Prof. Diaz
MUS 223 Spring 2018
How Do We Groove as Performers in Classical Music?
Josiah Tayag Catalan
Music 223: Topics in Ethnomusicology (Groove Studies)
June 13, 2018
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Josiah Tayag Catalan
Prof. Diaz
MUS 223 Spring 2018
Josiah Tayag Catalan
How Do We Groove as Performers in Classical Music?
One central question for the last ten weeks that we have been asking and attempting to
answer in our graduate seminar is “what is groove?” In Petr Janata’s article, he lists a number of
definitions to formulate his study that are all relative to how we think of groove. In music theory
and musicology, it may refer to “rhythmic properties or pieces of music and/or the timing
relationships of actions of individuals interacting with the music.” Another definition offered
was “wanting to move some part of the body in relation to some aspect of the sound pattern.”1
Throughout the quarter, we were able to identify that these definitions were common
associations with how people experience groove. Taking these two definitions were useful in
helping me formulate my study on groove as a member of the UC Davis Symphony Orchestra
(UCDSO). Over the quarter, we investigated groove in dance-based music where in some cases,
scholars such as Mark Abel and Vijay Iyer argue that practices in classical music, such as tempo
flexibility, make the music absent of groove qualities. Is classical music inherently not groovy?
Janata’s listed definitions of groove give a point of departure for my research because of
its general nature. Obviously, groove does not operate the same way in classical music than it
does in jazz or western popular music, but as a musician I felt groove that was related to the
rhythmic properties of the pieces we played and I often felt compelled to move my body in
relationship to the sound pattern. Groove is a verb as much as it is a noun. It may refer to an
action or a set of actions in performance, or allude to a state of consciousness. In this paper I am
interested in how these groove states or actions operates in an orchestral setting, and how
individuals conceptualized or experienced groove in their own performance practice. Throughout
the paper, I will discuss and describe selected repertoire, the ensemble I participated in for the
1
Janata, Petr, Stefan T. Tomic, and Jason M. Haberman, "Sensorimotor Coupling in Music and the Psychology of
the Groove," (Journal of Experimental Psychology), 1-2.
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2018 Spring quarter, and describe and discuss the subjects I interviewed in the orchestra. I will
then examine the responses that the subjects had stated in interviews and discuss my own
personal experiences and observations of the subjects as we performed together in the UCDSO.
Description of Ensemble and Subjects
The UC Davis Symphony Orchestra contained upwards of sixty members that made up
the string, woodwinds, brass, and percussion sections. This quarter, the orchestra had a medium
size string section with standard woodwind instruments and standard brass section instruments.2
For the woodwinds, percussion, and brass, the standard amount of musicians specified for each
piece were used accordingly. Throughout each season, the orchestra is typically comprised of
university students with a small presence of community players throughout the orchestra.3 While
there is a strong presence of music majors, the majority of the participating university students
were non-music majors across various majors. A small group of five Ph.D. music students also
participated in the 2018 Spring orchestra concerts, where two (including myself) played 1st
violin, one played viola, one played 1st flute, and one played bass trombone. Instrument
proficiency levels and performance experience spanned a wide range throughout the orchestra;
many of the students who were not music majors may have had previous orchestral performance
experience in high school ensembles, while others had little to no exposure in performing with a
symphony orchestra.4 While the majority of instrumental proficiency among musicians
2
A standard full-scale string section would have 16-18 1st violins, 16 2nd violins, 12 violas, 12 cellos, 8 double
basses. The UCDSO had 11 1st violins, 10 2nd violins, 8 Violas, 8 Cellos, and 4 Double Basses.
3 Community players were older adults outside of college or high school students.
4 This last general statement was discovered by taking a short survey of a small sample size of about 10-12 members
who were non-music majors. General questions such as, “Have you ever played with an orchestra before coming to
UC Davis?” and “How many years have you played with an orchestra?” were asked.
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throughout the orchestra was quite high, there were also a number members, particularly in the
strings, who performed at a novice level but were still welcomed to participate.5
UCDSO performances are held in Jackson Hall of the Robert and Margrit Mondavi
Center for the Performing Arts, a venue that seats 1,801 people in the audience. It is built with
adjustable panels in the design to house any world-class orchestra or ensemble of acoustic
instruments to their preferred acoustic specifications. The selected repertoire that was performed
in this hall that will be examined with the experience of the subjects were Jean Sibelius’
Symphony no. 6 (1923), György Ligeti’s Violin Concerto (1993), and Nikolai RimskyKorsakov’s Scheherazade (1888). All of the subjects that were interviewed described elements
of groove from each composition that related to the performance aspect of the music. Musical
examples and time stamps of videos from YouTube will be provided in this paper to supplement
analysis and descriptions of events in the live performance.
