ANGELICA B. OBIAL
MJ Dacanay
Ivy Rose Binarao
“Research is to see what
everybody else has seen and to
think what nobody else has
thought”
-Albert Szent- Gyorgi, Hungarian
Biochemist
WHAT ARE SOME PRINCIPLES OF DIAGNOSIS?
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Begin with each student’s unique instructional needs
Diagnosis is always directed towards formulating methods of improvement.
Genuine diagnosis looks towards the causes of the symptoms.
Causes of pupil inadequacy are usually multiple rather than single or
unitary.
the teacher needs more than simply skill in diagnosing the causes of
children’s difficulty.
Decisions based on diagnosis should flow from a pattern of test scores are a
variety of other data.
he analysis of reading difficulties is primarily an educational-analysis task; it
is best done by an experienced teaher who knows the essential elements in
reading instruction.
Diagnosis should be continuous and efficient. Only pertinent information
should be collected and by the most efficient means.
STEPS IN DIAGNOSIS
1. Make a general or survey diagnosis.
2. Compare expected functioning level as determined by IQ and other tests
and personal data with actual functioning level as determined by the
reading survey test or by other less formal procedures.
3. Conduct specific or analytical diagnosis.
- Describe the condition more specifically.
Ex. Check on such specifics as knowledge of vocabulary, inability to associate
sound with the beginning consonant, inability to phrase correctly.
4. Make a detailed investigation of causality or an intensive case-study
diagnosis .
a. Analyse carefully the disability
b. Look for correlates of disability.
c. Identify the underlying causes of the reading disability.
Types of reading disabilities
Reading retardation as a backwardness in reading that can be
corrected by special instruction- Dallman and De Boer.
-Reading retardation refers to any individual whose
development of reading skills is below the normal performance
for his age or grade- Harris (1971)
Disabled reader- those children with complex disabilities whose
problems are more subtle and complicated (Bond and Tinker,
1967).
Terms in reading remediation
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Reading Deficiency- a mild to severe retardation in learning to read
which is disparate with the individuals' general intelligence and with his
cultural, linguistic, and educational experience.
Reading Retardation- originally used to designate the condition of all
children whose reading was significantly below age and grade norm.
Underachiever in reading- restricted to those whose reading
performance is no below age and grade standards but who are judged
to be functioning significantly below their own potential level in
reading. (ex. Disabled reader, slow learner, reluctant reader, and etc.)
Dyslexia- defective reading which may represent loss of competency
following brain injury or degeneration or a development failure to
profit from reading instruction.
5. Primary reading retardation- refers to a sense
impairment of capacity to learn. Although there is no
brain damage, this is based on a constitutional pattern
of disturbed neurological organization.
6. Secondary reading retardation- refers to a reading
disability for which the causation is mainly
environment or external.
7. Retarded reader- one whose reading achievement is
less than that expected o his peer group.
-to be behind or delayed in arriving.
Common reading deficiencies
1. Lack of vocabulary or inability to give meanings of
words
2. Inability to appreciate the general significance of a
selection
3. Inability to follow precise directions
4. Inability to grasp the thought of the selection
Oral reading disabilities
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Inadequacy of phrasing
Word-by-word reading
Ignoring punctuation
Habitual repetition
omissions
Lack of expression
poor pronunciation
Strained Voice
Stammering
Substitution of words
Causes of reading Disabilities
1. Physical Deficiencies
- Visual Deficiencies
- Hearing Deficiencies
- Poor general health
- Brain damage and etc.
