UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
COLLEGE OF BIOLOGICAL AND
PHYSICAL SCIENCES
SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT CHEMISTRY
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ANALYTICAL,
ENVIRONMENTAL AND INDUSTRIAL
CHEMISTRY
DMS 502: RESEARCH METHODS
SCH 506: RESEARCH METHODS IN CHEMISTRY
(analytical)
Epistemology: Science and the history of knowledge.
Types of research. Report writing procedures.
Technical and Scientific writing for research papers
and scientific journals; presentation at seminars and
workshops. Modeling and simulation. Proposal
writing. Problem statement and Hypothesis testing.
Research method selection, method validation,
accuracy and precision, factors affecting precision,
optimization of procedures, collaborative studies, use
of non-routine methods, method attributes and
method performance, ruggedness of testing methods,
uncertainty, method control, role of analysis and
factors affecting analytical results.
SCH 506: RESEARCH METHODS (Industrial)
Epistemology: Science and the history of knowledge.
Research method selection, Sampling, method validation,
accuracy and precision, factors affecting precision,
optimization of procedures, collaborative studies, use of
non-routine methods, method attributes and method
performance, ruggedness of testing methods,
uncertainty, method control, role of analysis and factors
affecting analytical results. Proposal writing. Report
writing procedures. Writing papers for scientific journals;
oral presentation of research findings.
Review of statistical methods of data analysis and
presentation; Techniques for sourcing chemical
Information. Introduction to modeling and simulation
INTRODUCTION
We are living in a very competitive environment.
Organizations need to undertake research in order to
solve their problems.
Research is an often-misused term, whose usage in
everyday language can be very different from the
strict scientific meaning. There are many ways in
which research has been defined but they all refer to
the same thing.
Research methodology refers to the overall approach
to the research process. It deals with the theoretical
background of the research to the collection and
analysis of data.
On
the
other
hand,
research
method
refers to the means of data
collection and analysis.
Methodology concerns with the issues of
why certain data is collected, what type of
data to be collected, from where the data
is collected, when do you collect the data,
how do you collect the data and how do
you perform analysis of the data.
WHAT IS RESEARCH????
The word research is derived from the Middle French
"recherche", which means "to go about seeking", the
term itself being derived from the Old French term
"recerchier" a compound word from
"re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search‘.
The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.
Research has been defined in a number of different ways
(Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/research).
A broad definition of research is given by Shuttleworth
and Martyn (2008)- "In the broadest sense of the word,
the definition of research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of knowledge
Another definition of research is given by Creswell who
states - "Research is a process of steps used to collect and
analyze information to increase our understanding of a
topic or issue".
It consists of three steps: (i) Pose a question, (ii) collect
data to answer the question, and (iii) present an answer
to the question (Creswell, 2008).
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research
in more detail as "a studious inquiry or examination;
especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted
theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical
application of such new or revised theories or laws“
(Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/research).
Introduction to research
Meaning of research
Research is a dynamic process of arriving at effective
solutions to problems (Mugenda and Mugenda,
2003).
The solutions are arrived at through the systematic
collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
Research and experimental development is formal
work undertaken systematically to increase the stock
of knowledge, including knowledge of humanity,
culture and society, and the use of this stock of
knowledge to devise new applications .
The main goal of research is the gathering and
interpreting of information to answer questions
(Hyllegard, et al., 1996).
It is used to:
establish or confirm facts
reaffirm the results of previous work
solve new or existing problems
support theorems, or develop new theories.
Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers
to questions (Tuckman, 1999).
Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a
systematic method of inquiry (Drew, et al., 1996).
Research may be defined as the systematic and
objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of
generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in
prediction and possible control of events (Best and
Kahn, 1998).
It can simply be defined as a voyage of discovery and
a formal adherence to well defined systems in order
to contribute to knowledge by either discovering new
facts or collecting old ones (Kothari, 1985).
Research is the systematic process of collecting and
analysing information (data) in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon with which we are
concerned or interested.
Research involves three main stages:
(i) planning ; (ii) data collection; (iii) Analysis.
According to Kerlinger (1973), research is a systematic,
controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations
among natural phenomena.
In summary, research is a process of systematically
obtaining accurate answers to significant and persistent
problems by use of scientific methods for gathering and
interpreting data. It is a search for knowledge (KIM,
2009).
