Cells – The Building Blocks of Life
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Table of Contents
3) MA Standards
4) Cells – Structure & Function
8) Cells and Microscopes
14) The Pioneers of Cell Theory
18) Cell Organelles
38) Biochemistry Basics: Elements & Compounds
41) Organic or Inorganic? What do our bodies need?
43) Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
55) Water’s Importance
59) Passive & Active Transport through Cell Membranes
73) The Size Limit of Animals & Cells
75) Cell Functions – What do cells do?
76) Photosynthesis
78) Cell Respiration
87) Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Activity
89) Fermentation – Lactic and Alcoholic
99) The Cell Cycle – A Form of Asexual Reproduction
106) Mitosis in Detail – Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase
113) Cell Cycle Booklet Material
116) Cancer
122) Common/Summative Assessment Review
123) Jeopardy for Common/Summative Assessment
Life Science (Biology), Grades 6–8: MA Learning Standards
• L2 – Recognize that all organisms are composed of cells, and that many
organisms are single-celled (unicellular), e.g., bacteria, yeast. In these singlecelled organisms, one cell must carry out all of the basic functions of life.
• L3 – Compare and contrast plant and animal cells, including major organelles
(cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, mitochondria,
vacuoles).
• L4 – Recognize that within cells, many of the basic functions of organisms (e.g.,
extracting energy from food and getting rid of waste) carried out. The way in
which cells function is similar in all living organisms.
• L9 - Compare sexual reproduction (offspring inherit half of their genes from
each parent) with asexual reproduction (offspring is an identical copy of the
parent’s cell).
• L16 – Recognize that producers (plants that contain chlorophyll) use energy
from sunlight to make sugars from carbon dioxide and water through a process
called photosynthesis. This food can be used immediately, stored for later use,
or used by other organisms.
• What are cells?
– Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in an organism.
• Where are cells found?
– Cells are found throughout the entire bodies of all organisms.
Structure & Function
• Below is an actual image of cells within the leaf of a plant.
• The entire plant gets its structure (shape, composition, and strength)
from the cell walls surrounding each cell.
• The plant must create sugar during photosynthesis,.
• It and also must convert this sugar into energy during cell respiration.
• Photosynthesis and cell respiration are functions that occur in plant
cells, as do the functions of all living things.
What is structure again?
• Many buildings get structure from bricks and concrete, while
some bridges get structure from steel. All living things get
their structure from cells – the “building blocks of life”.
What is function again?
• Function is a word that represents the activities something performs. An
iPhone has many functions – such as playing music, making telephone calls,
texting, taking photographs, access to internet and games.
• Cells also have functions. All cells perform cell respiration, which is the break
down of glucose into energy. Plant cells perform photosynthesis, which is the
formation of glucose using the energy from light to cause a reaction between
water and carbon dioxide.
Discovering Cells
• Cells: the basic unit of structure and function in all living things
– “The Building Blocks of Life”
– Very small; most are invisible to the naked eye; 1-100 µm (micrometers)
– 100,000 skin cells in 1 cm2 of skin
• What had to be invented before cells were discovered? Talk it over.
• Microscope: an instrument that makes small objects look larger; 1590
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLuaQRtyH9Y – How small is a Cell?; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t4Tst9DZFPI – Sizes of Rice, Cells, and Atoms
– Simple light microscope: one lens (x266)
– Compound light microscope: more than one lens (x1,000)
– Electron microscope: detects energy from electrons (x1,000,000)
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8-oCZ_JEgbM – Terrible Organisms with high magnification and resolution
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SIOOLXbwWME – Electron microscope images
The Limits of Light Microscopes
• Just like the energy within ocean waves, light also travels in waves.
• Objects that are very small, such as atoms, are smaller than the wavelength of light
waves. Therefore, atoms cannot be seen with light microscopes.
• But the “waves” that electrons travel in have wavelengths that are smaller than
atoms, making it possible for atoms to be seen by electron microscopes.
The Electron Microscope
• An electron microscope has
levels of magnification that
far exceed that of light
microscopes. The best light
microscopes have
magnifications of 1,000x,
while electron microscopes
can magnify objects up to
1,000,000x.
• For an object to be seen by a
light microscope, it must be
larger in size than the
wavelength of light. Atoms
are
smaller
than
the
wavelength of light and
therefore cannot be seen with
light microscopes.
Magnification vs. Resolution
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Magnification is the apparent increase in size a microscope is able to produce.
Resolution is the clarity of the image produced.
It is possible that a microscope can have high magnification, but poor resolution.
The images of the “S” letters below are at the same magnification, but the
resolution of the one on the right is far better that the one on the left.
• As the image of the flower is magnified to a higher level, its resolution decreases.
• Both magnification and resolution are important when using microscopes.
Spy Planes & Satellites
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1250fZuhUg – SR71
Reflection
• 1) Cells are the basic unit of structure and function within all
organisms, from unicellular bacteria to multicellular animals such as
elephants that contain many trillions of cells. What is meant by the
terms “structure” and “function”?
• 2) Why were cells unknown to humans until microscopes and handlenses were invented?
• 3) How does a simple light microscope differ from a compound light
microscope? Which has a greater magnification?
• 4) In viewing microscopic objects such as cells, why is the resolution
of a microscope just as important as its magnification?
• 5) Atoms are too small to be seen with light microscopes. However,
they can be seen using electron microscopes. Why?*
• *To answer #5, log onto Edline and access the PowerPoint document
“Unit 7 – Discovering Cells”, and review slides #9-10.
The Pioneers of Cell Theory
• Robert Hooke: England, 1663; using his own compound light
microscope he observed cork oak cells
– What he saw resembled rectangular rooms, or “cells”.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J9eOBqhz01Y – Hooke’s Cork Cells
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Netherlands, 1683; used simple
microscope to view unicellular organisms in pond water
– Called organisms “animalcules”
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mXqyCNAYrH4 – Life in a Drop of Pond Water
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pvOz4V699gk – amoeba eating paramecium
The Pioneers of Cell Theory
• The work of the following German scientists was combined to create
what is known today as The Cell Theory.
• Matthais Schleiden – “all plants are made of cells”
• Theodor Schwann – “all animals are made of cells”
• Rudolf Virchow – “cells come from other cells”
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The Rules of Cell Theory
1) All living things are composed of cells.
2) Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living things.
3) All cells are produced from other cells (mitosis).
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FUqORLDDwVM&feature=related – Cell Theory
• Seeing is Believing
Reflection
• 1) How does a simple light microscope differ from a compound light
microscope? Which has a greater magnification?
• 2) In viewing microscopic objects such as cells, why is the resolution of a
microscope just as important as its magnification?
• Know the Names
• 3) Who made his own microscope to view cork cells for the first time?
When and where did this take place?
• 4) What is Anton von Leeuwenhoek known for? When and where did
Leeuwenhoek make his discovery?
• 5) Who stated that all plants are made from cells? Where was this
scientist from?
• 6) Who stated that all animals are made from cells? Where was this
scientist from?
• 7) What did Virchow state? Where was this scientist from?
• 8) What are the three rules of the Cell Theory?
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Answers - Know the Names
1) Who made his own microscope to view cork cells for the first time? When and
where did this take place?
Robert Hooke, of England, created a compound microscope and viewed the cells of a
cork tree, in 1663.
2) What is Anton von Leeuwenhoek known for? When and where did Leeuwenhoek
make his discovery?
Leeuwenhoek, of the Netherlands, is most known for his discovery of microscopic
organisms that he found by viewing pond water with his microscopic in 1683.
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3) Who stated that all plants are made from cells? Where was this scientist from?
Matthais Schleiden, of Germany, is given credit for the statement “all plants are made
of cells”.
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4) Who stated that all animals are made from cells? Where was this scientist from?
Theodore Schwann, of Germany, is given credit for the statement “all animals are
made of cells”.
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5) What did Virchow state? Where was this scientist from?
Rudolf Virchow, of Germany, stated that all cells, whether found in animals or plants,
must come from other cells.
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6) What are the three facts of the Cell Theory?
The Cell Theory contains three facts – 1) All living things are made of cells, 2) Cells are
the basic unit of structure and function in all living things, and 3) Cells come from
other cells.
What’s in a cell?
Organelles: small organ-like structures that perform specific functions
inside the cells of all organisms
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zafJKbMPA8 – The Cell Rap Song
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LP7xAr2FDFU – The Organelles (ER, Golgi, ribosomes, lysosomes, & mitochondria)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rABKB5aS2Zg – Cell Country Song
What’s inside a cell? Complete the table by reading p.24-30 in the textbook.
