ACADEMIC STRUCTURE
Sentence (sen·tence)
ˈsen(t)əns/
noun
1.
a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying
a statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause and
sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.
Paragraph
A paragraph is a collection of sentences that deal with one topic or idea. When a new
paragraph begins it signals to the reader that the focus shifts to a new idea or thought. At the
same time, all paragraphs should connect to the main topic.
ACADEMIC WRITING
Academic writing is conducted in several sets of forms and genres, normally in an impersonal
and dispassionate tone, targeted for a critical and informed audience, based on closely
investigated knowledge, and intended to reinforce or challenge concepts or arguments. It
usually circulates within the academic world ('the academy'), but the academic writer may also
find an audience outside via journalism, speeches, pamphlets, etc. Typically,
scholarly writing has an objective stance, clearly states the significance of the topic, and is
organized with adequate detail so that other scholars may try to replicate the results. Strong
papers are not overly general and correctly utilize formal academic rhetoric.
Wikipedia
1. determines the structure of a specific
academic text
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_writing#For_studen
ts
Academic writing is conducted in several sets of forms and genres, normally in an impersonal and
dispassionate
tone,
targeted
for
a
critical
and
informed
audience,
based
on
closely
investigated knowledge, and intended to reinforce or challenge concepts or arguments. It usually
circulates within the academic world ('the academy'), but the academic writer may also find an
audience outside via journalism, speeches, pamphlets, etc. Typically, scholarly writing has an
objective stance, clearly states the significance of the topic, and is organized with adequate detail so
that other scholars may try to replicate the results. Strong papers are not overly general and
correctly utilize formal academic rhetoric.
https://www.ereadingworksheets.com/text-structure/
Text Structure
Text Structure
The term “text structure” refers to how information is organized in a
passage. The structure of a text can change many times in a work and even
within a paragraph. Students are often asked to identify text structures or
patterns of organization on state reading tests. Also, understanding text
structures can help students make and interpret arguments. For these
reasons it is important that students are exposed to the various patterns of
organization.
This page will briefly explain seven commonly used patterns of
organization, provide examples, and then offer users free text structure
worksheets and interactive online practice activities to help students learn
this essential reading skill.
Cause and Effect: The results of something are explained.
Example: The dodo bird used to roam in large flocks across
America. Interestingly, the dodo wasn’t startled by gun shot. Because of
this, frontiersmen would kill entire flocks in one sitting. Unable to sustain
these attacks, the dodo was hunted to extinction.
Cause and Effect
Example: Many people think that they can get sick by going into cold
weather improperly dressed; however, illnesses are not caused by
temperature- they are caused by germs. So while shivering outside in the
cold probably won’t strengthen your immune system, you’re more likely to
contract an illness indoors because you will have a greater exposure to
germs.
In the above example, the paragraph explains how germs cause illnesses.
The germs are the cause in the paragraph and the illness is the effect.
Illnesses are caused by germs not temperature.
Here is another example of a paragraph that is written using the cause and effect
text structure:
Another Example:Students are not allowed to chew gum in my class. While
some students think that I am just being mean, there are many good
reasons for this rule. First, some irresponsible students make messes with
their gum. They may leave it on the bottoms of desks, drop it on the floor,
or put it on other people’s property. Another reason why I don’t allow
students to chew gum is because it is a distraction. When they are allowed
to chew gum, students are more worried about having it, popping it,
chewing it, and snapping it then they are in listening, writing, reading, and
learning. This is why I don’t allow students to chew gum in my class.
Identifying a text written using the cause and effect pattern of organization
can be tricky. In most stories, events in the plot occur for various reasons,
This can be mistaken for the cause and effect text structure; however,
stories are organized chronologically, and the information in each passage is
more likely to be organized by the time in which each event occurred.
Contrarily, cause and effect passages usually focus on explaining the reason
why something occurs or occurred, and time will usually not pass in these
paragraphs.
Here are some signal words that may indicate that information in a
paragraph is organized as cause and effect: because, as a result,
resulted, caused, affected, since, due to, effect.