Three subjects were used to conduct my research on groove: Veronika Blanco, Christian
Baldini, and myself. Veronika Blanco was a nineteen-year-old music major who was one of the
main players in the percussion section of the orchestra, where she was usually assigned the most
prominent percussion parts in each piece. She has had previous experience in percussion
performance in her high school orchestra, band, and drumline. Her instrumental roles varied
throughout each repertoire piece; she performed timpani in Sibelius’ Symphony no. 6, multiple
instruments such as glockenspiel and marimba in Ligeti’s Violin Concerto, and timpani in
Korsakov’s Scheherazade.
Christian Baldini is a young conductor who is on faculty in the UC Davis music
department, and is the current director of the UCDSO. He holds multiple degrees in music: a
5
Many of these “novice” members were located in the 2 nd violins, viola, and cello. The level of proficiency of the
participants were realized through observations over time in weekly rehearsals and final performances.
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master’s in conducting from the Pennsylvania State University, and a Ph.D. in Composition from
the State University of New York at Buffalo. As a conductor and composer, he is well-decorated
in both facets of his musical career with a long list of accolades. All of these awards and honors
speak to his high level as a musician and scholar trained in the Western classical tradition.
The last subject of examination I am including in this paper is myself. My experience in
violin performance started around fourth grade, after taking lessons for about a year. I started by
performing in church and youth orchestras until middle school when I was no longer interested
in playing. After my freshman year in high school, I decided to start performing again with my
high school orchestra and stopped after I graduated. When I was twenty-one, I decided to focus
my collegiate studies on music composition, where all music students were required to
participate in a large performance ensemble. I performed as a member of the Sacramento State
Symphony Orchestra for the three years until I graduated in Spring 2015, and had not performed
consistently with an ensemble until I joined the UCDSO in the Spring Quarter of 2018.
What does Groove Mean and How Does It Operate?
In this paper, I am interested in exploring some of the social and phenomenological
aspects of what we studied in our groove seminar this quarter. Some of the questions I asked
myself and the subjects were: What does groove mean to an orchestral musician? How do we
enter these groove states? What are the characteristics of entering and operating in these states?
How does our sense of groove with each piece evolve over time? How is groove transmitted and
communicated through the orchestra? How do orchestra members use their body to communicate
information to each other? The responses to these questions by each of the subjects brought up a
variety of interesting and diverse answers that were taken from their own personal experiences
and ideas of what groove meant to them in an orchestral performance setting.
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One of the more challenging aspects of this specific study was to define what groove
meant in orchestral performance practice. In Mark Abel’s book, he stated that musicians
generally respond to groove as “the rhythmic feel of a piece of music, where instruments of any
rhythmic section would interlock and interact with each other to create a unified rhythmic
effect.”6 This, of course, was in relation to dance-based music across various genres and cultures
and used in his argument for groove as, “a musical phenomenon that is unique to twentiethcentury popular music.”7 Abel offers an interesting comparison of how groove is defined among
scholars in “twentieth-century groove music and nineteenth-century orchestral and chamber
music repertoire,” stating figures such as Monson and Iyer viewing groove-based music as
“playing and keeping time” and “featuring a steady and isochronous pulse.”8 Iyer argued that
“European Classical music would not fall into the realm of groove-based music because of the
reliance on tempo variation for expressive purposes,” referring to tempo fluctuations such as
rallentando, ritardando, accelerando, fermatas, and rubato as too flexible in the “less forgiving
realm of tempo variation” in music such as jazz or western popular songs.9 Clearly, Iyer and
Abel were arguing that “tightness” or “temporal accuracy” was an underlying factor of groove in
music that was not inherent in European classical music.
These ideals of what groove is in music leads us to an interesting point in my studies of
how I am identifying the elements of groove in orchestral music. Definitely, there is a validity to
Abel and Iyer’s arguments; many of the features they found essential to groove in music are
features of groove that we have been studying throughout the quarter. But is it possible that
6
Abel, Mark, Groove: An Aesthetic of Measured Time, (Chicago, Haymarket, 2015), 18.
