Sociology
THE 3 MAIN CLASSICAL
THEORIES
(DAVID MUHAMMAD)
Contents
i-Introduction
ii-Functionalism
iii-Marxism
iv-Neo-Marxism
v-Conflict and Critical Theory
vi-Interactionism
DAVID MUHAMMAD 2019
The Three Main Sociological Theories
From
a classical sociology point
of view the 3 main sociological
theories are
1) Functionalism
2) Marxism
3) Interactionism
The Three Main Sociological Theories
Generally
speaking
Functionalism and Marxism are
“Macro-Sociology” perspectives,
while Interactionism is “MicroSociology”
Categorization of Nine Key
Sociological Thinkers
1) Auguste Comte (1798-1957) - Functionalist
2) Karl Marx (1818-1883) - Marxist
3) Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) - Functionalist
4) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) - Functionalist
5) Georg Simmel (1858-1918) - Interactionist
6) George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) - Interactionist
7) Max Weber (1864-1920) – Micro Sociologist
8) Alfred Schultz (1899-1959) - Interactionist
9) Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) - Functionalist
What is Theory?

Jonathan H. Turner (2003) in “The Structure of
Sociological Theory” said “Theories are explanations
about how and why events in the universe occur.
Sociological theories are thus explanations about
how and why humans behave, interact, and organise
themselves.” He goes on to explain that “Theory is a
mental activity revolving around the process of
developing ideas that explain how and why events
occur.

Theory is constructed with several basic elements
or building blocks including concepts, variables
and statements or formats.” Theories are stated
more formally than ordinary language and they are
designed systematically to be tested. All scientific
fields develop theories.

These theories can be broadly categorised under
the themes of Macrosociology and Microsociology.
Functionalism
Key Ideas in Functionalism
 Society
as a system of interconnected
and interrelated parts
 All
societies are organised around either
organic or mechanical solidarity
 The
Four Functional prerequisites
 The
Five Pattern variables
Functionalism

Functionalism regards society as a system made up
of interconnected and interrelated parts. Each part
affects every other part in some way, and for the
system to survive they must have some degree of
compatibility. For example the economic system
produces a large number of goods where productivity
is a key goal. The educational system is partly
concerned with producing the skills and expertise
necessary to manufacture.
Functionalism (cont’d)

Functionalism must explain how social life is possible,
and how social order and stability can be maintained.
For this value consensus must be established.

Value consensus provides the foundation for
cooperation. Once learned, values must be
maintained, and those who deviate must be brought
back into line, hence we have mechanisms of social
control. An investigation into the source of value
consensus is a major concern.
Structural Functionalism

Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is
"a framework for building theory that sees society
as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability". This approach
looks at society from a ‘macro perspective, which
is a broad focus on the social structures that shape
society as a whole, and believes that society has
evolved like organisms.
Structural Functionalism (cont’d)

This approach looks at both social structure and social
functions. Functionalism addresses society as a whole
in terms of the function of its constituent elements;
namely norms, customs, traditions and institutions. For
Talcott Parsons, "structural-functionalism" came to
describe a particular stage in the methodological
development of social science, rather than a specific
school of thought.
Mechanical & Organic Solidarity
Emile Durkheim developed the concepts of
"mechanical solidarity" and "organic solidarity"
which he introduced as part of his theory of
the development of societies in The Division of
Labour in Society (1893). According to
Durkheim, the types of social solidarity
correlate with types of society, which are
mechanical and organic societies.
Mechanical Solidarity

In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its
cohesion and integration comes from the
homogeneity of individuals—people feel connected
through similar work, educational and religious
training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally
operates in "traditional" and small-scale societies. In
simpler societies (e.g., tribal), solidarity is usually
based on kinship ties of familial networks.
Organic Solidarity

Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that
arises from specialization of work and the
complementarities between people—a development which
occurs in modern and industrial societies. It is social
cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on
each other in more advanced societies. Although individuals
perform different tasks and often have different values and
interests, the order and very solidarity of society depends
on their reliance on each other to perform their specified
tasks.
 Thus,
social solidarity is maintained in
more complex societies through the
interdependence of its component
parts (e.g., farmers produce the food to
feed the factory workers who produce
the tractors that allow the farmer to
produce the food).
Functional Prerequisites
 Talcott
Parsons was probably the last of the
classical sociologists, he merged Durkheim's
systems theory and Weber's action theory, to
develop a "Voluntaristic Theory of Action." The
social system or society "is" a biological
system, as it has 4 major needs or "functional
prerequisites. So Parsons developed the idea of
Structural Functionalism in which there were 4
Functional Prerequisites:-
The AGIL Scheme
The scheme that Parsons used to analyze systems and
subsystems is called the AGIL Paradigm or the "AGIL
scheme." To survive or maintain equilibrium with
respect to its environment, any system must to some
degree adapt to that environment (adaptation), attain
its goals (goal attainment), integrate its components
(integration), and maintain its latent pattern (latency
pattern Maintenance), a sort of cultural template. The
concepts can be abbreviated as AGIL and are called
the system's functional imperatives.
The 4 Functional Prerequisites

I- Adaption; adjusting to its environment and adjust its
environment to its needs,

II- Goal Attainment involves the need for a system to define
and achieve its primary goals; a system must survive, grow
and expand.

III- Integration; regulating the interrelationship between
society’s component parts.

IV- Latency refers to the need for a system to furnish,
maintain and renew the motivation of individuals.
Pattern Variables

Talcott Parsons asserted that there are not two dimensions to societies:
instrumental and expressive but that there are qualitative differences
between kinds of social interaction.

He observed that people can have personalized and formally-detached
relationships, based on the roles that they play. The pattern variables are
what he called the characteristics that are associated with each kind of
interaction. An interaction can be characterized by one of the identifiers
of each contrastive pair:

Pattern variables are five dichotomous choices that actors must make in
every situation, they contribute towards our understanding of action.
They are useful tools for thinking about how any type of social action
works.
Pattern Variables
a)
Affectivity or Affective Neutrality
b) Ascription vs. Achievement
c) Diffuseness vs. Specificity
d) Collective orientation vs. self
orientation
e) Particularism vs. Universalism
Pattern Variables in more detail
 a)
Affectivity or Affective Neutrality; how much
emotion, or ‘affect’ to invest in a social
phenomena, (or gratification vs. savings in
regards to money).
 b)
Ascription vs. Achievement do we judge a
social phenomena by what it is endowed or what
it achieves… (birth status vs. effort )
Pattern Variables (cont’d)

c) Diffuseness vs. Specificity whether to concern
oneself with all or part of a social phenomena (or
general vs. particular relations in regards to
professions).

d) Collective orientation vs. self orientation; collective
verses self interests…

e) Particularism vs. Universalism do we judge by a
phenomena by general standards or those which apply
specifically to it.
Marxism
Historical Materialism
The materialist theory of history analyses the underlying
causes of societal development and change from the
perspective of the collective ways that humans make
their living. All constituent features of a society (social
classes, political pyramid, ideologies) are assumed to
stem from economic activity, an idea often portrayed
with the metaphor of the base and superstructure. The
base and superstructure metaphor describes the totality
of social relations by which humans produce and reproduce their social existence.
Forces of Production
According to Marx: "The sum total of the forces of production
accessible to men determines the condition of society" and
forms a society's economic base. The base includes the
material forces of production, that is the labour and material
means of production and relations of production, i.e., the
social and political arrangements that regulate production
and distribution. From this base rises a superstructure of
legal and political "forms of social consciousness" of
political and legal institutions that derive from the economic
base that conditions the superstructure and a society's
dominant ideology.