Reasons why you can't chew
gum in class
Cause and effect is a common way to organize information in a
text. Paragraphs structured as cause and effect explain reasons why
something happened or the effects of something. These paragraphs can be
ordered as causes and effects or as effects and then causes. The cause and
effect text structure is generally used in expository and persuasive writing
modes.
To put it another way: when an author gives reasons why something
happened, he or she is explaining what caused an effect (reasons are causes
and the thing that happens is the effect). Also, when a writer explains the
results of an action, he or she is explaining the effects of a cause (results
are effects and the thing that occurs is the cause). The cause and effect text
structure is used so commonly that you have probably written a paragraph
using it and not noticed.
Chronological: information in the passage is organized in order of time.
Example: Jack and Jill ran up the hill to fetch a pail of water. Jack fell down
and broke his crown and Jill came tumbling after.
Learn More About Chronological Order
When information in a passage is organized by the time in which each event
occurred, it is organized chronologically. Nonfiction passages that are
organized chronologically often contains dates. Fiction passages or
narratives are more subtle and are organized chronologically but usually
have no dates. A narratives or story is a journey through time, and all of the
events are arranged in order of time; therefore, every story has a beginning,
middle, and end. Even if an author uses flashbacks, flash-forwards, or
otherwise manipulates the time in his or her text, the events still occur along
a timeline. Stories require the passage of time; therefore, all stories are
organized chronologically. Sometimes time will stop in a narrative. Certain
passages in a story may focus on describing scenary or spaces, and use a
descriptive or spatail method of organization. The conflict of a story may be
discussed in terms of problem and solution or cause and effect, but the text
in a story is still mainly organized chronologically.
Remember:
Chrono = Time
Logic = Order
Stories are told chronologically or in order of time.
(https://www.ereadingworksheets.com/text-structure/patterns-of-organization/chronological-order/)
Example: This morning was crazy. My alarm clock was set for PM instead of AM, so
I woke up really late. I just threw on some clothes and ran out the door. I rode my
bike as fast as I could and thought that I was going to be late for sure, but when I
got there everyone was outside and there were firetrucks all lined up in front of
school. I guess somebody pulled the fire alarm before class started. It worked out
though, because nobody really noticed or minded that I was tardy.
Stories are structured chronologically.
Compare and Contrast: two or more things are described. Their similarities and
differences
are
discussed.
Example: Linux and Windows are both operating systems. Computers use them to
run programs. Linux is totally free and open source, so users can improve or
otherwise modify the source code. Windows is proprietary, so it costs money to
use
and
users
are
prohibited
from
altering
the
source
code.
Learn More About Compare and Contrast
Compare and Contrast
Compare and Contrast is a text structure or pattern of organization where
the similarities and differences of two or more things are explored. It is
important to remember that with the compare and contrast text structure
the text should be discussing similarities anddifferences. If the text only
discusses similarities, it is only comparing. Likewise, if it only discusses ways
that the things are different, it is only contrasting. The text must do both to
be considered compare and contrast.
Example: Apples and oranges are both fruits, which means that they have
seeds inside of them. Each has a skin, but orange skins are thick and easy to
peel. Apple skins are thinner and do not peel easily. Oranges also contain
more acid than apples, but both fruits are delicious.
Identifying when the writer is comparing and contrasting is usually not difficult
because the speaker will bounce back and forth between two subjects and this
pattern is generally pretty easy to recognize.
However, here are some signal
words that may indicate that the text is written using the compare and contrast
organizational pattern: like, unlike, both, neither, similar, and different.
Compare and Contrast Graphic Organizer
Order of Importance: information is expressed as a hierarchy or in priority.
Example: Here are the three worst things that you can do on a date. First, you
could tell jokes that aren’t funny and laugh really hard to yourself. This will make
you look bad. Worse though, you could offend your date. One bad “joke” may
cause your date to lash out at you, hence ruining the engagement. But the worst
thing that you can do is to appear slovenly.
By not showering and properly
grooming, you may repulse your date, and this is the worst thing that you can do.
Learn More About Order of Importance
Order of Importance
Ideas or steps are prioritized by the writer or speaker according to a
hierarchy of value. When using the order of importance pattern of
organization, information can be structured from most important to least
important or least important to most important. Both structures would be
considered as the order of importance text structure.
