Disability Equality Scheme 2009-2012 This document is available online at http://www.rdg.ac.uk/equality and copies (including those in alternative formats) are available from the Equal Opportunities and Diversity Office or Disability Advisory Service on request. Further information and queries may be directed to: Equal Opportunities and Diversity Office (0118 3786249) E-mail: j.m.marsh@reading.ac.uk Website: http://www.rdg.ac.uk/equality Disability Advisory Service (0118 3788921) E-mail: disability@reading.ac.uk Website: http://www.rdg.ac.uk/disability ©University of Reading 2011 Page 1 Table of Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 General statement 1.2 Legal background 1.3 Other relevant policies and procedures 2 Context and Background 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3 Scheme Implementation 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4 Role of equal opportunities and diversity in our strategic objectives Scope and vision Social and political context Legal context Institutional context Leadership, accountability and responsibility Involvement of disabled stakeholders Publication, monitoring and review and progress reporting Gathering and using information Impact assessment activity Preventing harassment on the grounds of disability Raising concerns and compliance 2009-2012 Action Plan ©University of Reading 2011 Page 2 Introduction 1.1 General statement The University is committed to providing equality of opportunity to all its staff and students, potential staff and students, suppliers, providers, contractors and users of facilities regardless of disability. Evidence of discriminatory behaviour (including disability related discrimination or harassment) will be treated as a potential disciplinary matter which may, in turn, result in sanctions up to and including staff dismissal or student expulsion in line with staff grievance and disciplinary procedures and student complaints and disciplinary procedures. Our overarching goal of this Disability Equality Scheme 2009-2012 (Scheme) is to promote equality of opportunity, eliminate disability related discrimination and harassment, promote positive attitudes towards disabled people and to encourage disabled people to participate in public life. During the period of this Scheme, the University will endeavour to gather information and allocate resources to support the Scheme and meet the objectives detailed in the included Action Plan. This entire process will be strengthened by the involvement of disabled people and the University’s Disability Advisory Group (DAG), which will monitor annual progress and reporting. 1.2 Legal background The Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) (1995) was amended in 2005 to introduce a Disability Equality Duty, which includes a framework of ‚general‛ and ‚specific‛ duties imposed on public bodies (including universities) to promote disability equality. The University aims to meet the general duties by having a due regard to the need to: Promote equality of opportunity between disabled people and others Eliminate discrimination that is unlawful under the Act Eliminate harassment of disabled people that is related to their disabilities Promote positive attitudes towards disabled people Encourage participation by disabled people in public life and take steps to take account of their disabilities, even where that involves treating disabled people more favourably. The University aims to meet the specific duties by publishing this document, our second Disability Equality Scheme running from December 2009-December 2012, to include a statement of: The way in which disabled people have been involved in the development of the scheme An ‘action plan’ Methods for impact assessment Arrangements for gathering information on the effect of University policies and practices on the recruitment, development and retention of disabled employees, the educational opportunities available to, and the achievements of, disabled students and the extent to which the services we provide take account of the needs of disabled people Arrangements for putting the information gathered to use, in particular in reviewing the effectiveness of its action plan and in preparing subsequent Disability Equality Schemes ©University of Reading 2011 Page 3 Arrangements for publishing an annual report summarising steps taken under the action plan, the results of information gathering and the use to which we have put the information. 1.3 Other relevant policies and procedures The Scheme should be read as part of the wider set of policies and procedures within the University including but not limited to the following: 1. Policy on Equal Opportunities and Diversity 2. Code of Good Practice (Valuing Ourselves and Others) 3. Harassment related policy and procedures 4. Equality policies/schemes and action plans (race and gender) 5. Staff Grievance and Disciplinary procedures 6. Student Complaints and Disciplinary procedures 7. Disability-Related Reasonable Adjustments Policy for Staff 8. Policy for Academic Adjustments for Disabled Students. 2 Context and Background 2.1 Role of equal opportunities and diversity in our strategic objectives The University is ranked as one of the UK’s 10 most research-intensive universities and as one of the top 200 universities in the world. We enjoy first-class resources to support worldclass teaching. The University has circa 15,000 students (in 2008/9 there were over 2000 full and part-time students from outside the European Union from 120 different countries) and 4,000 staff. Our commitment to equality of opportunity is evidenced at the highest strategic level via our Corporate Plan 2008-2013, which provides a framework to enable us to develop our national and international reputation for excellence in teaching, research and enterprise. The Corporate Plan is complemented by a range of Sector Strategies and a Mission Statement that underpin our commitment to promote equality. Through our engagement with equal opportunities and diversity across all our functions we aim to make progress towards our vision: ‚to translate our excellence into a major contribution to culture, economic wellbeing and quality of life…*and+ develop[e] a culture that stimulates and supports our staff and students.