2. Emotional Factors
- Home environment
- Adjustment attitude
3. Intellectual factor
- Low intelligence
4. Educational causes
-lack of reading readiness
-lack of adjustment to individual differences
- Methods of teaching
AUDITORY
• COMPLETE HEARING
LOSS
• PARTIAL HEARING LOSS
REMEDIES
• Whisper test
• use hearing aids
• sit near the source of sound
VISUAL
1. FREQUENT HEAD ACHE
2. PAIN IN THE BACK OF HEAD AND NECK
3. PAIN IN FOREHEAD AND TEMPLES
REMEDIES
• Advise to wear correctly fitted eyeglasses
• let pupils sit at proper distance from blackboard or
chart
SPEECH DIFFICULTIES
SPEECH DIFFICULTIES
• Stuttering
• Lisping
• Faulty pronunciation
REMEDIES
• SEND CHILD TO SPEECH CLINIC FOR CORRECTION
• MOTIVATE YOUR STUDENT TO READ PROPERLY
•
5 Most Common Learning Disabilities
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION
1. TREATMENT MUST BE BASED ON AN
UNDERSTANDING OF THE CHILD’S INSTRUCTIONAL
NEEDS
2. REMEDIAL PROGRAM MUST BE HIGHLY
INDIVIDUALIZE
3. REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION MUST BE ORGANIZED
INSTRUCTION
4. THE READING PROCESSES MUST BE MEANINGFUL
TO THE LEARNER
5. CONSIDERATION OF THE CHILD’S PRINCIPAL WORTH IS
NECESSARY
6. THE READING PROGRAM MUST BE ENCOURAGUG TO
THE CHILD.
7. MATERIALS AND EXERCISES MUST BE SUITABLE TO THE
CHILD’S READING ABILITY AND INSTRUCTIONAL NEEDS
8. SOUND TEACHING PROCEDURES MUST BE EMPLOYED
9. A CAREFULLY DESIGNED FOLLOW-UP PROGRAM IS
NECESSARY
cloze test
STATEMENT
4.Research with one or two respondents is
not a valid research.
5. Teachers, because they are busy in their
classrooms, are expected to use existing
research rather than conduct their own
research in classroom.
6. There is no need to go into research
because a lot of researchers have already
been conducted.
7. Students are mere users of knowledge
arrived at by research. It is not their task to
conduct research.
8. Students do not possess qualifications to
conduct research.
9. It is not worth conducting research
considering the time and money it requires
YES
NO
Teachers as Consumer/ End
Users of Research
Research gives teacher and also policymakers
important knowledge to use
in decision- making for the benefit of
learners and their
families.
 Research enables teachers to come up
with informed decision on what to teach
and how to teach
 This involves decisions related to
educational policies, curriculum, effective
teaching-learning processes, and even those
involving research too.
One important principles in
research is adherence to “the
scientific method, since research is
a systematic and a logical process.
1. Identify and define the
problem
2. Determine the hypnothesis
3. Collect and analyze data
4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the
original hypothesis
Research Designs
• Researches that are done, with high level of
quality and integrity provide us with
valuable information about child and
adolescent development. To be able to
conduct quality research, it is important that
you know various research designs and
different data-gathering techniques used by
developmental researchers.
RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Case study
DESCRIPTION
An in-depth look
at an individual.
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESS
It provides
information about
an individual’s
fears, hopes,
fantasies,
traumatic
experiences,
upbringing, family
relationships,
health and
anything that
helps a
psychologist
understand that
person’s
development
(Santrock, 2002).
Need to exercise
caution when
generalizing from
the information;
the subject of a
case study is
unique, with a
genetic make-up
and experiences
no one else
shares; involves
judgement of
unknown
reliability, in that
usually no check
is made to see if
other psychologist
agree with the
observation.
RESEARCH
DESIGN
DESCRIPTI
ON
STRENGTH
S
WEAKNESS
2.
Correlation
al Study
A
research
design that
determines
associations.
Useful
because the
more
strongly two
events
are
correlated,
the more we
can predict
one from the
other.
Because correlational
research
does
not
invove
the
manipulation
of
factors, it is not a
dependable way to
isolate
cause
(kantowitz, et al, 2001
cited
by
Santrock,
2002.)