Example: The company has a clearly laid out hierarchy. All major decisions
go through the president, who controls the entire operation, but most daily
decisions go to the board. Beneath the board members are the regional
managers, who oversee the branch managers, who run each local branch.
The Order of Importance organizational pattern can be difficult to identify
alongside cause and effect and sequence text structures. In fact, in some
cases one could use the same graphic organizer to represent information
from an order of importance and sequence passage. The difference is subtle
and must be inferred at times, but generally a sequential passage explains
the steps that occur in a process.
Order of Importance Example: Power Structure
Problem and Solution: a problem is described and a response or solution is
proposed
or
explained.
Example: thousand of people die each year in car accidents involving drugs or
alcohol. Lives could be saved if our town adopts a free public taxi service. By
providing such a service, we could prevent intoxicated drivers from endangering
themselves
Learn More About Problem and Solution
or
others.
Problem and Solution
Problem and Solution is a pattern of organization where information in a
passage is expressed as a dilemma or concerning issue (a problem) and
something that was, can be, or should be done to remedy this issue
(solution or attempted solution). The problem and solution text structure
may seem like it would be easy to recognize, but it can be moderately
difficult to identify because it is frequently confused with the cause and
effect pattern of organization, as they both have relational structures;
however, if you read the passage and look specifically for both a problem
and a solution to the problem, you should find it pretty easy to distinguish
from cause and effect, as cause and effect passages do not propose
solutions to any negative occurrences within the passage but rather just
explain why or how they happen.
Example: It seems like there has been a surge in teen pregnancies these
days. Teen pregnancies make it very difficult for young mothers to pursue
their dreams and meet the demands of an infant. Fortunately, most teen
pregnancies can be easily prevented by using birth control; however, even
birth control is not 100% effective. The most effective way to prevent teen
pregnancies is abstinence, which is 100% effective.
There are also a few signal words which may indicate that information in a
passage is ordered in the problem and solution pattern of organization: propose,
solution, answer, issue, problem, problematic, remedy, prevention, and fix.
Sequence / Process Writing: information is organized in steps or a process is
explained
in
the
order
in
which
it
occurs.
Example: Eating cereal is easy. First, get out your materials. Next, pour your
cereal
in
the
bowl,
add
milk,
and
enjoy.
Learn More About Sequence
Sequence
Sequential order, or process writing as it is sometimes called, is when information
in a passage is organized by the order in which it occurs. This method of organizing
text is generally used for instructions or directions, but it can also be used to
explain processes in nature or society, such as how a president is elected.
Sequential organization is frequently confused with chronological order. To further
confound the issue, sometimes people refer to chronological order as chronological
sequence. But there is a key difference that distinguishes the two patterns: texts
organized chronologically occur at a specific time and setting, whereas texts
describing processes or sequences do not occur at any specific time and place. To
elaborate, if I tell the story of how I came home and made cookies, that
information is organized chronologically. The story took place in my kitchen
sometime in the past.
Alternately, consider instructions on how to make cookies. When did that occur?
That could happen at anytime or no time at all. This is because a recipe describes a
process or sequence, one which is not attached to any specific chronology.
Unlike chronologically ordered texts, information organized sequentially does
not occur at any specific time but, rather, anytime.
Signal Words: First, next, before, lastly, then
Example: How to Make Cookies. First, get your materials. Then, make your
dough. Lastly, cook your dough at 400 degrees for 10 minutes.
Sequence: How to Make Cookies
Spatial / Descriptive Writing: information is organized in order of space (top to
bottom,
left
to
right).
Example: when you walk into my bedroom there is a window facing you. To the
right of that is a dresser and television and on the other side of the window is my
bed.
Learn More About Spatial Organization
Spatial
Spatial organization is when information in a passage is organized in
order of space or location. If you were to describe the room in which you
were sitting right now, you would be using spatial organization. Spatial
organization may also be called descriptive writing and it is most frequently
used when the narrator describes how something looks. Spatial organization
is generally pretty easy to identify, but be aware that spatial organization is
used in both fiction and nonfiction texts. Most fictional passages are
organized chronologically, but in paragraphs where the narrator is describing
a setting or the appearance of a character, the information may be
organized spatially.