‛ (Mission Statement) In regard to disability equality, the University has a sound history of activity in this area, particularly in relation to supporting disabled students. We welcome the opportunity to improve provision for both staff and students through the implementation of this Scheme, which provides an exciting opportunity to further develop the disability equality agenda which has been actively developing for a number of years. The Scheme will help drive forward change as well as providing a formal institutional framework through which to coordinate our approach to disability related activity. 2.2 Scope and vision Scope The scope of the Scheme is far reaching and aims to cover all disabled stakeholders at the University1. By involving disabled people in identifying barriers and unsatisfactory outcomes we aim to set priorities for actions and focus our activity. Our intention is to play 1 Staff (potential and existing), students (potential and existing), suppliers, providers, contractors and users of facilities, etc. ©University of Reading 2011 Page 4 an active role in promoting equality of opportunity for disabled stakeholders as part of their University experience. The University also works to raise awareness of equality and diversity issues both in its overall approach to learning as well as in its relations with employers. We envisage many practical ways in which the University will benefit from implementing the requirements of the Disability Equality Duty, notably: Enable the University to demonstrate a commitment to make a real, positive change to the lives of disabled people Improve our ability to deliver suitable and accessible services and to carry out functions of the University so that they meet various needs Encourage greater openness in policy-making, increase involvement of disabled people in policy making and encourage policy makers to be more aware of issues concerning particular groups Encourage representation of disabled staff and students at all levels Attract and retain disabled staff Help widen participation and student retention, enabling all students to reach their full potential Give a greater imperative to implement our duties under disability legislation Identify and develop good practice in the sector Avoid claims of unlawful disability discrimination Promote a greater knowledge and understanding of disability amongst members of the University community with benefits to society at large. Vision Our vision is that through our 2009-2012 Action Plan we will continue to secure meaningful outcomes which will have a real impact on the experiences of disabled stakeholders. We will plan for specific, measurable, achievable and timely objectives with clear lines of accountability to best support the actions/priorities identified. 2.3 Social and political context In its report ‚Improving the Life Chances of Disabled People‛ (Strategy Unit, 2005), the Government sets out its vision of disability equality as follows: ‚By 2025, disabled people in Britain should have full opportunities and choices to improve their quality of life and will be respected and included as equal members of society‛. Through the Disability Equality Duty public authorities (including universities) have been specifically tasked with working towards this goal. It is now widely acknowledged that disabled people are disadvantaged by attitudinal and environmental barriers rather than their impairment or medical condition alone. This is known as ‘the social model of disability’ and provides a basis for the successful implementation of the duty to promote disability equality. 2.4 Legal context Disability equality legislation has been developing and expanding since 1995 when the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) was introduced in its original form. Since 1995 there have been many improvements to the scope of the DDA culminating in the amended DDA of 2005 which introduced the Disability Equality Duty for public authorities and broadened the scope of what is meant by ‘disability’. ©University of Reading 2011 Page 5 The Disability Equality Duty The Disability Equality Duty gives public authorities (including universities) general and specific duties to promote disability equality which, as outlined previously, place a positive duty on public authorities to tackle discrimination and its causes in a proactive way by mainstreaming disability equality into all decisions and activities. This presents a shift from the former reactive approach of providing restitution only when a disabled person had been the subject of discriminatory treatment and provides a framework for public authorities to carry out their functions more effectively. Disability defined The DDA states that a disabled person is someone with a physical or mental impairment which has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on his ability to carry out normal dayto-day activities. Examples include cancer, HIV, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, heart conditions, hearing or sight impairments, a significant mobility difficulty, mental health conditions or specific learning difficulties. People in these circumstances and some others (such as people with a facial disfigurement) are likely to have rights under the DDA to protect them from discrimination. For more information on the definition of disability, please visit the Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC) document ‘Guidance on matters to be taken into account in determining questions relating to the definition of disability’ or visit the EHRC webpage on disability, available via the following links: http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/definition_of_disability.pdf http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/your-rights/disability. 