Cell Part/Organelle
Description/Function
Location - Perimeter/Cytoplasm/Nucleus
Plant or Animal or Both
1) cell wall
provides rigid structure to cell
Perimeter
Plant
2) cell membrane
3) nucleus
nucleus
4) nuclear membrane
5) chromatin
6) nucleolus
7) cytoplasm
8) mitochondria
9) endoplasmic reticulum
10) ribosomes
11) golgi bodies
12) chloroplasts
13) vacuoles
14) lysosomes
cytoplasm
Organelles and Cell Parts
• Perimeter (the exterior)
• 1) cell wall: a rigid layer of cellulose material surrounding a plant cell;
provides support and structure
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*Some protists and bacteria have cells walls, but only those that perform photosynthesis.
**Fungi also have cell walls, made of chitin, which is the same material that the
exoskeletons of arthropods consist of.
• 2) cell membrane: a thin boundary separating the cell from the outside
world; allows material in and out of cell by diffusion
• In the Nucleus
• 3) nucleus: controls all the functions of a cell; the “brain” of cell
• *Bacterial cells lack nuclei, as do human red blood cells.
• 4) nuclear membrane: a thin boundary separating the nucleus from the
rest of the cell; allows material in and out of nucleus by diffusion
• 5) chromatin: strands of DNA (genetic material) and proteins that
contains the cell’s instructions
• 6) nucleolus: manufactures ribosomes, which later leave the nucleus and
enter the cytoplasm via the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Organelles and Cell Parts
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In the Cytoplasm
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7) cytoplasm: a clear gel-like substance that fills the cell and holds organelles
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8) mitochondria: produce most of a cell’s energy; the “powerhouses”
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*Contain their own unique DNA, which provides evidence for the theory that eukaryotic cells developed
from one prokaryotic cell living inside another in a symbiotic relationship.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ak17BWJ3bLg – The Complexity of Mitochondria
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9) endoplasmic reticulum (ER): passageways that carry proteins & materials through cell;
also stores proteins to be used later for various purposes
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10) ribosomes: produces and reconstructs proteins (often located on ER)
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11) golgi bodies: receive proteins from endoplasmic reticulum, packages the protein in
chemicals for transportation, then distributes it throughout the cell or out of the cell
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12) chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs the energy from sunlight to produce
sugar during photosynthesis
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*Contain their own unique DNA, which provides evidence for the theory that eukaryotic cells developed
from one prokaryotic cell living inside another in a symbiotic relationship.
**Some protists and bacteria can perform photosynthesis. Protists, such as the euglena, contain
chloroplasts. Photosynthetic bacteria do not contain chloroplasts, but instead contain free-floating
chlorophyll molecules, which allow photosynthesis to occur.
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13) vacuoles: storage areas (they are large in plant cells; small in animal cells)
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14) lysosomes: contain chemicals that degrade (breakdown) food molecules & old cell parts
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*Lysosomes are found in animal cells, but there is now evidence that they also exist in plants.
Organelles through Electron Microscopes
• To the right is an image of
human blood as seen
through an electron
microscope. Artificial color
has been added to
distinguish between red
blood cells, which carry
glucose and oxygen, and
white blood cells, which
attack and kill pathogens like
bacteria and viruses.
• The following images exhibit
the organelles and parts of
both plant and animal cells
as seen through an electron
microscope.
Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm is a fluid that fills both plant and animal cells between the cell
membrane and nucleus. Most cell organelles are found within it.
• On the left is an animal cell, in which the cytoplasm has been artificially
colored blue. On the right is a plant cell, in which the cytoplasm has been left in
its colorless, clear state.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6sgH1C37Jsw – The Cytoplasm
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Cell walls, as seen on the left, provide a rigid structure to the exterior of plant cells.
Cell membranes, or cytoplasmic membranes, are found around all cells. The cell membrane
separates the cell from the outside world. It allows materials to pass in and out of cells. The
cell membranes of plant cells are found directly beneath the cell wall, as seen at the bottom
left. On the right top is an animal cell, and below it is a magnified view of its cell membrane.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GW0lqf4Fqpg – The Cell Membrane
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-aSfoB8Cmic – Cell Membranes & Walls (6 min)
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Nuclei are found in the center of all plant and
animal cells, and serve as the control center,
or “brain”, of the cell.
The nuclear membrane separates the nucleus
from the cytoplasm within the cell. It allows
materials to pass in and out of the nucleus.
Inside the nucleus is the nucleolus, which
creates ribosomes.
Also inside nuclei is chromatin, which is
comprised of DNA
DNA is the carrier of genetic information.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMd3mr6rQ2o – Everything in the Nucleus
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• Lysosomes & Vacuoles
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Below are lysosomes, which break down old
organelles, waste, and pathogens like viruses
and bacteria. They perform like “clean-up
crews”. They are mostly found in animals, but
there is evidence that plants contain them too.
Vacuoles, as seen to the right, are found in
both animal and plant cells, although they are
much larger in plants. Plants often have one
very large vacuole (top right), while animal
cells have several small ones (bottom right).
They are used to store water, food, & wastes.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3iUfINpUzJ4 – Vacuoles
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ekdIEpSf-1I - lysosomes
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Mitochondria
All plant and animal cells contain many mitochondria, which break down glucose to
release energy during cell respiration. Animal cells generally have more mitochondria
than plant cells because they require more energy to live. Muscle cells also have more
mitochondria than fat cells, since muscles require large amounts of energy to function.
Mitochondria look like beans with stripes, as seen below on the right.
Mitochondria have their own DNA that is entirely different from the DNA found within
the nucleus of a cell. It is believed that at one point in the ancient past, mitochondria
were independent organisms similar to bacteria that were consumed by larger cells, but
were not destroyed in the process and now exist in a state of symbiosis in which each can
not survive without the other.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TI93PH_yugE – mitochondria explained
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RrS2uROUjK4 – mitochondria/cell interior visual (no words)
ER, Ribosomes, and Golgi Bodies
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Ribosomes produce proteins and are often
found along the edges of ER, seen as small dots
in the pictures below.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are tiny
passageways that allow proteins and other
materials to move throughout the cell, as seen
in both pictures below.
Golgi bodies (apparatuses), as seen to the right,
give proteins chemical directions of where to
go.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctiQHUcK82Y – ER, ribosomes, & Golgi (to 2:45)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8dsTvBaUMvw – RNA code Ribosomes
Protein Business
• Together, we will draw a simple diagram of a cell showing the
following organelles – nucleolus, ribosomes, endoplasmic
reticulum, and golgi body. These organelles all play important
roles in the production and transportation of proteins.
Chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts are found in plants and some members of the Protista Kingdom.
• Chloroplasts are filled with a chemical called chlorophyll, which is able to
absorb light energy to be used during photosynthesis. Chlorophyll also gives
plants their green color. Although no bacteria have chloroplasts, some species
have chlorophyll within their cytoplasm and can perform photosynthesis.
• Chloroplasts also have their own DNA that is different than the DNA found in
the nuclei of cells. Like mitochondria, it is believed that chloroplasts were once
independent organisms similar to bacteria that were consumed by larger cells,
but were not destroyed in the process and now exist in a state of symbiosis in
which each can not survive without the other.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LTglday5zak – Chloroplasts up close
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nwxsJTc8Zt4 - Photosynthesis
Reflect
• 1) The cell membrane separates a cell from other cells and from the
exterior world. What other purpose does it serve?
• 2) Name two organelles or cell parts that are found in plant cells, but not
in animal cells. In addition, describe the purposes of these organelles or
cell parts.
• 3) Proteins are essential to living organisms. Describe the journey of a
protein molecule using the following organelles in your description –
nucleolus, ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum, and golgi body.
• 4) Where would you expect to find more mitochondria, in animal cells or
in plant cells? Explain.
• 5) Imagine a mitochondrion in a cell growing old and failing to function
properly. What organelle would respond to the old, malfunctioning
mitochondrion? Describe what would happen.
• 6) What is the purpose of vacuoles?
• 7) How is the nuclear membrane similar to the cell membrane? Hint:
Think about what they both allow to happen.
• 8) Chromatin is made from DNA and is found inside the nucleus of cells.
What is the purpose of DNA?
Reflect 1/4 - Answers
• 1. The cell membrane separates a cell from other cells and
from the exterior world. What other purpose does it serve?
