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Teachers’ Assessment Skills in Practice at a Private Educational
Institution: A Cross-Sectional Analysis
Dr. David Cababaro Bueno
Dr. Segundo C. Redondo, Jr.
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Abstract – This study focuses on the analysis of the classroom assessment skills and
practices of teachers across levels and departments towards a more authentic assessment. The
descriptive-cross-sectional design was used to gather descriptive and comparative data for the
purpose of describing the characteristics of several groups of teachers relative to their classroom
assessment practices. All teachers from elementary, junior high school and the senior high
school were included. The Classroom Assessment Practices and Skills (CAPS) questionnaire
was used. Reliability estimates of teachers’ perceived skill in classroom assessment were done
using Cronbach’s Alpha, which was α = .95 indicating high levels of internal consistency.
The data gathered were analyzed using Mean, and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at
.05 level of confidence. The teachers across levels are very skilled calculating central tendency of
teacher-made tests, assessing students’ class participation, calculation of grades, using
assessment results in planning, decision-making, communicating and providing feedback,
problem solving, evaluating class improvement, and writing true or false tests. Moreover, they
are skilled in writing multiple-choice tests measuring higher order thinking skills (HOTS).
They always prepare and employ multiple-choice question, true or false and essay questions,
HOTS, problem solving, assessment results for decision-making and written feedback along
with student’s grades. There is significant difference between the assessment skills of the
elementary and the senior high school teachers. Furthermore, no significant differences on the
assessment practices teachers across levels are identified. Furthermore, there is a moderate
positive correlation between the assessment skills and practices of elementary, junior, and
senior high school teachers. Traditional forms of assessment are more preferred by the teachers
compared to the alternative assessments.
Keywords – Classroom assessment, skills, practices, cross-sectional design, elementary,
junior and senior high school, department, private educational institution, Olongapo City
INTRODUCTION
Educational assessment is an essential component of the teaching
profession. It it the process used in the classroom by the teacher to obtain
information about students’ performances on assessment tasks, using a variety
of assessment methods, to determine the extent to which students are
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achieving the target instructional outcomes. In this regard, researchers suggest
that a sound educational assessment requires a clear conception of all intended
learning outcomes of the instruction and a variety of assessment procedures
that are relevant to the instruction, adequate to sample student performance,
and fair to everyone. This means teachers should competently be able to
choose and develop assessment methods appropriate for instructional
decisions; administer, score, and interpret results of externally produced and
teacher-made assessment; use assessment results when making educational
decisions; develop valid grading procedures; communicate assessment results
to various audiences; and recognize unethical, illegal, and inappropriate
methods and uses of assessment (Alkharusi, Aldhafri, Alnabhani, & Alkalbani,
2012).
Thus, teaching is a multifaceted process that requires teacher
competencies in measurement and assessment skills. Such skills may include:
test planning and construction; grading; interpretation of test results; use of
assessment results to inform teaching and learning; interpretation of
standardized tests; and communicating results to relevant stakeholders (Koloikeaikitse, 2017).
Assessment of students is very critical because effective teaching
decisions are based on the ability of teachers to understand their students and
to match actions with accurate assessments (McMillan, 2008). However, past
research has shown that there are many problems associated with teachers’
classroom assessment practices. These include teachers’ lack of an adequate
knowledge base regarding the basic testing and measurement concepts
(Stiggins, 2014), limited teacher training in assessment and failure of teachers to
employ and adhere to measurement guidelines they learned in measurement
courses (Campbell & Evans, 2000).
Teachers adopt different classroom assessment practices to evaluate
students’ learning outcomes, and they spend much of their classroom time
engaged in student assessment related activities. Teachers control classroom
assessment environments by choosing how they assess their students, the
frequency of these assessments, and how they give students feedback. All these
are a clear indication that classroom assessments play an integral part of the
teaching and learning process. Just like teachers everywhere, Columban
College, Inc. (CCI) teachers are the key drivers of the education process. Their
instructional and classroom assessment practices are a means by which the
education system is enhanced and defined (Nenty, Adedoyin, Odili, & Major,
2007). For this reason, it is imperative to understand the ways in which
teachers feel about assessment practices, their perceptions regarding
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assessment training and their experiences as they attempt to use various
assessment methods to evaluate students’ learning outcomes. It is also
important to understand their thought processes as they develop and use
assessment methods, grade students’ work and interpret assessment results.
Teachers’ assessment practices are an essential element for addressing students’
learning needs, and they can ultimately improve the education system and
accountability. Understanding teachers’ assessment practices serves as a way of
finding out if teachers adopt or use quality assessment methods to meet the
learning needs of students (McMillan, 2008).
The role of student assessment at the various levels in the educational
system is to generate information to be used for making “high stakes”
decisions, such as selecting and placing students in appropriate training
programs. Student assessment in a private educational institution also plays an
important role of helping students prepare for standardized examinations
needed for those “high stakes” decisions.
However, few formal studies on teachers’ classroom assessment skills
and practices have been conducted. This makes it difficult to have a clear
understanding about the nature and magnitude of assessment issues of teachers
in the elementary to senior high school. This study endeavors to bring an
awareness regarding how teachers generally perceive their classroom
assessment skills and practices as paradigm shift towards outcomes-based
assessment practices.
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
This study assesses the teacher’s response pattern in a set of items that
measured their perceived skills in classroom assessment practices. In order to
gain insights into teacher’s response to their perceived skill in assessment scale,
an Item Response Theory (IRT) model was utilized. IRT refers to a set of
models that connects observed item responses to a participant examinee’s
location on the underlying trait that is measured by the entire scale
(Mellenbergh, 1994). IRT models have been found to have a number of
advantages over other methods in assessing self-reported outcomes such as
teacher beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes (Hambleton, Swaminathan, &
Rogers, 1991). IRT is a general statistical theory about examinee item and test
and how performance relates to the abilities that are measured by the items in
the test. IRT models have the potential to highlight whether items are
equivalent in meaning to different respondents, they can be used to assess
items with different response patterns within the same scale of measurement,
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therefore can detect different item response patterns in a given scale (Hays,
Morales, & Reise, 2000). Thus, IRT is regarded as an improved version of
Classical Test Theory (CTT) as many different tasks may be performed
through IRT models that provide more flexible information. Test items and
traits of the test taker are referenced on the same interval scale (Koloi-keaikitse,
2017).
