July 2018

I declare that the work in this dissertation was carried out in accordance with the regulations of Universiti Teknologi MARA. It is original and is the results of my own work, unless otherwise indicated or acknowledged as referenced work. This thesis has not been submitted to any other academic institution or non-academic institution for any degree or qualification.
I, hereby, acknowledge that I have been supplied with the Academic Rules and
Regulations for Post Graduate, Universiti Teknologi MARA, regulating the conduct of my study and research.
Name of Candidate :
Candidate’s ID no.
:
Program :
Faculty
Dissertation title
:
:
Hidayati Binti Ramli
2016355613
Masters of Science (Heritage and Conservation
Management) – AP777
Architecture, Planning and Surveying
Morphology of Malaysian Mosque Design and the
Application of Floral Ornamentation
Candidate’s signature : ……………………………………
Date : July 2018 ii

Masjid or mosque simply means ‘a place of prostration’ however as a sacred space it holds no inflexible architectural language with space or form but rather it is guided by the act of ibadah itself (praying) which is an affixed time of prayer towards an ontological axis (kiblah) with which a worshipper or an edifies orients itself towards
Mecca. And thus, mosques everywhere in the world adhere to this ontological rule; it is an exoteric expression of beliefs (Akel Kahera et al, 2009). Mosques presence in
Malaysia has gone through a morphology of adaptation to suit at the very beginning from its earliest inception the present timber technology and later its evolution was more socio-political influenced from the colonial era to the modern times and later architects in Malaysia were more concerned in applying regional language in conceptualizing the mosque unique to Malaysia’s identity. From this morphology, the floral ornamentation very distinct in timber mosque in Malaysia had also gone through its changes and many influence had factored in these changes too and thus once again created an ornamental discourse regarding its usage and adaptation in the local mosque. This thesis tries to study how these changes had occurred in its morphological timeline. iii

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AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LISTS OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Mosque Architecture
1.2
Mosque Ornamentation
1.3
Problem Statement
1.4
Aim
1.5
Objectives
1.6 Research Methodology
1.7
Significance of Study
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Four Types of Mosque
2.2.1
The Arab Hypostyle Mosque
2.2.2
The Persian Four-Iwan Mosque
2.2.3
The Indian Three-domed Mosque
2.2.4
The Turkish Central-Domed Mosque
2.3
Mosque Ornamentation
2.3.1
Introduction
2.3.2
Floral Ornamentation in Vernacular Mosque
2.3.3
Flower Ornamentation Design Symbolism
2.3.4
Flower Ornamentation in Mosque Element
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2.3.4.1
Buah Buton
2.3.4.2
Tutop Perabung
2.3.4.3
Tumpu Kasau/ papan meleh
2.3.4.4
Wall
2.3.4.5
Ventilation panels
2.3.5
Calligraphy
2.2.6
Geometric Ornamentation
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
3.2 Research area
3.3
Methods
3.3.1
Secondary data collection
3.3.2
Observation method
3.4 Analyses
3.5 Limitation of study
CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDIES
CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
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Figures Title
Figure 1 Martin Frishman, schematic overview of Arab hypostyle mosque
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Figure 2 Martin Frishman, schematic overview of Persian Four-Iwan mosque 10
Figure 3 Martin Frishman, schematic overview of Indian Three-domed mosque 10
Figure 4 Martin Frishman, schematic overview of Turkish Central-Domed mosque 11
Figure 5 the Lotus Flower 15
Figure 6
Figure 7
15
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Figure 8 Figure 8 Three variations of the floral buah buton
Figure 9 Figure 9 types of ridge board cover or tutup perabung
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Figure 10 Figure 10 various design of fascia board from top 17
Figure 11 Figure 11 Wall carving with different types of motifs on prayer space 18
Figure 12 Figure 12 Weaving wall types 18
18 Figure 13 Figure 13 carving of tebuk timbul on window
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1.1 Mosque Architecture
The mosque institution is the most identified element of Islamic architecture even when it isn’t dictated in the Quran of how the form should be built, however the tradition did instruct them to build mosques and to make them function as places of collective worship and community development centers (Omer, 2009) as was seen in the earliest mosque built by the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) which is often scholarly sampled as the ideal if not the prototype of the Islamic spiritual form.
Eventually, the language of mosque architecture that became symbolic is the minaret, courtyards, the minbar (pulpit), the mihrab (praying niche), domes, arches, iwans , and certain decorative elements ultimately evolved in its styles to respond towards the different cultures of the practiced faith in different region of the world, most notably developed through the influence of climate, geography, traditions, economy and building technologies that finally diversifies into the rich versatile language of mosque architecture such as seen in China, Turkey, Iran, Morocco,
Malaysia and other places today.
Mosque’s presence in Malaysia is important not only for its religious significance but in tracing its lineage we understand the morphology of its forms evolution that’s closely related to Malaysia’s building identity as the substance of
Islamic architecture is always the same, due to the permanence of the philosophy and cosmic values that gave rise to it (Omer, 2009). This means what changes in the built forms of architecture is how the people internalize and then interpret its values from the myriad circumstances forced upon it as it responds towards the architectural influences throughout history. This can be seen through the study of mosques design in Malaysia that is closely linked to its changing factors of; materiality, climatic responses, construction technological advancement from its earliest vernacular conception to its entrenched historical socio-political development in the whole of
South East Asia generally and regional landscape specifically as evidenced now in
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modern contemporary mosque designs (Sabrina, 2008). Conversely, in Malaysia today, the styles that are often adopted are from the Middle East where it is critically seen as the ‘High-Islam’ examples from many factors but most intense contributive efforts through the resurgence of Islamic political movements both globally and locally, and government efforts in determining Malaysia’s ‘Islamic identity’ (Moser,
2012) that has moved architectural mosque design to a more conservative and
‘Arabized’ interpretations of Islam at the expense of the traditionally syncretic Islamic practices of South-east Asia (Ghishal, 2008).
1.2 Mosque Ornamentation
The development of mosque ornamentation in Malaysia as part of the smaller details of mosque architecture is then seen to have developed through the same influence experienced by the mosque design and the many styles it took shape, adopted, and shifted through the timeline of Malaysia’s cultural heritage.