• The cell membrane is semi-permeable, which means some
materials can pass through it to enter or exit the cell. In
animal cells, oxygen and glucose must enter cells while
wastes like carbon dioxide and uric acid must exit.
• 2. Name two organelles or cell parts that are found in plant
cells, but not in animal cells. In addition, describe the
purposes of these organelles or cell parts.
• Cell walls and chloroplasts are not found in animals cells. Cell
walls provide a rigid structure for plants, while chloroplasts,
which contain chlorophyll, allow plants to perform
photosynthesis to make glucose for food.
Reflect 2/4 - Answers
• 3. Proteins are essential to living organisms. Describe
the journey of a protein molecule using the following
organelles in your description – nucleolus, ribosome,
endoplasmic reticulum, and golgi body.
• Proteins are first formed by ribosomes, which are
made in the nucleolus. After formation, a protein will
enter the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where it will be
transported to a golgi body. In the golgi body, the
protein will be coated and packaged by chemicals,
which instruct it to be distributed to a particular
location within the cell or outside the cell, once again
using the ER for transportation.
Reflect 3/4 - Answers
• 4. Where would you expect to find more mitochondria, in
animal cells or in plant cells? Explain.
• It would be expected that the cells of animals would contain
more mitochondria than the cells of plants. This is due to the
fact that animals generally require more energy on a daily basis
than do plants. As an example, a cat needs lots of energy to
walk about and jump, while a tree’s movement is negligible.
• 5. Imagine a mitochondrion in a cell growing old and failing to
function properly. What organelle would respond to the old,
malfunctioning mitochondrion? Describe what would happen.
• Lysosomes are responsible for the destruction of failing
organelles, as well as waste food and pathogens like bacteria
and viruses. They behave like an immune system or custodial
service for the cell.
Reflect 4/4 – Answers
• 6) What is the purpose of vacuoles?
• Vacuoles are found in both plant and animal cells, although they are
larger in plants. In both cases, vacuoles store materials such as water,
sugars, proteins, wastes, and other materials.
• 7) How is the nuclear membrane similar to the cell membrane? Hint:
Think about what they both allow to happen.
• Both the nuclear and cellular membranes form borders separating regions
of cells from each other, or cells from the outside world. In addition, both
the nuclear and cellular membranes allow materials to pass through. The
nuclear membrane allows materials to pass in and out of the nucleus, and
the cellular membrane allows materials to pass in and out of the cell.
• 8) Chromatin is made from DNA and is found inside the nucleus of cells.
What is the purpose of DNA?
• DNA is the carrier of genetic material, which contains information about
an organism’s development and traits.
Drawing a Cell
• Turn to pages 26-27.
• Decide if you would like to draw a plant cell or animal cell.
• Neatly copy the diagram from the book, labeling all the cell parts and
organelles shown. The pictures below are more detailed than yours will be.
• Make sure each cell part is colored and easily distinguishable from other
parts. Take your time and enjoy yourselves.
Quiz Guideline
• 1) What are the three rules of the Cell Theory?
• 2) What Cell Theory rule essentially states that spontaneous generation
is false? Write this rule.
• 3) What are the functions and locations of the following organelles and
cell parts?
– Nucleus
(DNA)
– Mitochondria
– Nucleolus
– endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
– Vacuole
nuclear membrane
ribosome
cell wall
golgi body
cytoplasm
chromatin
lysosome
cell membrane
chloroplast
chlorophyll
• 4) Three of the cell parts and organelles listed above are not found in
animal cells because no animal can perform photosynthesis. What three
from the list above are not found in animal cells?
• 5) Write a short, funny story describing the journey of a protein through
a cell. You must use the following organelles in your story – nucleolus,
nuclear membrane, ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum, and golgi body.
Biochemistry Basics
• The Study of Life’s Chemicals
• 1) element: a substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler
substance; made of one type of atom (118 total)
• 2) atom: the smallest unit of an element
• Element Examples
– Oxygen (O)
– Iron (Fe)
– Hydrogen (H)
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aPq3SEteEJc&feature=related – The Element Song
Take the Element Quiz! Mr. Salemme can name them all...can you?
http://www.jetpunk.com/quizzes/name-the-elements.php
Biochemistry Basics
• 3) compound: when two or more atoms are chemically bonded
– properties of original atoms/elements change
– H and O are combustible colorless gasses, but chemically bonded
they become water, a non-combustible colorless liquid
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F54rqDh2mWA – Hindenburg Disaster
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ey10rW8Q4_k – Oxygen Explosion
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hT0UewyAz00 – Jumping Angel Falls
• 4) molecule: the smallest unit of a compound
• Compound Examples
– Water (H2O)
– Carbon dioxide (CO2)
– Glucose (C6H12O6)
– Methane (CH4)
– Saturated Fat (C9H19CO2H)
– Oxygen (O2)*
*Considered compound because it is two O atoms chemically bonded.
Organic vs. Inorganic Compounds
• 5) organic compound:
– often referred to as “the ingredients of life”
– compounds that contain carbon (C) bonded with hydrogen (H)
– Includes lipids (fats, waxes), carbohydrates (sugars, starches), proteins
(whey, hormones) and nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)
• 6) inorganic compounds:
– compounds that do not contain C bonded with H
– Includes NaCl, H2O, and CO2
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w0MWbjIH_Lc – Organic & Inorganic Compounds
• Which diagram below contains organic compounds – left or right?
The Search for Organic Compounds
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJ8hvbjdqek – Huygens Titan Landing
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pL4LTFBO10Q – Future Mission to Saturn System
Amino acids, which are
organic compounds that
form proteins, were
detected on the surface
of Titan, a large moon of
Saturn with a thick
atmosphere.
Amino acids have also
been detected on some
asteroids and comets.
Could these worlds
harbor life?
• What’s in
food?
Imagine the FDA (Food
& Drug Administration)
labels on packages of
food that list nutritional
facts.
What types of materials
are listed on these
labels?
Some of these
substances are organic
compounds, while
others are not, but all
are necessary for our
bodies to function
properly.
Reflection
• 1) What is the smallest unit of an element?
• 2) Using your periodic table of elements, name five elements.
• 3) What is a compound?
• 4) Give the name and chemical formula for three compounds
that were not provided to you in class. Use the internet as a
resource. For example, water is a compound with the chemical
formula H2O.
• 5) How do organic and inorganic compounds differ?
• 6) Organic compounds have been found on Saturn’s moon,
Titan, and on some asteroids and comets. Why does this excite
some scientists?
• 7) Your body requires both organic and inorganic compounds
to function properly. Name an organic compound and an
inorganic compound that is necessary for your body to
function properly.
Organic Compounds
• 1) Carbohydrates
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Composition: C, H, and O
Smaller Units: sugars
Purpose: source of energy
Properties: non-polar; dissolve in H2O
Examples: sugars and starches
Sources: fruits, vegetables, pasta, bread
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_qf_r5EVP6U - Carbohydrates
• Compounds that end in “ose” are called sugars, which are a type of
carbohydrate. Below are very simple sugars, with glucose, at the bottom,
being the product in photosynthesis. These molecules can bond with other
sugars, resulting in larger sugar molecules, as seen on the following slide.
• Sucrose, which is the sugar many people put in their tea and coffee, and
created when a molecule of glucose and molecule of fructose bond.
• Some people are lactose intolerant. These people lack particular enzymes
(proteins that cause reactions) that allow the digestion of lactose to occur.
Lactose, which is also a sugar often found in mammalian milk, forms when a
molecule of glucose bonds with a molecule of galactose.
Organic Compounds
• 2) Proteins & Enzymes
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Composition: C, H, O, N and sometimes S
Smaller units: amino acids
Purpose: forms organelles, and body parts such as muscle & hair
Properties: some, such as enzymes, cause chemical reactions; others
transport materials in/out of cells
– Examples: hormones, venoms, whey
– Sources: meat, fish, egg, nuts
–
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w-ctkPUUpUc – Chemical Bonds of Amino Acids
Amino Acids – The Building Blocks of Proteins
• Proteins are made
of amino acids.
• 20 amino acids
create all the
proteins found in
nature.
• All amino acids have
H3NCHCO2 as a
“foundation”, or
better put…
• I had to remember
all these – you’re
lucky you don’t.