In order to understand what students know or do not know, educators
need assessment. Classroom assessment is possibly the first and most
important part of the teaching and learning process that includes measurement,
feedback, reflection, and change. Classroom assessments play an important role
as they are essential for generating information used for making educational
decisions. Classroom assessments also serve many purposes for teachers such
as: grading, identification of students with special learning needs, student
motivation, clarification of students’ achievement expectations, and monitoring
instructional effectiveness (Stiggins, & Bridgeford, 2014). Thus, classroom
assessments must be transformed into the content and use of assessment
information and insights as part of an ongoing learning process.
The purpose of classroom assessment is not just to generate
information for decision making, but also to foster learning improvement. For
this reason, if properly offered on a frequent basis it would help students to
refine and deepen their understanding of what they learn. Classroom
assessments are also essential for conveying expectations that can stimulate
learning (Wiggins, 2008). The more information we have about students, the
clearer the picture we have about their achievement, learning challenges and
where those challenges emanate. For this reason, there is a need to pay
attention to how it is used, as failure to do this may lead to inaccurate
assessment of students’ achievement and may ultimately prevent students from
reaching their full academic potential (Stiggins, & Bridgeford, 2014).
In other words, assessment serves as an important deciding factor for
the future of students’ learning outcomes. Educators must have a clear
understanding of the assessment practices that teachers use as they assess
students, and the assessment challenges teachers face. The most efficient way
to measure, understand, and appreciate teachers’ assessment practices is to
assess their perceptions about classroom assessment methods. They should
make decisions about the choice of assessment methods they want to employ
and establish if such methods are relevant for assessing the specific content
and effective to help students reach their academic potential. Teachers should
also make decisions about how they are going to grade, give students feedback,
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and how they will analyze, interpret, and use assessment results to inform
decisions in teaching and learning.
Classroom assessment involves a wide range of activities from
designing paper-pencil tests and performance measures to grading,
communicating assessment results, and using them in decision-making (Zhang
& Burry-Stock, 2013). Although there is a great deal of research on teachers’
assessment practices, few empirical research attempts have been made to link
these practices to teachers’ skills in the classroom assessment environment.
Studies which focused on classroom assessment showed that teacher
assessment practices have been affected by various subject areas such as
English Language, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, Music, Visual Arts in
the elementary, middle high school, and senior high school departments. The
results suggested that the overall use of and thinking about assessment
practices in a secondary English context aligns with prior formative
assessment, although the practices reported as used in this study seemed to be
more targeted to individual students and their learning needs (Tolley, 2016);
and both Filipino and Indonesian junior high school English teachers used
assessment for learning using written comments as their primary method for
providing feedback (Balinas, 2016). Given issues related to differences in
learner characteristics, effective sampling across the content domain and recent
emphases on assessing meaningfully contextualized abilities and higher-order
cognitive processes, the traditional mathematics test arguably does not provide
a valid measure of student ability, Dandis (2013), concluded that teachers
mainly use written exams to assess their student, they reported using some
alternative assessment but sporadically, the teachers showed dissatisfaction
with the methods they use and they prefer using direct observation to assess
their students, and the teachers gave some suggestions for improvement
purposes; while Awoniyi (2016) used school-based among senior high school
management of assessment towards improving assessment practices; and Nabie
(2013) indicated that many practicing Mathematics teachers integrated and used
multiple assessment techniques in their problem-solving and investigation
lessons. Teachers identified pedagogical issues, motivation, social learning,
diagnosis, and student thinking as the reasons for their choice of assessment
techniques. Moreover, a study of primary and secondary mathematics teachers’
changing assessment practices in the context of policy, stakeholder, and
personal presses for change, findings revealed several trajectories of change in
the interplay between assessment forms and the functions that they serve (Saxe
& Franke, 1997).
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Moreover, a study on classroom assessment practices by secondary
school mathematics teachers in Nandi Central Sub-County concluded that
discourse, observation, students’ self-assessment and peer assessment were the
common classroom assessment practices reported. Open-open questions,
select-type items and super items were the common assessment formats used
across school categories. Assessment information were mainly used to give
students grades or marks, diagnose students‘ learning problems and to assign
them to different programs or tasks and mathematical competencies often
considered when math teachers prepared assessment tools across school
categories included communication, problem solving, mathematical reasoning
and use of symbols and formal language (Eliud, 2015), while Bandele (2013)
investigated assessment literacy of science teachers in public secondary schools
in Ekiti State using survey design. Results showed that majority of the teachers
had low knowledge of assessment techniques, and placed more emphasis on
formal assessment procedures than the informal. It was recommended that
regular seminar/workshop be organized for science teachers on assessment
practices for quality assessment in the classroom. In another science teachers’
assessment and grading practices study, assessment and grading practices were
found to be at odds with modern perspectives of assessment as well as its role
in learning (Carmen & Jakobsson, 2015). Furthermore, the currently described
and enacted curriculum in K-8 classrooms is poorly designed for the purpose
of building content knowledge according to analyses of science curricula in the
United States. A research on elementary science teachers and formative
assessment implementation in their classrooms found out that teachers bear a
great burden of using effective strategies in an attempt to create learning
opportunities that lead to greater understanding of science, and the importance
of solidifying effective formative assessment use for elementary science
teachers cannot be underestimated in the efforts to increase effective, researchbased science instruction (Pierson, 2013).