According to Marxist theory, class conflict arises due to
contradictions between the material interests of the
oppressors (bourgeoisie or ruling class) and the oppressed
(proletariat or working class of wage earners). The ruling
class or elite, own and control the means and forces of
production. The working class are employed to produce
goods and services. The ruling class then extract their wealth
through appropriation of the surplus profit produced by the
proletariat.
 This
class struggle that is commonly expressed
as the revolt of a society's productive forces
against its relations of production, results in a
period of short-term crises as the bourgeoisie
struggle to manage the intensifying alienation of
labour experienced by the proletariat amidst
varying degrees of class consciousness.
 As
the productive forces continue to
advance, Marx predicted that socialism
would ultimately transform capitalism into a
communist society where social classes
would disappear and equality would
emerge… “from each according to their
ability, to each according to their needs.”

Marxism has developed into many different schools of
thought and branches with, arguably, no single definitive
Marxist theory. Different Marxian perspectives place
emphasis on varying aspects of classical Marxism while
rejecting or modifying other aspects. Lately there is
movement toward the recognition that historical
materialism and dialectical materialism remains the
fundamental aspect of Marxism which should result in
more agreement between different schools.
Infrastructure and Superstructure
Man must produce food and material objects, in doing so he
enters into social relationships. Production is a social enterprise
which involves a technical component known as the forces of
production… Together; the forces of production and social
relationships form the economic base or infrastructure (or
substructure) of the society. Other aspects of society known as
the superstructure are shaped by the infrastructure. A change in
the infrastructure will produce a change in the superstructure.
The superstructure of a society includes its culture, institutions,
politics, roles, rituals and the state.
Neo-Marxism

A number of theorists came after Karl Marx who were
inspired by his philosophy and developed on his ideas and
perspectives. Some of the main ones were:-

1) Louis Althusser (1918-1990)

2) Antonio Gramsci 1891-1937

3) Jurgen Habermas (b. June 18th, 1929)

4) Nicos Poulantzas (1936-1979)

5) Erik Olin Wright (b. Feb. 9th, 1947)
1) Louis Althusser (1918-1990)

For the ruling class to survive and prosper the reproduction
of labour power is essential, generations of workers must
be reproduced to create profits on which capitalists
depend. This involves two processes; i- the reproduction of
skills for an efficient workforce, and ii- the propagation of
ruling class ideology and the socialization of workers on
terms of it. Ideological control provides a far more
effective means of maintaining class rule. 'Ideological
State Apparatuses’ such as mass media, law, religion and
education, transmit ruling class ideology and create a false
class consciousness…
1) Louis Althusser (cont’d)
 Althusser
saw two kinds of state
apparatus; i- ideological, ii- repressive.
Economic, political, legal, and ideological
practices form a complex whole. All
practices are depended upon one
another; the practice constitutes the
people. As part of the superstructure,
education is shaped by the infrastructure.
2) Antonio Gramsci 1891-1937

Owning the means of production was not the main
means of power. Workers are not totally unaware of
their exploitation. For the ruling class to stay in power
they had to gain the support of other institutions in
the society though hegemony, e.g. when the ruling
class bribes the political class; "ruling class
ideology." There would be a working class revolution,
but because the ruling class would begin to take their
dominant position for granted.
3) Jurgen Habermas (b. Jun 18, 1929)
Jurgen Habermas felt as Capitalism advanced class
conflict would decrease and Capitalism would remain
dominant because of the intervention of the state in
the economy (a market economy). Capitalism creates
extremes of wealth and poverty. The state shall
intervene in the overthrow of Capitalism by having a
welfare state, appeasing the poor with free housing,
free education, labour laws, and the provision of
welfare.
3) Jurgen Habermas (cont’d)
 Habermas
rejects the idea of a working class
revolution. The conflict however lies in the
state; it has to convince both the capitalists
and the working class that it is acting in each
of their interests. The real crisis in Capitalist
society is the crisis of legitimation of the
state. But in the end the state will act on
behalf of the Capitalists.
4) Nicos Poulantzas (1936-1979)
The capitalist class are too focused on their individual
short term profit, rather than on maintaining the class's
power as a whole… The state functions to ensure the
smooth operation of capitalism, and therefore benefits
the capitalist class. An inherently divisive system such
as capitalism could co-exist with the social stability
necessary for it to reproduce itself… Repressing
movements of the oppressed is not the sole function of
the state. Rather state power must also obtain the
consent of the oppressed.
4) Nicos Poulantzas (cont’d)

It does this through class alliances, where the dominant group
makes an 'alliance' with subordinate groups, as a means to get
the consent of the subordinate group.

