UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
AY 2017-2018
The Use of Activated Carbon
to Filter Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) in Exhaust Pipe
Presented to the Senior High School
Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
University of Santo Tomas
Manila, Philippines
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Course
for the Subject of
Practical Research 3
By:
Wilfed A. Chan
Hannah Angelica A. Guese
Jahrom A. Jacinto
Ronmark O. Mallari
Bianca Jasmin T. Manzano
May 2018
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UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
The Use of Activated Carbon to Filter Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)
in Exhaust Pipe
Wilfed A. Chan, Hannah Angelica A. Guese, Jahrom A. Jacinto
Ronmark O. Mallari, Bianca Jasmin T. Manzano
ABSTRACT
Philippines is one of the most polluted countries in terms of the amount
of impurities in the air. One of the leading causes for this problem is
the excessive quantity of smoke-belching vehicles. The amount of
pollutants emitted by these vehicles greatly contribute to pollution of
air. In this study, an exhaust pipe air filter using activated carbon was
used. The researchers opted to use this particular material since it is
known for its adsorptive properties. The materials were gathered from
Metro Manila, while the emission test was done at LTO Pampanga.
There were two main set ups in the experimentation, the experimental
and control groups. The amount of nitrogen emitted by the vehicles
was evaluated to see if it meets the air quality parameters of the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and it was also
compared with each other to see if there is a significant difference
between the amounts of nitrogen oxide emissions. Results show that
the activated carbon air filter was able to strain 100% of nitrogen
oxides (NOx) in the experimental set-up, which is better than the
results of previous studies. The NOx concentration of the experimental
set-up also did not exceed the given limit by the DENR for vehicle
emissions. The study proves that activated carbon is effective in
filtering NOx in vehicle emissions and its product gas complies with
the DENR standards for NOx emissions.
Keywords: activated carbon, exhaust pipe air filter, nitrogen oxides
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract
1.0
2
Introduction
1.1 Rationale
1.2 Scope and Limitation
5
7
Review of Related Literature
2.1 Review of Related Literature
2.1.1 Air Pollution in the Philippines
2.1.2 Air Pollution and Its Components
2.1.3 Sources of Air Pollution
2.1.4 Health Effects Brought by Air Pollution
2.1.5 Reduction efforts for air pollution
2.1.6 Activated Carbon as a Purifier
2.2 Research Questions
8
8
9
10
10
12
16
21
Research Methods
3.1 Research Design: Experimental
3.2 Preparation and Activation of Charcoal
3.3 Application of Activated Charcoal in Exhaust Pipe Filter
3.4 Determination of Amount of Nitrogen Oxides
3.5 Data Analysis
21
24
25
26
26
4.0
Results and Discussion
27
5.0
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
30
2.0
3.0
References
Appendices
Curriculum Vitae
37
38
39
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List of Tables
1. Statistical data derived from the acquired raw data of two setups
2. Concentration of NOx from the experimental set-up compared
to the DENR standards
27
28
List of Figures
1. Sketch for the exhaust pipe air filter system
25
List of Appendix
Appendix I Application of Activated Carbon in the Filter
Appendix II Documentation
Appendix III Results
37
38
39
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale
The Philippines is known for being one of the most polluted countries in
the world, particularly in its capital Metro Manila. In the study by Nguyen,
Naguib, Papathomas, Shaker, and Culaba (2011), survey results showed that most
of the residents in Manila are affected by air pollution and that air quality worsens
each year. Air pollution is induced by factors such as waste burning, vehicle
smoke emissions, and industrial activities (World Health Organization [WHO],
2016). This condition greatly contributes to the deterioration of the environment
because air pollutants block the stomata of plants, which causes them to wither.
Air pollution is a relevant issue not only to the country, but even worldwide. It
causes a wide range of respiratory diseases to the citizens; in which some cases
eventually lead to death (WHO, 2017).
For a country with a capital that has an estimate of 23 million vehicle trips
daily in 1996, smoke belching has created such adverse effects to the environment
throughout the years (Nguyen et al., 2011). Because of this issue, various
reduction efforts are done both by government and non-government
organizations, to at least minimize air pollution and its effects. One of these
efforts is use of air purifiers or air filters, indoors, and even in cars. Air filters may
come in different designs and different materials. Yet, drivers tend to ignore air
filters for they are very costly and not durable. Exhaust pipe air filters usually
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could only last for 8 – 10 weeks because their components are short-lived and
they cannot be replenished easily. Commercially sold air filters are very limited
worldwide and there are no markets in the Philippines that sells these products.
One of the recently introduced exhaust pipe air filter features algae as its main
component but it isn’t durable on its own (Jaggi, 2013).