Example: Volcanoes are a feared and destructive force for good reason. A
volcano is like a pressure valve for the inner earth, but they can also be very
beautiful. One part of the volcano that people rarely see is the magma
chamber. The magma chamber is way beneath the Earth’s bed rock. It is
tremendously hot. Running from the magma chamber to the crater of the
volcano is the conduit. The conduit connects the magma chamber to the
outer world. At the top of the volcano is the the crater. This is where the
magma exits. Volcanoes are a beautiful yet dangerous natural phenomenon.
There are many different graphic organizers you can use to represent the
information in a spatially ordered passage. You could draw whatever
information is described in the passage.
Some signal words that might indicate that the writer or speaker is
following the spatial pattern of organization include a wide sweeping array of
prepositions, some of which I will now list: next to, behind, across from,
below that, above that, to the right of and so forth.
Spatial Organization: description of the layers of a volcano.
Academic writing is characterized by evidence-based arguments, precise word choice, logical
organization, and an impersonal tone. It informs, analyzes, and persuades in a straightforward
manner and enables the reader to engage critically in a scholarly dialogue. Academic writing
is, of course, any formal written work produced in an academic setting.
The following are some of the most common.
Literary Analysis. A literary analysis essay examines, evaluates, and makes an argument about a
literary work. As its name suggests, a literary analysis essay goes beyond mere summarization. It
requires careful close reading of one or multiple texts and often focuses on a specific
characteristic, theme or motif.
Research Paper. A research paper utilizes outside information to support a thesis or make an
argument. Research papers are written in all disciplines and may be evaluative, analytical, or
critical in nature. Common research sources include data, primary sources (e.g. historical
records), and secondary sources (e.g. peer-reviewed scholarly articles). Writing a research
paper involves synthesizing this external information with your own ideas.
Dissertation. A dissertation (or thesis) is a document submitted at the conclusion of a Ph.D.
program. The dissertation is a book-length summarization of the doctoral candidate’s research.
Here is a list of documents where academic writing is used. Some are self-explanatory and some
have a brief explanation.
Books and book reports
Translations
Essays
Research paper or research article
Conference paper
Academic journal
Dissertation and Thesis - These are written to obtaining an advanced degree at a college or
university.
Abstract - This is a short summary of a long document.
Explication - This is a work which explains part of a particular work.
The Structure of Academic Texts
Structure is an important feature of academic writing. A well-structured text enables the
reader to follow the argument and navigate the text. In academic writing a clear structure
and a logical flow are imperative to a cohesive text. Furthermore, in many university
assignments the correct use of structure is part of the final assessment.
Most academic texts follow established structures. This page describes some common
structures in academic writing: the three-part essay structure and the IMRaD structure.
Structure should be considered on all levels of text so you will also find information on
structuring paragraphs.
Structures
The structure of your writing depends on the type of assignment, but two common structures
used in academic writing are the three-part essay structure and the IMRaD structure. Even
shorter essays that are not divided into titled sections follow such a structure. Longer texts
may be further divided into subsections. Different disciplines or departments may prefer that
students use a certain structure, so make sure to check with your instructor if you are not sure
The Three-part Essay Structure
The three-part essay structure is a basic structure that consists of introduction, body and
conclusion. The introduction and the conclusion should be shorter than the body of the text.
For shorter essays, one or two paragraphs for each of these sections can be appropriate. For
longer texts or theses, they may be several pages long.



The reader is introduced to the topic that will be discussed and to the argument that
will be presented
The discussion/analysis is carried out and the results are presented
The arguments are summed up and conclusions are drawn
INTRODUCTION






to provide the reader with a clear idea of the focus and aim of the text
the topic is presented
often accompanied by a thesis statement (the claim the writer wishes to make)
provides the context or background of the argument
introduces the theoretical perspectives, terminology, etc. that will be used
explains how the writing will be organized
BODY
 Where the essay’s (or article’s) argument, ideas and results are developed and
discussed
CONCLUSION

Should not contain any new facts or ideas, but rather function as a brief restatement
of the main arguments and facts that have been treated in the essay
The IMRaD Structure
The sections of the IMRaD structure are Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. Watch
this short film about the IMRaD structure:
More on the IMRaD structureShow more/less
Introduction
See the description of the introduction in the above section about the three-part essay
structure.
