuries
 In spite of the occasional conflicts, especially among the conquered who resented Roman rule,
pax romana facilitated trade and communication throughout the region from Mesopotamia to the
Atlantic Ocean
 Roman Roads
 Like their counterparts in Persia, China, India, and the Hellenistic empires, the Romans integrated
their economy by building networks of transportation and communication
 Since ancient times, Roman engineers were known as outstanding road builders
 Deep bed for roads, edged them w/curbs, provided for drainage, and topped them w/large,
flat paving stones
 The main roads were large enough (6-8 m) to accommodate two-way traffic
 Builders placed milestones along the roads and the imperial postal system maintained stations
for couriers
 The roads and postal system permitted urgent travel and messages to proceed w/remarkable
speed
 Roads linked all parts of the Roman Empire
 Scholars estimate that the combined length of the roads was greater than 50,000 miles
 Sea Lanes
 Where roads came to the water, Romans made use of sea lanes throughout the Med Sea and the
Black Sea
 The Mediterranean became essentially a Roman lake, called by the Romans mare nostrum
 By land and by sea, Romans maintained communication with all regions of the empire
 Roman Law
 Under conditions of political stability and the pax romana, jurists constructed an elaborate system of
laws
 Romans began a tradition of written law in 449 bce with the Twelve Tables for their early
republic
 As armies spread Roman influence across the Med, jurists worked to construct a rational body of
law that would apply to all peoples under Roman rule
 During the late republic and during the empire, the jurists articulated standards of justice and
gradually applied them throughout Roman territory
 Established the notion that defendants were innocent until proven guilty
 Ensured defendants had a right to challenge their accusers before a judge in the court of law
 Permitted judges to set aside laws they found unfair
 Like transportation and communication networks, Roman law helped to integrate the diverse lands
that made up the empire
 Principles of Roman law continued to shape the Mediterranean and European society long after
the empire had disappeared
 Economy and Society in the Mediterranean
 The quick expansion of Roman influence and the imposing of Roman imperial rule brought
economic and social changes to peoples throughout the Med basin
 Good roads and the pax romana encouraged trade between regions
 Existing cities benefited from the wealth generated by trade
 In the lands they conquered, the Romans founded new cities to serve as links between local
regions and the larger Med economy
 At the same time, the Romans, like most other classical societies, built a strictly patriarchal society
and made extensive use of slave labor
 Trade and Urbanization
 Commercial Agriculture
 Like other classical societies, the Roman Med experienced economic development and social
change as the state grew and brought new areas into its network
 Farming underwent transformation w/the expansion of empire and growth of trade
 Instead of producing crops for local consumption, latifundia now produced for export
 Commercial farming played an important role in economic specialization and integration in the
empire
 Since it was possible to import grain at good prices from areas w/lots of grain, other regions
could concentrate on the cultivation of fruits, veggies, or manufactured items
 Greece focused on olives and grapes
 Syria and Palestine produced fruits, nuts, and wool
 Gaul produced grain, copper
 Spain produced olive oil, wine, horses, precious metals
 Italy was the center of pottery, glassware, and bronze goods
 Mediterranean Trade
 Specialized production of farming goods and manufactured goods set that stage for vigorous trade
over the Med sea lanes
 Roman military and naval power kept the seas free of pirates, making sea trade more profitable
 As Roman military forces, administrators, tax collectors, and other officials traveled throughout
the empire, they joined the merchants in linking the Med regions into a network of
communication and exchange
 The City of Rome
 Cities benefited from Med integration and played a prominent role in promoting social and economic
change
 Much of the profit from trade, as well as taxes, tributes, booty, and other wealth went to Rome
 In the 1st century ce, 10k statues, 700 pools, 500 fountains, 36 arches adorned the city
 The Romans also financed the construction of temples, bathhouses, public buildings, stadiums,
and aqueducts that brought water into the city
 Construction benefited from the use of concrete, invented by Roman engineers during the republic
era
 Strengthened structures and allowed builders to meet high standards of precision required for