Islamic ornamentation and its framework in Malaysia is seen to have little forethought and critical discussions of its uses in the national architecture level. Each element of ornaments and decorations in buildings has an answer of why it was made into that because the elements carried a definition or medium of communication that are closely related with the lives of its inhabitants and users along with its natural surroundings. Each ornaments on the building varies in term of the use of materials and motifs to describe historical background of a general area, yet has the same characteristics as language or dialect of that area giving a different sound but still carried the same meaning [1].
However, local architects today are perceived to have a distinct crisis when interpreting Islamic architecture in a majority Muslim Malaysia where the dominant decorations language adapted for its design are often derived from the Middle Eastern,
European and Indian symbolism and influence. This approach is found in most of the decorative walls of national mosques that are copied from mosques built in these countries during what is perceived as the ‘Golden Age’ of Islamic empire such examples is the Putrajaya Mosque internal decorative dome is copied from both the
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Mosque Lutfullah built in 1600 and the Mosque of Imam Shah (1611) at the time of the Safavid empire in Iran [2].
Prof. Dr. Mohamad Tajuddin Mohamad Rasdi, national mosque critic opined that the styles adopted by local mosque designs are developed throughout the ages typify the religious development of the nation in context of its historical impact and significance, however in today’s modern day; the Arabesque decorations in mosques has been heralded as the typical if not the norm use that eventually dominated the design language and surpassing the use of traditionally wood carvings ornamentation in its discourse [3] for modern mosques design. This development could infer the socio-political relevance towards architecture where the most consistent perception of
Islamic architectural vocabulary is represented by the use of Middle Eastern and
Central Asian architectural garb [4] presumably because of the central factor of Islam the religion originating from the Arab peninsula and thus its arts and craftsmanship would be typified as ‘Islamic arts/architecture’. However historically ornamentation in traditional mosques were the works of refinement of ornaments taken from Hindu-
Buddhist beliefs and then interpreted and refined to the Islamic values based on the teachings of the al-Quran and as-Sunnah. Its fundamental link with our Hindu-
Buddhist influence on our old culture could be the contributing factor of its use in modern mosques design to be surpassed by Arabesque ornamentation as the dominant decorating element due to mosque design constricted and defined within the parameters of Arab culture making our historical heritage seemed outdated and then divorced.
This means that the design languages of mosque by that extension, its ornamentation is not conscripted in the holy text and was developed from many historical precedence and influence unconfined by the Arab culture which adapting its language in our local mosques today seem to be forced language, missing the relevance of our local identity and its equally rich history which I will explore in
Chapter 2.
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1.3 Problem Statement
Growing conservatism among Muslims in Malaysia has been manifested in the architecture and urban design, that rather than drawing on vernacular design traditions or developing a design idiom that recognizes a religiously and ethnically diverse population, architecture styles are seen to have adopted a fantasy Middle Eastern style for secular national buildings [5].
And in line with this development, traditional ornamentation rooted in old cultural beliefs that had evolved through time, is being replaced by the domination of
Middle Eastern heritage and arts, as the modern and postmodern discourse has been poorly understood in Malaysia to the point of blind imitation of forms separating the traditional heritage into an architectural limbo [6]. Islam does not differentiate the values of the spiritual and material but guided through the soul. It approves through the art, where ornament own an identity itself according to the purity and honesty emerging from the patron.
With the crisis of identity in architecture still existing in our built environment’s public discourse, manifestation of traditional ornamentation could play a part in presenting our cultural identity rooted in heritage and historical significance as well as disseminating the symbolic meaning through its arts.
1.4 Aim
To understand the morphology of mosque architectural styles from the vernacular to the contemporary design in relevance towards its application of the ornamentation in its design language.
1.5 Objectives
To identify the design styles of mosque in Malaysia from the vernacular style to the contemporary throughout the relevant historical time frame
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To understand the floral ornamentations from the traditional vernacular Malay mosque and its meaning.
To analyze the application of floral ornamentations or the changing of its application in the defined mosques types throughout a determined period
1.6 Research Methodology
The research methodology will be conducted using the qualitative approach.
Literature reviews concerning the historical development of mosques’ styles in
Malaysia will be studied to understand the morphology of its design form through a defined time frame;
 vernacular,
 colonial,
 international precedence
 contemporary modern design.
A brief of contents outline in each chapter is explained as below:
Chapter 1: Introduction
In Chapter 1, issues pertaining mosques architecture in Malaysia is discussed to outline the intention of the study and the scope of the study to achieve this intention.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter will discuss issues related to the research topic with the support of literatures from books, academic journals, articles, conference paper and other secondary data sources. Theories, ideas, quotations and concept as well as existing research and findings from the experts in the related field connect to the research topic will be critically elaborated in this chapter.
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
This chapter describes the way this study is conducted. It includes the methods used to collect data and analyses the collected data in order to achieve the research objectives.
Limitation and problems that occurred during the study process will also be explained in this chapter.
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Chapter 4: Case Study
Chapter 4 details description of 4 chosen mosques throughout the Peninsular Mosque that is considered relevant to the styles; further analyzed and compared of its usage and or adaptations of floral ornamentation in the mosques design.
Chapter 5: Analysis and Findings
The case study is tabulated, pictures taken and all the data collected as well as the discussions will be made with the basis of the literature to achieve the objectives of the study.
Chapter 6: Conclusion
This final chapter summarizes the outcome of the research analysis to conclude the study.
PRELIMENARIES STUDIES
Identify Topic Research Questions
MORPHOLOGY OF MALAYSIAN MOSQUE DESIGN
AND THE APPLICATION OF FLORAL
ORNAMENTATION
LITERATURE REVIEW
Journals/ Articles
Books
Conference papers
Photography
Setting Research Objectives
DATA COLLECTIONS
4 case study/site visit Observation
Tabulation/Comparison
DATA ANALYSIS
CONCLUSION
Table 1 Summary on research methodology
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1.7 Significance of Study
This research is intended to document the morphology of the mosque design in
Peninsular Malaysia throughout its historic timeline, from its original traditional vernacular form to the contemporary modern form of today. It tries to analyze these changes in form and compute the contributive factors that effected these changes enveloping and or developing the different styles of the mosque. From this documentation, we can compare the similarities and or differences from the development and how the application of floral ornamentation developed in the mosque’s usage if at all.