The influences of teachers’ authentic assessment on their classroom
practices were paramount to both teachers’ students if implemented effectively
in the Social Studies classroom. The research found out that for improvements
to be made on teacher knowledge and ability and the policies and practices of
authentic assessment in schools, teachers, students, parents and policymakers
value and see the potential for authentic assessment to improve teaching and
learning, it will continue to be under-emphasized, undervalued and poorly
used. Thus, the researcher recommended that the teaching universities in
Ghana should broaden their scope on the teaching of assessment to
incorporate authentic assessment (Kankam, Bordoh, Eshun, Bassaw, &
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Korang, 2014). In music education and visual arts, researchers have found out
that music teachers in the southwestern region of the United States seldom
received administrative guidance or altered assessment approaches due to
standards-based curriculum adoption. They based grades on a combination of
achievement and non-achievement criteria, with non-achievement criteria
receiving greater weight in determining grades. Although instructional time,
number of students taught, and number of concert performances prepared/
given had no substantive relationship with assessment decisions, grading
practices were influenced by teaching level and teaching specialization (Russell
& Austin, 2010); and showed that visual art teachers with the knowledge of
educational measurement across Ghana and Nigeria; for the fact that most of
them were studio oriented teachers. Other studies reviewed indicated the need
for training of teachers, generally on the new assessment strategies
(Mohammed, 2015).
Moreover, a standardized test data from a southern suburban
elementary school showed lagging student scores behind those of students
from similar settings. These scores suggested a disconnection between
teachers’ understanding of and practice in formative assessment. This project
may lead to positive social change by empowering teachers to design
curriculum and assessment with authentic learning experiences and providing
students with goal-setting strategies to become responsible for learning. The
project’s positive social change may lead to this school and district closing the
identified achievement gap. It is recommended that further research on teacher
perception of formative assessment should include more elementary and
middle schools (Bennett, 2015), while a study on teacher factor in assessment
towards enhancing universal Basic Education in Ijebu of Ogun State attempted
to find out how teachers assess their students and areas in which teachers need
assistance. Results revealed that teachers indicated the need for assistance on
some assessment procedures such as: directing students to assess their own
progress, skill of test construction and item development procedure.
Recommendations include staff re-orientation to correct systematic defects on
assessment practices (Kareem, 2011). In another elementary classroom, results
were discussed in light of other research, indicating that a greater
understanding of assessment beliefs and importance of practices can contribute
to the development of relevant professional development aimed at the
improvement of teachers’ assessment pedagogies and practices can contribute
to greater educational success (Calveric, 2010), while an investigation on the
knowledge and attitude of secondary school teachers towards continuous
assessment (CA) practices in Edo Central Senatorial District, Nigeria showed
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that majority of the teachers, perceived CA practices as a systematic and
comprehensive system of evaluation but have inadequate knowledge of its
cumulative and guidance oriented characteristic (Akinlosotu, 2016); and in
secondary schools in South Korea revealed that classroom speaking assessment
currently conducted has broadly employed performance-based tasks and that
somewhat informative feedback has been offered to students in the form of
criterion descriptions plus marking scores. However there was still a strong
tendency here towards traditional formal testing to measure and report learning
outcomes, one which resulted in teachers having an overall pessimistic attitude
towards the positive effects of such testing on teaching and learning. It is
evident from this study that there is need for improvements in order to
facilitate better learning outcomes in the classroom (Lee, 2010). The teachers
implemented Formative Assessment (FA) practices in Grade 9 Technology
classrooms in the Fort Beaufort district. The study found that teachers had no
knowledge of how to implement Formative Assessment in their classrooms
and had a negative attitude towards it. Thus, practitioners need to be re-trained
on how to implement the Formative Assessment policy in schools (Kuze &
Shumba, 2011).
While it is very true that assessment plays an important part of the
Teaching and Learning (T&L) process. It is the duty of the teachers to carry
out assessment tasks that would suit their intended purpose. The research
findings suggest that teachers view on the value they hold about assessment
practices and the actual practices do not show a lot of difference. It can be
concluded that teachers view about AFL is at moderately high level. The mean
score of feedback for practices and value are at the high level. Unlike the
feedback, questioning records a mean score at the high level but their practices
are at the moderately high level. Other aspects of AFL are in the moderately
high level (Varatharaj, Ghani, Abdullah, & Ismail, 2014). On the other hand, a
multilevel linear modeling technique was used to examine the effects of
teachers' assessment practices on students’ perceptions of the classroom
assessment environment. Results showed that students’ perceptions of the
assessment environment were shaped by student characteristics such as selfefficacy; class contextual features such as aggregate perceived assessment
environment and average self-efficacy levels of the class; teacher’s teaching
experience and assessment practices; and interaction of student characteristics,
class contextual features, and teacher’s assessment practices (Alkharusi, 2010).
There is no empirical investigation on comparative analysis of the
classroom assessment skills and practices of the basic education teachers from
elementary to senior high school that demonstrates comparative analysis.
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Given the paucity of such research, Cavanagh et al. (2005) suggest that two
strategies can instead be applied: (1) examine the assessment skills in terms of
forms/approaches, and (2) examine the actual assessment practices that
teachers use. Integrating teachers’ perceptions will build a foundation and
rationale for the assessment practice they use in their classrooms, through
which one can learn to what extent and in what ways students’ impacts their
learning.
Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine assessment skills and
practices about assessment of teachers particularly in a private educational
system.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study focuses on the classroom assessment practices of teachers
across levels and departments towards outcomes-based assessment model. The
specific objectives of the study are to analyze: (1) the skills of teachers in the
areas of classroom assessment; (2) the practices of teachers related to
classroom assessment; (3) the significant variations on the belief, skills and
practices on classroom assessment; and (4) the implications towards paradigm
shift to outcomes-based assessment.
