may/june 2015
January/February 2009
DEPARTMENTS
16
18
Vibrio Control In Shrimp Farming – Part I. Hatcheries
Stephen G. Newman, Ph.D.
Stress-Vibrio Dynamics During High-Density,
Zero-Exchange Production Of White Shrimp
Tzachi M. Samocha, Ph.D.; David I. Prangnell, Ph.D.;
Leandro F. Castro, M.S.; Susan Laramore, Ph.D.
22 The Bottom Line
Feed Trays – The Good, The Bad, The Ugly
Thomas R. Zeigler, Ph.D.; Scott E. Horton, M.S.
25 Sustainable Aquaculture Practices
Embodied Resource Use In Feed-Based Aquaculture
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.; Aaron McNevin, Ph.D.
28 Soy-Fed Fish News
Soybeans: Truly Sustainable Feed Ingredient?
Part II. Non-GMO Alternatives, Sustainability Certification
Kelly Coleman
30 Diets Affect Abalone Meat Quality, Shell Color
Zhi Yong Ju, Ph.D.; Cecilia Viljoen
32 Parasitism Enhances Tilapia Susceptibility
To Flavobacterium columnare
De-Hai Xu, Ph.D.; Craig Shoemaker, Ph.D.;
Benjamin LaFrentz, Ph.D.
Roger W. Doyle, Ph.D.; Cherdsak Virapat, Ph.D.;
Wongpathom Kamonrat, Ph.D.
da Silva Campos, Ítala Gabriela Sobral dos Santos,
Yllana Ferreira Marinho, Dr. Luis Vinatea, Luis Otavio Brito
Dr. Hugues Lemonnier, Pr. Yves Letourneur
From The President
From The Editor
GAA Activities
Industry News
GAA Calendar
Advocate Advertisers
34 National Broodstock Improvement Network –
Concept For Breaking Inbreeding/Disease Feedback Loop
36 Plankton Communities In Shrimp Monoculture,
Integrated Biofloc System
Dr. Alfredo Olivera Gálvez, Clarissa Vilela Figueiredo
2
3
6
76
78
80
On the cover:
Kaui Shrimp. Photo by George Chamberlain.
Page 22
Feed Trays
Feed trays are credited with
reducing feed cost per unit
of production, but their
effects on optimizing overall
crop profitability are seldom
mentioned.
Page 58
PCR For AHPND
A new qPCR assay has high
sensitivity, delivers results
within half an hour and can
be used for quantification
of water and shrimp samples.
40 Study Seeks Candidates For Blue Shrimp Polyculture
In New Caledonia
Dr. Trung Cong Luong, Dr. Sébastien Hochard, Florence Royer,
42
44
Nesar Ahmed, Ph.D.
58 Real-Time PCR Offers Sensitivity, Specificity
In Detecting AHPND Plasmid
Jee Eun Han, DVM, Ph.D.; Kathy Tang, Ph.D.;
Michael Tlusty, Ph.D.; Øisten Thorsen, M.S.
62 Peracetic Acid Products Expand Sanitizing,
Organic Water Treatment Options
Coastal Aquaculture Must Adapt To Climate Change
In Bangladesh
Certified Clarity In Aquaculture – Defined Tiers
Could Provide Clearer Framework
46 FAO Fish Indices Enhance Global Seafood
Price Evaluations
50
52
54
ii
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
Dr. Frank Asche, Dr. Sigbjørn L. Tveterås
Seafood and Health
Nutrition, Food Security Take Center Stage
Roy D. Palmer, FAICD
Food Safety And Technology
Human Enteric Viruses In Shellfish
Part I. Rotaviruses
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.; David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.
U.S. Seafood Markets
Paul Brown, Jr.; Janice Schreiber; Angel Rubio
Carlos Pantoja, Ph.D.; Brenda White; Donald Lightner, Ph.D.
Lars-Flemming Pedersen, Ph.D.; Alfred Jokumsen; Villy Juul Larsen;
Niels Henrik Henriksen
Thomas M. Losordo, Ph.D.; Dennis P. DeLong, MSM;
Todd C. Guerdat, Ph.D.
Steven Summerfelt, Ph.D.; John Davidson, M.S.; Travis May;
Christopher Good, DVM, Ph.D.; Brian Vinci, Ph.D.
Matt Hawkyard, Ph.D. Candidate; Chris Landgon, Ph.D.;
Mark Drawbridge, M.S.; Kevin Stuart, M.S.
Jason Danaher, Ph.D.; Jeremy Pickens; Jeffrey Sibley, Ph.D.;
Jesse Chappell, Ph.D.; Terrill Hanson, Ph.D.
64 Aquaculture Engineering
TAN, Other Water Quality Factors Affect Nitrification
Rates In Biofilters
66 Emerging Trends In Salmoid RAS
Part II. System Enhancements
68 Liposomes Open New Doors In Larval Fish Nutrition
72 Aquaculture Effluent Partially Replaces Growing Mix
For Plant Production
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
1
from the president
GLOBAL AQUACULTURE
ALLIANCE
The Global Aquaculture Al­li­ance is an international non-profit, non-gov­ernmental
association whose mission is to further en­vi­
ron­men­tally responsible aqua­culture to meet
world food needs. Our members are producers, pro­cessors, marketers and retailers of seafood prod­ucts worldwide. All aqua­­culturists
in all sectors are welcome in the organization.