He also mentioned the 'new petty bourgeoisie' in both
consolidating the ruling classes hegemony and undermining the
proletariat’s ability to organise itself.

By occupying a contradictory class position, that is to say, by
identifying with its de facto oppressor, this fraction of the
working class throws in its support.
5) Erik Olin Wright (b. Feb. 9th, 1947)
 Wright
looked at three ways that class
structure is seen to exert effects on
class formation and struggle within
Marxian theory;
 i- material interests,
 ii- lived experiences, and
 iii- collective capacities.
Wright stressed the importance of:

control over and exclusion from access to economic/productive
resources;

location within production relations;

market capacity in exchange relations;

differential control over income derived from the use of
productive resources; and,

differential control over labor effort in defining 'class', while at
the same time trying to account for the situation of expert,
skilled, manager, and supervisory employees, taking inspiration
from Weberian accounts of class and class analysis.
Conflict
Theory
Conflict Theory

Conflict theories are sociological perspectives that
emphasize a materialist interpretation of history,
dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance
toward existing social arrangements, and political
program of revolution or, at least, reform. Conflict
theories draw attention to power differentials, such
as class conflict, and generally contrast historically
dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro-level of
analysis of society.
Conflict Theory (cont’d)
 Karl
Marx is the true father of conflict theory,
which is a component of the four major paradigms
of sociology. Certain conflict theories set out to
highlight the ideological aspects inherent in
traditional thought. While many of these
perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory does
not refer to a unified school of thought, and
should not be confused with, for instance, peace
and conflict studies.
Conflict Theory (cont’d)
Ralf Dahrendorf developed, cultivated, and advanced
conflict theory. This new theory is said to have taken
place in reaction to structural functionalism and in many
ways represents its antithesis. The conflict theory
attempts to bring together structural functionalism and
Marxism. According to Dahrendorf, functionalism is
beneficial while trying to understand consensus while the
conflict theory is used to understand conflict and
coercion. Capitalism has undergone major changes since
Marx initially developed his theory on class conflict.
Conflict Theory – Ralf Dahrendorf
(1929-2009)

i- To functionalists society is static but to conflict theorists it is
always subject to processes of change.

ii- There is conflict and dissention at every point in the social
system.

iii- Many different societal elements contribute to disintegration
and change.

iv- Order in society stems from coercion of some members by
those on the top.

Society has two faces, and therefore sociology should be divided
into two components; conflict theory and consensus theory.
Weberian Conflict Theory
 According
to Jonathon Turner (2003) in “The
Structure of Sociological Theory” Randall Collins
developed a conflict theory approach that is
Weberian (rather than Marxian). He felt that
macro-level phenomena are created and
sustained by micro encounters among
individuals. Face to face interaction, or
“interaction rituals” must be examined to
understand social reality.
Conflict Sociology

In “Conflict Sociology” Collins suggested that
sociologists must examine typical real life situations,
focus on material arrangements that affect interaction,
assess the resources used in encounters, appreciate that
those with resources press their advantage and those
without seek the best deal, assume that cultural symbols
are used to represent interests and look for general
features of particular cases so that more abstract
propositions can be made.
Randall Collins – Conflict Sociology