METHODOLOGY
A descriptive-cross-sectional design was used to gather descriptive and
comparative data for the purpose of describing the characteristics of several
groups of teachers relative to their classroom assessment practices. Descriptive
cross-sectional design is used to describe characteristics of a population or
phenomenon being studied at a given time. It does not answer questions about
how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Rather it addresses the "what"
question. The characteristics used to describe the situation or population is
usually some kind of categorical scheme also known as descriptive categories.
Surveys can be a powerful and useful tool for collecting data on human
characteristics, such as their beliefs, attitudes, thoughts, and behavior (Dillman,
Smtyth, & Christian, 2009; Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009; Mertens, 2014), hence
the survey design fit very well within the framework of this study. All teachers
from various levels were covered in this study. Thus, there was no sampling
technique used. The elementary school teachers, junior high school and the
senior high teachers were included. The Classroom Assessment Practices and
Skills (CAPS) questionnaire was used as the data collection instrument. The
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questionnaire contains closed-ended items. The initial set of items was adopted
from Assessment Practices Inventory (Zhang & Burry-Stock, 2013). This
instrument was created and used in the United States of America to measure
teachers’ skills and use of assessment practices across teaching levels, content
areas, and teachers self-perceived assessment skills as a function of teaching
experience. The Zhang & Burry-Stock (2013) instrument consists of several
items measured on two rating scales “use” and “skill” The “use” scale was meant
to measure teachers’ usage of assessment practices on a scale from 1 (never) to 5
(always). The “skill” scale was designed to measure teachers’ self-perceived from
1 (not at all skilled) to 5 (very skilled). To check the content-validity of the
instrument, the draft questionnaire was given content experts in classroom
assessment and teacher training. They were asked to review the items for clarity
and completeness in covering most, if not all, assessment and grading practices
used by teachers in classroom settings, as well as to establish face and content
validity of the instrument and items. Necessary revisions were made based
upon their analyses. The draft questionnaire with various items was pilot tested
with a total sample of 10 teachers from primary school, 10 junior high school,
and 10 senior high school to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the
questionnaire in terms of question format, wording and order of items. It was
also meant to help in the identification of question variation, meaning, item
difficulty, and participants’ interest and attention in responding to individual
items, as well as to establish relationships among items and item responses, and
to check item response reliability (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009; Mertens, 2014).
Reliability estimates of teachers’ perceived skill in classroom assessment were
estimated using Cronbach’s Alpha, which was α = .95 indicating high levels of
internal consistency. The researchers sought permission and approval of the
school president to allow the data gathering from teachers. The researchers
took into account the ethical issues such as the confidentiality of the data
gathered and the anonymity of the respondents in the administration of the
questionnaires. The data gathered were analyzed using Percentage, Mean, and
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at .05 level of confidence.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Skills on Classroom Assessment
The results of the previous study revealed that primary school
teachers, particularly those with a certificate, need more skill training in
assessment applications, statistical applications and criterion referenced testing.
Primary school teachers reported relatively higher discrepancies on use than
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perceived skill for statistical applications and objective items, and secondary
school teachers reported more skill than use of statistical applications and
objective items (Koloi-Keaikitse, 2012).
The classroom assessment skills of the teachers are presented. The
elementary school teachers (EST) are very skilled using assessment results for
decision-making about individual students, assessing individual student
participation in whole class lessons, assessment of problem solving skills, using
assessment results for decision-making about individual students, using
assessment results when planning teaching, communicating classroom
assessment results to others, including student improvement in the calculation
of grades, using assessment results when evaluating class improvement, writing
true or false questions, and providing written feedback comments along with
grades. Moreover, the EST are skilled in writing multiple-choice questions,
writing essay questions, and writing test items for higher cognitive levels.
However, the EST are moderately skilled in conducting item analysis for
teacher-made tests, revising a test based on item analysis, using portfolio
assessment, using peer assessments for student assessments, using a table of
specifications to plan assessments, developing rubrics for grading students’
assignments, and calculating variability (standard deviation) for teacher-made
tests. Thus, the overall mean assessment is 3.88. This means that the
elementary school teachers are skilled in conducting classroom assessment of
students’ learning.
The JSHT are very skilled in writing essay questions, calculating central
tendency for teacher-made tests, assessing individual student participation in
whole class lessons, assessment of problem solving skills, using assessment
results for decision-making about individual students, using assessment results
when planning teaching, communicating classroom assessment results to
others, including student improvement in the calculation of grades, using
assessment results when evaluating class improvement, writing true or false
questions, and providing written feedback comments along with grades.
Moreover, the JHST are skilled in writing multiple-choice questions, writing
test items for higher cognitive levels, conducting item analysis for teacher-made
tests, and revising a test based on item analysis. However, the JHST are
moderately skilled in using portfolio assessment, using peer assessments for
student assessments, using a table of specifications to plan assessments,
developing rubrics for grading students’ assignments, and calculating variability
(standard deviation) for teacher-made tests. Thus, the overall mean assessment
is 4.00. This means that the junior high school teachers are skilled in
conducting classroom assessment of students’ learning.
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The Senior High School Teachers (SHST) are very skilled in writing
essay questions, calculating central tendency for teacher-made tests, assessing
individual student participation in whole class lessons, assessment of problem
solving skills, using assessment results for decision-making about individual
students, using assessment results when planning teaching, communicating
classroom assessment results to others, including student improvement in the
calculation of grades, using assessment results when evaluating class
improvement, providing written feedback comments along with grades, and
writing true or false questions. Moreover, the SHST are skilled in writing
multiple-choice questions, writing test items for higher cognitive levels,
conducting item analysis for teacher-made tests, revising a test based on item
analysis, using portfolio assessment, using peer assessments for student
assessments, and using a table of specifications to plan assessments. However,
the SHST are just moderately skilled in developing rubrics for grading students’
assignments, and calculating variability (standard deviation) for teacher-made
tests. Thus, the overall mean assessment is 4.23. This means that the senior
high school teachers are very skilled in conducting classroom assessment of
students’ learning.