Management and business practice form a distinctive
focus on research because of the way managers (and
researchers) draw on knowledge developed by other
disciplines; the fact that managers tend to be busy people
and are not likely to allow researchers access unless they
can see personal commercial advantage and the
requirement for the research to have some practical
consequences of the findings (Saunders, et al., 2000).
Epistemology
The term epistemology comes from the Greek word
epistêmê, their term for knowledge. In simple terms,
epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge or of how we
come to know.
Methodology is also concerned with how we come to know,
but is much more practical in nature. Methodology is
focused on the specific ways -- the methods -- that we can
use to try to understand our world better.
Epistemology and methodology are intimately related:
epistemology involves the philosophy of how we come to
know the world and methodology involves the practice.
.
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental
problems, such as those connected with reality, existence,
knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing
such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach
and its reliance on rational argument.
The word "philosophy" comes from the Greek φιλοσοφία
(philosophia), which literally means "love of wisdom.
In more casual speech the "philosophy" of a particular
person can refer to the beliefs held by that person.
The main areas of study in philosophy today include
metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and
aesthetics.
14
Philosophy of Research
You probably think of research as
something very abstract and complicated.
It can be, but if you understand the
different parts or phases of a research
project and how these fit together, it's not
nearly as complicated as it may seem at
first glance.
A research project has a well-known
structure
a beginning
middle and
end.
15
Before the modern idea of research emerged,
philosophers used to call research ‘logical reasoning’.
So, it should come as no surprise that some of the
basic distinctions in logic have carried over into
contemporary research.
In Systems of Logic there are two major logical
systems, the inductive and deductive methods of
reasoning, which are related to modern research.
The two methods are discussed in the next slide.
All research is based on assumptions about how the
world is perceived and how we can best come to
understand it.
16
Deduction & Induction
In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods
of reasoning as the deductive and inductive
approaches
Deductive reasoning works from the more
general to the more specific.
Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down"
approach.
We might begin with thinking up a theory about
our topic of interest.
We then narrow that down into more specific
hypotheses that we can test.
We narrow down even further when we collect
observations to address the hypotheses.
17
This ultimately leads us to be able to test
the hypotheses with specific data -- a
confirmation (or not) of our original
theories.
Deductive reasoning
Theory
Hypothesis
Observation
Confirmation
18
Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving
from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories.
Informally, we sometimes say this a "bottom up"
approach (please note that it's "bottom up" and
not "bottoms up" which is the kind of thing the
bartender says to customers when he's trying to
close for the night!).
In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific
observations and measures, begin to detect
patterns and regularities, formulate some
tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and
finally end up developing some general
conclusions or theories.
19
Inductive reasoning
Theory
Tentative
Hypothesis
Pattern
Observation
These two methods of reasoning have a very different "feel"
to them when you're conducting research.
Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open-ended
and exploratory, especially at the beginning.
Deductive reasoning is more narrow in nature and is
concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses.
20
Even though a particular study may look like it's purely deductive
(e.g., an experiment designed to test the hypothesized effects of
some treatment on some outcome), most social research
involves both inductive and deductive reasoning processes at
some time in the project. In fact, it doesn't take a rocket scientist
to see that we could assemble the two graphs above into a
single circular one that continually cycles from theories down to
observations and back up again to theories
Even in the most constrained experiment, the researchers may
observe patterns in the data that lead them to develop new
theories. Deductive reasoning can organize knowledge and
deduce new relationships but is not sufficient as a source of new
knowledge. Inductive reasoning fails to use prior knowledge, and
is therefore inefficient.
Both deduction and induction are necessary.
21
Of course, nobody really knows how we can best
understand the world, and philosophers have been
arguing about that very question for at least two
millennia now, so all we can do is look at how most
contemporary social scientists approach the question
of how we know about the world around us.
Quality is one of the most important issues in
research.
We introduce the idea of validity to refer to the
quality of various conclusions you might reach based
on a research project.
Validity is not just something abstract and
philosophical (though it is at some level).
You should understand validity as part of the
principles that we use to judge the quality of
research.
Research is founded on some philosophical paradigms
or underpinnings.
A paradigm is a way of looking at the world.