Originally, the traditional mosque in Malaysia was built in timber and thus its limited technology influenced craftsmanship tailoring the built form distinct of its time in the early practice of Islam in the region. It was heavily decorated with floral ornamentation that was still influenced by its adaptation from its parent culture steeped in Hindu-Buddhist symbolism, however it too later adapted to suit Malay identity and the Islamic prohibition of exemplifying created things or imagery of it in art or built form.
From documenting the morphology of its form throughout a timeframe of historical significance in architectural discourse, and to study the ornamentation as one constant design element; we can determine its adaptation in design usage of the mosques and how its evolution from the beginning to contemporary time is indicative of a rich diversified symbolism of architectural heritage significant to Malaysian architectural identity relating to its interpretative sense of place.
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2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the literature review will skim through briefly on the introduction of the mosque as a building typology and then expand the 4 types of
Arab hypostyle mosque common throughout the Middle Eastern world with a complimentary study of our vernacular timber mosque as a regional introduction in early mosque architecture in Peninsula Malaysia.
It will later study the morphology of these forms throughout the historical timeframe defined by the evolution of the architectural styles;
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Vernacular
Colonial
Art deco
Contemporary modern
Later it expands the literature to floral ornamentation in vernacular mosque architecture and other ornamentation types that exist in mosque ornamentation.
2.2 The Five Types of Mosque
Masjid or Mosque literally and quite simply means ‘a place of prostration’, with no priori style or form dictating it beyond its basic use; as such the spatial characteristics of the mosque are intrinsically defined by the act of prostration. This is especially so because the act of worship ( ibadah ) is not rigidly tied to a particular place, space or form, (covered or uncovered) but rather to a prescribed time where a worshipper or an edifies is directed towards an ontological axis of the holy place of
Makkah; known as the qiblah . Mosques everywhere around the world adhere to this ontological rule; it is an exoteric expression of belief. Owing to this basic principles, the mosque is a system of temporal spatial coordinates; it carries no preconceived order with the exception of the required physical qiblah orientation of the congregational prayer space towards Makkah [5].
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However, as the religion expanded under the rule of Muhammad’s (pbuh) successors; the four Caliphs after his passing in 632. Islamic empire grew extensive territory throughout the Arabian Peninsula, into North Africa and Southern Spain, all the way to Persian Sassanid Empire and extended as far as India; the call to prayer and the need to construct undisturbed communal prayer soon arose (Hakim, 2008). This has led the creation of four (4) distinct types of mosque in western and central Asia and in North Africa; the Arab hypostyle mosque, the Persian four-iwan mosque, the
Indian three-dome mosque and the Turkish central-dome mosque (Figs 2-5).
However, before these styles became prominent all throughout the Muslim world,
South East Asia saw the use of the Nusantara style where the earlier influence of
China’s architectural designs was adopted through its mosque’s craftsmanship as well as the design language.
2.2.1 The Arab Hypostyle Mosque
Figure 1 Martin Frishman, schematic overview of Arab hypostyle mosque
This style evolved from the earliest mosque built by the Prophet Muhammad in Yathrib with an enclosed rectangular plan typical of Arab courtyard dwelling. The dualism of interior courtyard and prayer hall was replicated in later designs as well as its adaptation of the added elements of the qibla wall and mihrab on the one hand of the wall, the minaret on the other hand. The minaret was built on a square plan with a ribbed domed roof which became an enduring typical form in North Africa.
Later, as Islamic rulers established higher empire expansion in the 7 th and 8 th centuries, the humble architecture began to diversify with the introduction of rich ornamentation, such as that the mihrab was translated into more complex geometric structures with extravagant decorations adorning the surfaces of the prayer niche.
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According to Hakim (2008), as the central authority of the caliphate began to wane in the 11 th and 12 th centuries, their power was distributed among a series of new states that formed between Morocco and India that later led to the diversifying architectural interpretation due in parts from responsive synthesis of regional elements such as local climate, available material and traditional craftsmanship.
2.2.2 The Persian Four-Iwan Mosque
Figure 2 Martin Frishman, schematic overview of Persian Four-Iwan mosque
In Persia, the master builders integrated references to the four-iwan construction of the pre-Islamic palaces. The basic arrangement derives from four vaulted – which weakens the dominance of the qibla wall facing mecca – was later adopted throughout all provinces of the land.
Ornamentation was extravagantly developed by the Persian builders to accentuate the metaphoric interpretation of the heavenly and eternal with the glorification of written scripts of the holy verses of the Quran, painstakingly applied by hand, numerous artistic scripts and inscriptions were created and craftily applied to decorate tiles, stones, walls, niches, domes, portals and minarets.
2.2.3 The Indian Three-domed Mosque
Figure 3 Martin Frishman, schematic overview of Indian Three-domed mosque
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In the 11 th century, Islamic government took over India and a mosque was later erected, its authority declared through the 72.5 metres minaret as a symbolic monument of conquest and victory. The mosques in Delhi and other buildings often continued from the Persian forms gradually transformed by regional building traditions and craftsmanship from interpretative works by Hindu workmen and builders. This resulted in distinct fusion of Hindu and Islamic traditions arising during the Mughal reign in the 15 th
and 16 th
century, resulting in a mosque form with three domes and an extensive, walled courtyard.
2.2.4 The Turkish Central-Domed Mosque
Figure 4 Martin Frishman, schematic overview of Turkish Central-Domed mosque
The Turkish new synthesis of the mosque form has had an enduring effect on the mosque architecture till today. It was expanded from the regular hypostyle hall plan of the first mosque of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) with each square covered in a small hemispherical dome. Dome architecture in the Turkish found Ottoman
Empire became very prominent in mosque designs in the 14 th
century especially after the victory over the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and the conversion of the
Hagia Sophia, a church built under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in the 6 th
century, into a mosque. Later, Suleiman II the Magnificent royal architect developed a Muslim counterpart, the Koca Mimar Sinan, to the genuine Christian original. Centralized cubic buildings were designed, crowned by a dome and surrounded by half-cupolas.