In order to gather information about teaching and learning, teachers
use a variety of assessment instruments such as written tests, performance
assessment, observation and portfolio assessment (Airasian, 2011; Stiggins &
Bridgeford, 2014; Popham, 2008). Ndalichako (2014) observed that most
primary school teachers prefer to use tests and examinations to evaluate
students’ learning. However, use of multiple methods of assessment is
recommended due to its potentiality in yielding valuable information regarding
students’ strengths and weaknesses in their learning (Gonzales & Fuggan,
2012). There are various methods that can be used to assess students learning
such as portfolios, projects, performance assessment such methods offer rich
information about teaching and learning. Portfolio is generally defined as a
collection of student work with a common theme or purpose (Wolf, 2011;
Arter & Spandel, 2012; Damian, 2014; Popham, 2008). The key characteristic
of portfolio assessment is that it highlights student effort, development, and
achievement over a period of time and emphasizes application of knowledge
rather than simply recall of information (Price, Pierson, & Light, 2011). The
main advantage of using portfolio is the engagement of students in assessing
their own progress and achievement and in strengthening collaboration with
their teachers through establishing ongoing learning goals (Popham, 2008).
Portfolios encourage self-reflection and awareness among students as they
review their previous assignments and assess strengths and weaknesses of both
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the processes as well as the final products (Sweet, 2013). The main challenges
associated with use of portfolios are the reliability of scoring, time required to
produce the product and to develop a credible scoring system.
The findings of the present study affirmed the investigation on
teachers’ assessment practices across teaching levels and content areas, as well
as teachers’ self-perceived assessment skills as a function of teaching
experience and measurement training (Zhang & Burry-stock, 2003). Thus,
classroom assessment has received increased attention from the measurement
community in recent years. Since teachers are primarily responsible for
evaluating instruction and student learning, there is a widespread concern
about the quality of classroom assessment (Mullis & Martin, 2015).
More research has confirmed this general picture. Elementary teachers
appear to be unaware of the assessment work and do not trust or use their
authentic assessment results (Florez & Sammons, 2017). Both in questioning
and written work, teachers' assessment focuses on low-level aims, mainly recall.
There is little focus on such outcomes as speculation and critical reflection
(Ndalichako, 2013), and students focus on getting through the tasks and resist
attempts to engage in risky cognitive activities (Chih-Min, S. & Li-Yi, W.,
2016). Although teachers can predict the performance of their pupils, their
own assessments do not tell them what they need to know about their students'
learning (Bombly, 2013).
2. Classroom Assessment Practices
Proper choice of classroom assessment method allows teachers to
diagnose problems faced by students in attaining desirable learning outcomes
and in devising appropriate remedial measures to redress the situation (Looney,
Cumming, Kleij, & Harris, 2017). In a nutshell, classroom assessment can be
viewed as a totality of all the processes and procedures used to gather useful
information about the progress in teaching and learning which facilitates in
regulating the pace and strategies of teaching . Frequency of assessment is also
considered important in facilitating retention of material learned (Panadero,
Brown & Courtney, 2014). They observed that the frequency of assessment has
a mediating effect on student engagement in learning. Research by Pryor and
Crossouard (2010) showed that when the frequency of testing is increased,
there is increased student involvement in responding to questions and in
discussing the subject matter. Other scholars maintained that frequent testing
helps students to monitor their learning and reinforces their engagement with
the course as a result of immediate feedback provided (Lysaght & O’Leary,
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2013). It has also been established that frequent testing has positive impact on
future retention of material learned (Looney, 2014). Since retention of material
is one of an important components of master learning (Panadero, Brown &
Courtney, 2014), it can be inferred that frequent testing contributes to mastery
learning.
The Elementary School Teachers (EST) are always using multiplechoice questions, essay questions, test items for higher cognitive levels,
assessment of problem solving skills, using assessment results for decisionmaking about individual students, writing true or false questions, and always
providing written feedback comments along with grades. The EST oftentimes
assess individual student participation in whole class lessons, use assessment
results when planning teaching, communicate classroom assessment results to
others, include student improvement in the calculation of grades, use a table of
specifications to plan assessments, and assessment results when evaluating class
improvement. Moreover, the EST sometimes calculate central tendency for
teacher-made tests, conduct item analysis for teacher-made tests, revise a test
based on item analysis, use portfolio assessment, use peer assessments for
student assessments, and develop rubrics for grading students’ assignments.
Thus, the teachers seldom calculate variability (standard deviation) for teachermade tests. The overall mean assessment is 3.64. This means that the
elementary school teachers oftentimes use these assessment tools for students’
learning.
The Junior High School Teachers (JHST) are always using multiplechoice questions, essay questions, true or false questions, writing test items for
higher cognitive levels, problem solving skills, assessment results for decisionmaking about individual students, and always providing written feedback
comments along with grades. The feedback provided by teachers' written
responses to students' homework was studied in an experiment with students
involving teachers in schools (Wyatt-Smith & Klenowski, 2013). They trained
the teachers to give written feedback which concentrated on specific errors and
on poor strategy, with suggestions about how to improve, the whole being
guided by a focus on deep rather than superficial learning (Wyatt-Smith &
Looney, 2016). Analysis of variance of the results showed a big effect
associated with the feedback treatment in the final achievement. The treatment
also reduced the initial superiority of boys over girls and had a large positive
effect on attitudes towards the subject (Xu & Brown, 2016). Moreover, the
JHST oftentimes calculate central tendency for teacher-made tests, assess
individual student participation in whole class lessons, use portfolio
assessment, use assessment results when planning teaching, communicate
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classroom assessment results to others, include student improvement in the
calculation of grades, use a table of specifications to plan assessments, and
assessment results when evaluating class improvement. Furthermore, the
teachers sometimes conduct item analysis for teacher-made tests, and revise a
test items, use peer assessments for student assessments, and develop rubrics
for grading students’ assignments. The portfolio movement is more closely
associated with efforts to change the impact of high-stakes, often standardized,
testing of school learning (Young, & Jackman, 2014). There is a vast literature
associated with the portfolio movement. Much of it is reviewed by DeLuca &
Klinger, 2010), set out some of the issues in education. A portfolio is a
collection of a student's work, usually constructed by selection from a larger
corpus and often presented with a reflective piece written by the student to
justify the selection (Cizek, Schmid, & Germuth, 2013). Others (Alkharusi et
al., 2012) emphasize that it is valuable for students to understand the
assessment criteria for themselves, while Brookhart (2011), points out that the
practice of helping students to reflect on their work has made teachers more
reflective for themselves. However, there is little by way of research evidence
that goes beyond the reports of teachers, to establish the learning advantages.