• 3) Lipids
Organic Compounds
– Composition: C, H, and O
– Smaller units: fatty acids
– Purpose: very rich energy source; energy
storage; form cell membranes
– Properties: polar & non-polar ends (oppositely
charged ends); don’t dissolve in H2O
– Examples: Fats, oils, wax, cholesterol
– Sources: animal fats, vegetable oil, nuts
–
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3xF_LK9pnL0 – Chemical Bonds of Fatty Acids
Lipids form Cell Membranes
Watch your calories!
• Fats, are a type of lipid,
which are commonly found
in food.
• Saturated fat has more
calories than unsaturated fat.
• The reason for this is one
word – chemistry.
• 4) Nucleic Acids
Organic Compounds
– Composition: C, O, H, N, and P
– Smaller units: nucleotides
– Purpose: contains genetic instructions for organism ; instruct
ribosomes what proteins must be synthesized
– Properties: passed from parent to offspring
– Examples: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) & RNA (ribonucleic acid)
– Sources: made within cells of organism
–
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZaMi6OhsSU – Nucleic Acids
A small segment of a DNA molecule
Water’s Importance
• Despite water being an inorganic compound, it is absolutely essential to
all living organisms for the following reasons…
•
•
•
•
1) Most substances dissolve in water.
2) Most cellular chemical reactions take place in water.
3) Water enables cells to keep their size and shape.
4) Water regulates the temperature of cells due to water’s ability to resist
dramatic changes in temperature.
•
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gSKFqm4pIEI – Powerful Ocean Waves
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jk4jwKSY_4k – Hawaiian Rain
Reflect
• 1) How does an element differ from a compound? Give an example of each.
• 2) What is the smallest unit of an element? What is the smallest unit of a
compound?
• 3) How do organic and inorganic compounds differ?
• 4) Organic compounds are generally thought of as the “ingredients of life”. Are
any inorganic compounds found in living things? If so, name one.
• 5) What are the four types of organic molecules found in the cells of living things?
• 6) You learned earlier in the school year that water is important to living things
because many chemical reactions can occur in water and that cells get their shape
from water. Name two other reasons that make water important to life.
• 7) A molecule of glucose is represented by C6H12O6. What elements, and how
many atoms of each, are present in a molecule of glucose? Is glucose organic or
inorganic?
Reflect Answers 1/2
• 1) How does an element differ from a compound? Give an example of each.
• An element, such as iron or gold, is a pure substance made from one type
of atom; it cannot be broken into a simpler substance. A compound is
formed when two or more atoms chemically bond, such as H2O or CO2.
• 2) What is the smallest unit of an element? What is the smallest unit of a
compound?
• The smallest unit of an element, while the smallest unit of a compound is a
molecule.
• 3) How do organic and inorganic compounds differ?
• Organic compounds have both C and H bonded in their molecules, while
inorganic compounds do not have both C and H bonded in their molecules.
Although CO2 has carbon, it is not organic since it lacks H.
• 4) Organic compounds are generally thought of as the “ingredients of life”.
Are any inorganic compounds found in living things? If so, name one.
• Many inorganic compounds are found in living things, such as H20, NaCl,
and CO2.
Reflect Answers 2/2
• 5) What are the four types of organic molecules found in the cells of living
things?
• The four types of organic molecules found in the cells of living things are
lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.
• 6) You learned earlier in the school year that water is important to living
things because many chemical reactions can occur in water and that cells
get their shape from water. Name two other reasons that make water
important to life.
• In addition to the above mentioned reasons, water is also important to life
because most substances dissolve in water, and since water resists quick
temperature changes, it regulates the body temperatures of organisms.
• 7) A molecule of glucose is represented by C6H12O6. What elements, and
how many atoms of each, are present in a molecule of glucose? Is glucose
organic or inorganic?
• Six atoms of carbon, 12 atoms of hydrogen, and six atoms of oxygen are
found in a molecule of glucose, which is an organic molecule.
Cellular Transportation
• Substances, such as water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, glucose, proteins, and
many others, must be transported into and out of cells so cellular functions
can be completed.
• What cell part allows substances in and out of a cell?
• The Cell Membrane
- Selectively permeable: some substances can pass while others cannot
- Small particles can pass; large particles cannot. Imagine a screen.
•
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnVQI10Q58U&feature=related – Cell Membrane
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0grMcDO9Phs – Cleaning water with cloth membrane
Lipids form Cell Membranes
Passive Cellular Transportation
• No energy is required by cells to perform these transportation methods.
• 1) diffusion: the movement of substances from a high concentration
to a low concentration until a balanced concentration is reached
– Particles are always in motion.
– Their motion causes them to bounce off each other and gradually
spread out, or diffuse.
• 2) osmosis: the diffusion of water
•
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=STLAJH7_zkY – food coloring diffusion; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBig2wevHhw – Diffusion Animation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JShwXBWGMyY – Passive Transport through Cell Membrane (complex); watch to 1:15
Diffusion Through a Cell’s Membrane
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAXnYcUjn5k – Discovery of the Membrane’s Lipid Bilayer
Gas Masks
• The filters inside gas masks
behave very similarly to cell
membranes. Large molecules
that are poisonous to humans,
such as sarin and mustard gas,
or even less lethal molecules
produced by car exhaust and
paint, cannot pass through the
fibers inside the gas mask.
• This allows only the particles of
clean, fresh air to pass into the
mask, enabling the person
wearing it to stay safe from
poisoning.
•
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hBZgPNK4-8s – Gas Mask Test
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ASg0H-XsQ5E – Indiana Gas
Reflect
• 1) For cells to continue their life functions, materials must pass
into or out of cells by some means of transportation. Provide
the name one substance that often enters your cells and one
substance that often exits your cells.
• 2) Cell membranes are “selectively permeable”. What does this
mean?
• 3) Other than a screen, describe an object you are familiar with
that is selectively-permeable.
• 4) Describe diffusion in your own words.
• 5) What is the special term used to describe the diffusion of
water through a cell membrane?
• 6) Why is diffusion considered a form of passive cellular
transportation? Hint: Think about what is not used by the cell
during it.
Reflect Answers 1/2
• 1) For cells to continue their life functions, materials must pass
into or out of cells by some means of transportation. Name
one substance that may enter your cells and one substance
that may exit your cells.
• Glucose and oxygen must enter human cells so mitochondria
can produce energy during cell respiration. As wastes, H2O and
CO2 must exit human cells.
• 2) Cell membranes are “selectively permeable”. What does
this mean?
• “Selectively permeable” means that some materials can pass
through the membrane, while others cannot.
• 3) Other than a screen, describe an object you are familiar
with that is selectively-permeable.
• A pair of jeans is selectively permeable, because substances
like water or gas can easily pass through the fabric, while
larger particles such as sand cannot.
Reflect Answers 2/2
• 4) Describe diffusion in your own words.
• Diffusion is the tendency for substances to spread out,
from where there is a lot of particles to where there is less
particles.
• 5) What is the special term used to describe the diffusion
of water through a cell membrane?
• Osmosis is the specific term that describes the diffusion of
water through a membrane.
• 6) Why is diffusion considered a form of passive cellular
transportation?
• Diffusion is considered a passive form of cellular
transportation because the cell does not use any energy
while it occurs.
Active Cellular Transportation
• Energy is required by cells to perform these transportation methods.
• 3) active transport: materials are moved from a low concentration to
a high concentration; this forces an imbalance of concentrations
- Proteins carry substances in or out of cell
- Protein “pumps” substances in/out of cell
- A cell engulfs or surrounds a substance
–
–
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pvOz4V699gk – Amoeba eating two paramecia
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=owEgqrq51zY – Active Transport
Proteins – Very Complex Biochemistry
• Proteins tend to be very large molecules whose shape can bend and
change to fit into various spaces. As you’ve learned, some can
maneuver to act like pumps or carriers. The two images at the
bottom are more realistic representations of how many proteins
would appear than what you saw in the previous slide.
Passive & Active
Transportation
Comparison
• In diffusion or osmosis, particles move across the membrane at any
location from a high to low concentration. No energy is used by the cell.
• In facilitated diffusion, particles can only move across the membrane at
specific locations, but always from a high to low concentration. No
energy is used by the cell. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LsTo73joO0U
• During active transport, a protein pump transports particles (cubes in
picture above) from a low to high concentration. This requires energy.
Reflect
• 1) Why are both passive and active transportation essential for cells?
• 2) Active transportation often moves substances against the “flow” of diffusion.
Explain what is meant by this using “high concentration” and “low
concentration”.
• 3) Provide one specific example of active transportation and briefly explain how
it functions.