The central space opened out into a similar-sized courtyard of fountains surrounded by arcades covered with small domes. The prayer hall was often emphasized through the elegant stacking half-cupolas, contrasting markedly with the needle-like minaret.
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2.2.5 The Nusantara Mosque
The Nusantara type found in the South East Asian region has a similar set up with the exception that uses the pyramid with multiple levels of two or three levels of roof.
These mosques in the beginning does not possess a minaret but that the architectural element appeared a few decades lates as architectural project distinct 'landmark' and also makes as a minaret.
2.3 Mosque Ornamentation
2.3.1 Introduction
Ornamentation is an important aesthetic in Islamic Arts which acts as symbolic elements in trying to capture the essence of transcendence through Tawhid
(oneness of God) which according to Al Faruqi (2001) is achieved creatively through hierarchy, symbolic interpretation, lavish decoration whose function goes beyond mere display. Islamic ornamentation in mosques are mostly created in visual intricacy inspiring awe in its façade’s treatment and details, that in its artistic pattern are symbolically designed in deep spiritual meaning usually inspired by expression of nature as well as the constellations. This architectural ornamentation is inspired from plants, including stems and single, doubled, and entangled branches; leaves whether whole, halves, in twos, threes, and fives, in full or punctured style; palm leaves and various fruits. The most distinct characteristic of these pattern is the tendencies for these arts to adorn surfaces of mosques and the absence of human and animal forms in its decorations which is attributed to depiction of God’s creation being forbidden (haram) in its religious doctrine. Islamic art according to Sammeer
Syigh in his book, Islamic Art: A Contemplative Reading in Its Philosophy and
Aesthetics Characteristics opines that it arises from an aesthetical philosophical view of the place that man occupies in the universe, which inspires the religious Islamic view and transforms inspiration into a pure artistic language but are still conforming towards the everyday dimensions of life with its fine details intricately binding the unseen with the seen, between heaven and earth, and between abstraction and feeling. This means that even the mixing of plants in geometric patterns are symbolic with meaning and intention as suggested by Aloosi (2003) where the geometric
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ornamentation is an expression of unity and unifying characters between all the varying countries of the Arab world as expressed through definite geometric frames where they renew and alternate and interlocks strongly making it difficult to find the beginning and end points of its relationship with each other. These expressions dominate the space and are united constituent elements of Islamic architecture throughout the Arab world and later its adapted influence in the rest of its Islamic empire, thus attesting to the unified practice through its arts, in both external features and in its essence.
2.3.2 Floral Ornamentation in Vernacular Mosque
In this chapter, I will first study the floral type of ornamentation in our vernacular mosque in Malaysia as the earliest use of ornamentation in mosque designs here to determine its types, characters, dominant usage of its elements and its applications in mosques’ designs. Later I will determine the other types of ornamentation particular in mosque application.
According to the book Western Ornaments and Malaysian Architecture.
Floral ornamentation is derived from representation of living entities and later abstracted into patterned design. Floral ornaments are naturally inspired by natural aspects of plant life. The artist would have observed plants such as flowers and leaves and translated them into ornament that is used to decorate objects and buildings alike. On occasion, the artist would strive to achieve natural results by producing lifelike copies as the most recognizable feature (Khai Kid, 2015).
Due to the pre-Islamic practice in Malaysia in the 13 th century, most of ornamentation in mosques then was greatly influenced by the previous application of
Hindu-Buddhist ornamentation however it evolved and later interpreted to suit the poetics of Malay artistry as well as to move away from previous pagan believes and avoiding the direct adoption of God’s creation which was not permitted in Islamic practice.
Ornamentation in vernacular mosque was created to visualize the sacred in
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built form as was often decorated in the carving of timber as the primary material available in the earlier days. These decorations were designed in varying language inspired by nature and constellation element decorated at specific location in the mosque, however I will only focus on the floral type of designs on; the roof in the form of both tunjuk langit and tutup perabung, facial boards, wall, as well as floor, window, and the door. These motifs on wood carvings were influenced from Hindu-
Buddhist characters in the 1 st
century towards the Malay culture until it gradually changed with the introduction of Islamic culture in the 14 th
century when it arrived in
Peninsualr Malaysia at Kuala Berang, Kuala Terengganu. Later, these ornamentations included not only flora and fauna but also Arabic calligraphy, geometric motifs, and the cosmos interpretation.
The parts of the plants that are manifested includes fruits, stem, tendril, leaf and more conspicuous flowers (Said, 2002) such as the lotus flowers that is thought as auspicious in form; sunflower, is also popular depicted onto door leaf and ventilation panels; Epiphyllum anguliger commonly known as fishbone cactus or bunga Bakawali in Malay was commonly used for its spiritual character and thus translated to form. While the pomegranate fruit was also chosen as motif decoration due to its interesting shapes and bright fruit orange flowers. I. Said (2002) further that Malay craftsmen observed the beauty of their surroundings and symbolize the intangible value into a physical product that can be appreciated by others through their application in mosques wood carvings.
Ultimately, these floral elements are symbols of the universe and it was adapted on the mosque as a poetic language between worship of man towards his
Creator. This spiritual relation is more strongly visualized through the built form in its hierarchical elevation, and the floral decoration is to decorate the sacred space and relate man to his biology.
2.3.3 Flower Ornamentation Design Symbolism
The decoration and symbolism of ancient Malay cultures were laden with philosophy, thought beliefs and values of its society, carrying a message to convey in the ornamental and Malay representation (Nakula, 2012). The symbolic meaning that traditional craftsmen tried to carve in timber ornamentation of mosque was “Allah’s
Essence” and Muslims relationship with Allah’s “Earth’s seed” because man is seen
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as the vicegerent (khalifah) of earth. Among the most recognized adaptation of natural element to exemplify this symbolism and relationship of man and the Divine is derived through the Lotus Flower ( Nelumbium Speciosum ). The important symbolism of this flower could be thought in relation to the spiritual relationship of early Malays with Buddhism illustrates the pluralistic value in vernacular architecture, which was adapted and then developed with Malay culture and Islamic tradition.