OFFICERS
George Chamberlain, President
Bill Herzig, Vice President
Lee Bloom, Secretary
Jim Heerin, Treasurer
Iain Shone, Assistant Treasurer
Jeff Fort, Chief Financial Officer
Wally Stevens, Executive Director
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Bert Bachmann
Mike Berthet
Lee Bloom
Rittirong Boonmechote
George Chamberlain
Shah Faiez
Robert Fields
Jeff Fort
John Galiher
Jim Heerin
Bill Herzig
Ray Jones
Alex Ko
Jordan Mazzetta
Robins McIntosh
Sergio Nates
John Peppel
César Real
John Schramm
Jeff Sedacca
Iain Shone
Wally Stevens
RELATIONSHIP MANAGER
Sally Krueger
sally.krueger@gaalliance.org
EDITOR
Darryl Jory
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
PRODUCTION STAFF
Assistant Editor
David Wolfe
david.wolfe@gaalliance.org
Graphic Designer
Lorraine Jennemann
lorraine.jennemann@gaalliance.org
HOME OFFICE
4111 Telegraph Road, Suite 302
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
Telephone: +1-314-293-5500
FAX: +1-314-293-5525
E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org
Website: http://www.gaalliance.org
All contents copyright © 2015
Global Aquaculture Alliance.
Global Aquaculture Advocate
is printed in the USA.
ISSN 1540-8906
2
May/June 2015
Learning From LEED
This issue marks 18 years since the Global
Aquaculture Alliance was founded. During this
time, GAA has contributed to major advances in
aquaculture sustainability by bringing together
stakeholders throughout the value chain to identify
issues and solutions at annual GOAL meetings, by
investigating improved practices such as mangrove
George
restoration and disease control and, perhaps most
Chamberlain, Ph.D.
importantly, by developing certification standards
for aquaculture.
President
GAA’s approach to certification has been to
Global Aquaculture Alliance
george.chamberlain@gaalliance.org
encourage the entire industry to move forward by
developing achievable standards that are continuously
improved over time. Since the Best Aquaculture
Practices program began in 2003, the annual seafood volume from BAP-certified facilities
has increased to 750,000 mt for farms and 1,400,000 mt for processing plants.
This is a remarkable achievement, but it has focused on high-value internationally
traded products like shrimp, salmon and tilapia, and amounts to only a small portion of
global aquaculture production. Going forward, aquaculture certification must also make
itself relevant to lower-value products and domestic markets.
How can a certification program diversify its programs? One way of surveying
options is to review parallel certification programs in more-advanced sectors, such as
energy and transportation. For example, a certification program for green buildings
called Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) has experienced phenomenal growth in the last 15 years.
Both LEED and BAP began with one set of standards and expanded over time.
LEED now has nine products, including one for neighborhood development, which is
analogous to the developing BAP standards on zone management.
BAP has standards for aquaculture farms, hatcheries, feed mills and processing plants.
This is because to GAA, farm standards alone are not adequate to deal with the varied
range of labor, environmental and food safety issues impacting the aquaculture sector
today. Seafood retailers are increasingly embracing BAP’s four-level approach, known
as “four-star” certification.
A key to LEED’s success is the variety of incentives it offers. In addition to providing healthier living and working environments, LEED buildings have higher value and
lower operational costs, as well as tax and permitting advantages. BAP owes its growth
to strong support from major seafood buyers, due to its environmental, social and food
safety assurances. LEED reminds us to consider secondary benefits of certification,
such as risk reduction and traceability, that could lead to additional support from lenders, insurers and regulators.
In comparing BAP and LEED, a point of difference is that BAP offers only one
level of certification for a range of facilities. LEED offers four levels of excellence: certified, silver, gold and platinum, as determined by the number of points scored during
certification. Looking forward, the LEED model points to an opportunity to differentiate levels of excellence within BAP.
For example, it might be easier for small farms to clear the hurdle of certification if
there were a more achievable entry-level standard. On the other hand, some retailers are
calling for more rigorous food safety standards at processing plants. These different levels of excellence could be established within BAP or by aligning BAP with other standards programs to establish tiers using common criteria and metrics (see article by
Michael Tlusty and Øisten Thorsen on page 44 of this issue).
As BAP strives to move the aquaculture industry forward, it can take a lesson from
LEED and begin establishing secondary incentives and differentiating levels of excellence to provide a more comprehensive framework for the sustainability of aquaculture.
from the editor
Genetics Vital
For Aquaculture
Our aquaculture industry needs to significantly
expand its production to continue feeding the growing human population. Among the most important
tools at our disposal is genetic improvement of cultured stocks. Yet despite its potential to improve
Darryl E. Jory, Ph.D.
production efficiency, only an estimated 10 to 12%
of global aquaculture production is currently based
Editor, Development Manager
Global Aquaculture Advocate
on genetically enhanced stocks.
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
The plant and animal production industries have
been improved for many years through genetic intervention using a variety of technologies. The benefits
of these advances are well documented. For example, between 1957 and 1991, broiler
chickens achieved a 68% reduction in days to harvest, 66% improvement in feed-conversion efficiency, 30% reduction in carcass fat and 15% improvement in carcass yield.
Some 85 to 90% of these impressive figures were due to genetics.
The swine industry shows similar improvements. Between 1980 and 2001, it
achieved a 15% reduction in days to harvest and 45% improvement in lean gain efficiency – both due 50% to genetics. Further improvements have obviously continued
since then for both industries.
Historically, aquaculture genetics started over two millennia ago with the initiation
of aquaculture in China, Egypt and Rome when some fish were selected on cosmetic
traits like coloration and patterns. Genetic enhancement programs started in the 1960s.
Family-based breeding programs, which began for salmonids in Norway during the
1970s, have since been globally implemented for many important species.
Molecular-based technology arrived in the 1980s, and the use of traditional selective
breeding, biotechnology and molecular genetics is now well established. Various companies have emerged to produce improved stocks of salmonids, tilapia, marine shrimp,
catfish, cod, seabass, sea bream, shellfish and other species.
The further implementation of genetic improvement in the aquaculture industry
faces a number of challenges. One is the large number of farmed species – probably over
300 globally – which means extreme diversity regarding reproductive physiology and
capacities that affect the implementation of cost-efficient programs.