Like Weber, Randall Collins begins with a
conceptualization of micro processes – in
Weber’s case, types of meaningful action and in
Collins theory, interaction rituals. Then their
analysis shifts to the meso-level, examining
patterns of stratification, then state and geopolitics. Their concern is with inequalities of
resources and how these inequalities generate
tension and potential conflict.
Critical
Theory
Critical Theory (Max Horkheimer)
Critical theory is based on the idea that
capitalism has undergone a dramatic change,
people are now more likely to be controlled by
culture rather than the economy. Marxists saw
culture as a superstructure erected on an
economic base but critical theorists saw
culture achieving autonomy from capitalists.
Critical Theory (cont’d)
 There
is a “culture industry” that
dominates society through the mass
media. Work affects people while they
are on the job, but culture’s impact is felt
around-the-clock, seven days a week.
Cultures effect is also far more insidious
as it gradually works its way into
people’s consciousness.
Critical Theory (cont’d)

At work people know they are being
dominated but with culture it is invisible. The
poorer class would not be receptive to
revolutionary messages because they are
being lulled into semi-consciousness by
culture. People entertained for many hours a
week were likely to lose whatever hostility
they might have had to the capitalist system.
Critical Theory (cont’d)
 Critical
Theory also notes that the amount
of time spent being entertained, combined
with hours at work, left little time for
revolutionary reading and thinking, let
alone action. The culture industry has also
helped maintain capitalism in that it has
turned more and more people into
consumers.
Interactionism
MICRO-SOCIOLOGY
Interactionism
INTRODUCTION
MAX WEBER
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD
FOUR ADDITIONAL PERSPECTIVES
GEORGE SIMMEL
ALFRED SCHULTZ - PHENOMENOLOGY
RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY – JAMES COLEMAN
Interactionism
Interactionism is a manifestation of Micro-Sociology, it
is a theoretical perspective that derives social
processes (such as conflict, cooperation, identity
formation) from human interaction. It is the study of
how individuals shape society and are shaped by
society through meaning that arises in interactions.
Interactionism has grown in the latter half of the
twentieth century and has become one of the
dominant sociological perspectives.
Max Weber (1864- 1920)
Weber felt the task of sociology was to provide a needed
"service" to history. 'Sociology' seeks to formulate type
concepts and generalized uniformities of empirical
processes. In "Economy & Society" Weber began looking
at different levels of action and interaction. He took a
stance against large scale sociology and said he became
a sociologist to put an end to collectivist notions, yet he
admitted it was impossible to totally eliminate collective
ideas. Hence he was concerned with a "micro-sociology."
George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

The act, which he recognized four stages for;

i- Impulse: where the actor reacts to an external stimuli and feels
the need to do something about it.

ii- Perception: The actor searches for and reacts to stimuli that
relate to the impulse.

iii- Manipulation: involves manipulating the object once it has
been perceived

iv- Consummation involves taking action against the original
impulse.
George Herbert Mead (cont’d)

Language allows us to become self-conscious beingsaware of our own individuality, and able to see ourselves
from the outside… The key element is the symbol;
(something that stands for something). Words are
symbols which represent what we mean. Non-verbal
gestures are also symbols. We rely on shared symbols
and understandings in their interaction. Interactions
involves an exchange of symbols. Individuals place
meanings on objects in the environment, and this
determines their behavior in society.
Symbolic Interactionism
There
are three core elements to
symbolic interactionism: symbol,
self and interaction. There are two
phases in the self; representing
both conformity and individuality,
these are the “I” and the “me.”
Symbolic Interactionism (cont’d)
 The
"I" is the immediate response of self to
others, it is unpredictable.
 The "me" is the individual's perception of the
generalized other, or others around him or
her.
 The “I” reacts against the “me” within the
self. The “I” is more passive while the “me”
is more active.
Conceptualizing Interaction
 Andersen
et al in Sociology : The Essentials
(2017) on page 117 says “groups, statuses and
roles form a web of social interaction.
Sociologists have developed different ways of
conceptualizing and understanding social
interaction. Functionalists offer (only) one such
concept. Here we consider four such concepts…
Four Concepts of Social Interaction
 i-
The social construction of reality,
 ii- Ethnomethodology,
 iii- Impression management and
 iv- the social exchange theory.”
i-The social construction of reality
 Some
sociologists have argued that there
is little reality beyond that produced by
the process of social interaction itself.
This is the principle of the social
construction of reality, the idea that our
perception of what is real is determined
by the subjective meaning that we
attribute to an experience.
ii- Ethnomethodology: Harold Garfinkel

Ethnomethodology is the study of how people make
sense of what others say and do in the course of
social interaction. It is concerned with the
"ethnomethods" by means of which human beings
sustain meaningful interchanges with one another.