Ibid., 24.
8 Ibid., 26.
9 Ibid., 26.
7
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classical music moves to different elements of groove outside of what is described here? The
term groove itself is a broad term that can refer to a variety of elements of aesthetics in
performance practice or phenomenological events in a piece of music. Take the commonly used
phrase “being-in-the-groove.” Even though positive musical experiences are often attributed to
this phrase, it often extends to references outside of music. It is commonly used in sports, such as
referring to a tennis who found his rhythm and is consistently hitting well - he is considered to be
in-the-groove. Outside of sports, we might think of a financial consultant who is in a steady flow
of generating business and sales as being-in-the-groove. In music, being-in-the-groove outside of
the music that Abel and Iyer describe could mean entering in a steady flow of concentration
where one reaches a state of synchrony with the ensemble players around them.
Recontextualizing groove in this manner then becomes more broad and applicable to music
outside of popular or cultural dance music, opening an opportunity for us to investigate what
elements of classical music groove, and how orchestral performers reach higher states of groove
similarly to how performers might reach these states in music genres more commonly associated
with groove. In the next paragraphs, I will discuss each subject’s response to how groove was
operating in their experience as well as offer musical examples to supplement these experiences
that they described in our interviews.
Veronika Blanco
Veronika’s interview offered a number of interesting responses to what groove meant to
her as a percussionist in the UCDSO. Groove for her involved “having a feeling to move” as well
as “feeling the music in your body.” The pieces that she felt “grooved” the most for her was
Ligeti’s Violin Concerto, where she primarily played marimba and glockenspiel. Marimba
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played a crucial role in a number of the movements, especially in the first movement where the
soloist and the marimba are striking accented notes in irregular rhythms in unison.
Ex. 1 – Ligeti Violin Concerto mvmt. I mm. 13-18
The example above is taken from the performance score of the concerto. Throughout this section,
the soloist is playing consistent sixteenth notes that oscillate across multiple strings rapidly and
accents certain notes that pop out of the ostinato texture. These accented notes in the violin are to
be performed in unison with single-struck notes in the marimba. During the weeks leading up to
the concert, Veronika had learned the passage on her own because the orchestra would only have
three one-hour rehearsals with the soloist, all held on the week of the concert.
She noted with this piece, it took her an exceptionally long time to “get used to the
groove.” For her, one aspect of being able to get into the groove meant achieving a natural flow
where she was able to instinctually strike the single accented notes in the correct place in time. In
the weeks leading up to the final rehearsals with the soloist, she had attempted to practice this
passage with a metronome, but still felt it was difficult to feel the accents. Since counting these
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rhythms did not feel natural to her and in some ways counter-intuitive, her percussion teacher
recommended that she listened to a number of recordings of the violin concerto. This method
allowed her to entrain the rhythms in her mind and body, allowing her to operate between what
Thomas Turino describes as “states of Firstness and Secondness,” being able to perform on a
level where instinct begins to take place and performing feels more in-the-moment.10 Before
Veronika was reach a state of Secondness, all the practice and preparation was done in a state of
“Thirdness,” which Turino describes as “semiosis involving the mind to make something of the
sign-object relationship.”11 This state of Thirdness, where Veronika went through the process of
learning her percussion part in the Ligeti was a process of turning “signs” and “objects” into
“indices;” forming indices in this music helped her develop automatic relationships between
what was written and how she needed to perform it. Because of how complex the music was
written and notated, it was crucial for her to develop indexical relationships within the music to
be able to successfully function in states of Secondness and Firstness during the performance.
When the soloist, Miranda Cuckson, had come to rehearse the concerto with the
orchestra, Veronika stated that at first it did not feel natural to play her unison part with Miranda.
She describes the first rehearsals as “learning Miranda’s tendencies within her solo line.” As
seen in the video recording, Miranda’s interpretation of the music in this passage was executed in
a fairly straightforward manner with evidence of slight rubato within the phrases and accented
melodic notes.12 During the first two rehearsals, Veronika describes the experience of rehearsing
with Miranda as intensely attempting to follow her, having little confidence of where to place her
10
Turino, Thomas, “Peircean Thought as Core Theory for a Phenomenological Ethnomusicology,”
(Ethnomusicology), 206-207.