• 4) Create a simple diagram showing the form of active transportation you
described in #3. Your diagram must include the following labeled components –
lipids, cell membrane, protein, and some type of substance that is being actively
transported.
• 5) Create a simple diagram showing the following…
– A cell with an extracellular high concentration of water molecules and a low
intracellular concentration of water molecules.
– Insert an arrow showing the direction of diffusion of water molecules – in or
out of the cell.
• 6) What is the term that describes the diffusion of water mentioned in #5?
Review
•
1) How are elements and compounds different? What are the smallest units of each?
•
2) How are organic and inorganic compounds different?
•
3) Label the following compounds as either organic or inorganic - C6H12O6 (glucose) and NaCl
(table salt).
•
4) Besides giving the cells their shape, why is water important to living things?
•
5) Cell membranes are selectively permeable. What does selectively permeable mean?
•
6) Define diffusion. Hint: be sure to use the following terms “high concentration” and “low
concentration” in your definition.
•
7) Osmosis is the diffusion of water. Why are osmosis and diffusion considered types of
“passive” transportation? Hint: Think about what the cell does not use while materials are
diffused in and out of it.
•
8) How are passive and active forms of cellular transportation different? Describe one type of
active transportation.
•
9) Please turn the page over to complete #9.
•
9. The diagram below depicts a container of water separated into two parts by a selectively
permeable membrane. One each side of the membrane are different amounts of glucose
molecules, represented by the dots. In what direction – LEFT or RIGHT – will the glucose
molecules diffuse across the membrane? Explain.
The Size Limit of Animals & Cells
•
As the size of an organism increases, its volume and mass increase at faster rates than
its surface area. Below is an example showing how a cube’s volume and total surface
area increase at different rates as its size increases.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Side Length
1 cm cube =
2 cm cube =
3 cm cube =
4 cm cube =
10 cm cube =
•
Eventually, as size increases, an animal will not be able to withstand the pressure of
its internal mass and it will collapse. This is also why the legs of an elephant are much
thicker, both absolutely and proportionally, than the legs of a mouse. At a certain
point, an animal’s mass would be too large for any legs to support.
This also applies to cells. A cell a foot across would be unable to hold its internal mass
back, resulting in it collapsing or popping.
•
•
•
•
Volume
1 cm3 =
8 cm3 =
27 cm3 =
64 cm3 =
1,000 cm3 =
Surface Area
6 cm2 =
24 cm2 =
54 cm2 =
96 cm2 =
600 cm2 =
V/SA ratio
0.17
0.33
0.50
0.67
1.67
In regards to cells…
1) It is more difficult to efficiently transport material throughout a large cell than a
small cell. Therefore, small size is beneficial.
2) When a cell becomes a certain size, it divides into two new cells during mitosis.
The Size Limit of Animals & Cells
• Brachiosaurus, a large sauropod dinosaur, may have weighed as much
as 100 tons. A very large male African elephant can weigh a mere 8
tons. It is believed that a brachiosaurus would not be able to walk on
dry land, as its legs would not be able to support its own weight. It
most likely spent most of its life partially submerged in water, which
would help it support its enormous body weight.
Cell Functions
• What do cells do?
• With a partner, provide two functions that cells perform.
•
•
•
•
1) Cells make glucose – photosynthesis.
2) Cells make energy – cell respiration & fermentation.
3) Cells make proteins – protein synthesis.
4) Cells make more of themselves – mitosis.
Photosynthesis
• The cells of plants, algae, and some bacteria use the Sun’s energy to
produce glucose (food).
• 6 CO2 + 6 H20 + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
reactants
products
• Using energy from sunlight, CO2 and H2O react in the chloroplasts, which
contains chlorophyll, of plants and some bacteria and protists.
• This reaction forms glucose with oxygen as a waste by-product.
•
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OS2VrgRFCzc – The Rainforest; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gLa5EWn9OI – Photosynthesis Simple
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LgYPeeABoUs – Photosynthesis Song; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mYbMPwmwx88 – Photosynthesis Complex
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Chloroplasts & Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is a chemical that is able to absorb solar energy. It is green in color, which gives
photosynthetic organisms, such as plants, their distinctive color.
In plants and photosynthetic protists (algae, euglena, etc.) chlorophyll is found inside small
organelles called chloroplasts. Think of chloroplasts as capsules full of chlorophyll.
Some bacteria also perform photosynthesis. However, bacteria are too small to contain
chloroplasts. Instead, chlorophyll is freely floating about in the cytoplasm of bacteria.
It is important to understand that chlorophyll is the chemical responsible for photosynthesis;
chloroplasts are the organelles that contain chlorophyll.
The left and middle pictures below show plant cells that contain chloroplasts, which look like little
green balls. Each chloroplast is packed with chlorophyll. The picture on the right shows
photosynthetic bacteria, which are too small to contain chloroplasts. Instead, each bacteria has
chlorophyll floating in its cytoplasm.
The link below animates photosynthesis. You will notice that it shows 12 water molecules being
inputted, instead of the 6 you’re familiar with. However, at the end of the animation you will see
6 water molecules given off as a waste by-product. But since 12 waters are inputted, and 6 are
released as waste, the net result is 6 being inputted (12 – 6 = 6), which is represented by the
equation you’re familiar with to the right.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prFaSe3s9e0 – photosynthesis animation
Cellular Respiration
• The mitochondria of all eukaryotic organisms break down glucose
molecules to release energy for cellular functions.
• C6H12O6 + 6 O2 →
reactants
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
products
• Carbon dioxide and water are waste by-products of cell respiration.
• The solar energy used in photosynthesis to make glucose is released
during cell respiration.
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2y4QByEFw5U – Zebras Eating; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sUPHiTu6PgQ – Lion Attack on Zebra
• In the same way that a battery stores chemical energy, glucose
stores solar energy. During photosynthesis solar energy is stored
in the chemical bonds that form glucose. When you eat glucose
your mitochondria break apart the glucose, releasing the stored
solar energy during a process called cell respiration.
Some people who have
diabetes need to eat
glucose tablets to keep
their blood sugar levels
normal.
From Food to Energy
• 1) Food (carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids) is broken down into individual
molecules by your digestive system.
• 2) These molecules enter your bloodstream.
• 3) Blood flows into capillaries where required nutritional molecules are delivered
to each of your cells (all 100 trillion of them) by diffusion.
• 4) Each cell performs cell respiration, breaking glucose down into energy.
• 5) Complex carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are used for other processes, or are
converted into the simplest carbohydrate, glucose, which can then be used during
cell respiration to release more energy.
• C6H12O6 + 6 02 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
Reflect: Photosynthesis/Respiration Connection
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JEnjph9miK4 – Respiration/Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis
• 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
• Cell Respiration
• C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
• Neatly respond to each on a separate piece of paper in thorough sentences.
• 1) Explain what is occuring, chemically, in each cell process above.
• 2) Analyzye the formulas above. Explain the relationship you see between the two
processes or functions.
• 3) Where does the energy released during cell respiration come from originally?
Explain.
• 4) Most people know that animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. In
addition, most people also know that plants “breath” carbon dioxide. Why is
carbon dioxide needed by plants? Why do animals exhale carbon dioxide?
• 5) In addition to carbon dioxide, plants also need oxygen just like animals. Why?
Explain.
Reflect:
ANSWERS 1/3
• Photosynthesis
• 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
• Cell Respiration
• C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
• 1) Explain what is occuring, chemically, in each cell process above.
• During photosynthesis, six molecules of carbon dioxide and 6 molecules of
water are reacting with the energy from sunlight, resulting in the formation of
one molecule of glucose and six waste molecules of O2.
• In cell respiration, a molecule of glucose is being broken down as it reacts with
oxygen, resulting in a release of energy and wastes, in the form of six molecules
of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water.
• 2) Analyzye the formulas above. Explain the relationship you see between the
two processes or functions.
• Photosynthesis and cell respiration form a cycle. The wastes, or products from
one function, become the reactants in the other.
Reflect:
ANSWERS 2/3
•
•
Photosynthesis
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
•
•
Cell Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
• 3) Where does the energy released during cell respiration come from
originally? Explain.
• The energy released during cell respiration comes from the molecule of
glucose, which was originally formed in plants during photosynthesis using
sunlight. Therefore, the energy released during cell respiration in animals
originated from the energy in sunlight.
• 4) Most people know that animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbon
dioxide. In addition, most people also know that plants “breath” carbon
dioxide. Why is carbon dioxide needed by plants? What do animals exhale
carbon dioxide?