Activated carbons are known to have properties that can adsorb dirt and
impurities, including sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) which are
some of the harmful elements present in polluted air. Activated carbon is
charcoal, that has undergone heating process to open up its pores. This method is
essential in the adsorbing process. Through this, carbon is able to collect the
impurities that passes through it. Activated carbons are not only efficient and lowcost, yet also durable for it could be reactivated by any heating process
(Menendez et al., 2010).
This study focuses on the use and application of activated carbon in order
to create an efficient exhaust pipe air filter. If implemented in the future, the
exhaust pipe filter output can produce cleaner air in vehicle emissions which can
lead to better air quality. Besides these, if the air filter is proven effective and
used in the future it can benefit patients with respiratory diseases, and also the
local community by providing them with better air quality that would help them
in their conditions.
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1.2 Scope and Limitations
The study focused on the use of activated carbon as the main component
of an air filter for exhaust pipes. It has one main output, which is the air filter
itself. The study only encompassed the processes of activating carbon, application
of the activated carbon in the air filter, and lastly, the evaluation of the
effectiveness of activated carbon in exhaust pipe air filter.
The study has four limitations. First, the product of this research was only
tested in Guagua Pampanga. Second, testing the air filter’s effectiveness was
limited to measuring nitrogen oxides (NOx) only. Third, only one type of carbon
from wood charcoal was used in this study. And fourth, the researches only
compared the activated carbon air filter set up to an exhaust pipe without filter.
The study did not cover the differences between other types of activated
carbon and charcoal as components in the air filter. It did also not encompass the
reactivation process of activated carbon and marketing strategies for the actual
product. And lastly, the research did not test other particulate parameters besides
NOx.
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CHAPTER 2
THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
2.1 Review of Related Literature
2.1.1 Air Pollution in the Philippines
Air pollution is a significant issue that most countries are currently going
through; especially nowadays that several countries are at their peak of
industrialization. Several studies have proven that poor air quality has an effect on
the population. It may cause disturbance and affect the well-being of its
inhabitants, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Le Boennec &
Salladarré, 2017). According to the article posted by the World Health
Organization (2016), 6.5 million deaths, which is 11.6% of all global deaths, were
linked with indoor and outdoor pollution in 2012. It was also said that 90% of
these deaths occur in low and middle-income countries, particularly prominent in
South East Asia and the Western Pacific.
The Philippines is a country with a population of 101 million in 2015
(Philippine Statistics Authority, 2017), and most of its citizens belong to the
middle and lower middle class (World Health Organization, 2016). Developing
countries in the South-East Asia, such as the Philippines, are still working to
improve their urban community. In their aim to improve the economy, several
environmental issues have appeared. Industrialization and urbanization leads to a
more air polluted environment. Philippines has been known for being one of the
most polluted countries in the world, with Manila being one of the top five most
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polluted cities. An Asian air pollution survey, conducted in 2005, showed that
98% of the residents in Manila are affected by air pollution and 71% of the
population believe that the quality of air worsens over the years (Nguyen et al.,
2011).
2.1.2 Air Pollution and Its Components
According to Ciencewicki & Jaspers (2007), there are six criteria of
pollutants set by the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS),
regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). These
pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), and sulfur oxides (SOx). Nitrogen dioxide,
mostly coming from vehicle emissions and gas stoves, usually affects a child’s
lung function. Particulate matter (PM), however, is composed of several particles
of organic compounds, metals, soils, acids, and dust. Exposure to PM may cause
asthma to children and the elderly. In 2005, the Philippines Emissions Inventory
estimated that 54% of air pollution (PM, SOx, NOx, and CO) came from
stationary sources, 20% came from mobile sources and the remaining 26% came
from area sources (Nguyen et al., 2011). It was also said that carbon monoxide
(CO) has greater concentration in the Philippines compared to the other
pollutants. Diesel exhaust (DE) has also been identified as a major contributor of
respiratory viral infection. It contains particulate air pollutants and gaseous
components such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitric oxides
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(NO), hydrocarbons, transition metals, and formaldehyde (CH2O) (Ciencewicki
& Jaspers, 2007).
2.1.3 Sources of Air Pollution
In the article of WHO (2016), it was stated that major sources of air
pollution are from human-related activities. This includes inefficient modes of
transportation, exhaust from large number of vehicles, industrial activities,
cooking, household fuel and waste burning, and road dust. However, it was also
stated that not all air pollutions can come from human-related activities, such as
dust storms.