It is composed of certain philosophical assumptions
that guide and direct thinking and action.
One of the paradigms that has guided much of the
research particularly in psychology and education is
Positivism which contends that only “factual”
knowledge from observation (the senses) is
trustworthy. It stresses measurement.
Logical positivism expands this to include reasoning
and theory as valid means to achieve reliable
knowledge.
Logical positivists do not believe in the scientific validity
of prescriptive or descriptive knowledge about values.
Only things which can be directly observed or measured
are considered by positivists as valid for scientific
attention.
The scientific method (or simply scientific method) is a
body of techniques for investigating phenomena,
acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating
previous knowledge.
Research and Science
Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a
systematic enterprise that builds and organizes
knowledge in the form of testable explanations and
predictions about the universe.
It can also be defined as a body of reliable knowledge and
that can be explained logically or rationally.
It is divided into two major groups:
natural sciences which is the study of natural phenomena
social sciences which is the study of human behavior.
Disciplines such as computer science, Engineering and
health sciences have been categorised under Applied
sciences.
Natural sciences include: Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry,
earth sciences, physics
Bahavioral sciences: Anthropology, Psychology, Social
psychology, Sociobiology
Research: any gathering of data, information
and facts for the advancement of knowledge
Science: body of reliable knowledge which can
be logically or rationally explained
In all senses you can see that, the two are
interrelated.
We cannot talk about science and fail to
mention research and vice versa.
For a clear perception of research, one should
know the meaning of scientific method.
The two terms, research and scientific method
are closely related as we have already seen.
As already seen, research can be termed as:
an inquiry into the nature of
the reasons for and
the consequences of
any particular set circumstances, whether these
circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur.
Further, research implies that the researcher is
interested in more than particular results;
He/she is interested in the repeatability of the results
and in the extension to more complicated and general
situations
The philosophy common to all research methods and
techniques, although they may vary considerably
from one science to another, is usually given the
name scientific method.
In this context, the scientific method is one and the
same in the branches (of science) and that method is
the method of all logically trained minds.
Science is about methods and not materials.
A man of science is one who:classifies facts of any kind
sees the mutual relations in the facts and
describes their sequence
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as
determined by logical considerations
The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic
interrelation of facts.
Scientific method attempts to achieve this
ideal by:
(i) Experimentation
(ii) Observation
(iii) logical arguments from accepted
postulates
(iv) combination of (i), (ii), (iii), in varying
proportions.
Following are basic postulates on which
scientific method is based.
It relies on empirical evidence
It utilizes relevant concepts
It is committed to only objective
considerations
It presupposes ethical neutrality
It results into probabilistic predictions
Its methodology is made known to all
concerned for critical scrutiny
It aims at formulating most general axioms
or what can be termed as scientific
theories
To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be
based on empirical and measurable evidence subject to
specific principles of reasoning.
The Oxford English Dictionary says that the scientific
method is: "a method or procedure that has
characterized natural science since the 17th century,
consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and
experiment, and the formulation, testing, and
modification of hypotheses.”
The chief characteristic which distinguishes the scientific
method from other methods of acquiring knowledge is
that scientists seek to let reality speak for itself,
supporting a theory when a theory's predictions are
confirmed and challenging a theory when its predictions
prove false.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Methodology - the study of the methods involved in
some field, endeavor, or in problem solving
Method - a (systematic ?) codified series of steps
taken to complete a certain task or to reach a certain
objective
Methodology refers to more than a simple set of
methods it refers to the rationale and the
philosophical assumptions that underlie a particular
study.
The “scientific method” attempts to minimize the influence of
the researchers' bias on the outcome of an experiment. The
researcher may have a preference for one outcome or
another, and it is important that this preference not bias the
results or their interpretation.
Sometimes "common sense" and "logic" tempt us into
believing that no test is needed. Another common mistake is
to ignore or rule out data which do not support the
hypothesis. But there is no single, universal formal “scientific
method”.
There are several variants and each researcher needs to
tune the process to the nature of the problem and his / her
working methods.
Phases in research methodology
Research question / Problem
• What are you interested in?
• What do you have to know about it?
Background / Observation
• Make observations & gather background
• information about the problem.
Formulate hypothesis
• An educated guess …
• It shall be possible to measure / test it.