Attention has focused rather on the reliability of teachers' scoring of portfolios
because of the motive to make them satisfy concerns for accountability, and so
to serve summative purposes as well as the formative (Koh, 2011). In this
regard, the tension between the purposes plays out both in the selection and in
the scoring of tasks. Lyon (2011) describes scoring approaches based on a
multi-dimensional approach, with the criterion that each dimension reflects an
aspect of learning which can be understood by students and which reflects an
important aspect of learning. However, the Junior High School Teachers
seldom calculate variability (standard deviation) for teacher-made tests. Thus,
the overall mean assessment is 3.73. This means that the JHST oftentimes use
these assessment tools for students’ learning.
The Senior High School Teachers (SHST) are always using multiplechoice questions, essay questions, true or false questions, writing test items for
higher cognitive levels, problem solving skills, assessment results for decisionmaking about individual students, and always providing written feedback
comments along with grades. Moreover, the SHST oftentimes calculate central
tendency for teacher-made tests, assess individual student participation in
whole class lessons, use portfolio assessment, use assessment results when
planning teaching, communicate classroom assessment results to others,
include student improvement in the calculation of grades, use a table of
specifications to plan assessments, and assessment results when evaluating class
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improvement. Furthermore, the teachers sometimes conduct item analysis for
teacher-made tests, and revise a test items, use peer assessments for student
assessments, and develop rubrics for grading students’ assignments. However,
the Senior High School Teachers seldom calculate variability (standard
deviation) for teacher-made tests. Thus, the overall mean assessment is 3.83.
This means that the SHST oftentimes use these assessment tools for students’
learning.
More than one assessment method should be used to ensure
comprehensive and consistent indications of student performance (Alkharusi et
al., 2012). This means to obtain a more complete picture or profile of a
student’s knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviors and to discern consistent
patterns and trends, more than one assessment method should be used.
Student knowledge might be assessed using completion items; process or
reasoning skills might be assessed by observing performance on a relevant task;
evaluation skills might be assessed by reflecting upon the discussion with a
student about what materials to include in a portfolio. Self-assessment may
help to clarify and add meaning to the assessment of a written communication,
science project, piece of art work, or an attitude. Use of more than one method
will also help minimize inconsistency brought about by different sources of
measurement error.
Before an assessment method is used, a procedure for scoring should
be prepared to guide the process of judging the quality of a performance or
product, the appropriateness of an attitude or behavior, or the correctness of
an answer (Zhang & Burry-Stock, 2013). It means further that to increase
consistency and validity, properly developed scoring procedures should be
used. Different assessment methods require different forms of scoring. Scoring
selection items (true or false, multiple-choice, matching) requires the
identification of the correct or, in some instances, best answer. Guides for
scoring essays might include factors such as the major points to be included in
the “best answer” or models or exemplars corresponding to different levels of
performance at different age levels and against which comparisons can be
made (Committee, 2011). Procedures for judging other performances or
products might include specification of the characteristics to be rated in
performance terms and, to the extent possible, clear descriptions of the
different levels of performance or quality of a product (Hendrickson, 2011).
Comments formed as part of scoring should be based on the
responses made by the students and presented in a way that students can
understand and use them (Johnson, 2014). It further illustrates that, comments,
in oral and written form, are provided to encourage learning and to point out
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correctable errors or inconsistencies in performance. In addition, comments
can be used to clarify a result. Such feedback should be based on evidence
pertinent to the learning outcomes being assessed.
Procedures for summarizing and interpreting results for a reporting
period should be guided by a written policy (Koloi-keaikitse, 2017). This means
that summary comments and grades, when interpreted, serve a variety of
functions. They inform students of their progress. Parents, teachers,
counselors, and administrators use them to guide learning, determine
promotion, identify students for special attention and to help students develop
future plans. Comments and grades also provide a basis for reporting to other
schools in the case of school transfer and, in the case of senior high school
students, post-secondary institutions and prospective employers. They are
more likely to serve their many functions and those functions are less likely to
be confused if they are guided by a written rationale or policy sensitive to these
different needs. This policy should be developed by teachers, school
administrators, and other jurisdictional personnel in consultation with
representatives of the audiences entitled to receive a report of summary
comments and grades.
The finding of the present study raises the issue of formative feedback
by closely examining teachers’ responses to student's work. For example, if the
teacher asks students to provide more details about a written work, the practice
is characterized as formative; however, a concern arises as to whether the
student know what the instructor meant when he or she asks for elaboration
and more details (Wiliam & Thompson, 2008). Formative feedback contradicts
the traditional evaluative comments teachers frequently use, such as well done,
good, or great work and more. Chappuis and Stiggins (2013) argue that
judgmental feedback not only holds less for value for improvement and
student learning, but it also discourages students from learning. Black and
Wiliam (2013) assert that formative feedback illuminates students’ strengths
and weaknesses, provides some suggestion for improvement, and avoids
comparing one student with his or her peers. In addition, Black and Wiliam
(2013) point out the importance of oral feedback provided by the teacher,
enabling students to reflect on their learning. They write, “the dialogue
between pupils and a teacher should be thoughtful reflective, focused to evoke
and explore understanding… so that all pupils have an opportunity to think
and to express their ideas”. Given the definitions and characteristics of
formative feedback, it is an important component of instruction that occurs
while the instruction occurs and enables the instructor to adjust instruction
based on students’ suppositions respectively.