Figure 5 the Lotus Flower
From Figure 5 the Lotus Flower has 2 important elements; the stem which
symbolizes “Allah’s Essence” and the petals which symbolizes the “Universe”.
However, in the end the stem that is symbolic of man’s relationship with Allah is symbolically hidden as the spiritual relationship between the created and the
Creator exists within man’s soul leaving the petals of the Lotus Flower to be expanded from 8 petals to 12 petals widening the Universal values of it on earth.
The Lotus Flower as the relationship of Man and God is seen in elevation as shown:
Figure 6
The Lotus flower can be seen through the built form of its pyramidal roof – a
Chinese pagoda like influence is clearly seen from the roof however, the ornamentation decorating it is symbolic of the lotus flower from the Malay
craftsmen interpretation as seen in Figure 7 .
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Figure 7
2.3.4 Flower Ornamentation in Mosque Element
2.3.4.1 Buah Buton
Figure 8 Figure 8 Three variations of the floral buah buton
Buah Buton (Roof crown) is an element very particular to vernacular mosque architecture to depict the relationship of man and the Divine. This is an ornamental part piece to cover the tenon and mortise joint of the tunjuk langit to the tie beam
(Said, 2001). Said further clarified that usually the tunjuk langit is beautifully carved with a lotus blossom motif and their ends have buah butons using similar motifs.
This type is typical in old mosques around Melaka, Negeri Sembilan.
2.3.4.2 Tutop Perabung
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Figure 9 Figure 9 types of ridge board cover or tutup perabung
Tutup perabung or the ridge board was designed with dragon head figurines as a symbol to protect the sacred space from evil forces but later developed into a refined ornamentation to avoid it from the dragon imagery which would not be permitted in
Islamic beliefs. Due to that flower motifs become more prominent.
2.3.4.3 Tumpu Kasau/ papan meleh
Figure 10 Figure 10 various design of fascia board from top
Tumpu kasau or fascia board is the horizontal decorative timber roof eaves covering the timber rafter. There are two types of this fascia board which are single piece type (jenis sekeping papan) with carvings on a single long timber piece and the multiple pieces (jenis kepingan papan bersusun) with carvings on multiple timber pieces arranged side by side.
The design of single pieces are less intricate floral motifs in comparison to the multiple pieces which sometimes combines flower motifs and other elements.
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2.3.4.4 Wall
Figure 11 Figure 11 Wall carving with different types of motifs on prayer space
Figure 12 Figure 12 Weaving wall types
Timber walls are often decorated with floral motifs on carved wood or weaving types.
2.3.4.5 Ventilation panels
Figure 13 Figure 13 carving of tebuk timbul on window
According to Said (2001), ventilation panels are carving components on doors, windows, door or window leafs, walls, railing and mimbar. They are part of the fenestration allowing air and light into the building. The perforated timber boards are placed on top of doors, windows or walls allowing circulation of air and light into the building that illuminates the interior which is often dark because interior is covered by the pyramidal rood and also because of the dark hue of the timber walls
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and the underside of the roof. The late afternoon sun may often cast intricate shadows on the praying space when light passes through the carved panels. While at night, the light from lamps passes through the perforations vesting silhouette of the carved panels.
2.3.5 Calligraphy
The Arabic language is considered to have Divine attribute having the Quran being revealed in the Arab Peninsula, it’s calligraphy in the Islamic culture is regarded as the primary form of Islamic art and creative expressions. Symbolically depicted as a mediator that expresses the quality and skills of its Creator, it communicates directly or indirectly the existence and power of God since the calligraphy is usually selected verses of the holy Quran. Its significance is the arts creation is also mainly due to the prohibition of human and figural images making inscribing the divine words as substitute for these motifs. Because the letters of the sacred alphabet correspond to characters and qualities of God as the Divine Scribe, Arabic calligraphy used as mosque ornamentation need not be understood of its language but that it should communicate its sacred symbolism of Divine word and by extension Divine Presence.
2.2.6 Geometric Ornamentation
This type of decorative motifs is the most basic element in Islamic ornament where the artist often experiments with the basic design language of repetition, rotation and reflection, using straight lines, squares, triangles, circles, crossed circles, hexagonal shapes and octagonal shapes. The practice of geometry is then to depict an approach to communicate the orders of the universe through its dominant characteristic of balance and harmonious pattern. This type of patterns in the earliest centuries of Islam was first influenced from both the Greeks and Romans but later modified and further elaborated under Islamic governance with the use of octagons and star shapes decorating art objects and architecture. The embellishments however have complex mathematical equations towards its design which had earlier attracted the Muslims craftsmen maximizing the art form in relation to non-figurative ornamentation of the created as well as visualizing the Creator and His perfected mathematical (geometrical) equations and balance of the universe.
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3.1 Introduction
The research methodology will be conducted using the qualitative approach.
Literature reviews concerning the historical development of mosques’ styles in
Malaysia will be studied to understand the morphology of its design form through a defined time frame of its earliest development in these styles; vernacular, colonial, international precedence and finally the contemporary modern design. These mosques will be defined by their design form, its technological construction, and materiality. Focusing on the use of ornamentation as decorative elements in its façade treatment of ornamentations of the different type of mosque typology will be studied contrasted through the different styles in its defined time frame, identified, and documented.
3.2 Research area
There will be 4 case studies chosen, and each one chosen in relevance to the different timeline and consequent to it; its architectural styles evolution as well as due to these influences;

Construction technology

Climatic factors

Political

International architectural influences
And lastly to finally see these evolutions translated into the contemporary modern built form and the ornamentation interpreted through it as was studied in the literature review in Chapter 2.
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Firstly, the chosen mosque is the Vernacular type because it was one of the earliest type of mosque typical to Malaysia and was designed with local floral ornamentation. The mosque chosen is the Tengkera mosque as it is one of the vernacular architectural styles, built in 1728 with regional influences of architectural form as well as its design language influenced by the technology of its day.