These programs are complex and very costly, and involve substantial financial risks.
Producers of many species often can access wild seedstock and broodstock, and will not
pay premium prices for improved animals. There is unauthorized reproduction of
improved animals for many species, with limited biological protection, mainly through
narrow genetic backgrounds, and relatively limited legal protection.
The pressure for the global aquaculture industry to produce more means there is everincreasing pressure to develop more efficient production technologies. Genetic improvement programs target several traits, the foremost of which is improved growth rate, which
results in shorter production cycles and improved risk management. Also targeted are
improved disease resistance, sexual maturation, carcass yield and salinity tolerance.
Genetic improvement is a common denominator among nutrition, health management and other major areas of production. At present, it is clearly a commercially viable
alternative for many species. The technology has unlimited potential to help the industry increase its output for the future.
As always, we encourage your suggestions for current topics you would like us to
cover, as well as contributions of short articles. Please contact me at your convenience
for our article guidelines. Your critical comments make our magazine better, and I urge
you to continue sending us your comments on how we can best represent and serve our
industry.
Sincerely,
Sincerely,
George Chamberlain
Darryl E. Jory
global aquaculture advocate
FOUNDING MEMBERS
Agribrands International Inc.
Agromarina de Panamá, S.A.
Aqualma – Unima Group
Aquatec/Camanor
Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Colombia
Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras
Associação Brasileira de Criadores de Camarão
Bangladesh Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance
Belize Aquaculture, Ltd.
Bluepoints Co., Inc.
Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura
Camaronera de Coclé, S.A.
Cargill Animal Nutrition
Chicken of the Sea Frozen Foods
Continental Grain Co.
C.P. Aquaculture Business Group
Darden Restaurants
Deli Group, Ecuador
Deli Group, Honduras
Delta Blue Aquaculture
Diamante del Mar S.A.
Eastern Fish Co.
El Rosario, S.A.
Empacadora Nacional, C.A.
Expack Seafood, Inc.
Expalsa – Exportadora de Alimentos S.A.
FCE Agricultural Research and Management, Inc.
High Liner Foods
India Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance
Indian Ocean Aquaculture Group
INVE Aquaculture, N.V.
King & Prince Seafood Corp.
Long John Silver’s, Inc.
Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Maritech S.A. de C.V.
Meridian Aquatic Technology Systems, LLC
Monsanto
Morrison International, S.A.
National Fish & Seafood Co./
Lu-Mar Lobster & Shrimp Co.
National Food Institute
National Prawn Co.
Ocean Garden Products, Inc.
Overseas Seafood Operations, SAM
Pescanova USA
Preferred Freezer Services
Productora Semillal, S.A.
Red Chamber Co.
Rich-SeaPak Corp.
Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.
Sanders Brine Shrimp Co., L.C.
Sea Farms Group
Seprofin Mexico
Shrimp News International
Sociedad Nacional de Galápagos
Standard Seafood de Venezuela C.A.
Super Shrimp Group
Tampa Maid Foods, Inc.
U.S. Foodservice
Vitapro-Nicovita-Salmofood
Zeigler Brothers, Inc.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
3
Making the ordinary Pizza
Join the world’s leading
aquaculture organization
Aquaculture is the future of the world’s seafood supply.
Be part of it by joining the Global Aquaculture Alliance,
the leading standards-setting organization for farmed
seafood.
Access science-based information on efficient aquaculture management. Connect with other responsible
companies and reach your social responsibility goals.
Shrimp Extraordinary
Improve sales by adopting GAA’s Best Aquaculture
Practices certification for aquaculture facilities.
Annual dues start at U.S. $150 and include a subscription to the Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine,
GAA e-newsletters, event discounts and other benefits.
Visit www.gaalliance.org or contact the GAA office
for details.
Global Aquaculture Alliance
Feeding the World Through Responsible Aquaculture – www.gaalliance.org – +1-314-293-5500
GOVERNING MEMBERS
Alltech
Aqua Bounty Technologies, Inc.
Beaver Street Fisheries
Blue Archipelago Berhad
Capitol Risk Concepts, Ltd.
Cargill Animal Nutrition
Chang International, Inc.
Charoen Pokphand Foods PCL
Darden Restaurants
Dataj Aquafarm Inc.
Delta Blue Aquaculture LLC
Diversified Business Communications
Eastern Fish Co., Inc.
Ever Nexus Sdn. Bhd.
Grobest USA, Inc.
High Liner Foods
H.J. Baker & Brothers, Inc.
iAqua
International Associates Corp.
INVE B.V.
King & Prince Seafood Corp.
Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Maloney Seafood Corp.
Marine Technologies
Mazzetta Co. LLC
Megasupply
Morey’s Seafood International
National Fish & Seafood Inc.
Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems
Pescanova USA
Preferred Freezer Services
Red Chamber Co.
Rich Products Corp.
Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.
Sea Port Products Corp.
Seafood Exchange of Florida
Seajoy
Seavina Joint Stock Co.
Sunnyvale Seafood Co., Inc.
Thai Union Group
Tropical Aquaculture Products, Inc.
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
Vitapro-Nicovita-Salmofood
Wuhan Lanesync Supply Chain
Management Co., Ltd.
Zeigler Brothers, Inc.
4
May/June 2015
SUSTAINING MEMBERS
Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld
Amanda Seafood
Ammon International, Inc.
Anova Food Inc.
Aqua Star
Aquatec Aquacultura Ltda.
A.Z. Gems Inc.
BioMar Group
Blue Ridge Aquaculture
BMR Seafood LLC
Camanchaca Inc.
Channel Fish Processing Co., Inc.
Direct Source Seafood
DNI Group, LLC
DSM Nutritional Products
Fega Marikultura P.T.
Fortune Fish Co.
Gorton’s Seafood
Great American Seafood Imports Co.