Metro Manila is the most polluted city in the Philippines due to its rapid
urbanization. Most Filipinos go and travel around Metro Manila in a daily basis
for leisure, work, and educational purposes. Studies have shown that a large
portion of air pollution in Metro Manila came from the combustion of gasoline in
public utility vehicles. For a developing city, the main mode of public
transportation are jeepneys. Metro Manila had about 23 million trips each day in
1996, in which 40% of these are through jeepney vehicles. Tricycles, on the other
hand, contributed 15.4% of the emissions from vehicles with a high concentration
of carbon monoxide (CO). Tricycles failed to meet the regulations of the
Philippines in terms of emission limits of carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx) (Nguyen et al., 2011).
2.1.4 Health Effects Brought by Air Pollution
2.1.4.1. Mortality Effects
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Numerous studies have confirmed that air pollution could contribute to the
deterioration of one’s respiratory and cardiovascular health. In 2015, WHO
(2017) estimated that in the top 10 causes of death worldwide, there has been a
total of 9.42 million deaths due to diseases that are linked to air pollution (lower
respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, tuberculosis, and
trachea, bronchitis, and lung cancers). Statistics also showed that lower
respiratory infection is the top 1 cause of death for lower-class citizens and the top
3 for the lower middle class. This stresses the impact of these diseases to the
Philippines because most of its citizens belongs to the lower and middle class.
According to the country health profile made by WHO (2015) for the
Philippines, 4 out of the top 10 main causes of death in the country are related to
air pollution (e.g. lower respiratory infections, tuberculosis, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, and asthma). These diseases have killed 106.8 thousand
Filipinos in just the year 2012. Statistics showed that air-pollution related diseases
could affect anyone at any age. Seventeen percent of the total deaths for Filipino
children under the age of 5 are due to acute respiratory diseases.
2.1.4.2 Respiratory Diseases Brought by Air Pollution
Other than affecting mortality rate, air pollution could also cause viral
respiratory infections (Ciencewicki & Jaspers, 2007; Rich, 2017). These could be
a major cause for chronic lung diseases such as asthma and lung cancer. The
symptoms for viral respiratory infections include allergic inflammation or airflow
obstruction (Ciencewicki & Jaspers, 2007). According to the study of Le Boennec
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and Salladarré (2017), people can still be affected by air pollution even though the
levels of pollution comply with the standards of the current WHO’s guidelines. In
the article released by WHO (2016), 94% of the total deaths worldwide are caused
by non-communicable diseases, in which two of them are related to air pollution
(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer). It was also said in the
article that air pollution increases the risk for acute respiratory diseases. Other
respiratory diseases brought by these pollutants are upper respiratory infections
(URIs) and the lower respiratory infections (LRIs). Upper respiratory infections
are mostly caused by viruses. Examples of URIs are flu, epiglottitis, and common
cold. Some of its symptoms are sneezing, coughing, sore throat, runny nose, and
fever. Lower respiratory infections are also usually caused by viruses. Some of
LRIs are bronchitis, pneumonia, and bronchiolitis. Its usual symptoms are fever,
chest pain, and cough. Respiratory allergies and infections cause inconvenience to
students and regular salarymen (Ciencewicki & Jaspers, 2007).
2.1.5 Reduction efforts for air pollution
2.1.5.1 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
Air pollution has been a major problem, not only in the Philippines but in
the whole world. According to an article by Yahoo Finance (n.d.), Saudi Arabia
ranks as the most polluted country in the world, followed by Qatar, Egypt,
Bangladesh, and Kuwait, respectively. This ranking is based on the concentration
of fine particulate matter in the air which causes pollution. It has a major effect on
people's health, for it may trigger asthma and other respiratory diseases. That is
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why various programs and activities are done to minimize air pollution and
alleviate its effects on human's health. Some of these activities are the 3Rs of
sustainability, composting, and the use of air filters.
The 3Rs of sustainability stand for Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. It is
widely exhibited in most countries, which promotes the proper way to manage
solid wastes. In the country, Republic Act 9003 promotes solid waste
management. The first R, Reduce, aims to lessen the use of solid wastes. The
second R, Reuse, promotes the utilization and usage of things again instead of
buying a new one repeatedly. The third R is Recycle (The Philippine
Environmental Governance Program, & Department of Environment and Natural
Resources [DENR], 2003). Several organizations in the Philippines recycle to
reduce solid waste. An example of this is the Waste and Resources Management,
Inc. (WARM). According to their website, "WARM is an all -Filipino company
that provides waste management solutions for industries and communities. Its
avowed mission is to find and develop ways to convert wastes to useful resources
so that the volume of residuals is minimized, the environment is preserved, and
the clients are satisfied." (n.d.). They offer many services to save the environment,
one of which is waste recycling.