Method
In this section you describe how you have conducted your study. This is where you present
your material and your research as well as any previous research and background material.
You describe what method or methods you have used and how you have come up with your
results. You may also explain why you have chosen a particular method.
However, you should be aware that there can be differences between disciplines in the
contents and structure of this section.
Results
In this section you report the results of your research. Usually the results are not discussed or
analyzed in this section but you may have to explain some of your findings to avoid
misunderstandings.
Discussion
The discussion is the section where you as a writer are the most active and it should be the
most substantial section of the entire paper. You should interpret, analyze and discuss your
results as well as compare and contrast them to previous research.
Sometimes papers that use the IMRaD structure will have a separate conclusion and
sometimes the conclusion will be merged with the discussion. Be sure to check with your
instructor what is expected of you.
2. differentiates language used in academic
texts from various disciplines
Academic Language
ACADEMIC DICIPLINES
The following table shows one version of the main academic disciplines and some of their branches.
Discipline
Branch Examples
Business
Accounting, economics, finance, management, marketing
Humanities
Art, history, languages, literature, music, philosophy, religion, theater
Natural
sciences
and
applied Biology, chemistry, computer science, engineering, geology, mathematics, physics,
medicine
Social sciences
Anthropology, education, geography, law, political science, psychology, sociology
KEY TAKEAWAYS

Most academic disciplines have developed over many generations. Even though these disciplines are
constantly in flux, they observe certain standards for investigation, proof, and documentation of evidence.

To meet the demands of writing and thinking in a certain discipline, you need to learn its conventions.

An important aspect of being successful in college (and life) involves being aware of what academic
disciplines (and professions and occupations) have in common and how they differ.
EXERCISES
1.
Think about your entire course load this semester as a collection of disciplines. For each course
you are taking, answer the following questions, checking your textbooks and other course
materials and consulting with your instructors, if necessary:
o
What kinds of questions does this discipline ask?
o
What kinds of controversies exist in this discipline?
o
How does this discipline share the knowledge it constructs?
o
How do writers in this discipline demonstrate their credibility?
After you’ve asked and answered these questions about each discipline in isolation, consider what
underlying things your courses have in common, even if they approach the world very differently
on the surface.
2.
Based on the example at the end of this section, pick a topic that multiple disciplines study.
Formulate four questions about the topic, one from each of any four different disciplines. Ideally
choose a topic that might come up in four courses you are currently taking or have recently taken,
or choose a topic of particular interest to you. Here are just a few examples to get you started:
o
Alcoholism
3.
o
Child abuse
o
Poverty in developing nations
o
Fast food
o
Women in the workforce
Drawing from the synopses of current research on the Arts and Letters Daily website (see the Note 2.5
"Gallery of Web-Based Texts" in Chapter 2 "Becoming a Critical Reader"), read the article referenced on a
topic or theme of interest to you. Discuss how the author’s discipline affects the way the topic or theme is
presented (specifically, the standards of inquiry and evidence).
https://www.csun.edu/science/ref/language/academic-language/academic-language-ericson.html
Academic Language
What is academic language?
Academic vocabulary is used in all academic disciplines to teach about the content of the discipline, e.g.,
a water table is different from a periodic elements table. Before taking chemistry, for example, some
students know the technical words used in chemistry, while others do not. Preteaching of vocabulary and
subject-specific terminology helps to address that need. Teaching academic language can be
challenging because struggling readers and English learners do not always know the vocabulary used to
learn specific Academic language represents the language demands of school (academics). Academic
language includes language used in textbooks, in classrooms, on tests, and in each discipline. It is
different in vocabulary and structure from the everyday spoken English of social interactions. Each type of
communication (both academic and social) has its purpose, and neither is superior to the other.academic
terms or key concepts.
Academic structure also includes the established ways of organizing writing (which can affect how one
reads) in a discipline. Different genres, paragraph/sentence structure, level of text difficulty, purpose,
intended audience, overall organization, and knowledge of outside resources for the text all affect how
one
writes
and
reads
in
that
discipline.