plumbing and water control
 Construction provided employment for hundreds of thousands of workers
 As a result, the Roman population surged, and the city’s economy experienced rapid growth
 Shopkeepers, artisans, merchants, and bankers proliferated in the imperial capital
 Economic development attracted large numbers of migrants from the countryside and from foreign
lands
 Most received low wages as laborers, construction workers, or servants
 Some found good employment as craftsmen
 Some migrants became successful businessmen
 Urban growth and development also took place beyond the capital
 Some parts of the empire had long-standing urban traditions (Greece and Syria)
 In these areas, trade and economic development brought additional prosperity
 In other areas, the Romans founded cities at strategic sites for gov’t and admin
 Encouraged social and economic development in the far ends of the empire
 Roman Cities and their Attractions
 As wealth concentrated in the cities, urban residents came to expect a variety of comforts not
available in rural areas
 Merchants traveling the roads and sea lanes brought delicacies and luxury items from all parts
of the Roman empire

Roman cities enjoyed abundant supplies of freshwater, sometimes bringing it from distant mtns
by aqueducts, sewage and plumbing systems
 All cities and many smaller towns had public baths w/hot and cold rooms, often swimming pools
and gymnasia
 Underground sewers carried away wastewater
 Circuses, stadiums, and theaters provided sites for the entertainment of the urban masses
 The Circus Maximus at Rome accommodated 250,000 spectators
 Entertainment at stadiums took forms now considered coarse or cruel (gladiators)
 Urban populations flocked to such events
 The Roman Colosseum was opened in 80 ce, provided for 50,000 spectators
 Family and Society in Roman Times
 The Paterfamilias
 Roman law gave lots of authority in male heads of families
 The Roman family consisted of an entire household- slaves, free servants, and close relatives
who lived together
 Usually the eldest male ruled the family as the paterfamilias
 Roman law gave the paterfamilias the authority to:
 Arrange marriages for his children
 Determine the work or duties they would perform
 Punish them for offenses as he saw fit
 Could sell them into slavery and even execute them
 Although legally given extraordinary powers, the Roman paterfamilias rarely ruled so tyrannically
 Women usually supervised domestic affairs in the Roman household
 By the time they reached middle age, women generally had considerable influence within the
family
 Helped select marriage partners for their children
 Sometimes played a large role in managing their families’ financial affairs
 While Roman law placed strict limits on the ability of women to receive inheritances,
enforcement was inconsistent
 During the third and second centuries bce, women came to possess lots of property as Roman
expansion brought lots of wealth into the capital
 By the 1st century bce, many women supervised the financial affairs of family businesses
despite the authority vested in the paterfamilias
 Wealth and Social Change
 Increasing wealth had important consequences for Roman society
 New classes of merchants, landowners, and construction contractors accumulated lots of
private wealth
 Began to rival the old nobility for prominence
 The newly rich classes built huge houses w/gardens, threw lavish banquets
 By the 1st century bce, poverty had become a huge problem in Rome and the other large cities
 Often unemployed, the urban masses sometimes rioted to express their dissatisfaction and
sought improved conditions
 Readily joined the private armies of ambitious generals
 Imperial authorities never developed a true urban policy but instead sought to keep them
entertained with “bread and circuses”- subsidized grain and spectacular public entertainments
 Slavery
 Roman society made extensive use of slavery labor
 By the 2nd century ce, slaves may have represented as much as 1/3rd of the population of the
Roman empire
 In the countryside they worked mostly on latifundia, although some worked in state quarries and
mines
 Rural slaves worked under extremely harsh conditions, often chained together in teams
 Discontent among rural slaves led to several large-scale revolts, especially during the 2nd and 1st
centuries bce
 In the most serious, in 73 bce, the escaped slave Spartacus assembled an army of 70k
rebellious slaves
 In the cities, conditions were much less difficult than in the countryside
 Female slaves commonly worked as domestic servants while males worked in less harsh jobs
 Slaves who had an education or possessed a particular talent had the potential to lead comfortable