RESEARCH DESIGN
3. Experimental
DESCRIPTION
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESS
A research design
that determines
cause-and-effect
relationships. The
experimental
method involves
manipulating one
variable to
determined if
changes in one
variable cause
changes in
another variable.
This method relies
on controlled
methods, random
assignment and
the manipulation
of variables to test
hypothesis.
The only true
reliable method of
establishing cause
and effect.
Experimental
research is limited
to what is
observable,
testable and
manipulable.
Failure to achieve
randomisation
may limit the
extent to which
the study sample
is representative
of the parent
population and,
with, it,
generalisability of
the findings of the
study.
Experimentation with
human is subject to a
number of external
influence that may dilute
the study result (Donnan,
2000).
A further limitation of
experimental research is
that subjects may change
their behaviour or
responds in a specific
manner simply because
of awareness of being
observe.
Hawthome effect
(Haughey, 1994 and
Clifford, 1997).
4. Naturalistic
Observation
A research design that
focuses on children’s
experiences in natural
settings.
This does not involve
any intervention or
manipulation on the
part of the researcher.
This technique
involves observing
subjects in their
natural environment.
This type of research
is often utilized in
situations where
conducting lab
research is unrealistic,
cost-pro-hibitive or
would unduly affect
the subjects
behaviour.
One of the advantages
of this type is that it
allows the researcher
to directly observe the
subject in a natural
settings.
The disadvantages of
naturalistic,
observation include
the fact, that is can be
difficult to determine
the exact cause of a
behavior and the
experimenter cannot
control outside
variables.
5. Longitudinal
This research design
Allows them to record
studies and follows
and monitor
through a single group developmental trends.
over a period of time.
The same individual
are studied over a
period of time, usually
several years or more.
They are expensive
and time-consuming/
The longer the study
last, the more
subjects drop outthey move, get sick,
lose interest, etc.
subjects can bias the
outcome of a study,
because those who
remain may be
dissimilar to those
who drop out.
6. Crosssectional
A research
strategy in
which
individuals of
different ages
are compared
at one time.
Allows them to
record and
monitor
developmental
trends. The
researcher does
not have to
wait for the
individuals to
grow up or
become older.
It gives
information
about how
individuals
change or
about the
stability of their
characteristics
(Santrock,2002
).
7. Sequential
This is the combined
cross-sectional
and
longitudinal
approaches to learn
about
life-span
development (Schaie,
1993 cited by Satrock,
2002). This starts with
a cross-sectional study
that
includes
individuals of different
ages. A number of
months or years after
the initial assessment,
the same individuals
are tested again-this is
the longitudinal are
aspect of the design.
At this later time, a
new group of subjects
is assessed at each
grade level.
Allows them to record It is a complex,
and
monitor expensive, and timedevelopmental trends. consuming.
It
provides
information that is
impossible to obtain
from cross-sectional
or
longitudinal
approaches alone (
Santrock, 2002).
Action Research
Action research is a
reflective process of
progressive problem
solving
led
by
individuals
working
with others in teams
or as part of a
“community
of
practice” to improve
the way they address
issues
and
solve
problems (Wikipedia,
the
free
encyclopedia).
In the context of
teaching,
action
researches of teachers
stem from their own
questions about and
reflections on their
everyday classroom
practice.
Appropriate
in
a
particular
setting
when the purpose of
study is “to create
changes and gain
information
on
processes
and
outcome
of
the
strategies used’ (Hunt
1987).
Typically takes place in
one organization only
at a particular time
and could not be
interpreted different
organizations in the
same way. Therefore,
research findings are
hard (impossible) to
generalized.
Uses
different
methods, can get the
best out of the
different
methods
employed, if done
well.
Stakeholders
are
included throughout
and so researchers are
more likely to make a
“Difference”.
If research
participants do not
feel they understand
and “own” the
research project, this
could lead to a
potential conflict of
interest between the
researcher and those
participating in the
organisation, but also
between the
researcher with
some participants,
on the hand and
other members of
the organization,
on the other.