According to Missouri Department of Natural Resources, these three R's
of sustainability help cut down the amount of solid wastes, help conserve natural
resources, and even save land space and money. In urban areas, solid wastes are
being collected and dumped into a portion of land. These wastes that are not
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segregated, altogether decay and cause bad smell and emits viruses and particles
onto the air. This just shows that dumping garbage contributes to air pollution. On
the other hand, solid wastes are usually burned in rural areas. Burning is greatly
discouraged by different organization because it emits smoke which adds to air
pollution and may trigger asthma and also burning contributes to the depletion of
ozone layer. Through reducing, reusing, and recycling, the amount of solid waste
decreases. Less solid waste means less garbage in dump sites and less burning
which can also mean less air pollution.
2.1.5.2 Compost
Instead of burning, composting is a recommended way of disposing
biodegradable waste. According to Vera, Spalding, and Phipps (2014),
composting is a stabilization process that prepares raw, digested, or chemically
stabilized solids for use as soil conditioner. It is when biodegradable wastes are
dumped in a certain area where they decompose. Not only does this lessen the
amount of garbage, but it can also provide nutrients to the soil. Some benefits of
composting include the elimination of need for chemical fertilizers, higher yields
of agricultural crops, enhances water retention in soils, and it provides carbon
sequestration (United States Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.).
2.1.5.3 Air filters
Various designs for air filter have been invented to decrease the emission
of harmful particles into the air. There are commercially available air filters,
including that produced by Roelants, Boon, and Lhoest (1968) proven capable of
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reducing 99.996% of airborne actinophage, bacteriophage that infects other
bacteria of order. Huang (1994) also patented an invented air purifier which has a
high voltage discharging needle that is made of a very thin copper which can
produce large volume of ions considered tolerable for human beings. Green,
Leffel, and Roosen (2007) also invented an integrated filter screen and
hydrocarbon adsorber which is a device that filters compounds of hydrogen and
carbon.
In 2013, Jaggi patented an exhaust pipe air filter called CO2UBE.
CO2UBE filter has several compartments inside. These compartments contain
algae as a filtering component. These compartments keep it intact and prevent the
algae from being blown away by strong gas emission.
There are also various designs of air filters that specifically reduces NOx
concentrations. In 2016, Yang et al. experimented on the use of manganesecerium-nilbium-oxides (Mn-Ce-Nb-Ox) catalytic filter to decrease the
concentration of NOx in cement kiln. Cement industries contribute a large amount
of NOx that may pose health threats to people living near the sites. The filter was
able to strain 95.3% of the total NOx, at 200°C. Another research by Park, Lee,
and Rhee (2016), also reduced NOx emissions by using credentite (CuMnOx)
mineral catalysts in its filter. The device is a three-layer pleated filter, wherein the
first filter is a microporous foam layer that prevents penetration of dust particles.
The second layer was made of polytetrafluoroethylene (PSA) fiber layer to keep
the shape of the filter, and the third layer is a chemical-resistant glass fiber. These
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layers were held and supported by polymer resin to withstand hot temperature.
This filter successfully minimized NOx concentration with 90% of total NOx
being adsorbed.
2.1.5.4 Euro IV Standards
In 2016, The Department of Environmental and Natural Resources had
issued a stricter emission standard that requires vehicles to use cleaner fuel. The
DENR Administrative Order No. 2015-04 provides a more stringent emission
standard for carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and
particulate matter (PM) that needs to be met by new and in-use vehicles. In
comparison to the Euro II standards, which was previously implemented in the
Philippines, Euro IV standard requires 68 percent less particulate matter, 57
percent less nitrogen oxides, and 50 percent less carbon monoxide concentrations
in vehicle emissions (Ang, 2016; DENR, 2015).
2.1.6 Activated Carbon as a Purifier
2.1.6.1 Definition of Activated Carbon
Activated carbon is a product that can be derived from carbonaceous materials
such as graphite, charcoal, biomass, among others. It contains a highly porous
surface which is made up of micropores and high internal volume that can be
filled with impurities (Mochida et al., 2000). To attain this kind of structure, the
raw materials must first undergo through series of preparation to produce an
activated carbon. The study of Cecen (2014), stated that the precursor must first
be carbonized then activated until a desired structure of activated carbon is
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produced. Carbonization is the process of combusting a material in a range of
400oC – 600oC without the presence of oxygen. This process aims to get rid of the
large amount of non-carbon impurities such hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen which are
converted to gaseous products to get a high concentration of carbon. The next step
is the activation of the carbonized material. A study from Ioannidou and
Zabaniotou (2007), stated that there are two types of activation process by thermal
or chemical activation. Thermal activation exposes the material to a temperature
of 500℃ - 1000℃ with the presence of H20, air and CO2 to produce a reaction
and develop a porous structure. Whereas chemical activation impregnates the
material with a chemical substance such as phosphoric acid and zinc chloride and
subjected to temperatures ranging from 400℃ - 800℃ to produce an activated
carbon. In the study of Ma, Zhang, Zhu, Yu, and Liu (2014), the activation
process was done in a furnace. First, a mixture of 120 g of phenol, 9.6 g of H3PO4
and 20 g of wood was heated in oil at 160oC for 150 min. The acquired mixture
was held for 5 min. after heating at 130 oC for 40 min. The mixture was placed in
a machine to obtain the residue. The filaments were distilled and washed with
water and was dried for 45 min. to get the fiber samples. The activation was done
in a furnace, thereby subjecting the fibers at 800 oC for 40 min. while letting
steam flow inside. It was then collected from the furnace and was let to cool down
to room temperature. The result showed that the activation process increased the
mesoporous structure of the wood activated carbon. It successfully adsorbed
methylene blue when it was put in a solution.