H & N Foods International, Inc./Expack
H & T Seafood, Inc.
Hai Yang International, LLC
Harbor Seafood, Inc.
Harvest Select
International Marketing Specialists
Ipswich Shellfish Co., Inc.
Long John Silver’s, LLC
Mahalo Seafood LLC
Maritime Products International
Merck Animal Health
Mirasco, Inc.
North Coast Seafoods
Odyssey Enterprises, Inc.
Orca Bay Seafoods
Ore-Cal Corp.
Pacific Supreme Co.
Quirch Foods
Rubicon Resources
Seacore Seafood, Inc.
Seafood Industry Development Corp.
Seattle Fish Co. of New Mexico
Seattle Shrimp & Seafood Co., Inc.
Skretting
Slade Gorton & Co., Inc.
Solae, LLC
Star Agro Marine Exports Ltd.
global aquaculture advocate
Tampa Bay Fisheries, Inc.
Tampa Maid Foods
The Fishin’ Co.
The Great Fish Co.
Trident Seafoods
United Seafood Enterprises, L.P.
ASSOCIATION MEMBERS
All China Federation of Industry
and Commerce Aquatic Production
Chamber of Commerce
American Feed Industry Association
Asociación Latino Americana
de Plantas de Rendimiento
Associação Brasileira de Criadores
de Camarão
Australian Prawn Farmers Association
Bangladesh Shrimp and Fish Foundation
China Aquatic Products Processing
and Marketing Alliance
Fats and Proteins Research
Foundation, Inc.
Indiana Soybean Alliance
Indonesian Aquaculture Society
IFFO – The Marine
Ingredients Organisation
Malaysian Shrimp
Industry Association
Marine Products Export
Development Authority
National Fisheries Institute
National Renderers Association
Oceanic Institute
Prince Edward Island Seafood
Processors Association
SalmonChile
Salmon of the Americas
Seafood Importers
and Processors Alliance
Soy Aquaculture Alliance
Thai Frozen Foods Association
Universidad Austral de Chile
U.S. Soybean Export Council
Washington Fish Growers Association
Washington State China Relations Council
World Aquaculture Society
World Renderers Organization
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global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
5
gaa activities
GAA Recognizes Companies’ Commitment
To Excellence
The Global Aquaculture Alliance recognized nine companies with its “Commitment to Excellence” award at Seafood
Expo North America in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, in mid-March. The
awards reflect the companies’ recent
achievement of four-star Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) certification.
The companies were Northern Harvest Sea Farms Group, Saota Foods JSC
(Fimex V.N.) Group, Trang Corp.
Group, C.P. Vietnam Corp. Group, Seafresh Industries Public Group, Pakfood
Group, Thai Union Frozen Group,
Marine Harvest Canada Group and
Cooke Aquaculture Group.
Carson Roper, international business
The awards recognized the achievement of BAP’s top level of facility certification.
development manager for BAP, presented
the awards during a brief ceremony at the
conclusion of the GAA membership and
Alliance Hosts
Retailer Tours
In Boston
On the eve of Seafood Expo North America, the Global
Aquaculture Alliance hosted two tours of retail outlets in the
Boston, Massachusetts, USA, area to give SENA exhibitors
from China and Vietnam the opportunity to view their seafood products on display at Wegmans, Stop & Shop and
B.J.’s Wholesale Club.
The Chinese delegation consisted of members of the
China Aquatic Products Processing and Marketing Alliance
(CAPPMA), led by Executive Deputy Secretary General Di
Gang. The Vietnamese delegation included members of the
Viet Nam Pangasius Association (VNPA), led by Chairman
Dr. Nguyen Viet Thang and Secretary General Dr. Vo Hung
Dung.
“The tour was a very beneficial experience,” CAPPMA’s
Di said. “It provided a great opportunity for our members to
further understand U.S. supermarket seafood merchandising
and U.S. consumers’ preferences.”
“We appreciated the chance to see how product is sold in
different types of U.S. retail stores,” VNPA said. “Our members benefited greatly from the tour.”
“This was a tremendous opportunity to view firsthand the
latest retail merchandising trends with respect to branding,
food safety, quality and sustainability,” said Carson Roper,
international business development manager for the Best
Aquaculture Practices certification program. “It was an educational experience for all of us.”
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May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
update meeting in Boston.
Congratulations to the winners.
GAA-Fishin’ Co. Survey
Finds U.S. Views On
Aquaculture Mixed
In conjunction with the Global Aquaculture Alliance, The
Fishin’ Co. presented the preliminary results of a consumer survey at
the GAA membership meeting at Seafood Expo North America in
Boston, Massachusetts, USA, on March 16.
Administered by The Fishin’ Co. and fielded by Field Agent, the
survey asked questions on topics that included a general comparison
of farmed and wild seafood, country of origin and sustainability.
More than 500 U.S. seafood consumers were polled nationwide.
Nearly half (47%) of the survey respondents had a negative perception of farmed seafood due to product quality, food safety or environmental concerns. However, that perception of aquaculture did not necessarily translate to purchasing behavior, as a mere 5% of respondents
indicated they buy only wild seafood.
A higher-than-expected percentage of survey respondents understood the role of aquaculture in feeding the world’s growing population.
“Native fish populations are being overfished, and farming is
more sustainable,” one respondent said.
“In a controlled environment, food safety is more certain,” said
another respondent.
Ranging from 69 to 81%, the majority of respondents were unfamiliar with seafood ecolabels, including GAA’s Best Aquaculture
Practices (BAP) mark.
Robert Fields and Mike Berthet, the two newest members of
GAA’s board of directors, were on hand to share their thoughts on the
survey. Both agreed the perception of aquaculture is improving and
that a big opportunity exists to better educate consumers on responsible aquaculture practices.