2.5 Institutional context Financial resourcing considerations To support the 2006-2009 Scheme, the University made significant investment (£1.6 million) for DDA works and was committed to ensuring that the University environment, both internally and externally, is suitable for all its students and staff. To support the 2009-2012 Scheme, the University again affirms this commitment to disabled individuals. All new building projects will be built to accord with the Building Regulation Part M (Access to and the use of Buildings) and, in general, the University goes beyond these regulations to ensure that the facilities within a building are accessible to all. The same applies to the refurbishment of existing buildings, where, if it is physically possible to make the necessary improvements, these will be incorporated. Additionally, the University makes efforts to address all requests for reasonable adjustments (as raised and anticipatory) and their financial resourcing in a timely fashion and this is supplemented by a strong infrastructure of disability support staff (for both staff and students). Staff and student disability disclosure rates According to the 2001 Census, the UK disability figure is 5.8%2 of the total population. When looking at the University specifically, circa 1% of our staff have disclosed a disability and circa 10% of our students have disclosed a disability. This baseline data is a meaningful benchmark to help us assess and improve our disability provision, but we note that disclosure issues are problematic and we may never have the full picture of the disability status of members of the University community or full engagement on how best to improve our disability provision. This is particularly relevant when looking at levels of staff disclosure, where we have relatively few members of disabled staff to engage with. The fact 2 2001 Census data ©University of Reading 2011 Page 6 that the representation level of disabled staff in higher education at a national level is only 2.7%3 highlights the issue of staff disclosure as an issue for the sector as a whole. Disclosure rate analysis is less of an issue on the student side as we currently have a 10% representation profile of disabled students and note a 7.3%4 profile at a national level in higher education. Key projects and milestones 2009-2012 Projects with a significant impact on disability equality in the life-cycle of this scheme include: Involvement in strategy and planning for accessible accommodation Implementation of disability support structures to the Henley Business School Implementation of the enhanced Policy for Academic Adjustments for Disabled Students We welcome these projects which will have a positive and lasting impact on disabled stakeholders and complement the more specific 2009-2012 Action Plan objectives. The University is pleased to highlight that the following key projects and milestones linked to our 2006-2009 Scheme have been successfully completed/implemented: Construction of a new, fully accessible Student Services Centre Implementation of a new Human Resources System with increased management information capabilities for disability and improved provision for the management of sickness absence Launch of Employee Health and Well-being Policy Renovation of the SportsPark with improved provision for disabled users Renovation of the Reading University Students’ Union (RUSU) building. Due to these key projects and milestones, there have been recognised improvements in regard to the University’s physical environment, the support available to disabled staff and students and in efforts to highlight the support structures in place. 3 Scheme Implementation 3.1 Leadership, accountability and responsibility Role of the Council and the Vice-Chancellor The Council and Vice-Chancellor have overall responsibility for ensuring that the University complies with its disability equality statutory obligations under the Disability Discrimination Act (2005). Role of a member of senior staff with disability responsibilities Currently a Dean, as Chair of the University’s DAG, has responsibility for monitoring progress towards the strategic aims and objectives articulated via this Scheme. In this role the Dean works closely with the Disability Advisers, the Equal Opportunities and Diversity Officer and other key staff, including senior management, as appropriate. Specifically, the Dean with disability responsibilities is responsible for: Giving a consistent and high profile lead on disability equality issues Promoting the Disability Equality Scheme internally and externally Making sure the Disability Equality Scheme is implemented. 