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Because of the porous surface and elemental composition of the activated carbon,
adsorption process works which in turn causes liquid or gas molecules to be
trapped in the activated carbon. This can occur in two methods. The first one is
through physical adsorption wherein Van der Waals force occurs between the
molecules of activated carbon and the molecule to be adsorbed. While the other
method is the chemical adsorption in which adsorbates (adsorbed materials)
makes a chemical reaction with the activated carbon (Xiao et al., 2015).
2.1.6.2 Structure of Activated Carbon
Activated Carbons are produced from raw materials that contains high
concentration of carbon (Prahas, Kartika, Indraswati, & Ismadji, 2008). Its
chemical structure is almost the same as that of a graphite, containing fused
hexagonal layers held by carbon-carbon bonds (DESOTEC Activated Carbon,
2014). Its physical structure is made up of graphene layers held by Van der Waals
force that is responsible for its function to adsorb or trap molecules of liquid or
gas (Bandosz, & Ania, 2006). Other reasons why it is an excellent adsorbent is
because of its high internal surface area of 1500 m2/g, large adsorption capacities
and micropore volume (DESOTEC Activated Carbon, 2014).
It has an indeterminate surface that contains a vast range of pore sizes. According
to DESOTEC Activated Carbon (2014), the pores within the activated carbons are
mostly responsible for the adsorption process and can be characterized in two
forms namely, adsorption pores and transmitter pores. Adsorption pores has a
molecular size of 1 to 5 nanometers. Its function is to trap impurities within its
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hole depending on its maximum volume. Meanwhile the transport pores contain
more than 5 molecular diameters that lead to other holes. Its size is not sufficient
to trap molecules so that is why it just serves as an opening for other adsorption
pores. These pores support the property of activated carbon to adsorb liquid or gas
molecules.
2.1.6.3. Sources of Activated Carbon
There can be different types of precursors for activated carbons but a high carbon
content is common among these raw materials. A study conducted by Khanday,
Marrakchi, Asif and Hameed (2016), focused on the use of oil palm ash from
burned oil palm shell as a raw material for activated carbon. According to the
study, in order to create an activated carbon output, the oil palm ash must be
activated using Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) and had to undergo hydrothermal
treatment. After the activation process, a carbon composite was produced with
high surface area known as an activated carbon. The acquired result indicates that
the produced activated carbon was successful in adsorbing methylene blue from
the study. In the study of Zhong, Zhang, Ji, Norris and Pan (2015), coal pitch
from a coal tar processing plant, activation temperature of 800°C and KOH
mixing ratio of 1:4 were used for the activation process. The study used the
synthesized activated carbon for the removal of mercury. The results showed a
significant increase in the adsorption of mercury. A study of Medeiros et al.
(2016), measured the performance of activated carbon in removing silver from a
liquid solution. This said study used a coconut shell as a precursor and also have
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undergone activation process to get the desired activated carbon. All of the
mentioned studies used different raw materials as a precursor and used various
activation process to have a desired activated carbon. They concluded that the
coconut shell activated carbon is an effective adsorbent for silver ions in an
aqueous solution.
2.1.6.4. Charcoal as an alternative source for activated carbon
2.1.6.4.1. Amount of activated carbon in charcoal
According to Peng, Ge, Liu and Furuta (2016), bamboo charcoal has shown
properties that can adsorb harmful substances. Five chemicals tested have been
adsorbed by charcoal. Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) was
done to determine the optimal adsorption condition and intrinsic change of
bamboo charcoal. FT-IR spectra proved that bamboo charcoal had fivecharacteristic peaks of S—S stretch, H2O stretch, O—H stretch, C=O stretch or
C=C stretch, and NO2 stretch at 3850 cm_1, 3740 cm_1, 3430 cm_1, 1630 cm_1 and
1530 cm_1. The peaks at 3850 cm_1, 3740 cm_1, 3430 cm_1, 1630 cm_1 and 1530
cm_1 achieved the maximum at 20 min for Na2SO3 while for Na2S2O8, peaks at
3850 cm_1, 3740 cm_1, 3430 cm_1 and 1530 cm_1 achieved the topmost at 40 min.