• It should help answer the original question.
Design experiment
• How will you test your hypothesis?
• What tests will answer your question?
Test hypothesis / Collect data
• Test your hypothesis by executing your
• experiments. Collect data from them.
Interpret / Analyze results
• What do your results tell you?
• Do they prove or disprove the hypothesis?
• ... It is OK to be wrong.
Publish findings
• Write papers for conferences & journals.
• Write dissertation.
In practice, the scientific method should
Modify hypothesis
Observe
natural
phenomena
Formulate
hypothesis
Test hypothesis
via rigorous
experiment
Establish theory
based on repeated
validation of results
But what people actually do
Make up a
theory based
on what the
funding
agency
manager
wants to be
true
Modify Modify
Theory to fit data
Design
minimum
experiments
that will
show/prove
/suggest Theory
is true
Publish paper:
rename theory a
hypothesis and
pretend you used
scientific method
Defend Theory
despite all evidence
to be contrary
Errors of experts who did not follow
the Scientific Method
"Computers in the future may weigh no more than 1.5 tons."
Popular Mechanics, forecasting the relentless march of science, 1949
"I think there is a world market for maybe five computers."
Thomas Watson, chairman of IBM, 1943
©L. M. Camarinha-Matos, 2009-2012
13
"Airplanes are interesting toys but of no military value."
Marechal Ferdinand Foch, Professor of Strategy, Ecole Superieure de
Guerre.
"Louis Pasteur's theory of germs is ridiculous fiction".
Pierre Pachet, Professor of Physiology at Toulouse, 1872
"Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible.“
Lord Kelvin, president, Royal Society, 1895.
Functions of Research
Research corrects perceptions.
Research expands perceptions
Research gathers information on subjects or
phenomena we lack or have little knowledge
about.
Research develops and evaluates concepts,
practices and theories
Research develops methods that test
concepts, practices and theories
Research obtains knowledge for the practical
purposes like solving problems on population
expansion, drug addiction, juvenile
delinquency and the like.
IDENTIFY A RESEARCH PROBLEM
Search for a problem in your everyday life. Look
around you! Problems suitable for research exist
everywhere. You might see them in your professional
practice or personal life. Make a habit of asking
yourself questions about what you see and hear.
Why does such-and-such happen?
Read more about your field of studies.
You definitely have topics that interest you in your
chosen disciple, so look through professional journals
and magazines, textbooks and dissertations to find
out more about these topics.
This will give you a clear idea about what is already
known in your area of interest -- and what is still
unknown.
Reading also gives you theoretical base for your study
and gives you information about a variety of research
methods.
Check Your Papers For Plagiarism ("wrongful
appropriation," "close imitation," or "purloining and
publication" of another author's "language, thoughts,
ideas, or expressions," and the representation of
them as one's own original work)
Correct Grammar Errors
Take notes, or keep a research journal.
Write down ideas that spark a possible research topic,
such as an unexpected and contradictory finding of
previous studies, suggestions that other established
researches have given in the books for future research,
perspectives and interesting project types that can be
applied in new situations.
Seek professional advice.
New researchers should learn from established ones.
Attending professional conferences helps you make
contacts with specialists and also gives you an idea of
"what is hot" in the field.
Approach the experts, and let them know that you are
familiar with their work and you want to get some advice
from them. Consult with a valued professor, as well.
Think about what interests you.
Your topic needs to motivate you and capture the
attention of others.
Your research will likely take months or years of your
time and effort, so it has to be something you are
passionate about, that you feel strongly needs to be
shared with the public and that has possible practical
applications.
Schematic research process
[A] Questions/
problems
[E] Interpret
results & draw
conclusions
[D] Generate
research results
[B] Formulate
goals/ objectives
[C] Plan &
design research
47
The central scientific methodology (not a single
“scientific method”) has the following general steps:
1) Identify the problem/issue/question
2) Define research objectives
3) Develop approaches for achieving objectives
(including hypotheses of expected outcomes)
4) Conduct the analysis (testing the hypothesis)
5) Interpret the results and draw conclusions
These steps are common to all disciplines
48
Problem identification is affected by individual as well
as group perceptions – ie. what we perceive as a
problem.