lives
 More so than their rural counterparts, urban slaves could hope manumission as a reward for a long
term of loyal service
 It was common for masters to free urban slaves when they turned 30
 The Cosmopolitan Mediterranean
 The integration of the Med basin had important effects not only for trade and economy but also for
cultural and religious traditions
 As travelers ventured through the Roman empire, they became acquainted with other religious
and cultural traditions
 When migrants moved to Rome and other large cities, they continued to observe their traditions,
contributing to the cosmopolitan cultural atmosphere of the empire
 Roads and communication networks favored the spread of new popular religions
 Most important of these over time was Christianity, which originated as a small and persecuted
Jewish sect
 Within three centuries, Christianity had become the official religion of the Roman Empire
 Greek Philosophy and Religions of Salvation
 Roman Deities
 During the early days of their history, the Romans recognized many gods and goddesses who they
believed intervened directly in human affairs
 Along with the major deities (Jupiter, Mars, Ceres, Janus, Vesta) most households honored
gods who looked after the welfare of individual families
 As the Romans expanded their political influence, they encountered traditions of different peoples
 Often, they adopted the deities of other peoples, using them for their own purposes
 Greek Influence
 The Romans drew inspiration from the Greek tradition of rational thought and philosophy
 The most prominent school of thought in Hellenistic Greece when it was conquered by Rome
was Stoicism
 The Stoics sought to identify a set of universal moral standards based on nature and reason
that would transcend local ethical codes
 Cicero and Stoicism
 The approach to moral thought appealed strongly to Roman intellectuals
 Thinkers such as Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 bce) readily adopted Stoicism
 His treatises emphasized the individual’s duty to live in accordance with nature and reason
 Argued that the pursuit of justice was the individual’s highest public duty
 Scorned those who sought to accumulate wealth or power through immoral, illegal, or unjust
means
 Through his speeches and writings, Cicero helped to establish Stoicism as the most prominent
school of moral philosophy in Rome
 Religions of Salvation
 Both educated elites and unschooled masses found comfort in religions of salvation that
established their presence throughout the Med basin
 Like Stoicism, these religions clearly reflected the political and social conditions of the
Hellenistic period

Individual religions of salvation appealed to the popular masses by providing a sense of purpose
and the promise of a glorious future existence
 These religions became prominent features of Med society during Hellenistic times and became
increasingly noticeable in Rome during the late republic
 Merchants, soldiers, and admin carried their cults as they conducted their businesses
 Missionaries traveled alongside them attempting to find converts
 The roads of the empire and the sea lanes of the Med served not only as trade and communication
routes, but highways of religion
 Mithraism
 Among the most popular of these religions was Mithraism, a cult dedicated to the Persian deity
Mithras
 Identified with the sun and light in Zoroastrian mythology
 Roman soldiers in Anatolia adapted the cult to their interests
 Became associated w/strength, courage, discipline
 Became popular among the Roman military
 The Mithraic religion provided divine sanction for human life and purposeful moral behavior
 Promised them union with Mithras himself
 His cult attracted followers among admin and merchants and the male population of all sizable
communities and trade centers
 Cult of Isis
 The cult of Mithras was for men only, but others accepted both men and women
 The cult of Isis may have been the most popular of all the Med religions of salvation before the
rise of Christianity
 Believers adored the Egyptian goddess who nurtured her worshipers, helping them cope with the
stresses of cosmopolitan life
 Judaism and Early Christianity
 The Jews and the Empire
 After the dissolving of the Jewish kingdom in the 10th century bce, the Jewish ppl maintained their
faith and their communities under different regimes
 Most of these empires tolerated cultural preferences of their subjects as long as they paid their
taxes and didn’t rebel
 To encourage political loyalty, many empires created state cults and called for subjects to
participate or revere the emperor-gods
 This requirement was a problem for Jews, who only recognized Yahweh as divine
 Many refused to pay homage to a mortal; sometimes even declined to pay taxes to regimes that