At 120 mins, utmost was attained by the peaks of 3850 cm_1, 3740 cm_1, 1630
cm_1 and 1530 cm_1 for Fe2(SO4)3. For S, peaks at 3850 cm_1 and 3740 cm_1
reached the greatest at 40 min, the peaks at 1630 cm_1 and 1530 cm_1 came at
maximum at 40 min. It shows that bamboo charcoal is able to remove sulfur
powder from air to prevent sulfur allergies.
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High adsorption capacity was also found in white charcoal in which the
gases of ethylene, hydrogen and acetic acid vapour have been adsorbed. (Chia et
al., 2014). In the study of Mochida et al. (2000), a reaction occurred between the
surface of activated carbon and NH3. There was a contribution of the gas phase of
NH3 for the adsorption process. NOx was assumed to be adsorbed on the site
which is formed by the decomposition of functional groups on the carbon surface.
Reduction of NOx was seemed to be governed by the adsorbed NH3. The
adsorption of NOx by the activated carbon stops until its saturation over the
surface. Based on the results, the removal of NOx through the impregnation of
NH3 in activated carbon was successful.
In a study by Ma et al. (2017), powder activated charcoal supported with
Titanate nanotubes (TNTs) were incorporated with the use of a one-step
hydrothermal method. It was also tested for adsorption of Pb (II) within high
concentrations of natural organic matter (NOM). The performance on adsorption
together with high NOM-resistance makes TNTs a favorable nanomaterial for
remediation of contaminated waters with heavy metals.
2.2. Research Questions
This study aims to determine if activated carbon (charcoal) would be
effective as the main component in the air filter to reduce nitrogen oxide (NOx)
particles in vehicle emissions.
Specifically, the following will be answered:
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1.
Is there a significant difference between the amount of NOx in the output
gas produced by the experimental and control set ups?
2.
Does the output gas from the activated carbon exhaust pipe air filter meet
the standard of DENR when it comes to NOx concentrations?
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
The following methods were adapted from the study of Mochida et al.
(2000) on the use of activated carbon as an adsorbent for the removal of Nitrogen
Oxides (NOx). Also, the methods from the study from Ma, Zhang, Chu, Yu and
Liu (2014) was also adapted for the preparation and activation of the activated
carbons and the preparation of the powdered activated carbon.
The researchers made a modified version of commercial algae exhaust
pipe air filter created by Jaggi (2013) with the use of activated carbon instead of
algae. Emission Analyzer Device was the instrument used for measuring the NOx
content of the vehicle air emissions and results were compared to the control
group and DENR standard parameters.
3.1 Research Design: Experimental
Experimental research was used to find the causal effect of the dependent
variable on the independent variable. This study made use of activated carbons as
the independent variable. On the other hand, the amounts of NOx absorbed was
the dependent variable of the study. There were two set-ups for the study, the
experimental group and control group. The experimental group contains the
exhaust pipe air filter with activated carbon, while the control group only has a
filter without the activated carbon. This research design allowed the researchers to
compare whether amount of NOx emitted in the output gas from the filter is
significantly lower than the control group. And also, to compare whether the
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UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
amount of NOx emitted with the output gas from filters is within the DENR
emission standards.
3.2 Preparation and Activation of Charcoal
The researchers collected the powdered charcoal from DKL Laboratory
Supplies located at España, Manila. The charcoal weighing 3 kg was brought to
Phil-Japan Industrial & Manufacturing Corporation at Caloocan City for the
activation process. The pulverized charcoal served as a raw material in the
production of activated carbon.
First, the charcoal underwent the process of crushing and grinding to get a
powdered form of the charcoal. Then the charcoal was subjected to 500oC in a
fluidized bed reactor within an hour for the carbonization process. Consequently,
the heating process resulted into a higher carbon content and decreased number of
other substance that blocks the pores of the charcoal. The obtained residue was
repeatedly washed with distilled water with a pH of 7. The residues were dried in
a temperature of 100oC for 30 minutes. Residues from the carbonization process
were heated in temperature ranging from 800oC and 1000oC for about 40 minutes
in a tubular furnace. Two activating agents, namely carbon dioxide and steam
were used in the activation process.