11 Ibid., 191.
12 The video recording of this passage can be accessed on: https://youtu.be/Ys1QHB7y3Ts?t=23m15s
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notes. After those two rehearsals, she noticed that she had become more comfortable with
Miranda and learned how to read cues from her body movements (since Miranda was facing
away towards the audience). Veronika claims from this moment on through the performance, she
it felt it was significantly easier to play along with her and had reached a state of being “in-thegroove” with Miranda.
Being in-the-groove for Veronika in this circumstance meant keeping a strict sense of
rhythm and playing in time with the orchestra and the soloist. This particular section of the piece
called for a certain “tightness” and contains some of the elements that Abel argues are inherent in
music that grooves; from the video performance and the score, you can see and hear that there is
a strict attitude to the pulse of metronomic time over highly syncopated musical lines.13 Ligeti’s
Violin Concerto would most likely not be a piece that Abel characterizes as groovy because it is
lacks the other elements such as back beats, deep metricality, and cyclical repetition over multileveled meters over long durations. When examining and listening to this specific instance of
Veronika’s experience with performing her part Ligeti’s Violin Concerto, we might recognize
that some element of groove is embedded into the music even though that groove process is
obfuscated because the composer has engineered a sense of wild unpredictability in the
successive pattern of notes.
Christian Baldini
Christian Baldini has been the Music Director and conductor of the UCDSO since 2009.
As a conductor, Christian described his job as intellectual as well as emotional. He saw one of
his responsibilities as being “the safety net of the orchestra, having to live through every moment
to help monitor the performers.” The role of a conductor to him was not a one-way street, and
13
Abel, Groove, 42.
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recognized that communication across the orchestra was vital to having success in performance.
He said, “In an ideal situation, you wouldn’t have to move a finger and they could play
themselves.”
In my experience with Christian as a conductor, I learned he was not shy to using
unorthodox rehearsal techniques in attempts to expand the orchestra’s perception of the music.
During one rehearsal, Christian conducted an exercise with the orchestra called “mixing,” a
technique that is more commonly practiced with choirs when a conductor is looking to find
better sense of balance or blend across the voices. This exercise demanded that every player sat
by a different instrument in a different section, where we would all switch to a different spot in
the orchestra several times throughout the rehearsal. Christian saw the point of this exercise as
giving the individual a greater sense of autonomy over their part in the music; for string players
this is particularly important because it is easy to become codependent on players around you to
lead you through the music. Mixing up players throughout the orchestra helped give all the
members a broader perspective on the parts that they do not normally get to hear in close
proximity. Christian strongly believed to be able to groove to something, you have to hear it and
feel it; when Christian started shaking things up, it forced the players to listen to each other
across all sections to be able to perform as a unit under these untypical situations.
In our interview, he had number of responses of what groove meant to him in the context
of classical music. The initial statement that is given below shows that Christian relates to groove
in a similar way to what we have been discussing throughout the quarter:
Groove is a verb, but also a noun. It is something you live, but also experience. There is a
double intent embedded in the word; as a performer you have to feel it, and to find it you
have to be in the moment.
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Groove terminology was often important to Christian’s rehearsal vocabulary when describing
how to execute specific passages of music. When applicable, he would often relate passages to
Flamenco or Tango to try to inspire the orchestra to move more or get “into the groove” of a
certain section in a piece. Once he said: “you have to feel like you want to dance here, you have
to be moving inside and through your sound and have to convince us that you are feeling it!” The
analogy of feeling like we should be Flamenco dancing was often used when we were rehearsing
the third movement of Sibelius’ Symphony no. 6.
Ex. 2 – Sibelius Symphony no. 6 Mvmt. III, rehearsal D
In this movement, the eighth note – sixteenth note rest – eighth note rhythm was a rhythmic
motive used throughout each section.14 Christian’s choice in using dance terminology was
14
The video recording of this movement can be accessed here: https://youtu.be/Ys1QHB7y3Ts?t=1h29m37s
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probably an attempt to get us to feel “lighter on our feet,” or in more technical terms – an attempt
to get us away from the heavy Beethovenian orchestral sound.