How can I teach academic language? Some suggestions for teaching academic language include:


Identify the text and then analyze the genre, academic structure (see above), and academic
vocabulary (see above). For example, a lab report for chemistry requires different academic
structure and vocabulary than a newspaper article for social studies or a food recipe for home
economics. Two resources for this task: Gibbons (2002) and Knapp & Watkins (2005).
Provide explicit instruction/deconstruction/analysis with students concerning the text; provide
multiple models if necessary. Teaching students to deconstruct a word problem in algebra
requires different academic language from deconstructing a proof in geometry, a poem in English,
or a musical symphony. Teach them to use textual evidence to support their ideas in speaking
and writing.


Use explicit, scaffolded instruction: give clear instructions, both auditory and visual, and provide
models of expected or possible outcomes.
Bring academic language to the surface: teach students the term academic language, explain
why it is important, and provide systematic instruction and examples.
Adapted from Gebhard, M. & Willett, J. (2008). Social to Academic: University-School District Partnership
Helps Teachers Broaden Students’ Language Skills. JSD, 29(1), 41-45.
Adapted from <http://www.academiclanguage.org/Academic_Language.html>
Resources
Alvermann, D. E. (2001). In McGrath, D.
adolescents. Chicago: National Reading Conference.
Bailey,
A.L. (2007). The language demands
to the test. New Haven: Yale University Press.
(2005).
of
Effective
school:
literacy
Putting
instruction
academic
for
language
Scarcella, R. C. (2003). Accelerating academic English: A focus on the English learner.
Oakland, California: Regents of the University of California.
Source: Mira Pak, with help from Judy Lombardi, Carolyn Burch, and Bonnie Ericson
https://www.edglossary.org/academic-language/
ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
LAST UPDATED: 08.29.13
Academic language refers to the oral, written, auditory, and visual language proficiency required to learn
effectively in schools and academic programs—i.e., it’s the language used in classroom lessons, books, tests, and
assignments, and it’s the language that students are expected to learn and achieve fluency in. Frequently contrasted
with “conversational” or “social” language, academic language includes a variety of formal-language skills—such
as vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, syntax, discipline-specific terminology, or rhetorical conventions—that allow
students to acquire knowledge and academic skills while also successfully navigating school policies, assignments,
expectations, and cultural norms. Even though students may be highly intelligent and capable, for example, they
may still struggle in a school setting if they have not yet mastered certain terms and concepts, or learned how to
express themselves and their ideas in expected ways.
https://lnu.se/en/library/Writing-and-referencing/academic-writing/academic-language/
Features of Academic Language
COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/usage/commonly-confused-words
Academic language has a unique set of rules: it should be explicit, formal and factual as well
as objective and analytical in nature. Students often think that academic language should
sound complex and be difficult to write and understand but that is not necessarily the case.
Instead, academic writing should be clear and concise in order to communicate its contents
in the best way.
Formal
Formal writing requires considerable effort to construct meaningful sentences, paragraphs,
and arguments that make the text easy to comprehend. In general this means that
conversational English should be avoided and facts and figures should be presented in a
clear manner. Academic texts should be factual, concise and accurate. Choose words
precisely and carefully so that the reader can accurately understand the concepts within the
text.
It is important to remember that academic texts are written with an academic audience in
mind and your writing style needs to conform to the conventions of the field you are studying.
In order to achieve the appropriate level of formality, you should read literature within your
field. This will also help you learn and use subject-specific terms. Correct use of terminology
and language facilitates your communication and heightens the credibility of your work.
The Academic Phrasebank from the University of Manchester is a rich resource of phrases that
can be used in academic writing.
Contractions:
In English, contractions are used in informal settings and are therefore not appropriate for
academic texts. Instead of using a contraction you should write out the words in their ent irety.