The preliminary results of the survey were presented by Matt
Brooker, senior category manager with The Fishin’ Co. The full survey
results will be presented at GAA’s GOAL 2015 conference in October.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
7
Alliance Launches New GAA, BAP Websites
The Global Aquaculture Alliance
has strengthened its online presence by
relaunching its websites – www.gaalliance.org and bap.gaalliance.org – to
better communicate its mission of
advocating, educating and demonstrating responsible aquaculture practices to
feed and employ future generations.
Overall, the new BAP site is
designed to convey the scope and comprehensiveness of the BAP third-party
certification program.
A highlight of the site is search
functionality for the more than 700
BAP-certified farms, hatcheries, feed
mills, processing plants and repackaging plants. Users can refine their search
results using the facility type, species or
country filters, or use the search field
to search by any criteria, including
facility name, BAP certification number and country. Filtered results can be
copied, saved as a PDF, exported or
printed with ease.
Another helpful element of the
new BAP site is map functionality.
The new sites at www.gaalliance.org and bab.gaalliance.org provide more convenient access
Users can find BAP-certified facilities
to information on BAP facilities and other elements of GAA programming.
geographically by zooming in and out
on a map, similar to Google Maps.
A highlight of the new GAA site is
linked to the www.responsibleseafood.org URL found on the
the “Marketing Resources” page,
BAP retail marks. On these pages, the public can find informawhere retailers, foodservice operators, wholesalers and others can
tion on which retail and foodservice outlets sell seafood from
download and print consumer-friendly marketing materials
BAP-certified facilities, what species are covered by the BAP
designed to help them better communicate the benefits of
program and why it’s important to think BAP when purchasing
responsible aquaculture and the BAP program to their customseafood.
ers. Currently, there are six marketing pieces in the “tool kit,”
The new GAA and BAP sites were designed by Visible
and more will be added soon.
Logic
Inc. of Portland, Maine, USA.
Also on the GAA site is a consumer-friendly section that is
GAA Confirms Positions on Antibiotic Abuse,
Social Justice
The Global Aquaculture Alliance takes a proactive stance
against the abuse of antibiotics and social injustice in aquaculture, and its Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) certification program provides a mechanism to follow up on alleged infractions.
Given the growing concern regarding antibiotic use, GAA is
developing a more rigorous risk-based testing methodology that
will require automatic heightened testing of processing plants
where antibiotic residues are detected.
Antibiotic Abuse
Social Justice
In the BAP standards for finfish and crustacean farms, use of
prohibited antibiotics, drugs and other chemicals is forbidden,
and farms are required to record any antibiotic use. If antibiotics
that are not prohibited for use in both the local and importing
countries are used for therapeutic purposes, residue tests are
required after the withdrawal period to ensure food safety regulations are met.
In the BAP processing plant standards, processors and thirdparty laboratories are required to collect random samples to test
for antibiotic residues, which is also part of the HACCP plan
requirements and supplier performance-monitoring requirements. Third-party auditors also collect random samples for
testing during the auditing process.
The BAP management team monitors the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration’s detention list regularly. If a BAP-certified facility lands on the list for a prohibited antibiotic, it is
required to take corrective action and must provide proof of such
before it can be certified or recertified. Facilities that fail to take
corrective action are decertified.
In light of media reports of worker abuse in the seafood supply chain, the Global Aquaculture Alliance has reiterated that
social justice is one of the pillars of its BAP certification standards.
BAP-certified processing plants, farms, hatcheries and feed
mills are required to provide adequate wages and a safe and
healthy working environment, and prevent child labor and
forced labor.
GAA is working collectively with IFFO and several international seafood suppliers and retailers to address social concerns
related to aquafeed production, agreeing to a position statement
last year. GAA is also working with the Aquaculture Stewardship Council and GlobalGAP on social concerns. The three certification organizations have been collaborating since signing a
memorandum of understanding in April 2013.
RAF, University Of New Hampshire Partner
To Deliver EMS Training
The Responsible Aquaculture Foundation (RAF), the charitable arm of the Global Aquaculture Alliance, is partnering with
the University of New Hampshire (UNH) to deliver online
learning on the prevention and management of early mortality
syndrome (EMS) in shrimp for farmers and other stakeholders
in Vietnam.
Developed by the UNH Cooperative Extension, UNH
School of Marine Science and Ocean Engineering, and New
Hampshire Sea Grant, and based on research conducted by
GAA and RAF, six learning modules will be delivered online in
a mobile-friendly format to Vietnamese farmers, processors, feed
manufacturers, extension educators, regulators and government
personnel. The modules will address diagnostics, breeding,
hatchery, farm, feed and zone management.
The training will be hosted on the RAF website using the
e-learning software SoftChalk to pilot the Cloud-based training.
8
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
It is expected to be ready for delivery by the third quarter of 2015.
“The resources at UNH in the areas of aquaculture research,
training and education are perfect complements to the industry
relationships that RAF and GAA have developed over many
years,” said RAF Executive Director Wally Stevens. “We look
forward to the creation of this curriculum and delivery to interested parties.”
“This opportunity will allow us to develop a platform for disseminating best management practices to farmers in rural areas,”
UNH Aquaculture Specialist Michael Chambers said. “By making small, critical changes in the production chain, you can combat EMS and increase shrimp survival rates back to normal.”
Also known as acute hepatopancreatic necrosis, EMS affects
a shrimp’s digestive system, often causing death within 30 days.
The disease has resulted in billions of dollars of losses for the
global shrimp industry.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
9
October 26-29, 2015
GOAL 2015 Conference Program Takes Shape
four days of presentations and discussions, beginning with a
half-day seminar, followed by three half-day plenaries.
Vancouver, Canada
Consumer Education, Markets
In addition to updates on global farmed seafood supply and
demand, GOAL 2015 will include discussions on consumer
education, social responsibility and food safety.