"Ethnomethodology is a thoroughly empirical
enterprise devoted to the discovery of social order
and intelligibility [sense making] as witnessable
collective achievements."
iii- Impression Management

Andersen et al in Sociology: The Essentials (2017) on
page 119 says “impression management can be seen
as a kind of con-game. We willfully attempt to
manipulate others impressions of us. Erving Goffman
regarded everyday interaction as a series of
attempts to con the others. In fact, trying in various
ways to con others is at the very centre of much
social interaction and social organization in society:
Social interaction is just a big con-game.
iii- Impression Management (cont’d)

The Dramaturgical approach studies social interaction
based on the use of metaphors derived from a theatre.
The concept of social role originated in a theatrical
setting. People are sensitive to how they are seen by
others and use many forms of impression management
to compel others to react to them in the ways they
wish. They study the mode of the presentation
employed by the actor and its meaning in the broader
social context.
Impression Management (cont’d)

Interaction is viewed as performance, shaped by
the environment and audience, constructed to
provide others with "Impressions" that are in
agreement with the desired goals of the actor.
There is also both front and backstage behaviour,
(which takes place in front regions and back
regions) e.g. when one goes for a job interview.
This is also impression management. Behaviour is
influenced by the presence of others.
iv-Exchange Theory: George Homans

There are 6 main propositions of the exchange theory:-

1- The Success Proposition states that the more often a
person is rewarded for a particular action, the more likely the
person is to perform the rewarded action.

2- The Stimulus Proposition asserts that if in the past a
person’s action has been rewarded as a result of responding
to a particular stimulus, then the person is more likely to
perform the same action.

3- The Value Proposition states the more valuable people find
results of their action, the more likely they are to perform
that action.
Exchange Theory (cont’d)

4- The Deprivation – Satiation Proposition contends
that the more often in the recent past people have
received a particular reward, the less valuable will be
future rewards of that type.

5- Aggression-Approval Propositions; there are two;
5a argues that when people do not receive expected
rewards for their actions they become angry and are
more likely to display aggressive behaviour, which
they would find more valuable,
Exchange Theory (cont’d)

5a deals with the negative. 5b deals with
positive emotions and argues that people
will be pleased when they receive an
expected reward, and will be more likely
to perform behaviour that earns them
approval.

6- The Rationality Proposition: (rational
choice) people choose from available
alternatives, and maximize their utilities.
Georg Simmel –Social Geometry (1858-1918)

Georg Simmel developed the concept of Social Geometry
expanding on the concepts of the Dyad and the Triad. A
dyad is a two-person group; a triad is a three-person
group. In a dyad a person is able to retain their
individuality. There is no other person to shift the balance
of the group thereby allowing those within the dyad to
maintain their individuality. In the triad group there is a
possibility of a dyad forming within the triad thereby
threatening the remaining individual's independence and
causing them to become the subordinate of the group.
Georg Simmel (cont’d)
This seems to be an essential part of society which becomes
a structure. Unfortunately as the group (structure) becomes
increasingly greater the individual becomes separated and
grows more alone, isolated and segmented. Simmel's view
was somewhat ambiguous with respect to group size. On one
hand he believed that the bigger the group the better for the
individual. In a larger group it would be harder to exert
control on the individual, but on the other hand with a large
group there is a possibility of the individual becoming distant
and impersonal.
Georg Simmel (1858-1918)
There are 4 basic levels of concern in Simmel’s work;