• Carbon dioxide is needed by plants so they can perform photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide is an essential component needed to make glucose.
Reflect:
ANSWERS 3/3
• Photosynthesis
• 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
• Cell Respiration
• C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
• 5) In addition to carbon dioxide, plants also need O2 just like
animals. Why? Explain.
• Plants, just like animals, require energy to perform their cell
functions. Therefore, they perform cell respiration, a
process that requires oxygen to break down glucose to
release energy. Oxygen is also a key component in the
molecules that are necessary during photosynthesis.
Quiz Review
•
Photosynthesis
•
1) Write the chemical equation for the reaction that occurs during photosynthesis.
•
2) Identify the reactants and products of photosynthesis.
•
3) Label each reactant and product of photosynthesis by its English name. For example, CO is carbon
monoxide and H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide.
•
4) In one sentence, explain what occurs during photosynthesis.
•
5) What waste(s) are produced during photosynthesis?
•
6) Do animal or plant cells, or both, perform photosynthesis? What organelle within the cell is responsible
for photosynthesis?
•
Cell Respiration
•
7) Write the chemical equation for the reaction that occurs during cell respiration.
•
8) Identify the reactants and products of cell respiration.
•
9) Label each reactant and product of cell respiration by its English name. For example, CO is carbon
monoxide and H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide.
•
10) In one sentence, explain what occurs during cell respiration.
•
11) What waste(s) are produced during cell respiration?
•
12) Do animal or plant cells, or both, perform cell respiration? What organelle within the cell is responsible
for cell respiration?
•
Photosynthesis & Cell Respiration Connection
•
13) Explain how photosynthesis and cell respiration form a cycle.
•
14) Explain how all animals, even carnivores like lions, depend indirectly on photosynthesis.
Quiz Preparation Example
• To prepare for tomorrow's quiz, you will review the material in
the study guide below. In addition, you must convert each
bullet point into a question then answer it thoroughly on a
separate piece of paper which will be collected in class.
Students who do not complete this task will do so during lunch
or afterschool detentions.
• For example, bullet point #1 can be converted into the
following question...
• What are the accurate chemical equations for the reactions that
occur during photosynthesis and cell respiration?
• Your response should begin with...
• The accurate chemical equations for the reactions that occur
during photosynthesis and cell respiration are...
Aerobic Energy Production
• What cell process is represented by the chemical equation below?
• C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
• What gas is essential for cell respiration to occur?
• Oxygen – mitochondria require O2 to release energy from glucose
during cell respiration.
• Aerobic: requires oxygen
• What does anaerobic mean?
• Anaerobic: does not require oxygen
Anaerobic Energy Production
• Fermentation: anaerobic process that cells perform to release energy from
glucose without using oxygen; occurs in cytoplasm (not in mitochondria)
• 1) Organisms live where there is little or no oxygen.
– deep ocean; in the mud of lakes or swamps
• 2) Organisms cannot access enough oxygen during various activities.
– Activities that make you short of breath or cause muscles to “burn”
• 3) Organisms are unable to use oxygen.
– Yeast and some bacteria
• Fermentation produces less energy than cell respiration.
•
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DEjAo16PS1Y – anaerobic microbes; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EMu9VqRh47s – anaerobic exercise
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YoOR7fibHC4 – EPA anaerobic bacteria; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mgH_-spn-ew – Anaerobic Respiration Complex
Fermentation
• There are two types of fermentation
that occur when oxygen levels are
low, or when an organism is
incapable of performing cell
respiration.
• 1) alcoholic fermentation
• Yeast, bacteria, & other unicellular
organisms
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iOvrq6ssy2Y – Yeast budding
• 2) lactic acid fermentation
• Animals & Bacteria
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRxsP2YMaOI - Cheetah
• 1) Alcoholic Fermentation:
• yeast and other unicellular organisms break down glucose to make
energy without the use O2
– ethanol and CO2 released as waste
• C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + Energy
Carbon Dioxide Bubbles
• 2) Lactic-Acid Fermentation:
• occurs in muscle cells when energy is released from glucose without O2
– Mitochondria in cells use up oxygen faster than it can be replaced
– Cells begin to break down glucose to release energy without O2
– Lactic acid released is as waste, causing muscles to “burn”
• Animals that perform lactic acid fermentation usually perform cell
respiration simultaneously.
• C6H12O6 → 2 CH3CHOHCOOH + Energy
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DGq94gpKEbg – lactic acid build-up; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4SosPuWAg7g – Fermentation (lactic/alcoholic)
•
•
Think! Paragraph Response.
What activity would be the most likely to cause lactic acid fermentation to occur in the
muscle cells of a bull – resting in the grass or pulling a heavy cart uphill? Explain.
You must use the following terms in your response – lactic acid fermentation, oxygen,
energy, and cell respiration.
• Pulling a cart uphill would be the most likely activity to cause lactic acid
fermentation to occur in the muscle cells of a bull. The energy required
to rest in the grass is relatively low, and the bull is able to inhale enough
oxygen to perform cell respiration successfully. However, the bull may
not be able to inhale enough oxygen to produce energy during cell
respiration while pulling the cart. Therefore, it would most likely have
to perform lactic acid fermentation in addition to cell respiration to
have enough energy for its activities.
Cell Respiration & Fermentation
• 1) How are the functions of cell respiration and
fermentation similar?
• 2) In addition to glucose, what gas must be present
for cell respiration to occur?
• 3) Describe two situations in which organisms will
perform fermentation instead of cell respiration.
• 4) There are two types of fermentation. Name these
two types, and provide the name of an organism that
will perform each type.
• 5) Why is fermentation described as an anaerobic
activity?
• 6) Which function – cell respiration or fermentation –
produces more energy?
Reflect 1/2
• Neatly respond to each in complete sentences.
• 1) How are the functions of cell respiration and
fermentation similar?
• Both fermentation and cell respiration produce energy by
breaking down glucose.
• 2) In addition to glucose, what gas must be present for cell
respiration to occur?
• O2, which is a molecule of “breathable” oxygen, is
necessary for cell respiration to occur.
• 3) Describe two situations in which organisms will perform
fermentation instead of cell respiration.
• Fermentation may occur in organisms that live in anaerobic
environments, or in organisms that cannot use oxygen to
perform cell respiration.
Reflect 2/2
• 4) There are two types of fermentation. Name these two
types and provide the name of an organism that will
perform each type.
• The two types of fermentation are lactic acid fermentation
and alcoholic fermentation. Unicellular organisms such as
yeast can perform alcoholic fermentation, while organisms
such as humans and other animals perform lactic acid
fermentation when oxygen levels are low.
• 5) Why is fermentation described as an anaerobic activity?
• Fermentation is called an anaerobic activity because it does
not require oxygen.
• 6) Which function – cell respiration or fermentation –
produces more energy?
• Cell respiration produces higher levels of energy than
fermentation.
The Conservation of Matter – Matter Cannot be Created or Destroyed
•
1) Below are the chemical equations for the following cell processes – alcoholic fermentation,
photosynthesis, cell respiration, and lactic acid fermentation. Identify each process correctly, then
complete the tables with the correct number of each type of atom before and after the reaction occurs.
a. C6H12O6
2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + Energy
# of Atoms Before Reaction
C
H
O
# of Atoms After Reaction
C
H
O
Process Name: ______________________________________
b. C6H12O6 + 6 O2
# of Atoms Before Reaction
C
H
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP)
O
# of Atoms After Reaction
C
H
Process Name: ______________________________________
O
The Conservation of Matter – Matter Cannot be Created or Destroyed
c. 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light Energy
# of Atoms Before Reaction
C
H
C6H12O6 + 6 O2
# of Atoms After Reaction
C
H
O
Process Name: ______________________________________
d. C6H12O6
2 CH3CHOHCOOH + Energy
# of Atoms Before Reaction
C
H
O
# of Atoms After Reaction
C
H
Process Name: ______________________________________
O
O
Review
• To adequately prepare for the quiz, convert each bullet point below into a
question, then thoroughly answer this question. Once completed, check
each answer for accuracy by reviewing your notes and the material on
Edline.
• This work – the questions and answers – must be presented neatly on a
separate piece of white-lined paper. I recommend that you type your
work.
• Understand…
• 1. the difference between aerobic and anaerobic activities.
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2. the function of fermentation.
3. the role of glucose in fermentation.
4. alcoholic fermentation and the wastes it produces.