Since their inception, GAA’s Global Outlook for Aquaculture
Leadership (GOAL) conferences have set out to move the dial on
matters that contribute to aquaculture’s long-term sustainability
and growth. Headline-grabbing issues such as antibiotics abuse,
social responsibility and consumer education will be on the agenda
at the Global Aquaculture Alliance’s GOAL 2015 conference.
From October 26 to 29 at the Four Seasons Hotel in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, GOAL 2015 will encompass
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Social Responsibility, Antibiotics
In light of recent media reports of worker abuse in the seafood supply chain, GAA is planning a session on social responsibility at GOAL 2015. Social issues are prominently addressed
within GAA’s Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) third-party
certification program. A constructive discussion on the further
prevention of forced and child labor, and the assurance of safe
and healthy working environments at all levels of the seafood
chain will be had.
Likewise, GAA takes a proactive stance against antibiotic abuse
in aquaculture. As such, GOAL 2015 will provide an ideal opportunity to find practical solutions to the challenge of antibiotic abuse.
Zone management, which created a buzz at GOAL 2014,
will be another major topic on the GOAL 2015 program. Peter
Marshall of R.S. Standards, who chairs the BAP Zone Management Technical Committee, will lead a half day of presentations
and discussions on zone management – a key to effective disease
management – on October 26.
Seafood Production
Premium Product Quality
Four Seasons Hotel
Consumer education is shaping up to be a major topic of discussion at GOAL 2015. At GOAL 2014, GAA Executive
Director Wally Stevens identified consumer education as an
important challenge to aquaculture that ranks with such issues as
disease management, esnvironmental and social accountability,
investment and market support, and leadership.
In conjunction with GAA, The Fishin’ Co. will present the
full results of a consumer survey that consisted of more than 40
questions on topics related to aquaculture. More than 500 U.S.
seafood consumers were polled. “Influencers” such as celebrity
chefs, nutritionists/dieticians and food writers will be on stage to
share their thoughts on the survey results and consumer education
in general.
As always, Peter Redmond, GAA’s vice president of market
development for Best Aquaculture Practices, will lead a series of
roundtables with some of the world’s most influential retailers,
suppliers and non-governmental organizations. Among the companies represented on stage at GOAL 2014 were Walmart,
Wegmans Food Markets, Red Lobster Seafood Co., Long John
Silver’s, Compass Group, Tesco, Sainsbury’s, Morrisons, Marks
& Spencer, M & J Seafood/Brakes Group, Lyons Seafoods and
High Liner Foods.
In Vancouver, Drs. Jim Anderson of the World Bank and
Ragnar Tveteras of the University of Stavanger will once again
present the latest global production data on shrimp and finfish,
respectively. Exclusive to GOAL, the data is analyzed by Anderson and Tveteras, and collected by GAA Development Manager
Dr. Darryl Jory, who surveys dozens of producers worldwide
annually. Among the species included in the survey are shrimp,
tilapia, Pangasius, catfish, salmon, trout, barramundi, seabass and
sea bream.
For more information on GOAL 2015 or to register for the
conference and book your hotel room, visit www.gaalliance.org/
goal.
Make your mark on greater aquaculture production and sustainability
by joining the hundreds of seafood professionals and thought leaders
from around the world who attend the Global Aquaculture Alliance’s
annual GOAL (Global Outlook on Aquaculture Leadership) conference.
Why Attend GOAL 2015?
GOAL is a unique, opportunity to network, build relationships and
connect the supply side to the marketplace. Since its inception in 2001,
GOAL has evolved into a must-attend conference for the world’s top
seafood executives.
GOAL 2015 will feature four days of information and analysis on the
farmed seafood value chain, with sessions in the mornings and afternoon
breakouts. Topics such as animal welfare, environmental and social
responsibility, food safety, marketplace accessibility, leadership and
consumer education will be among the themes addressed.
Access the Marketplace
At GOAL, learn from – and network with – many of the world’s leading
retail and foodservice buyers representing hundreds of millions of dollars
in buying power. The GOAL schedule includes social events to bring
participants together for discussion and fun, too.
Be Part of the Solution
Help address aquaculture’s opportunities and challenges. Join GAA
in Vancouver, as GOAL returns to North America for 2015. For more
information, visit www.gaalliance.org/goal.
Reserve Your
Room Now!
GOAL 2015 will convene at
the luxurious Four Seasons
Hotel in Vancouver. Take
advantage of the special
conference room rate of
CAD $190 – book online
now before the room block
sells out.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
11
BAP Included
In GSSI Pilot Testing
Peru Trout Farmer
Enrolls In iBAP
Piscifactorías de los Andes, a trout-farming and -processing
operation located on Lake Titicaca in the Peruvian Andes,
recently became the first applicant to participate in the Global
Aquaculture Alliance’s new iBAP program.
The iBAP program – the “i” in iBAP represents “improver” –
is designed to provide assistance and encouragement to aquaculture facilities interested in pursuing Best Aquaculture Practices
(BAP) certification. Facilities that enroll in iBAP agree to a
step-by-step, deadline-driven improvement plan. iBAP incentivizes facilities to make the improvements necessary to apply for
BAP certification.
“Piscifactorías de los Andes’ enthusiasm to pursue BAP certification exemplifies the spirit and principles of the iBAP program,” said Marcos Moya, BAP facilities development manager.
“We look forward to working with the company.”
Founded in 1978, Piscifactorías de los Andes produces a
variety of trout products and smoked, breaded and canned trout.
Almost 70% of the company’s products are exported to South
America, North America and Europe.
For more information on iBAP, e-mail ibap@gaalliance.org.
The Global Aquaculture Alliance’s Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) certification is among the third-party seafood certification programs about to undergo pilot testing against the
Global Sustainable Seafood Initiative’s (GSSI) updated Global
Benchmark Tool.