3 4 Up from 2.4% in 2003/04 (HESA 2003/04 and 2007/08 data set) HESA 2007/08 data set ©University of Reading 2011 Page 7 Role of Deans/Heads of School/ Heads of Directorate/Faculty Directors of Teaching and Learning/equivalent line manager The above are responsible for the following: Implementing the scheme within their area of responsibility Reviewing and revising the scheme as appropriate Making sure that all staff know their responsibilities under disability legislation and receive support and training where needed Taking action in situations where complaints of discrimination on disability grounds are raised. Responsibilities of all members of the University community The above have a responsibility to adhere to the principles of the Disability Equality Scheme at all times, specifically: Having due regard to consider how they can promote equal opportunities generally (and disability equality specifically) in their work and how the Scheme will effect the way they carry out their duties Promoting equal opportunities Keeping up to date with the law on disability discrimination and taking up training and learning opportunities as appropriate to their study or work To adhere to disability equality requirements in contracts or agreements. 3.2 Involvement of disabled stakeholders To develop our 2006-2009 Scheme, a working group was set up as recommended by the University’s Senior Management Board. With the involvement of disabled stakeholders, this group undertook broad efforts (e.g., researching good practice, consultation exercises, identifying lead people to be involved) to draft a comprehensive and meaningful scheme, which now serves as a foundation for our 2009-2012 revision. In implementing our 2009-2012 Scheme we will continue to use accessible mechanisms to enable a wide range of disabled people to participate in the Scheme, adopt a proportionate approach to consult with disabled individuals where possible and to be transparent in our annual reporting. We are pleased to highlight our achievements and in our annual disability equality reports, but will also reflect on information gathered and identify areas for improvement. We consider the involvement of disabled people a crucial component of developing and implementing this Scheme. Consultation and engagement activities may include the flowing: Direct consultation with disabled staff and students ‘All Staff’ data update requests to encourage individuals who have not declared a disability to do so One-to-one consultation activity where appropriate Ongoing contributions and debate with equality and disability advisory groups. Engagement with stakeholders has informed the development of this Scheme, action priorities and the key projects and milestones identified in Section 2.5. 3.3 Publication, monitoring and review and progress reporting Publication The Scheme will be clearly identifiable and published on the University’s Equal Opportunities and Diversity website. Hard copies will be available from the Equal Opportunities Officer and Disability Advisers, with alternative formats available on request. ©University of Reading 2011 Page 8 Also, the Scheme will be disseminated to stakeholders and those staff with obligations set forth in the 2009-2012 Action Plan. Monitoring and review The University is committed to actively involving disabled people throughout the life-cycle of the scheme and the content and effectiveness of the Scheme will be monitored on an ongoing basis by DAG (in partnership with disabled stakeholders as appropriate). DAG will provide the main forum for monitoring progress against the Scheme (primarily by tracking progress against the 2009-2012 Action Plan) and other activity to support our Disability Equality Duty. DAG reports to other University committees (e.g., Senior Management Board, University Board for Teaching and Learning and Staffing Committee) as needed to take actions forward. Formal review of the Scheme will take place every three years and changes will be made to ensure that the Scheme is having a meaningful impact on the experiences of disabled stakeholders. The 2009 revision process has made use of evidence gathered to date, impact assessment results, good practice in the sector and information learned as a result of consultation with disabled people. Progress reporting Our Disability Equality Annual Report will contain a summary of steps taken to fulfil our obligations as set forth in this Scheme and will include the results of information gathering and what the results indicate. This report will be made available on the Equal Opportunities and Diversity website and promoted amongst relevant University committees. Publishing this information will demonstrate our commitment to making progress on equality for disabled people and will allow our staff, students and members of the community to assess how successful we have been at delivering our noted disability equality priorities. 3.4 Gathering and using information We aim to ensure that any disability related information gathered is analysed and used as the basis for guiding disability strategy or improving disability provision offered. The information gathered will act as evidence of our progress in relation to disability equality and will provide us with quantitative and qualitative data for the purpose of assessing our policies and procedure to identify adverse impact (potential or actual) on disabled stakeholders. We respect that disability data is confidential and will only seek and use data in a manner that improves confidence in disclosure and is in accord with data protection requirements. We note that disability disclosures rate will affect the reliability and breadth of our data. Many people may not identify themselves as disabled even if they may meet the criteria under the DDA. It may also be that they do not feel comfortable disclosing or indeed they do not see the need to disclose. We are hopeful that through the effective implementation of this Scheme both staff and students will feel encouraged and be offered many opportunities to disclose information about a disability. Our arrangements for gathering data Staff