5. the type of fermentation that occurs in animals, the waste it produces,
and why it (fermentation) occurs.
• 6. why an animal inhales and exhales at a faster rate when it performs
strenuous, physical activities, and why if these activities continue a
sensation of “burning muscles” may occur.
The Cell Cycle – A Form of Asexual Reproduction
• What happens to a cell when it reaches a certain size?
• A parent cell divides into two new daughter cells during mitosis.
• This is considered a form of asexual reproduction, because the offspring
of the process originate from one parent.
• Sexual reproduction involves the exchange of genetic material from two
parents – usually a male and female individual.
• Males produce sperm and females
produce eggs, which combine to
form new offspring in sexual
reproduction.
• The Cell Cycle involves one
cell creating two identical
cells, which is a form of
asexual reproduction.
The Cell Cycle
• The Cell Cycle: the sequence of growth and division cells undergo
• the “story of a cell’s life”
• Three main stages…
• 1) Interphase
• 2) Mitosis (contains 4 phases)
– A) Prophase
– B) Metaphase
– C) Anaphase
– D) Telophase
• 3) Cytokinesis
• Each new daughter cell must contain everything necessary for
its survival.
The Cell Cycle
• Stage 1: Interphase
- 1) Growth: a cell matures to its full size and structure
• Organelles like chloroplasts and mitochondria multiply.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rgLJrvoX_qo – Cell Division
- 2) DNA replication: two complete sets of DNA, each containing an
identical number of chromosomes, are produced inside nucleus
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); contains genetic information
cells require to perform its functions
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4jtmOZaIvS0 – DNA replication
The Cell Cycle
• Stage 2: Mitosis
– Prophase – Metaphase – Anaphase – Telophase
– 1) The cell’s nucleus divides into two nuclei.
• Each nuclei contains a complete set of DNA with an identical
number of chromosomes (46 in humans).
– 2) The cell begins to stretch and bulge at opposite ends.
–
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NR0mdDJMHIQ - Mitosis
The Cell Cycle
• Stage 3: Cytokinesis
• 1) Parent cell splits into two daughter cells.
• The process differs in animal and plant cells.
• Animal Cell: cell membrane squeezes the middle of the cell, and
“pinches” it into two new cells
• Plant Cell: cell “plate” forms across the middle of the cell and
hardens, dividing it into two new cells
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–
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q6ucKWIIFmg – 5 Minute, Cells, Cell Cycle
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=diXoAgH3LMk – The Cell Cycle (Complex)
Reflect 1/2
• 1) During what stage does DNA replication occur?
• DNA replication occurs during interphase, the stage in which a
cell also grows to its mature, full size.
• 2) Why must DNA be replicated prior to mitosis? What is the
purpose of DNA?
• DNA must be replicated prior to mitosis so that each new
daughter cell that forms has its own complete set of DNA. DNA is a
molecule, deoxyribonucleic acid, that contains genetic information
located on genes.
• 3) There are 46 chromosomes in a non-sex human cell. What is a
chromosome made of? Draw a simple diagram of a chromosome.
• A chromosome is made from a single strand of DNA tightly
wound and bunched together.
Reflect 2/2
• 4) When viewing a cell that has completed mitosis but not
yet undergone cytokinesis, what should an observer see?
• An observer should be able to clearly see two nuclei, each
containing a complete set of DNA and the correct number
of chromosomes.
• 5) What occurs in cytokinesis? How does cytokinesis differ
in animal and plant cells?
• Cytokinesis is the stage in which a parent cell divides into
two distinct daughter cells. In animal cells the cell
membrane gradually tightens and pinches apart, resulting
in two separate cells. In plant cells a cell plate forms across
the plant cell. This plate eventually hardens into a new cell
wall, which results in two separate cells.
Mitosis in Detail -
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6hn3sA0ip0 – Cell Cycle (watch from beginning to 2:30)
• A) Prophase
–
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–
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1) DNA in the nucleus rolls up and forms chromosomes
2) Spindle fibers form a bridge across the cell
3) Nuclear membrane disintegrates
4) Spindle fibers attach to each chromosome’s centromere
–
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6hn3sA0ip0 – The Cell Cycle (prophase at 2:30 – 2:53)
Chromosomes are formed by condensed DNA
Mitosis in Detail
• B) Metaphase
– 1) Chromosomes are pulled into the cell’s center by spindle fibers
– 2) Chromosomes line-up in a straight-line
–
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6hn3sA0ip0 – The Cell Cycle (metaphase 2:53- 3:32)
Mitosis in Detail
• C) Anaphase
– 1) Spindle fibers pull on centromere’s, splitting chromatids apart.
Each chromatid contains identical sets of DNA
– 2) Chromatids are pulled by spindle fibers to opposite ends of cell
– 3) Cell stretches further
–
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6hn3sA0ip0 – The Cell Cycle (anaphase 3:32- 3:54)
Mitosis in Detail
• D) Telophase
– 1) Spindle Fibers disintegrate
– 2) Chromatids “dissolve” back into DNA
– 3) Nuclear membranes form around DNA at each end
– 4) cell stretches further and bulges at each end
–
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6hn3sA0ip0 – The Cell Cycle (telophase 3:54-5:01)
• During cytokinesis, cell finally divides into two daughter cells.
How many chromosomes?
• The number of chromosomes found in organisms depend on the
species. Once the cells within these organisms perform mitosis,
each new daughter cell must have the same number of
chromosomes as the original parent cell. Below is a list of organisms
and the number of chromosomes found in normal cells.
•
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•
•
•
•
•
Human: 46
Dog: 78
Cat: 38
Elephant: 56
Wheat: 42
Kingfisher: 132
Fruit Fly: 8
The Cell Cycle Booklet
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•
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•
You will create a small booklet that illustrates and describes the Cell Cycle.
Your notes, Edline lessons, and p.64-65 in the textbook can be used as resources.
Your booklet will contain 8 pages, including…
A) Title page with short synopsis and full name.
B) Illustrations and descriptions of each of the following Cell Cycle stages in the correct
chronological order.
– Page 1 - Interphase
– Page 2 - Mitosis (must include a general description, and an explanation that the
following four pages will provide details on each of the four phases of Mitosis)
• Page 3 - Mitosis – Prophase
• Page 4 - Mitosis – Metaphase
• Page 5 - Mitosis – Anaphase
• Page 6 - Mitosis – Telophase
– Page 7 - Cytokinesis (decide if your booklet involves a plant or animal cell)
C) Each stage must be illustrated and described on its own page. The name of each stage,
as written above, must be at the top of each page.
D) All pages (excluding the title page) must be numbered.
E) Your text must be in complete sentences.
F) Your drawings must be neat, colored, and clearly depict what is described in the text.
G) Cut out each of the eight pages and staple them with one staple in the top left corner.
What is cancer?
• A disease in which abnormal cells perform the Cell Cycle.
• Like normal cells, cancer cells grow and divide but uncontrollably,
damaging and overwhelming surrounding body parts.
• 100+ types of cancer
• Cancers are often named for after the place in the body they
appear, such as lung cancer.
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LEpTTolebqo – What is cancer?
Cancer’s Costs
• Human Cost:
• Leading cause of death worldwide.
• 1 of 4 Americans die of some type of cancer annually.
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Lung; 1.4 million
Stomach; 750,000
Liver; 700,000
Colorectal; 600,000
Breast; 500,000
Cervical; 300,000
• Financial Cost:
• $125 billion are spent annually to treat cancer.
•
http://www.cancer.gov/aboutnci/servingpeople/cancer-statistics/costofcancer - National Cancer Institute Website link
Cancer’s Cause
• Poisons, excess radiation, or internal body variables damages DNA, causing
a genetic mutation (change).
• Cells with damaged DNA are usually destroyed by the immune system, but
not always.
• During the Cell Cycle, damaged DNA is replicated, creating abnormal cells.
• These abnormal cells multiply and grow into tumors, harming the body.
Cancer Treatment
• Surgery: removal of tumors
• Radiation: waves of high energy can kill cancer cells
• Chemotherapy: drugs or chemicals can kill cancer cells, but often
have painful side effects
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•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_moypMx05Fw – Radiation Treatment
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQpPeMGQv90 – Chinese man with 20 kg tumor
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dxtW_3SMco8 – Removal of Brain Tumor
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HeBl_Y2GSV0 – What is chemotherapy?
Cancer Prevention
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Don’t smoke!
Eat a diet with lots of fruits/vegetables.
Don’t eat too much fatty or fried foods.