The second mosque to be studied would evolve towards the Colonial architectural styles with Moorish influences due to the change of historical movement in Malaysia’s timeline as well as the political reasons. The mosque that would be studied is the Masjid Jamek Kuala Lumpur that was built in
The third mosque is the Sultan Sulaiman Mosque, built in 1932 in Kelang,
Selangor is chosen to contrast the influence that had less to do with the political influence of the day but more due to the open architectural discourse of the international architectural movement that was still colonial influenced but moving towards the modern architecture typology.
Lastly, the mosque chosen is the contemporary modern influence of the day would be the KLCC mosque that was built in 1998, which has all the elements previously studied in relevance to the technological influence, political in its approach to accentuate a more Malaysian identity of perhaps the idealization of the nations’ hope or the designers understanding corresponding towards all the elements governing a mosque design in Malaysia, which would be an amalgamation of different languages.
3.3 Methods
3.3.1 Secondary data collection
Secondary data from sources, which is related to the study includes academic journals, articles, books, and conference papers, were selectively reviewed. These were elaborated at length in Chapter 2 both from the first subject to be studied is the different types of built form typical in architectural designs of mosques as well as the studies of ornamentation in our regional floral design and other types that exists in mosque ornamentation; so as to guide the observation done in the next method of data gathering.
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3.3.2 Observation method
From the first method of secondary data collection, the observation made are in relevance to the morphology of built forms through the different timeline, the first vernacular form 1728, later of colonial form built in 1808, Art Deco influence built in
1932 and then finally contemporary modern influence built in 1998.
The mosques will be studied of its morphological form and contrast its evolution in relation to the ornamentation existing or adapted to its overall design in observation of;
Roof ornamentation:

Buah Buton (Roof crown) or

Tunjuk Langit (Finial)

Ridge board cover or tutup perabung

Tumpu kasau or fascia board
Wall ornamentation:

Wall carving
Openings ornamentation (Doors and Windows)

Ventilation panels
3.4 Analyses
The findings will then be tabulated, analyzed and then synthesized with the literature review that was previously done to support or reason the findings.
3.5 Limitation of study
The limitation of the study is due in most part by time constraints also the varying factors that could contribute to the discourse of the morphological influence of mosque design, namely; political influences, cultural attributes, building and
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technological development, economic reasons and other more important factors that had major influences towards the mosque styles’ evolution. However, focusing on the ornamentation, we can analyze the changes occurring to the use, and or adaptation of its usage through the timeframe of its morphology.
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4.1 Tengkera Mosque (1728)
4.1.1 Introduction
The Tengkera mosque was built in Tengkera, Malacca in 1728 and is the second oldest mosque after the Kampung Hulu Mosque at the Kampung Hulu district.
The Tengkera mosque was built during the Netherland occupation of Malacca and was designed in Malaccan mosque style with Javanese as well as China's architectural influence. Its plan is typical of Malaccan mosques; an open square plan that is flanked with a 3 tier pyramidal roof style; the first tier covers the verandah, the second tier covers the praying congregation area and the highest tier is the pyramidal roof finished with the floral ornamented roof crown. The mosque had undergone two restorations and was repaired in 1890 and 1910 and was originally built with timber columns imported from Kalimantan, Indonesia.
An archway with pagoda like roof and floral ornamentation decorates the entrance to the mosque with a pagoda influenced minaret built next to the mosque’s verandah.
This historical mosque houses a tomb belonging to Sultan Hussein Muazzam Shah who with Temenggung Abdul Rahman, in 6 February 1819, signed a legal contract to hand over Singapore to Sir Stamford Raffles and soon left Singapore to Malacca where he later died and buried in the Tengkera Mosque cemetery.
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4.1.2 Architectural Form
Sectional drawing of the Tengkera Mosque, Melaka built in the eighteenth century.
Measured drawing by Mohd Suhaimi, Saleha, Poongavanam, Abu Hari, and Mohd
Ali (1981)
The Tengkera mosque features the typical Nusantara mosque built form with a square plan and pyramidal roof covering the praying area and open verandah on all sides surrounding the center praying area except the mihrab wall facing the kiblah.
Its architectural style is in the Sino-Eclectic category with distinct Chinese influence and a combination of two or more influence of architectural language, namely the
Malaccan and Javanese features.
Typical to the Sino-Eclectic style is that the mosque is built on the ground and is not raised like most local mosques design of its era. The mosque has slabs on grade which are raised about half a meter high with stone stairways accessing to the main floor plan.
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4.1.3 Roof Form
The roof was originally built with timber and covered with thatch roof and later covered with Senggora roof tiles. Its shape is influenced by Chinese pagoda roof with a Buah Buton (roof crown) floral ornamentation and a mild steel crescent moon and star decoration.
4.1.3
Tunjuk Langit (Finial)
Finial is the decoration that sits on the apex of the arch of the parapet where the façade is extensively decorated with floral carvings and simulated overhang with brackets. The mosque’s finial is ornamented with the cosmos decorative element with crescent moon.
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4.1.4
Tutup perabung (Ridge Board)
The ridge board is decorated with floral ornamentation as if sprouting from the roof to cover the edges.
4.1.5
Tumpu Kasau (Fascia Board)
The fascia boards are made from timber with plant carvings that decorates the roof edges all around the mosque.
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4.1.6
Wall
The mosque’s wall is punctuated with ventilation panels near the mihrab with floral decoration in rhombus geometric form that act as window or openings for the mosque’s ventilation design.
While the wall is finished with 1000mm high ceramic tiles in floral design and single floral patterned wall tile at each interval of door opening.
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4.1.8 Door
The timber doors are decorated in intricate floral carvings with an arched ventilation panel at the top that is covered in colored glass frame and intricate floral decoration complete with quranic carving at the top of the door frame.