Finding or connecting relationships between orchestral music and groove was an
important aesthetical practice to Christian’s as a conductor. Being able to “let go” as a conductor
was a necessary part of being able to get into the groove of the music. To “let go” meant to be
able to reach a place where there is a trust gained between the players and conductor. In our
rehearsals, Christian was known to take risks, sometimes taking music at paces almost too fast
for the orchestra to handle. This was particularly true when we were rehearsing the third
movement of the symphony; when I asked him about this, he replied: “Taking risks makes for
more exciting moments. Sometimes taking the safer route is not always the best, but if I have to
simplify, but not until until I have exhausted all options.” This might be somewhat related to
what Abel described about Alfred Shultz’s flux of inner time and “phrasing,” where Abel states
that the crucial point between the musical work and content involves a synchronization of
temporal fluxes in the listener and the composer’s music.15 Christian’s executive decision to take
the music faster can be seen as a result of his lived experience as a musician, choosing to
“phrase” this movement as a period of tension in the overall musical flux.16 The tension may
come across to the audience in how fast the music is moving as well as through observing that
the orchestra is riding on the edge of their capabilities.
One example of this on the micro-level is where Christian explicitly advocated for a
synchronization of temporal fluxes in one of the concertmaster’s solos in Scheherazade. During
one rehearsal, the concertmaster was performing her passage in a fairly straightforward manner
15
16
Abel, 127.
Ibid., 129.
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when Christian stated to her that he saw the music as more “dance-like” and whimsical. Christian
told the concertmaster this passage should not be played strictly in time, advocating for creating
a temporal flux within the given bar lines.17 In the recording of the performance, you can hear
the concertmaster taking liberties of pushing and stretching the tempo, as well as executing the
micro-organization of notes in an uneven manner. While this change was quite subtle, it gave the
music a higher quality of groove that may be connected to ideas related to micro-timing.
Ex. 3 – Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheheraze, mvmt. I, rehearsal C
To Christian, groove seemed to mean a number of things that relates to what we have
been covering in the groove seminar this quarter. In my interviews him, it is clear that groove
involves having the impetus to move and in some cases, having the feeling to dance. The
orchestra performing in synchrony was also an important qualifier of groove, and this was
achieved through a line of trust between the conductor and the performers. Phrases used by
Christian such as “being in-the-moment” might allude to the optimal desire of operating in a
state of Secondness, where his mind does not have to reflect on the sign-object relationship
experienced in a state of Thirdness. This state of Thirdness is probably experienced often in
rehearsal, when Christian often has to observe and listen to what is not operating correctly across
the ensemble. I believe that one of the end goals of Christian as a conductor and a teacher is to
17
The video recording of this passage can be accessed here: https://youtu.be/eifwWqy9Qhc?t=56m2s
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prepare the ensemble to operate outside of a state of Thirdness, where the music begins to flow
more naturally in these ordered states of consciousness.
My Experience as a member of the UCDSO
As a performer with the UCDSO, I was assigned to play with the first violin section of
the orchestra. My assignment was not a designated leadership role; in a first violin section of an
orchestra, the leadership falls directly under the concertmaster, sometimes extending out to the
second and third chair in the event that the concertmaster is unable to attend a rehearsal or
concert or is designated a specific assignment on a piece. An instance of the redesignation of
leadership was seen in Ligeti’s Violin Concerto, where the concertmaster was asked by the
conductor to play a separate solo violin part which required a specific scordatura tuning that was
unlike the other violins. Outside of this separate violin part, the score called for four other violins
with standard tuning, all with separate parts labeled “Violin I, II, III, and IV.” The second and
third chair were assigned Violin I and II, with the sitting second chair violinist of the section
assumed the concertmaster position. My assignment was to perform the Violin III part, which did
not contain any prominent solos compared to the Violin I part.
One of the sections in the Violin Concerto that elicited the highest amount of groove in
this piece was found in a tutti of the first movement. As seen in Ex. 3 below, Ligeti had divided
the 4/2 bar into an irregular pattern of (3+2+2+2) + (3+2+2). This grouping is believed to be
influenced by African rhythms that Ligeti had become fascinated with from the middle to late
periods of his compositional output. It is not exactly clear where these rhythms were derived
from but the pattern is detailed in specificity by the grouping and dotted bar lines.
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While this section is short lived and never comes backs into its fully realized form, it
contains a repetition of the pattern that should be executed with a “tightness” that eludes to what
we experience in groove-based music.18
Ex. 3 – Ligeti’s Violin Concerto mvmt. I mm. 34 – 36
I had also used other strategies such as slow practicing while counting to be able to
internalize the beat and over time would increase the speed to be able to play up to tempo. Once I
had taken the music from a state of Thirdness to Secondness on a personal level, the next task
was attempting to find where my part fit in with the rest of the ensemble. For most of the
Rehearsals, I was operating in a state of Thirdness; I was often confused about where my part fit
in, never quite feeling in-the-groove with the rest of the orchestra. In the rehearsals leading up to
the concert, the orchestra never felt like it had confidently entered a confident sense of groove
18
The video recording of this section can be accessed on: https://youtu.be/Ys1QHB7y3Ts?t=24m18s
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with each other. From my perspective, it often felt that everyone (including myself) had a lack of
understanding of how the parts were operating with each other.