Use protection in the Sun.
Exercise!
Control stress.
Review
• 1) how the spread of cancer is related to the
Cell Cycle.
• 2) how cancer can be prevented and treated.
•
Summative
Review
To adequately prepare for the test, thoroughly respond to each problem. Once completed, check
each answer for accuracy by reviewing your notes and the material on Edline. Make corrections
when necessary.
•
This work must be presented neatly on a separate piece of white-lined paper and be written in
complete, grammatically correct sentences. I recommend that you type your work.
•
1) What are the seven characteristics all living organisms share?
•
2) Cells are said to be the basic building block of all living things. Why?
•
3) Provide three ways animal and plant cells differ? The fact that plant cells are green and are
rectangular in shape, while animal cells are not green and are circular in shape is not an
acceptable response. Your answers should involve cell parts, organelles, and/or cell functions.
•
4) Provide two similarities plant and animal cells share. Your answers should include cell parts,
organelles, and/or functions.
•
5) What are the functions of the following 14 organelles and cell parts?
– A. nucleus
B. mitochondria
C. endoplasmic reticulum
– E. vacuole
F. cell wall
G. lysosome
– I. golgi body
J. nucleolus
K. chromatin (DNA)
– M. nuclear membrane N. cell membrane
D. chloroplast
H. ribosome
L. chlorophyll
•
6) Explain the purpose of photosynthesis. Name its reactants, products, and wastes.
•
7) Explain the purpose of cell respiration. Name its reactants, products, and wastes.
•
8) Explain the cycle that exists between photosynthesis and cell respiration.
Jeopardy!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g3Kq1vURcL8 - Song
• The class will be divided into five or six groups.
• Only one individual from each group will be able to answer
questions at a time.
• Every three questions students will rotate to the buzzers.
• Only the student who buzzes is allowed to answer.
• Each correct answer is worth 1 point!
• 1 point penalties for…
– Helping a student answer a question.
– A wrong answer.
– Buzzing before the question is completely asked.
– Taunting or teasing others.
• Students who are penalized are disqualified from answering the
question as it is asked a second time.
• 1. What cell process produces glucose?
• Photosynthesis
• 2. Write the chemical formula for photosynthesis
on the board.
• 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light Energy = C6H12O6 + 6 O2
• 3. Below is the chemical equation for photosynthesis. In
English, identify and name the products and reactants.
• 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light Energy = C6H12O6 + 6 O2
• The reactants are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
The products are glucose (C6H12O6)+ oxygen (6 O2)
• 4. What product is a waste of photosynthesis?
• 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light Energy = C6H12O6 + 6 O2
• Oxygen is the waste of photosynthesis.
• 5. During photosynthesis, an energy source is
needed to make carbon dioxide and water
react. What source of energy do plants
generally use to perform photosynthesis?
• Solar energy from the sun
• 6. What cell processes create energy by
breaking down glucose when little or no
oxygen is available?
• Alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation
• 7. What organic molecule makes up chromatin?
This molecule has a double helix shape, carries
genetic material, and looks like the picture
below.
• DNA
• 8. What cell function provides higher levels of
energy – cell respiration or fermentation?
• Cell respiration
• 9. What cell process do plants and animal cells
both use to break down glucose into energy?
• Cell respiration
• 10. Write the chemical formula for cell
respiration on the board.
• 6 O2 + C6H12O6 = 6 H2O + 6 CO2 + Energy
• 11. Cell respiration is not possible without
what two reactants?
• Oxygen & Glucose
• 12. What is the purpose of DNA?
• DNA is the genetic material that carries
information about an organism that is passed
from parent to offspring. DNA also instructs all
the functions of a cell.
• 13. Name the products of cell respiration, and
identify which of these products is a waste.
• In producing energy, carbon dioxide and water
is produced. Both of these products are
wastes that the organism releases.
• 14. There are seven characteristics all living things have in
common. Name four of them.
• 1. ability to reproduce and pass on genetic information to
offspring
• 2. require food for energy
• 3. produce waste
• 4. composed of at least one cell
• 5. made of organic compounds (C & H bonded)
• 6. react to surroundings/move
• 7. grow and develop during life
• 15. Name and describe two ways that plant and animal
cells differ.
• 1. Plant cells contain chloroplasts and chlorophyll, which
generally give them a green color, but more importantly
provide the means to perform photosynthesis. Animal
cells do not contain chloroplasts or chlorophyll and
therefore cannot perform photosynthesis.
• 2. Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall, which gives
them a rectangular shape and solid structure. Animal cells
tend to be more circular in shape because they lack cell
walls.
• 3. Both animal and plant cells contain vacuoles, but plant
cells usually contain one very large vacuole while animal
cells contain several small vacuoles.
• 16. Name and describe two ways plant and animal cells are
similar.
• 1. Plant and animal cells both contain many of the same
organelles, such as cell membranes, nuclei, and
mitochondria.
• 2. Both plant and animal cells contain mitochondria
because they both perform cell respiration, which
mitochondria are responsible for.
• 3. In addition, both plant and animal cells are eukaryotic,
which means they both contain nuclei. The nucleus of a cell
controls the development of the organism and the activities
of the cell by using DNA as instructions.
• 4. Both plant and animal cells are surrounded by a cell
membrane, which provides a boundary between each cell
and other cells or the exterior world. Cell membranes are
also selectively permeable, which allows certain materials
to pass in and out of a cell.
• 17. What organelle inside the nucleus
produces ribosomes?
• The nucleolus
• 18. What is the function of ribosomes?
• Ribosomes produce different kinds of
proteins, which are transported through a cell
or out of the cell for various purposes.
• 19. Explain how the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
and golgi bodies make the transportation of
proteins though a cell or out of a cell possible.
• Once a protein is produced by a ribosome, golgi
bodies mark it with a chemical. This chemical
instructs the protein to move to a particular part
of a cell or perhaps out of the cell. To reach its
destination, the protein travels through a
passageway called the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER).
• 20. The cell membrane and nuclear
membrane perform very similar functions.
Explain these functions.
• The cell membrane allows materials to pass in
and out of a cell, while a nuclear membrane
allows materials to pass in and out of a cell’s
nucleus.
• 21. What organelle’s function is to break down
and recycle food particles, pathogens such as
bacteria and viruses, and old organelles that
are no longer working properly?
• This is the function of lysosomes.
• 22. Cells are often called the “building blocks” of life.
Why?
• Cells are often called the building blocks of life because
all living things are composed of at least one cell. The
cells that make up the bodies of organisms, both
unicellular and multicellular organisms, perform all the
functions necessary for the organism to survive. These
functions include photosynthesis, cell respiration, and
mitosis.
• For example, it is the cell membranes of cells that
provide homeostasis for organisms, and it is the
mitochondria in cells that make it possible for most
organisms to perform cell respiration and get the
energy they require to live.
• 23. Both plant and animal cells have vacuoles.
What type of cell – plant or animal – generally
contain one, large vacuole?
• Plant cells
• 24. How many chromosomes are found in a
normal human cell?
• 46
• 25. Name one way a carnivore such as a lion or wolf
depends on plants performing photosynthesis.
• All animals, including carnivores, depend on
photosynthesis directly and indirectly. Animals perform
cell respiration, and to do so they require oxygen which
is released as a waste during photosynthesis.
• Carnivores eat other animals, such as zebra and deer as
prey. These prey animals usually eat plants, which can
only exist by performing photosythesis.
• 26. Plants and animals are both eukaryotic.
This means that they have a particular
organelle in the central region of each cell,
which acts as the cell’s control center. Which
organelle do all eukaryotic cells contain?
• A nucleus
• 27. If all organisms that perform photosynthesis
suddenly went extinct, there would be many negative
consequences to life on our planet. Describe one.
• Without photosynthesis, there would be far less
oxygen. Organisms that perform cell respiration would
not be able to produce energy.
• Without photosynthesis there would be no glucose,
which begins most of the world’s food chains. Most
organisms would die from starvation.
• 28. What chemical gives plants their green
color?
• Chlorophyll makes plants green. It is found
inside the chloroplasts of plant cells.
• 29. Which correctly describes all living things?
•
•
•
•
A. all perform photosynthesis
B. all contain at least one cell
C. all perform cell respiration
D. all contain nuclei
• 30. Photosynthesis converts inorganic
molecules into organic molecules. What
organic molecule does photosynthesis make?
• Glucose, C6H12O6, is the organic molecule
made during photosynthesis.