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4.2
Sultan Abdul Samad Jamek Mosque (1909)
4.2.1 Introduction
Source :
Sultan Abdul Samad Jamek Mosque, or in Malay: Masjid Jamek Sultan Abdul
Samad is Kuala Lumpur's oldest mosque and built at the confluence of Klang and
Gombak Rivers which is why it is a very significant mosque to Kuala Lumpur's history. Built in 1907 and officially opened on December 23rd, 1909, it boasts a
Moghul type architecture which was synonymous with colonial design approaching
Muslim's house of worship as well as British's administrative buildings around
Kuala Lumpur.
Recently, the mosque had undergone conservation as well as extension as efforts in the River of Life project that had seen the tourist friendly place become the central part of the revivification of the meeting point of the river.
4.2.2 Architectural Form
The Jamek mosque is designed in a combination of the hypostyle form and the
Indian Three-domed Mosque style where its basic plan is square enveloped in a rectangular compound with a minaret. However, the main complex is topped with three domes as it was heavily influenced by Mughal architecture both by a strong presence of Indian people as well as the British colonialist’s exotic taste for Islamic architecture within the context of influence from North Indian mosques. The brick moasque was built featuring load-bearing brick walls and columns with ceremonial flowery arches.
The prayer hall inside sees three Mughal onion-shaped domes and the mosque’s
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main hall opens out into a walled sahn or courtyard which was originally unroofed.
4.2.3
Roof Form
The dome was originally made from copper but was replaced by zink after it collapsed in 1984. The shape of the domes is bulbous onion shape typical of Mughal/
Indo-Saracenic mosques design where it symbolizes the symbolic influence of nature. It is capped in its apex with a simple lotus decoration topped with finial. The forecourt was roofed over to cater and adapt to the needs for more prayer space as well as the climatic tropical heavy rains. The two flanking minarets set to a symmetrical composition of the mosque, while the smaller chatris which is small domed kiosk common on roofs in Mughal architecture, reinforce the Mughal influence.
4.2.4
Tunjuk Langit (Finial)
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The finial is simple designed, a common finish in Mughal styled domes that sits on a lotus leaves which is influenced by Hindu temples. The chatris are also capped with a simpler finial design.
4.2.5
Wall
The wall is bared red bricks which was abundant during the Colonial era in administrative Kuala Lumpur and boast a Moorish influence. The walls are frequently punctured by ceremonial flowery arches and windows are shaped like palatial patterns covered with geometrical stained glass shapes.
4.1.8 Door
The door to the main praying area are made out of timber with geometrical carving and topped with a high window also covered in geometrical shaped designs.
4.3
Sultan Sulaiman Mosque ( 1932)
4.3.1 Introduction
According to Documentation Section of National Archives of Malaysia, Sultan
Sulaiman mosque that is situated in the Royal Town of Klang in Selangor was built to commemorate Klang becaming the capital of British colonial administration for
Selangor from 1875 until 1880 and later Royal The mosque was officially opened by the 5th Sultan of Selangor, Sultan Alauddin Sulaiman Shah on 11th September
1932.
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4.3.2 Architectural Form
4.3.3 Roof Form
The main roof is dome covering the octagonal shape of the main praying area that is topped with a roof crown made of glass flanked by 8 iron decorative lighting rods that light up the sky at night.
The other smaller minarets are also covered in dome roof with decorative floral ornamentations and a
4.3.4 Tunjuk Langit (Finial)
4.3.5 Tutup perabung (Ridge Board)
4.3.6 Tumpu Kasau (Fascia Board)
4.3.7 Wall
4.3.8 Door
The 85-year-old mosque was designed by the British architect Leofric Kesteven and was designed based on Moghul's architectural influence in terms of the planning but the overall facades is designed in Art Deco taste where it outlined the monolithic structure.
The Sultan Sulaiman Mosque has a main minaret and four domes on each of its balconies. Its main building is octagonal shape.
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4.4
As-Syakirin Mosque ( 1998)
The As Syakirin Mosque was constructed as part of Kuala Lumpur City Centre
(KLCC) project and was built in 1998. Situated in the vicinity of the KLCC public park it is more well known as KLCC mosque and nicknamed the ‘Jewel in the park’, as it is strategically situated near the Petronas Twin towers and Suria
Shopping Centre as well as having jewel like geometrical dome centering its complex.
Initially the design catered to a congregation of 6000 people, but in 2009, the 2story mosque was renovated and extended to further accommodate 5000 more, increasing its total capacity to 11,000 worshippers.
The mosque is designed as an Islamic architectural landmark in a majority Muslim country that was economically fast developing its capital city, Kuala Lumpur and was designed to reflect its national agenda. It is designed in modern style (Ghaffar,
2017) with an absence of a minaret which further punctuate its modern architectural language without adhering to the traditional visual indication to the location of a mosque which became emblematic of mosque architecture.
The mosque features interesting architecture of West Asia specially Uzbek design combined with a taste of East Asia and was built by Uzbekistan craftsmen to decorate its interior and the internal dome’s facade details made out of marble and granite. The mosque has intricate carvings and calligraphy on the interior walls as well as on the dome internal structures.
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4.3.2 Architectural Form
The structural plan is sequence shaped hypostyle mosque, supported by columns.
The style of the mosque is modernistic expressionism (Rasdi, 2009). Historically, the modern style resulted from a rejection of historical revivalism, ornamentation and abstraction in the design language of contemporary European architectural expression of the early 20th century and instead it honors the structural expression as it was bearing truth to form and architecture. This can be seen where the mosque does not have a minaret due to it being a modern mosque with modern technology where the use of speakers had rendered the minaret’s purpose for the call of the adhan (call of prayer) redundant. The masjid’s space is very simple but structurally elegant with symmetrical design both in plan and in its elevation reveling in the balance in its overall composition as is often seen in Islamic architecture to denote the balance of the universe and its creation.