24
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
3.3 Application of Activated Carbon in Exhaust Pipe Filter
Figure 1. Sketch for the exhaust pipe air filter system
101 – 102 – Activated Carbon
105 – Gases
103 – Opening Port
106 - Cartridge
104 – Exiting port
The figure above shows the design of the exhaust pipe filter with
activated carbon. The exhaust pipe air filter was welded and customized in order
to put the activated carbon inside the filter. The smoke from the exhaust pipe
entered the opening port and passed through the cartridges. The eight sets of
cartridges near the opening of the exhaust pipe contained the activated carbons.
These cartridges were only permeable to gas. The gases entered through one end
of the exhaust pipe filter and exited through the other end.
Afterwards, the researchers conducted an emission test using this design
of exhaust pipe filter to determine the difference in NOx concentrations of the
control and experimental set-ups, and to compare the NOx concentration of the
output gas with the DENR standards for vehicle emissions.
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UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
3.4
Determination of Amount of Nitrogen Oxides
Emission testing was done to determine amount of NOx concentrations in
the output gas of the set-ups. The machine used was the Automotive Emission
Analyzer FGA-4100. The exhaust pipe air filter with activated carbon was
attached to the tailpipe of a vehicle. A metal probe was inserted inside the exhaust
pipe to capture the stream of emission coming out from the vehicle. The output
gas flowed through the metal probe and was transmitted to the analyzer. The
resulting data from the machine was then analyzed to determine if there was a
significant difference between the NOx concentrations and if the NOx
concentration complies to the DENR standards.
3.5
Data Analysis
T-test will be used to determine the significant difference (p<0.05) in the
amount of emitted NOx filter of the experimental and control set-ups. The result
will also be compared to that of the given primary parameter of the DENR in
vehicle emissions (DENR, 2015). The Euro 4/IV limitation stated that NOx
concentrations for vehicle emissions should not exceed 0.08 g/km.
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UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents the data that has been gathered in order to know if
there is a significant difference between the nitrogen oxide (NOx) concentrations
of the experimental and control set-ups, and for the comparison of NOx
concentrations to the DENR standards for vehicle emissions.
Table 1. Statistical data derived from the acquired raw data of two setups.
Mean
Amount of
NOx detected
(ppm)
Standard
deviation
Standard
Error of the
Mean
Control
6
3
1.15
With Activated
Carbon Filter
0
0
0
Significance
(p<0.05)
0.0065
In Table 1, the amounts of nitrogen oxides (NOx) of the control and
experimental set-ups were compared to each other. The average amount of NOx
detected in the control setup, is 6 parts per million (ppm). On the other hand, the
average amount of NOx detected in the experimental setup is 0 ppm.
Based from the results above, the activated carbon component of the filter
effectively minimized most of the NOx present in the emitted smoke of the
vehicle. This may be caused by the adsorptive property of activated carbons is
made possible through the pore distribution along its surface and its high capacity
to store large numbers of particles. According to Xiao et al. (2015), high porosity
surface of activated carbons enables small particles to be entrapped within the
27
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
material. The efficiency of activated carbons to adsorb such small particles, like
NOx, is mainly based from its internal structure and total volume capacity.
Table 2. Concentration of NOx from the experimental set-up compared to the DENR standards
Primary Parameter
Class A
Product Gas
Verdict
NOx (g/km)
0.08
0
Accepted
In Table 2, the standard value for emission of vehicles was compared to
the gathered experimental data. The given standard value came from the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Administrative
Order No. 2015-04 which implements the Euro 4/IV limitations for vehicle
emissions. The Euro IV standards stated that vehicles emissions should not
exceed 0.08 g/km when it comes to NOx emissions. It can be seen that the
experimental value satisfies the given value for the parameter because it did not
exceed the given limit.
The experimental set up produced this value because the activated carbon
filter effectively minimized NOx particles from the emission. It is the efficient
adsorption property of activated carbons that improves the ability of exhaust pipe
air filters to minimize harmful particles that may come. This may be the reason
why the total NOx particles of the product gas are significantly lower than the
control (Xiao et al., 2015).
The activated carbon exhaust pipe air filter exhibited a NOx filtering
effect of 100%. In comparison to previous studies, the filter with activated carbon
28
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
has a much higher minimizing effect in terms of NOx emissions. This shows that
the air filter with activated carbon is much better than the filter created by Yang et
al. (2017) which only reduced only 95.3% of NOx concentration, and Park, Lee,
& Rhee (2009) which only reduced 90%.