Objectives, the identified set of specific goals, are
inherently normative, ie. related to our values and
perceptions
Both problem identification and objective
specification may have a pragmatic orientation.
Laboratory and field sciences tend to see their
research process as producing reliable data, devoting
attention to proper experimental design to generate
statistically valid numbers .
49
Social sciences see their process more in terms of
using data to understand relationships and to address
problems requiring decisions.
Physical and social science disciplines tend to differ in
the last step of interpreting the data. Economists
maintain that normative interpretation of data is
often necessary with complex social science research.
50
Theory of Knowledge
Epistemology, the study of the theory of
knowledge, is among the most important
areas of philosophy as seen earlier.
The questions that it addresses include:
(A)What is knowledge and (B) sources of
knowledge
(A) What is knowledge?
The first problem encountered in
epistemology is that of defining knowledge.
Much of the time, philosophers use the
tripartite theory of knowledge, which
analyses knowledge as justified true belief,
as a working model.
51
The tripartite theory has, however, been refuted: Gettier
cases show that some justified true beliefs do not constitute
knowledge.
As mentioned earlier, the tripartite theory of knowledge
analyses knowledge as justified true belief.
According to the Gettier cases analysis, if something is true,
and we believe it to be true, and we are justified in believing
it to be true, then we know it.
Gettier cases are cases in which the tripartite theory’s three
conditions for knowledge are satisfied, i.e. in which a person
does have a justified true belief, but in which there is no
knowledge. The existence of such cases shows that there is
something more to knowledge than justified true belief, and
so that the tripartite theory of knowledge is false.
52
Rival analyses of knowledge have been
proposed, but there is as yet no consensus
on what knowledge is.
This fundamental question of epistemology
remains unsolved.
Though philosophers are unable to provide a
generally accepted analysis of knowledge, we all
understand roughly what we are talking about when
we use words such as “knowledge”.
Thankfully, this means that it is possible to get on with
epistemology, leaving unsolved the fundamental
question as to what knowledge is.
53
(B) From where do we get our knowledge?
A second important issue in epistemology
concerns the ultimate source of our
knowledge.
There are two traditions: empiricism, which
holds that our knowledge is primarily based
in experience, and rationalism, which holds
that our knowledge is primarily based in
reason.
Although the modern scientific worldview
borrows heavily from empiricism, there are
reasons for thinking that a synthesis of the
two traditions is more plausible than either of
them individually.
54
(B) Sources of Knowledge
Each of us possesses a great deal of
knowledge.
We know about ourselves; we know about
the world around us; we know about
abstract concepts and ideas.
Philosophers have often wondered where
this knowledge ultimately comes from.
People use the word “know” all the time, but what
does it mean? Most of us feel that we have an
intuitive grasp of the concept, but providing a more
rigorous analysis of it is difficult.
55
Types of Knowledge
Philosophers typically divide knowledge
into three types:
personal knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and
propositional knowledge.
The primary concern of epistemology is
propositional knowledge, but contrasting
this with other types of knowledge can help
in clarifying precisely what it is that
epistemologists are discussing.
Personal Knowledge means knowledge by
acquaintance.
56
Personal knowledge does, arguably, involve
possessing at least some propositional
knowledge.
If I have met Amy, but can’t remember a
single thing about her, then I probably
wouldn’t claim to know her.
In fact, knowing a person (in the sense
required for knowledge by acquaintance)
does seem to involve knowing a significant
number of propositions about them.
Knowledge in this sense is to do with being
familiar with something:in order to know
Amy, one must have met her; in order to
know fear, one must have experienced it.
57
In each of these cases, the word “know” is
being use to refer to knowledge by
acquaintance.
What is important is that personal knowledge involves
more than knowledge of propositions.
No matter how much you tell me about Amy, no
matter how many facts about her I learn, if I haven’t
met her then I can’t be said to know her in the sense
required for personal knowledge.
Personal knowledge thus seems to involve coming to
know a certain number of propositions in a particular
way.
58
Procedural Knowledge
The second kind of knowledge is procedural
knowledge, or knowledge of how to do
something.
The claims to know how to juggle and how
to drive are claims to have procedural
knowledge.
Procedural knowledge clearly differs from
propositional knowledge.
It is possible to know all of the theory
behind driving a car (i.e. to have all of the
relevant propositional knowledge) without
actually knowing how to drive a car (i.e.
without having the procedural knowledge).