and student database systems are already in place for gathering disability related information. The University is committed to continually developing monitoring capabilities with a view to effectively monitoring the following types of information: Disabled student admissions, progress and employability Disabled staff recruitment and career progression. Those responsible for generating staff and student data will forward data to the Equal Opportunities and Diversity Officer in the appropriate format as soon as is practicable ©University of Reading 2011 Page 9 following the end of each academic year. The Equal Opportunities and Diversity Officer will then include the data, as needed, into the Disability Equality Annual Report which will be presented to DAG before being made publicly available. We aim to produce a succinct and understandable annual report and to align the report with other existing University reporting that might also reflect disability data. In addition to these quantitative measures, we will consider qualitative measures to inform our activity, including information on the extent to which the services we provide and the functions we perform take account of the needs of disabled persons. We will use the following mechanisms as appropriate to gather such data: Consultation methods noted in Section 3.2 Staff and student surveys Feedback from relevant staff and student groups Good practice used in the sector (e.g., from conferences, training events). The quantitative and qualitative obtained may be used in the following ways: To evidence the impact our policies and procedures are having upon our duty to promote disability equality To evidence whether our disability related activity is delivering greater equality for disabled people and whether the priorities underlying our activity are supported by the Corporate Plan 2008-2013 To support the annual review of our disability activity To inform subsequent revision of the Disability Equality Scheme. 3.5 Impact assessment activity The University is committed to mainstreaming disability equality throughout all of its functions and we will assess the impact of our policies on equality for disabled people. Impact assessment is a process that policy owners can use to review and evaluate policy in relation to disability equality. Where possible, assessments may be built in to existing arrangements the University has for reviewing policies. Impact Assessment activity will vary depending upon the degree of relevance of a policy on disability equality and its impact on disabled people. Also, this activity will be guided by the various ‘functions’ of the University as carried out by the faculties/directorates, which are: Faculty of Arts and Humanities Faculty of Social Sciences Faculty of Life Sciences Faculty of Science Henley Business School Academic Services External Affairs Finance and Corporate Services Governance Facilities Management Student Services. Impact Assessments will be led by policy owners and involve: Consideration of available data and research Engagement with disabled stakeholders to help determine the effect the policy has (or will have) on disabled stakeholders Consideration of measures which might mitigate any adverse impact (e.g., amending policies) and promote disability equality. Where a negative impact or opportunity for improvement is identified the University will give due regard to the need to respond appropriately and institute changes. Results of initial impact assessments have helped guide our equality related activity and ©University of Reading 2011 Page 10 future impact assessment activity will continue with the involvement of disabled people and interested stakeholders and with reference to internal and external data. We aim to continually review and improve the effectiveness of our impact assessment programme. 3.6 Preventing harassment on the grounds of disability The University has had a formal policy on the prevention of harassment for a number of years, with specific reference to harassment on grounds of disability. The University offers support and advice for students and staff who believe that they are being harassed on grounds of disability up to and including advice on how to make a formal complaint. Support structures (both formal and informal) include: Students can seek advice from a trained Harassment Adviser, Disability Adviser, Equal Opportunities and Diversity Officer, Personal Tutor, Head of School, the Counselling Service or the Students’ Union, etc. Members of staff can seek advice from a trained Harassment Adviser, Human Resources Partner, the Equal Opportunities and Diversity Officer, Head of School or Directorate (or equivalent line manager), Trade Union representative or a range of occupational health services, etc. Incidents of alleged harassment are and will continue to be regarded as extremely serious. Behaviour which amounts to harassment may be grounds for disciplinary action up to and including staff dismissal or student expulsion. Procedures for dealing with harassment are given in the University’s Policy Statement on Harassment and Notes of Guidance. These documents are included and highlighted in key University publications and are readily available on the University website. To help prevent harassment we have a longstanding Code of Good Practice (Valuing Ourselves and Others). The number of staff and students who have made complaints of alleged harassment to a Harassment Adviser (including harassment on grounds of disability) will be monitored annually. The findings will be published in our annual equality reporting. 