Here are a few examples:
Don’t
–
do
not
Wasn’t
–
was
not
Can’t
–
cannot
(Observe
that
it
is
written
in
one
word)
It’s – it is (Observe the difference between “it’s” (contraction of “it is”) and the possessive “its”
(as in “The dog wagged its tail”)
Acronyms and Abbreviations:
It is important to use acronyms and abbreviations properly in academic writing so that your
text is as clear as possible for the reader. You should only use abbreviations when it makes the
reading of your text easier. Another rule of thumb is that the abbreviated term should appear
at least three times in the paper. If you use a term more rarely it might be better to spell it out.
Words that are commonly abbreviated such as “professor” (prof.) and “department” (dept.)
should be spelled out in academic texts. Note however that some abbreviations may be
used in citations and reference lists.
An acronym is a type of abbreviation that is formed by the first letter of each word in a
phrase or organization. UN and WHO are two examples of well-known acronyms. When you
introduce the acronym, you should always write out the whole name or phrase followed by
the acronym in parentheses. Once you have introduced it, you may use the acronym in the
rest of your text. For example:
The World Health Organization (WHO) has expressed concern over the spread of the virus. The
WHO has therefore….
Latin abbreviations should not be used in the text itself but may be used in parentheses or in
notes and illustrations.
Analytical
In academic writing, the complexity of the subject matter is acknowledged through critical
analysis. This can be done through asking questions and examining and evaluating
evidence. Through critical analysis we are able to add a new perspective to a subject
instead of just rewriting what has already been written.
Treating your topic and your material in an analytical manner should seep through in your
language. Part of being analytical in your writing is to compare and contrast, evaluate and
consider both sides of an issue. It also means that you explain, give reasons, draw
conclusions, make suggestions and recommendations and support this with evidence.
Objective
Academic writing is based on research and not on the writer’s own opinion about a given
topic. When you write objectively you are concerned about facts and not influenced by
personal feelings or biases. When presenting an argument to the reader, try to show both
sides if you can and avoid making value judgments.
At the same time you will probably have to do an analysis or a discussion and in that manner
express an attitude. In order to convey attitude without using for example “I think”, you may
use words such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely and unexpectedly. Note that the
attitude you are expressing should not be based on personal preferences but rather on the
evidence that you are presenting.
Personal
In general, academic texts are impersonal in nature. This means that the main emphasis
should be on evidence and arguments and not based on personal opinion and feelings. The
use of personal pronouns such as “I”, “we” and “you” should be avoided as much as possible.
Some types of academic writing encourage the use of personal pronouns. For example, in
reflective writing the use of the personal pronoun is accepted.
You should be aware that the use of personal pronouns may be different between academic
fields and that some disciplines do not accept it at all. Make sure to check what is
recommended, either by asking your instructor or by reading other academic texts within
your subject.
Active and Passive Voice
One way of avoiding the use of personal pronouns is to use the passive voice.
Example:
I used a variety of techniques to analyze my material. (Here the “I” is the subject performing
the action).
A variety of techniques were used to analyze the material. (This sentence is impersonal and
the action is performed upon the subject, “A variety of techniques”, by an unnamed agent.
The choice of “the” instead of “my” also serves to make the sentence more objective).
Use of the passive voice can be somewhat heavy and sometimes imprecise. Nowadays,
many writers avoid an excessive use of the passive voice. A way of writing objectively and still
use the active voice is to use your material, your text or your research as the active agent.
Examples:
As this this thesis will show….
The research reveals that….
Explicit
Academic writing is explicit in several ways. First and foremost, it means that there is a clear
presentation of ideas in the paper. The text should have a well-organized structure and be
easy for the reader to follow. One way to accomplish clarity and structure in your text is
through the use of signposts. Signposts are words and phrases that you can use in your text in
order to guide the reader along. Signposting can be divided into two different categories:
major signposting and linking words and phrases.
Major signposting is used to signal key aspects of the work, such as the purpose of an
academic paper and its structure. Some examples of major signposting:
The aim of this study is to …
This chapter reviews/deals with …
In conclusion …
Linking words and phrases create coherence and give the reader directions by marking
transitions between sentences and paragraphs. Some examples of linking words and phrases:
However, …
Firstly,...
Secondly,...
For example …
… because …
Being explicit in your writing also means that you are not vague but rather very specific in the
presentation of ideas, numbers and years. Being specific helps add precision to your writing.