The common requirements established under the GSSI tool
are grounded in the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
(CCRF), Guidelines for the Ecolabelling of Fish and Fishery
Products from Marine Capture Fisheries, and Technical Guidelines on Aquaculture Certification of the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
The tool defines indicators that allow certification programs
to show their diverse approaches and help stakeholders understand where differences exist. These are grounded in the CCRF
and related FAO documents, International Organization for
Standardization normative standards and ISEAL codes. The
pilot is co-funded by IDH, the Sustainable Trade Initiative.
“We are confident that GSSI will provide insight to retailers
and foodservice companies of what a truly robust third-party, FAObased certification program looks like,” said Peter Redmond, BAP
vice president of market development. “This will assist them tremendously as they perfect their sustainability programs.
“We have always believed the BAP program has a robust
environmental platform that fully embraces FAO guidelines, and
we believe the coming months will validate this through the
pilot process.”
GSSI is a global platform and partnership of seafood companies, non-governmental organizations, governmental agencies
and experts whose mission is to ensure confidence in the supply
and promotion of certified seafood as well as promote improvement in seafood certification schemes.
New International Companies Join GAA
Sunnyvale Seafood Co., Inc. recently
joined the Global Aquaculture Alliance as
a Governing Member. The seafood distributor is the United States sales arm of
Zhanjiang Guolian Aquatic Products Co.,
Ltd., a large-scale, fully integrated aquaculture producer of shrimp and tilapia.
Based in China, Guolian operates facilities for breeding, feed
manufacturing, farming and processing. It has achieved four-star
status for shrimp in the Best Aquaculture Practices program.
With offices in Union City, California, USA, Sunnyvale
Seafood has been supplying the San Francisco Bay area and
beyond with fine seafood for over 25 years. It supplies a variety
of raw and cooked white and black tiger shrimp products under
the O’Good brand. It also provides multiple species of fresh and
frozen fish, scallops and cephalopods.
With a capacity of over 1,360 m3 of freezer space, Sunnyvale
can accommodate an impressive variety of daily fresh catches. It
provides customers with products only from suppliers that have
met or exceeded all HACCP standards and requirements. Its
modern distribution system is both accessible and reliable.
Skretting is the latest Sustaining Member of GAA. With a
sales volume totalling 2 mmt, Skretting is the world’s leading
12
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
supplier of fish and shrimp
feeds. It has operations on five
continents, producing feeds in
16 countries with sales in more
than 40 countries. It produces
high-quality sustainable diets – from hatchery to harvest – for
more than 60 aquaculture species.
As an essential link in the feed-to-food chain, Skretting
applies its knowledge of ingredients and the nutritional needs of
fish and shrimp to help producers optimize their aquaculture
systems. It is supported in this aim by world-class innovation
and technical capabilities. New concepts are driven by the Skretting Aquaculture Research Centre, while its Sustainable Economic Aquafeeds program guides its strong sustainability focus.
Safety and quality are ensured through the companywide
Nutrace management system.
Skretting’s overriding ambition is to contribute to meeting
the food needs of a fast-growing population in a sustainable
manner. It endeavors to do this by seeking innovative ways to
raise the efficiency and nutritional value of its products, improve
the productivity of its activities and those of its customers, and
reduce the environmental impact of its value chains.
GAA Joins
Clinton Global
Initiative
The Global Aquaculture Alliance is
proud to announce that it has become a
member of the Clinton Global Initiative
(CGI).
Established in 2005 by U.S. President
Bill Clinton, CGI is an initiative of the
Clinton Foundation. It convenes global
leaders to create and implement innovative
solutions to the world’s most pressing
challenges.
GAA received an invitation to join
CGI in late 2014.
“We are intrigued with the opportunities within CGI to address economic
development for startup operations in the
aquaculture community,” GAA Executive Director Wally Stevens said. “The
work of GAA and the Responsible
Aquaculture Foundation is a good fit
with the work being undertaken by the
other members of the CGI community.”
The Clinton Foundation convenes
businesses, governments, non-governmental organizations and individuals to
improve global health and wellness,
increase opportunity for women and girls,
reduce childhood obesity, create economic opportunity and growth, and help
communities address the effects of climate change.
The Clinton Global Initiative is dedicated to turning ideas into action. CGI
members share best practices, forge partnerships and leverage resources to affect
measurable change. To date, members of
the CGI community have made more
than 3,100 Commitments to Action,
which have improved the lives of over 430
million people in more than 180 countries.
CGI Annual Meetings have brought
together more than 180 heads of state, 20
Nobel Prize laureates and hundreds of
leading CEOs, heads of foundations and
NGOs, major philanthropists and members of the media.
In addition to its annual meetings,
CGI convenes CGI America, which is
focused on collaborative solutions to economic recovery in the United States, and
CGI University, which brings together
undergraduate and graduate students to
address pressing challenges in their communities or around the world.
More information on the Clinton
Global Initiative is available at www.
clintonglobalinitiative.org.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
13
Penver First Four-Star BAP Group In India
Penver Products Ltd., in conjunction with National Fish &
Seafood (NFS), has become India’s first group to reach four-star
Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) status. It is the highest level
of achievement in the BAP program.
The four-star BAP status was achieved when Avanti Feeds
Ltd.’s feed mill recently earned BAP certification. Also certified
are the Ocean Edibles International Ltd. processing plant, which
is leased to Penver Products; its shrimp farm, which consists of
one five-farm integrated operating module (IOM); and BMR
Industries Pvt. Ltd.’s shrimp hatchery.
The effort was coordinated by U.S.-based NFS, a division of
Pacific Andes International Holdings Ltd., which sources
shrimp from Penver. In February, NFS and Penver held a joint
training seminar to educate farmers on responsible aquaculture
practices and the BAP farm standards.