3.7 Raising concerns and compliance Procedures for staff Any member of staff who considers that s/he has not been treated in accordance with this Scheme should raise their concerns with their Head of School or Directorate (or equivalent line manager), a Human Resources Partner, the Equal Opportunities and Diversity Officer or a trained Harassment Adviser. Should formal action be taken this would be in line with staff grievance and disciplinary procedures. Procedures for students Any student who considers that s/he has not been treated in accordance with this Scheme should raise their concerns with their Head of School, Director of Teaching and Learning, Personal Tutor, the Disability Advisers, the Equal Opportunities and Diversity Officer, the Students’ Union or a trained Harassment Adviser. Should formal action be taken this would be in line with the student complaints and disciplinary procedures. Compliance The EHRC has both promotional and enforcement powers over public bodies (including universities) to ensure the Disability Equality Duty is satisfied. Our aim is to follow EHRC guidance and work with the EHRC in a constructive way to ensure the success of our Scheme and disability related activity. 4 2009-2012 Action Plan (Draft) ©University of Reading 2011 Page 11 Following consultation with disabled staff and students and other interested stakeholders, the University has indentified the actions noted below. To support this Scheme, additional action items may be added over the next three years to ensure our activity covers all University functions and priorities in regard to disability equality. No. University function Lead person Objective/Proposed action 1 Academic Services Director of Academic Quality Support Objective: Decrease Disability Advisory Service and Study Advice involvement in Extenuating Circumstances requests. Proposed Action: Formalise ECF guidelines so that all departments will accept Disability Adviser or Study Adviser input as they do for medical professionals and to limit the involvement of these offices in ECF proceedings beyond an initial consultation stage. 2 All Faculties Faculty Boards for Teaching and Learning Objective: Improve staff understanding of disability related issues. Proposed Action: Create a policy that requires new staff to undertake disability awareness training, possibly as part of other equality and diversity awareness training initiatives or as part of induction. 3 All Faculties Faculty Directors of Teaching and Learning Objective: Make general lecture materials easily accessible for all students so that students with disabilities do not have to seek special permissions. Proposed Action: Create a policy that guarantees all students advance access to lecture notes or lecture outlines and any handouts. Also, remind academic staff of student permission to record lectures. 4 Facilities Management Health and Safety Services Objective: Improve arrangements for safe evacuation of buildings. Proposed Action: Review Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan (PEEP) process for staff/students and continue fire upgrade works. 5 Facilities Management Head of Capital Projects Objective: Ensure accessibility issues are considered in any new building projects. Proposed Action: Create a practice whereby all new building projects are subject to a review by a Disability Adviser in conjunction with relevant FMD staff, for the initial design and building phases, including project changes that impact access. 6 Finance and Corporate Services Human Resources/Equal Opportunities and Diversity Office Objective: Ensure that visiting lecturers are aware of their obligations to disabled students. Proposed Action: Provide guidance materials at the time of contract signing. 7 Finance and Corporate Services Human Resources/Equal Opportunities and Objective: Ensure that sessional staff are aware of their obligations to disabled students. Proposed Action: Provide guidance materials at ©University of Reading 2011 Annual Progress/result Page 12 Diversity Office the time of contract signing. 8 Finance and Corporate Services Equal Opportunities and Diversity Office Objective: Improve staff confidence in disclosing a disability. Proposed Action: Create materials to highlight support structures in place and case studies/examples to encourage staff disclosure of disability. 9 Henley Business School HBS /Facilities Management Directorate Objective: Enhance disability support structures across campus locations. Proposed Action: Raise awareness of disability policies and procedures and make improvements to physical environment where practicable. 10 Student Services Student Finance Team Objective: Review academic support schemes (bursaries, scholarships and prizes) to ensure they deliver the University’s stated intentions. Proposed Action: Review and revise schemes as necessary. (Milestone: It is anticipated this action can be completed within 18 months) 11 Student Services Careers Advisory Service/Academic Services Objective: Identify and promote opportunities for work experience and employability. Proposed Action: Develop more consistent procedures and reference guide for work experience and off-campus learning components. 12 Student Services Disability Advisory Service/Study Advice/Helpdesk Objective: Develop a formal process to ensure we identify and overcome disability related challenges in academic programmes. Proposed Action: Create a policy and documentation procedures to address reports of incidents a student perceives to be unreasonable so that the incident can be investigated. Proposed Action: Organise a working party to devise a guidance document that will promote more inclusive approaches to lab work for disabled students. and Faculty Director of Teaching and Learning for the Faculty of Life Sciences ©University of Reading 2011 Page 13