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Thus, reporting of students’ progress takes the form of written reports
and conferences (Roemer, 1999). Conferences are face-to-face events involving
teacher, student and parents in various combinations for different purposes
(students taking the lead in sharing their learning with their parents serves the
purpose of encouraging them to take responsibility for their learning (Johnson,
2014).
Lastly, those who argue for using traditional assessments argue that
just like other forms of assessments, traditional tests are also focused on
improving the cognitive side of instruction, i.e. the skills and knowledge that
students are expected to develop within a short period of time (Segers &
Dochy, 2001). A study conducted by Kleinert, Kennedy, and Kearns (1999)
revealed that teachers expressed levels of frustration in the use of alternative
assessments such as portfolio assessment. Some major issues that teachers have
against the use of alternative assessments are that they require more time for
students to complete, and for teachers to supervise and assess. Thus, the
teachers are generally also concerned about competencies they have in reliably
grading these forms of assessments and that such assessments are more
teacher-based than student-based.
3. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in the Assessment Skills and Practices
of Teachers across Levels
Table 1 reflects the ANOVA in the assessment skills across levels.
The f-ratio value is 2.27588, with p-value of .111964. The result is not significant
at p < .05. This means there are no significant variations on the assessment
skills of teachers across levels.
Table 1. ANOVA in the Assessment Skills across Levels
Source
SS
dF
MS
Between-treatments
Within-treatments
Total
1.2899
16.1531
17.443
2
57
59
0.645
0.2834
F-ratio
2.27588
For the ANOVA in the assessment practices across levels as shown in
Table 4, the f-ratio value is 0.43015, with p-value of .652505. The result
is not significant at p < .05. This means there are no significant variations on the
assessment practices of teachers across levels.
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Table 2. ANOVA in the Assessment Practices across Levels
Source
SS
dF
MS
F-ratio
Between-treatments
0.3446
2
0.1723
0.43015
Within-treatments
22.8334
57
0.4006
Total
23.178
59
The f-ratio value is 0.43015. The p-value is .652505. The result
is not significant at p < .05.
4. t-Test on the Assessment Skills and Practices
For the test of difference in the assessment skills between EST and
JHST, the t-value value is -0.69362, with p-value of .246068. The result
is not significant at p < .05. This means there is no significant difference
between the assessment skills of elementary and junior high school teachers.
Table 3. Differences between the Assessment Skills and Practices of
Teachers
Assessment
X1
X2
t-value p-value
Result
Skills
EST vs. JHST
3.88
4.00
-0.69362
.246068
JHST vs. SHST
4.00
4.23
-1.39832
.085062
EST vs. SHST
Assessment
Practices
EST vs. JHST
3.88
X1
4.23
X2
-2.20128
t-value
.016931
p-value
3.64
3.73
-0.41871
.338891
JHST vs. SHST
3.73
3.83
-0.50674
.307631
EST vs. SHST
3.64
3.83
-0.93536
.177755
Not significant at p <
.05.
Not significant at p <
.05.
Significant at p < .05.
Result
Not significant at p <
.05.
Not significant at p <
.05.
Not significant at p <
.05.
Similarly, the test of difference in the assessment skills between JHST
and SHST, the t-value value is -1.39832, with p-value of .085062. The result
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is not significant at p < .05. This means there is no significant difference
between the assessment skills of the junior and the senior high school teachers.
However, there is significant difference between the assessment skills
of the elementary and the senior high school teachers because the t-value value
is -2.20128, with p-value of .016931. The result is not significant at p < .05.
Relative to the assessment practices, the test of difference in the skills
between EST and JHST, the t-value value is -0.41871, with p-value of .338891.
The result is not significant at p < .05. This means there is no significant
difference between the assessment practices of the elementary and the junior
high school teachers. Similar result in the test of difference in the assessment
skills between JHST and SHST is obtained because the t-value value is 1.39832, with p-value of .085062. The result is not significant at p < .05. This
means there is no significant difference between the assessment practices of
the junior and the senior high school teachers.
Moreover, there is no significant difference between the assessment
practices of the elementary and the senior high school teachers because the tvalue value is -0.93536, with p-value of .177755. The result is not significant
at p < .05.
5. Relationship between Assessment Skills and Practices
Among EST as shown in Table 6, the value of R is 0.713 and the
coefficient of determination is 0.508. Thus, there is a moderate positive
correlation between assessment skills and practices of elementary school
teachers, which means there is a tendency for a skilled teacher in the
preparation of the assessment tool to frequently use the same tool in the
classroom (and vice versa). Among JHST, the value of R is 0.634 and the
coefficient of determination is 0.402.
Thus, there is a moderate positive correlation between assessment
skills and practices of junior high school teachers, which means by normal
standards, the association between the skills and the practices of teachers
would be considered statistically significant. Moreover, similar result of
moderate positive correlation is obtained among SHST, because the value of R
is 0.655 and the coefficient of determination is 0.429.
Therefore, teachers adopt a variety of classroom assessment practices
to evaluate student learning outcomes, and spend much classroom time
engaged in assessment-related activities. Teachers typically control classroom
assessment environments by choosing how they assess their students, the
frequency of these assessments, and how they provide assessment feedback.
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For these reasons, it is imperative for them to be competent in the various
classroom assessment tools (Koloi-keaikitse, 2017).