4.3.3 Roof Form
Fig The exterior of the mosque (source wikimapea
The flat roof is designed in the shape of 8 pointed stars capped with a geometrical patterned structural dome. It almost looks like a half-open umbrella, reminiscent of
Masjid Negara with its poetic significance as Islam as the divine protector of the nation. The dome is separated with 8 sides to the polygon and is supported by 8 main girders at the lower apex of the dome and a vaulted ceiling structure holds the geodesic structure. This top cupola exteriorly looks modern with no typical crescent moon filial to adorn it while inside of the structure act as decorative elements as the steel structures are left exposed with rhombus shaped glass windows penetrating the structure at each 8 separated polygonal intervals. While the top apex of the dome’s cupola is interior finished with white granite and decorated with simple ornamented
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muqarnas and its granite finish beam is carved with Arabic calligraphy of Quranic scriptures (Asma al-Husna).
The highest vaulted ceiling of the dome is also decorated geometrical muqarnas
(decorative ceiling) influenced by the Middle East and 8 and 5 star shapes are carved on the white granite muqarnass at the lower end of the dome structure.
4.3.4 Ribbed vault structure
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Figure Rib vault structure along the main praying area
Pillars structure at the new praying area
Sky-glass windows Series of symmetrical design pillars
At a glance, the series of pillars give the impression of palm trees creating the symbolism of nature synonymous with Islamic art but symbolized in structural form. The symmetrical pillar’s arms curve upwards to form a cross ribbed vault structure that support the reinforced concrete roof with sky glass windows shaped like leaves, reinforcing the palm trees metaphor, and at certain angles, one can view the Petronas Twin Towers from these windows as well lighting the mosques open interior with natural light. However, series of the pillars are not covered in glass window but instead the vault are covered up with minimal grooved panel ceiling bearing the branch structure.
4.3.7 Wall
The mosque walls are punctured with stained-glass windows near the wall facing the
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kiblah with carved geometrical art on some part of the walls.
4.3.8 Door
The doors to the main interior of the praying area is made of glass door with simple coloured stained glass design enveloped in ceramic finish architrave.
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Based on the research, Syakirin Mosque is belongs to modernistic expressionism. The term modernistic, according to Mohamad Tajuddin Mohamad Rasdi (2009), springs from the ideas and main principles that govern the early revolution of architecture in
Europe in the early twentieth century. To them, true architecture rejects historic revivalism, ornamentation and abstraction in any form but honour the structural expression in architecture. The Modernistic
Expressionism and Modernistic Structuralism are the two types of modernistic styles of mosques in Malaysia.
Modernistic Expressionism carries a metaphoric message through the use of structurally expressive form.
YEAR 1728
NAME Tengkera
1808
Abidin
1932
Sultan
1998
KLCC
Mosque Mosque Sulaiman
Mosque
Mosque
ORNAMENTATION STYLE Vernacular Colonial Art Deco Modern
ROOF
BUAH BUTON
(Roof Crown)
Description
TUNJUK LANGIT
(Finial)
Description
TUMPU KASAU
(Fascia Board)
Description
WALL
Description
OPENING
Description
DOOR
Description
WINDOW
Description
VENTILATION
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PANELS
Description
1728 1730’s 1748 1808 1871 1892 1898
Vernacular Vernacular Vernacular Colonial Vernacular Colonial Colonial
1925
Tengkera
Mosque
Kampung
Laut
Mosque
Kampung
Keling
Mosque
Abidin
Mosque
Langgar
Mosque
Sultan
Abu
Bakar
Mosque
Jamek
Mosque
Kampung
Hulu
Melaka
Mosque
Acheen
Street
Mosque
1908 1909 1910 1912 1916 1922
Colonial Colonial Vernacular Colonial Vernacular Colonial
Indian
Mosque
Jamek
Mosque
Syed Alwi Zahir
Mosque Mosque
Kapitan
Keling
Mosque
Ubudiah
Mosque
Paloh
Mosque
1924
Vernacular
AlKampung
Muhammadi Raja
Mosque Mosque
1929 1930 1932 1938 1964 1965
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1967
Modern
State
Mosque
Colonial Vernacular Vernacular Colonial Colonial
Art-Deco influence
Art-Deco influence
Jamek
Mosque
Alauddin
Mosque
Old
Mosque of
Kampung
Tinggi
Tanjung
Keling
Mosque
Sultan
Sulaiman
Mosque
Jamek
Mosque
Ubudiah
Mosque
Modern Modern
Sultan
Ahmad I Mosque
Mosque
National
Paloh
Mosque
1972
Modern
State
Mosque
1980
Modern
1982
Modern
1989
Modern
Sultan Al-Malik
Idris Shah Khalid
II Mosque Mosque
Sultan
Abdul
Aziz
Mosque
1994
Modern
Ibai
Mosque of
Kampung
Cendering
1998
Modern
KLCC
Mosque
42

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[1]
S. Mastor, “Konsep Hiasan dan Perlambangan, Senibina Melayu Tradisi dan
Etnik Nusantara’, Slide, Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaaan Malaysia, 2004.
[2] N.Utaberta et al, “Typological Study of Traditional Mosque Ornamentation in
Malaysia – Prospect of Traditional Ornamentation in Urban Mosque, World
Academy of Science. Engineering and Technology International Journal of
Civil, Architecture Science and Engineering Vol: 6 No: 7, 2012
[3]
[4] Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamad Tajuddin Mohamad Rasdi, Mosque Architecture in
Malaysia: Classofication of Styles and Possible Influence, Journal Alam Bina,
2005
[5]
Sarah Moser, Circulating Visions of ‘High Islam’: The Adoption of Fantasy
Middle Eastern Architecture in Constructing Malaysian National Identity,
Urban Stud 2012 49: 2913, 2012
[6]
N.Utaberta et al, “Typological Study of Traditional Mosque Ornamentation in
Malaysia – Prospect of Traditional Ornamentation in Urban Mosque, World
Academy of Science. Engineering and Technology International Journal of
Civil, Architecture Science and Engineering Vol: 6 No: 7, 2012
[7] Akel Kahera, Latif Abdulmalik and Craig Anz, Design creteria for Mosques and Islamic Centers. Art, Architecture, and Worship, Architectural Press, 2009
Picture
Masjid dome and finial
Saad, F. (2009, July 30). Domes & Squares - Masjid Jamek [Digital image].
Retrieved May 28, 2018, from https://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Asia/Malaysia/West/Kuala_Lumpur/KL/photo110
6638.htm
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