required subjects to revere their emperors
 Relations between Jews and imperial authorities became tense as the Romans extended their
empire in the eastern Med
 The Jews mounted several rebellions, but ultimately failed during the Jewish War of 66-70 ce
 The Essenes
 While some Jews fought the Romans, others founded new sects that looked for saviors to deliver
them from subjection
 The Essenes were one of these groups
 Formed in Palestine in the 1st century bce (as told by the Dead Sea Scrolls)
 Observed a strict moral code and participated in rituals designed to reinforce a sense of
community
 Admitted members after baptism, community meals, and looked for a savior to deliver them
from the Romans
 Jesus of Nazareth
 The early Christians had many of the same concerns as the Essenes
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They formed their community around Jesus of Nazareth a Jew whom they recognized as their
savior
 A peaceful man who taught devotion to God and love for fellow humans
 Attracted large crowds because of his wisdom and powers
 Jesus alarmed the Romans because he taught that “the kingdom of God is at hand”
 While he was referring to a spiritual realm, the Romans thought his message was political
 In an effort to forestall a new round of rebellion, Roman admins executed Jesus in the early 30s
ce
Jesus’ Early Followers
 Jesus’ crucifixion did not put an end to his movement
 Even after his execution, Jesus followers felt his presence and proclaimed that he had
triumphed over death from rising from his grave
 Taught that he was the son of God and that his sacrifice offset the sins of the Christians
 Following Jesus’ teachings, the early Christians observed a demanding moral code and devoted
themselves to God
 Compiled a body of writings that was known as the New Testament
 Together with the Jews’ Hebrew scriptures (Old Testament), the New Testament became the
holy book of Christianity
Paul of Tarsus
 Jesus and his earliest followers were all Jews
 About the middle of 1st cent ce, some Christians avidly sought converts from non-Jewish
communities in the Hellenistic world and the Roman empire
 The principal figure in the expansion of Christianity beyond Judaism was Paul of Tarsus
 A zealous missionary, he called for individuals to observe high moral standards and place
their faith ahead of personal and faith interests
 Also explained history as the result of God’s purposeful activity, providing a meaning for
peoples’ lives
 Promised a better future for those who observed the faith
 Used the Roman roads and Med sea lanes
Early Christian Communities
 For two centuries after the death of Jesus, there was no central authority for the Christian church
 Rather, individual communities selected supervisors (bishops) who oversaw priests and
governed their areas according to Christian doctrine
 Due to this, the communities of Christians had varied practices and interpretations
 This way until Rome became center of religion in 3rd century ce
 Early Christians generated lots of writings to show their different interpretations of Christianity
 After the 3rd century ce, church authorities suppressed many of those writings, declaring them
heretical
 Dozens of these letters, gospels, and historical accounts still exist
 Acceptance of specific doctrines v. individual interpretations
 Rising of Jesus from the dead as spiritual v. literal
 Role of women in the church
 Only gradually did believers agree to recognize certain texts as authoritative scripture and adopt
them as fundamental guides (New Testament)
The Growth of Early Christianity
 Like the Jews, the early Christians refused to honor the Roman state cults or revere the emperor as
a god
 Roman imperial authorities launched sporadic campaigns of persecution designed to eliminate
Christianity as a threat to the empire
 In spite of that repression, Christian numbers grew rapidly
 Found its way to almost all parts of the empire

Christians established thriving communities throughout the Med basin and farther east in
Mesopotamia and Iran
 Rome had a large Christian population by 300 bce
 The quick growth of Christianity reflected the new faith’s appeal particularly to the lower classes,
urban populations, and women
 Gave honor and duty to those who were not well regarded in Roman society
 Gave them a sense of spiritual freedom more meaningful than wealth, power, or social class
 Taught the spiritual equality of the sexes and welcomed the contributions of both men and
women
 Provided a sense of purpose and a promise of future glory
 Urban populations in Rome embraced the new religion with such fervor that by the 3rd century bce,
Christianity had become the most dynamic and influential religious faith in the Med basin