Table 4. Correlation between Assessment skills and Practices
Teachers
Assessment
Skills (X1)
Assessment
Practices
(X2)
Rvalue
R2-value
(coefficient
determination)
Correlation
EST
3.88
3.64
0.713
0.508
JHST
4.00
3.73
0.634
0.402
SHST
4.23
3.83
0.655
0.429
Moderate
(+)
Moderate
(+)
Moderate
(+)
The findings of the study affirm that primarily the current practices of
assessment were focused on exams, classroom discussions, classroom
assignment, projects, and seminars. In addition, the study found out that an
informal exposure to formative assessment (alternative approach) existed
among the faculty members and based on students’ responses, overall, as a
formal approach, alternative assessment was considered as a new paradigm
(Ahmad & Mussawy, 2009). Teachers depend on the classroom assessment
information to improve their instructional methods, and as such, that
information plays an important role in student learning. It is apparent that
teachers should be made competent in the collection, analysis and use of
assessment information. Zhang and Burry-Stock (2003) argued that to be able
to communicate assessment results more effectively, teachers must possess a
clear understanding about the limitations and strengths of various assessment
methods. Teachers must also use proper terminology as they use assessment
results to inform other people about the decisions about student learning. For
this reason, teacher educators must find ways in which they can improve their
assessment training methods that can equip teachers with needed skills for
using and communicating assessment results. This finding equally brings major
challenges to school administrators who rely on teachers to provide them with
information about student learning that they collect from assessment results.
It is clear that items that assessed teachers’ perceived skills about test
construction are helpful in providing essential information about teachers’
perceived skills in classroom assessment practices. This finding is important
because it shows that if school managers want to know assessment areas that
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teachers may need to be trained on, they may not ask them about their
perceived skills in test construction, but rather they may want to establish if
teachers are more confident in using assessment information for improving
their instructional methods, or whether they are in a position to communicate
assessment results for better decision-making about student learning. These
results generally imply the need for teachers or assessment professional
development specialists to focus their attention on assessment training on skills
teachers need most and those they have less perceived skills on.
Teachers are one of the key elements in any school and effective
teaching is one of the key propellers for school improvement. This study is
concerned with how to define a teacher’s effectiveness and what makes an
effective teacher in relation to their skills and actual practices in assessing
students’ learning. It draws out implications for policymakers in education and
for improving classroom practice.
Thus, the results of this study suggest that, although most teachers
claimed that their training did have a certain impact on their assessment
practices, the changes occurred mostly while the teachers were novice teachers.
This finding also indicates that teachers are required to attend workshops or
courses to acquire updated assessment knowledge from time to time. Teacher
training programs can equip teachers with assessment knowledge by offering
assessment courses to pre-service teachers and assessment workshops to inservice teachers.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The teachers across levels from elementary to senior high school are
very skilled calculating central tendency of teacher-made tests, assessing
students’ class participation, calculation of grades, using assessment results in
planning, decision-making, communicating and providing feedback, problem
solving, evaluating class improvement, and writing true or false tests.
Moreover, they are skilled in writing multiple-choice tests measuring higher
order thinking skills (HOTS). However, they are moderately skilled in
developing rubrics, and calculating variability for teacher-made tests. All the
teachers across levels are always preparing and employing multiple-choice
question, true or false and essay questions, HOTS, problem solving,
assessment results for decision-making and written feedback along with
student’s grades. Moreover, they oftentimes employ assessment of individual
student’s class participation, results in lesson planning, and evaluating class and
student’s improvement, communicate assessment result, and table of
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specifications. However, they sometimes use item analysis, revise test items,
peer assessment, and rubrics in classroom assessment, and they seldom use the
results of standard deviation for teacher-made tests. Moreover, there are no
significant variations on the assessment skills and assessment practices of
teachers across levels, and there is no significant difference between the
assessment skills of elementary and junior high school teachers, as well as
between the junior and the senior high school teachers. However, there is
significant difference between the assessment skills of the elementary and the
senior high school teachers. Furthermore, no significant differences on the
assessment practices teachers across levels. Furthermore, there is a moderate
positive correlation between the assessment skills and the assessment practices
of elementary, junior, and senior high school teachers. Additionally, the results
showed that items asking teachers about their perceived skills in test
construction and calculation of statistical techniques such as measures of
central tendency were the least useful in understanding overall perceptions
about assessment skills. Further examination of the results showed that an item
that asked teachers about their perceived skill in portfolio assessment proved
to be the most difficult for teachers to use, an indication that most of the
teachers were less skilled in portfolio assessment. This means using traditional
forms of assessment such as true or false, multiple choice items and essay
questions are more preferred by the teachers compared to the alternative
assessments such as portfolio assessments. Thus, the findings of the study
revealed the perceived strengths and weaknesses of teachers relative to their
classroom assessment skills and practices.
These findings have major implications for teacher educators and
school managers. For teacher educators these results highlight classroom
assessment areas that they may need to focus on as they teach assessment
courses. Assessment entails a broad spectrum of activities that includes
collection of information for decision-making. The responsibility of teachers is
to collect information through various assessment methods that can be used to
make informed decisions about students’ learning progress. The question is: are
teachers competent enough to use or apply assessment information for making
students’ learning decisions? From these results it was very clear that teachers
are less confident in using assessment information to make informed
instructional and learning decisions.
The teachers should continue bringing change and preparing students
for future endeavors though authentic assessment. It is therefore imperative to
understand their teaching practices particularly how they assess and evaluate
student learning outcomes. The gathered information should be used to
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highlight the level of teachers’ competences in conducting classroom
assessments towards planning and conducting teachers’ education and
professional development. It is now essential for researchers, educators, and
policy-makers in the Philippine context to have a clear understanding of the
perceived skills teachers hold about certain classroom assessment practices as it
can open avenues informing policy and practice for addressing the needs that
teachers have as they wrestle with their day-to-day classroom assessment
practices. Furthermore, research to establish why teachers felt least competent
and in the use of portfolio assessment is highly recommended.
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