It was not until Miranda came the week of the performance where everyone started to
have a stronger sense of where their part fit into the music. I could feel Veronika had a better
sense where her percussion part fit in with soloist because she had finally had someone to play
the part with. I also noticed that Christian was finally able to “let go” to a higher degree with his
conducting because he was able to rely on Miranda to relay information to the orchestra through
her solo melodic lines or visual cues. I could tell Miranda’s presence changed the dynamic of the
orchestra’s overall performance level for the better because I was able to find higher groove
states by obtaining a clearer sense of how my own part was operating within the ensemble.
In my own personal experience in playing with the orchestra with quarter, groove was
something that had to be developed over time. There was very little groove, if any, in the first
few rehearsals of starting a new piece. Everyone was usually sight reading and had limited
knowledge about how their part functioned within the ensemble. For me, this is generally a
negative experience, because all of my senses that need to be stimulated in order to ascend into a
higher groove state are not aroused. For me, being-in-the-groove requires that everyone around
me understands their part, and without that type of confidence felt within the ensemble it
becomes very difficult to enjoy the music because experiencing groove is usually accompanied
with feelings of pleasure and gratification. For any orchestra to obtain this level, they need to
develop a sense of continuous exchange of information across the ensemble; a study by
Alessandro D’ausilo et. al found that a “musician has to wisely balance several external sources
of information and mix them up inorder to reach the required performance.”19 These sources of
19
D’Ausilio, Alessandro, et. al, “Leadership in Orchestra,” (Lecture Notes) 275
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information may have to do with Turino’s explanations of icons, signs, and symbols taken from
Peircean theory and applied to phenomenological music studies. Performers are constantly
applying indexical information that is obtained and stored in our memory during individual
practice and group rehearsals. Over time, a strong “iconicity” of each piece is developed so it can
allow us as performers to make sense of how the music operates and to be able to utilize the
stored indexical information necessary to operate in a state of Secondness and Firstness.20
Conclusion
Discovering what groove means in a symphony orchestra was an interesting endeavor
because musicians that are classically trained do not necessarily feel music the same way that a
performer of groove-based music experiences it. Both Veronika and Christian related groove to
movement or dance and felt that the idea of groove was important to have the ability to perform
well. It was also interesting to find that there were many similarities in their responses that are
connected to some of the scholarship we have been analyzing throughout this course. In this
course, we learned Groove could refer to a number of things: how music is structured, the subtle
and nuanced elements, the stimulus to move, a state of consciousness, or an overall feeling. It is
difficult to analyze groove within classical music when it is described in the context of what
Abel as well as many other scholars have defined. Most classical music does not contain highly
repetitive or cyclical forms, and contains too much flux in tempo to require the “tightness” that is
characteristic of music that grooves. When we take away these elements as precursors for
groove, it is easier to observe similarities and ideas related to groove across genres. The
performers I interviewed found a strong relevance to groove-based music in their own
interpretations of classical music that helped them reach a higher state of ordered consciousness
20
Turino, Peircean Theory, 192.
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in their performance. It was also helpful that groove is something that is quite open-ended and
broad, allowing it to be applicable in tracing elements of groove through my experience of
performing with the UCDSO.
Bibliography
Abel, Mark. Groove: An Aesthetic of Measured Time. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books, 2015.
D’Ausilio, Alessandro, Leonardo Badino, Yi Li, Sera Tokay, Laila Craighero, Rosario Canto,
Yiannis Aloimonos, and Luciano Fadiga. "Communication in Orchestra Playing as
Measured with Granger Causality." Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences,
Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering Intelligent Technologies for
Interactive Entertainment, 2012, 273-75.
Janata, Petr, Stefan T. Tomic, and Jason M. Haberman. "Sensorimotor Coupling in Music and
the Psychology of the Groove." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 141, no. 1
(2012): 54-75.
Turino, Thomas. "Peircean Thought As Core TheoryFor A Phenomenological
Ethnomusicology." Ethnomusicology 58, no. 2 (2014): 185-221
19