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UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study investigated the use of activated carbon in filtering nitrogen
oxide (NOx) concentrations in vehicle emissions. Primary data were gathered by
conducting an emission test of the output gas of the vehicle with activated carbon
air filter. The activated carbon air filter was attached at the end of the exhaust pipe
while the output gas was analyzed by the emission analyzing device. The resulting
data shows that the activated carbon air filter minimized the NOx concentration
from 6ppm to 0ppm, and the NOx concentration of the output gas is less than the
given standard of the DENR. The probable mechanism of action that caused the
reduction of NOx particles was adsorption. The adsorptive property of activated
carbons traps small particles, like NOx, within its material that may cause the
reduction of NOx particles. Statistical analysis also showed that the experimental
and control group’s values were significantly different from each other.
The results of the study showed that activated carbon was able to filter NOx
particles in vehicle emissions
Based on the findings and conclusion of the study, here are several
recommendations to be considered for future research:
1. Incorporate other materials such as algae or mussel shells in the filter
and test if it is better that using activated carbon alone.
2. Test the adsorptive property of activated carbon by assessing its pore
size and contents before and after it was used in vehicle emissions.
3. Test if activated carbon is capable of minimizing other small particles
such as sulfur oxides.
4. Use other types of activated carbon.
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UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
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Appendix I
Application of Activated Carbon in the Filter
Figure 1. Customized Air Filter with Activated Carbon
Figure 2. Activated Carbon Used in the Experimentation
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UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Appendix II
Emission Testing
Figure 1. Emission Testing for Control Set-up
Figure 2. Emission Testing for Experimental Set-up
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UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Appendix III
Results
Figure 1. NOx Reading for Experimental Set-up
Figure 2. NOx Reading for Control Set-up
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CURRICULUM VITAE
1x1 PICTURE
WILFED A. CHAN
WH Auto Supply Perez Blvd., Dagupan City, Pangasinan •
+63 9225393050 • wilfed_chan@yahoo.com
Education:
Education:
Senior High School: University of Santo Tomas (2016- present)
Junior High School: Pangasinan Universal Institute (2012-2016)
Grade School: Ednas School – Dagupan (2006-2012)
Kindergarten: Pangasinan Universal Institute (2005-2007)
Awards and Distinctions:
Science Club President (2015-2016)
Padunungan 2015 Champion Mixed Category (2014-2015)
Padunungan 2015 Interschool competition (2014-2015)
Science Club Treasurer (2013-2015)
Science Club PRO (2012-2013)
Memberships:
YES-O member (2012-2016)
Robotics Club member (2015-2016)
Mathematics club member (2012-2013)
40
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
CURRICULUM VITAE
1x1 PICTURE
HANNAH ANGELICA A. GUESE
Blk 53 L20 Villa Palao Banlic, Calamba,
Laguna • +63 915 532 2984 •
gueseangelicah@gmail.com
Education:
Senior High School: University of Santo Tomas (2016 – present)
Junior High School: Colegio de San Juan de Letran - Calamba (2012 –
2016)
Grade School: Canossa Academy (2006 – 2012)
Kindergarten: Olaso Learning Center (2004 – 2006)
Awards and Distinctions:
International Robotics Olympiad Champion (2012-2016)
41
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
CURRICULUM VITAE
JAHROM A. JACINTO
Unit 503, Parkway Residences, Asturias St., Dapitan,
Sampaloc, Manila • +639215487000 •
jacinto.andy90@gmail.com
Education:
Senior High School: University of Santo Tomas (2016 – present)
Junior High School: Village Montessori School (2012 – 2016)
Grade School: Village Montessori School (2006 – 2012)
Kindergarten: Village Montessori School (2004 – 2006)
42
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
CURRICULUM VITAE
1x1 PICTURE
RONMARK O. MALLARI
045 Santa Monica, Santa Rita, Pampanga • +63 917 655
Education: 0731 • mallarironmark@gmail.com
Education:
Senior High School: University of Santo Tomas (2016- present)
Junior High School: Dominican School Santa Rita (2012- 2016)
Grade School: Dominican School Santa Rita (2006-2012)
Kindergarten: Dominican School Santa Rita (2004-2006)
Awards and Distinctions:
Batch Valedictorian (2015-2016)
Gawad Parangal Award (Municipality of Santa Rita) (2016)
Grade 10 Student Coordinating Council (SCC) President (2015-2016)
Mathematics Club President (2015-2016)
Memberships:
Dominican Torch Journalist (2012-2016)
43
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
CURRICULUM VITAE
1x1 PICTURE
BIANCA JASMIN T. MANZANO
618E, Montaña, Sampaloc, Manila • +09263448198
Education:• biancajasminmazano@yahoo.com.ph
Education:
Senior High School: University of Santo Tomas (2016-present)
Junior High School: Barahan National High School (2012-2016)
Grade School: Barahan Elementary School (2006-2012)
Kindergarten: Barahan Day Care Center (2005-2006)
44