59
You may know which pedal is the
accelerator and which is the brake.
You may know where the handbrake is and
what it does.
You may know where your blind spots are
are when you need to check them.
But until you get behind the wheel and
learn how to apply all this theory, you do
not know how to drive.
Knowing how to drive involves possessing
a skill, being able to do something, which
is very different to merely knowing a
collection of facts.
60
Propositional Knowledge
Although there are several different types
of knowledge, the primary concern of
epistemology is propositional knowledge.
This is knowledge of facts, knowledge that
such and such is the case.
The difference between the three types of
knowledge is not as sharp as it might at
first appear.
Personal knowledge does seem to involve
knowledge of at least some propositions.
61
Simply having met someone is not enough to know them (in
the personal knowledge sense); you also have to know a
few things about them (in the propositional knowledge
sense).
Procedural knowledge also seems to involve some
propositional knowledge.
If you know how to drive a car (in the procedural knowledge
sense) then you presumably know certain facts about driving
(e.g. which way the car will go if you turn the steering wheel
to the left).
Whatever the connections between the various types of
knowledge there may be, however, it is propositional
knowledge that is in view in most epistemology.
62
For true beliefs to count as knowledge, it is necessary that
they originate in sources we have good reason to consider
reliable.
These are perception, introspection, memory, reason, and
testimony.
Perception
Our perceptual faculties are our five senses: sight, touch,
hearing, smelling, and tasting.
We must distinguish between an experience that can be
classified as perceiving that p (for example, seeing that
there is coffee in the cup and tasting that it is sweet), which
entails that p is true, and a perceptual experience in which it
seems to us as though p, but where p might be false.
63
Introspection is the capacity to inspect the, metaphorically
speaking, "inside" of one's mind. Through introspection, one
knows what mental states one is in: whether one is thirsty,
tired, excited, or depressed.
Memory is the capacity to retain knowledge acquired in the
past. What one remembers, though, need not be a past
event. It may be a present fact, such as one's telephone
number, or a future event, such as the date of the next
elections. Memory is, of course, fallible. Not every instance
of taking oneself to remember that p is an instance of
actually remembering that p. We should distinguish,
therefore, between remembering that p (which entails the
truth of p) and seeming to remember that p (which does not
entail the truth of p).
64
Reason: Some beliefs would appear to be justified
solely by the use of reason.
Justification of that kind is said to be a priori: prior
to any kind of experience
Testimony differs from the sources we considered
above because it isn't distinguished by having its own
cognitive faculty.
Rather, to acquire knowledge of p through testimony
is to come to know that p on the basis of someone's
saying that p.
65
Concepts and Constructs
Concepts are mental representations and are typically
based on experience
They can be of real phenomena (dogs, clouds, pain)
They can be of agreed-upon phenomena (truth,
beauty, justice, prejudice, value, etc.)
66
Three classes of things can be
measured
(1) Direct observables (height, weight,
color, etc.)
(2) Indirect observables (questionnaires
provide information on gender, age,
income, etc.)
(3) Constructs (theoretical creations that
are based on observations but which
cannot be seen either directly or
indirectly; things such as IQ, Leisure
Satisfaction, Environmental Values, etc.,
are constructs
67
The process of measurement (the process
of assigning numbers or labels to the
attributes of objects, persons, states, or
events in accordance with specific rules )
in Survey research begins by identifying
the concept of interest .
This is used to develop a construct.
The construct is used to create a
constitutive definition (A theoretical or
conceptual definition that defines the
concept in terms of other concepts and
constructs; like a dictionary definition).
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The constitutive definition helps the researcher to
develop an operational definition (one that defines
which observable characteristics will be measured
and the process for assigning a value to the concept)
An operational definition is a specific set of
instructions explaining how a variable is measured.
The definition must be sufficiently clear and specific
so that readers can understand how the variable was
measured and whether it was a good indicator of
what was being measured.
It should be so clear that other researchers, if they so
desire, can replicate the research.
The operational definition enables the researcher to
create a measurement scale.
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A measurement scale requires the
researcher to evaluate the reliability and
validity of the scale .
If the evaluation is satisfactory, the
researcher utilizes the scale which leads to
findings.
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