i- he made microscopic assumptions about the psychological
components of social life,

ii- sociological components of interpersonal relationships,

iii- the structure of and changes in the social and cultural spirit of
times and

iv- the metaphysical level. Simmel also adopted the principle of
emergence, which is the idea that higher levels emerge out of
the lower levels
Georg Simmel (cont’d)
 Simmel
was more concerned with the form
than the content of social interaction. The
real world is composed of innumerable
events, actions, interactions and so forth. To
cope with this maze of reality people order it
by imposing patterns or forms on it. Simmel
attempted to develop a ‘social geometry’ with
number and distance as two coefficients.
Georg Simmel (cont’d)
 Numbers
of people impact on quality of
social interactions (e.g. in the dyad and the
triad), and distance; ‘properties and
meanings are a function of the relative
distances between individuals. In “The
Philosophy of Money” he advanced the point
that the value of something is determined by
its distance from the actor.
Alfred Schultz (1899-1959)
 Alfred
Schultz developed the idea of
Phenomenology which is the study of subjective
experience.
 The
term phenomenology describes a body of
knowledge that relates empirical
observations of phenomena to each other, in a
way that is consistent with fundamental theory, but
is not directly derived from theory.
Phenomenology
Phenomenology studies the internal workings of the mind and how
human beings classify and make sense of the world. This is
typification; making sense of the world. People develop typifications
or classifications of things they observe.
These are shared with others and are passed on to children through
the learning of language, books or speaking. By the use of
typifications people are able to communicate with others on the basis
of the assumption that they see the world in the same way. Over time
we build up a stock of common sense knowledge. This makes human
interaction possible.
Phenomenology (cont’d)

The stock of common sense knowledge allows humans to
understand each others actions. In so doing we convince
ourselves there are regular ordered patterns in the world;
and we create an illusion that there is stability and order in
society, when in reality there is only a jumble of human
experiences.

From a philosophical point of view Phenomenology is the
study of the structures of experience and consciousness. In
its most basic form, phenomenology attempts to create
conditions for the objective study of topics regarded
as subjective.
Phenomenology (cont’d)

For Edmund Husserl, phenomenology is "the reflective
study of the essence of consciousness as experienced
from the first-person point of view. "Phenomenology
takes the intuitive experience of phenomena (what
presents itself to us in phenomenological reflexion) as
its starting point and tries to extract from it the
essential features of experiences and the essence of
what we experience. When generalized to the essential
features of any possible experience, this has been called
“Transcendental Phenomenology.”
Rational
Choice Theory
Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory, also known as choice
theory or rational action theory, is a framework for
understanding and often formally modelling social
and economic behavior. The basic premise of rational
choice theory is that aggregate social behavior
results from the behavior of individual actors, each of
whom is making their individual decisions. The
theory also focuses on the determinants of the
individual choices (methodological individualism.)
Rational Choice Theory: James S. Coleman
 The
focus of the Rational Choice Theory is on
actors, who are purposive and have
intentionality; they have ends or goals towards
which their actions are aimed. Actors also
have preferences. Two constraints of action
are considered; i- scarcity of resources,
opportunity costs and ii- social institutions;
e.g. rules of schools places of employment and
society in general.
Rational Choice Theory (cont’d)
An aggregation mechanism is where a variety of
individuals combine to form one social outcome.
Information is also very important in making
rational choices. Coleman saw ‘rational choice
theory’ as providing the micro-level base for the
explanation of macro-level phenomena. In summary
people act towards goals in a purposive manner and
both goals and actions are shaped by values (or
preferences).
Rational Choice Theory (cont’d)

Two key elements in Coleman’s theory are actors and
resources. Resources are those things over which
actors have control and in which they have some
interest. Actors have resources and those resources
are of interest to others. As a result actors engage in
actions that involve others and a system of action, a
structure, emerges among them. Interdependent
actors, each seeking to maximize interests, form a
social system.