“We want to thank Avanti Feeds, Penver Products and the
BAP staff for their efforts to advance responsible aquaculture in
India,” said Jeff Sedacca, president of the shrimp division at
NFS. “This achievement is the result of the cooperation of Philips Thomas, Madhu and our farmers associated with this project
in Andhra Pradesh.
“Together we share a commitment to drive aquaculture
improvements in India. We will continue our work to help farmers, small and large alike, to meet the BAP standards, and expect
to add significant quantities of four-star BAP shrimp over the
next 12 months.”
In addition to the recent certification of a five-farm IOM,
NFS and Penver are grouping together small-scale, single-pond
farms for certification under the new BAP group program. This
program, which is in its pilot phase, will provide family farms
with a more cost-effective option to participate in the internationally accredited certification scheme.
BAP Gains Four-Star Salmon,
More Farms
The Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) program continues to
expand with new certifications around the world. The list now
includes salmon operations with four-star status, new feed mills in
China and farms in Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Vietnam and Indonesia.
Earlier this year, Marine Harvest Canada (MHC) became
the first salmon company in British Columbia – and the second
in the world – to achieve four-star BAP certification. The status
reflects certification of the company’s salmon-processing plants,
farm sites, hatcheries and feed mills.
MHC’s Dalrymple freshwater hatchery in Campbell River,
British Columbia, was the world’s second salmon hatchery to
earn BAP certification since BAP’s multispecies hatchery standards were completed in September 2014.
“Our four-star certification shows our commitment to providing customers the highest-quality salmon,” said Katherine
Dolmage, MHC’s certification manager. “We expect this fourstar product to be available in the market in 2016.”
In 2013, Marine Harvest was British Columbia’s first salmon
company to achieve three-star BAP status.
Cooke Aquaculture Inc., North America’s largest vertically
integrated, independent salmon-farming company, has also
reached four BAP stars. Its products are marketed under the
True North Salmon and other brands.
The four-star BAP status was achieved when Cooke’s Bingham, Gardner Lake and Oquossoc salmon hatcheries recently
earned BAP certification. Cooke is the world’s first salmon company to have more than one BAP-certified hatchery.
Cooke was the second salmon company in Atlantic Canada
to achieve four-star BAP status. In February 2014, it reached
three-star status for its processing plants, several salmon farm
sites and Northeast Nutrition Inc. feed mill.
“This was always our goal, and our team is proud of this
accomplishment,” Cooke CEO Glenn Cooke said. “Certifications like BAP are an excellent measure and learning tool. The
entire process helps us identify areas for improvement that never
ends. Part of maintaining this certification is to keep improving
and to continue delivering a great product with minimal environmental impact.”
14
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
Recent BAP certifications around the world.
Facility
Country
Species
Alquimia Marina Golfo Mar,
Colas de Oro
Ecuador
Shrimp
Cermaq Canada – McIntyre Lake
Farm
Canada
Salmon
Cermaq Canada – Westside Farm
Farms
Canada
Salmon
Cultivos Yadran S.A. – Simpson
Farm
Chile
Salmon
Ecoacuicola SAC
Peru
Shrimp
Huong Vuong – Ban Island Farm
Vietnam
Pangasius
Huong Vuong – Cai Ga Island Farm
Vietnam
Pangasius
Kampe Mandiri – P.T. Panca Mitra
Indonesia
Shrimp
P.T. Surya Windu Kartika
Indonesia
Shrimp
Vinh Thuan
Vietnam
Shrimp
Vietnam
Shrimp
Binh Minh Fish Corp.
Vietnam
Pangasius
Castlerock Fisheries
India
Shrimp
IFB Agro Industries
India
Shrimp
Hatcheries
Bein Dong Hatchery
Processing Plants
Chile
Salmon
P.T. Wirontono Baru
Procesadora y Comercial Rapco
Indonesia
Shrimp
S.A. Exports Kolkata
India
Shrimp
Vietnam
Shrimp
Vietnam Clean Seafood
Feed Mills
Guangdong Shuanghu Feed
China
Hainan Branch of Tongwei
China
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
15
production
Vibrio Control In Shrimp Farming
Part I. Hatcheries
Stephen G. Newman, Ph.D.
President and CEO
AquaInTech Inc.
6722 162nd Place Southwest
Lynnwood, Washington
98037-2716 USA
sgnewm@aqua-in-tech.com
Production Stages Connected
Artemia culture systems can be significant sources of bacterial contamination.
Mitigants range from bacterial amendments to disinfection to kill surface-attached
Vibrios.
Summary:
Various Vibrio bacteria have been
associated with high mortality in
shrimp larval culture. Control of
Vibrios should focus on minimizing overall bacterial loads and the
potential for horizontal transmission. Females should be rinsed
with a surface disinfectant before
placement in spawning tanks, then
quickly removed after spawning.
Eggs should be washed with clean
water between surface disinfection
protocols. Healthy nauplii should
be washed in a similar manner. To
avoid contamination from Artemia
and algae feeds, use amendments
and/or surface disinfection.
Perhaps the single greatest problem
affecting shrimp hatcheries is high mortality in the early stages of larval culture.
The term “zoeae syndrome” was coined
to describe the affected stage. Typically,
the animals do not molt from Z1 to Z2,
and very high levels of mortality ensue.
Various strains of Vibrio bacteria have
been implicated in this process.
The challenge for hatchery managers
is to identify gaps in biosecurity and how
16
May/June 2015
to plug them without creating a production environment that has been manipulated to the point where other problems
can readily present themselves. The idea
is to control the bacteria without creating
niches for other potential pathogens.
Ubiquitous Bacteria
It is important to appreciate that bacteria are everywhere. Life depends on
them. They are critical for ecological stability and recycling of nutrients, and play
a myriad of other roles that we are just
beginning to appreciate.
Most bacteria are benign, while some
can negatively impact animals that have
been made susceptible to them for various
reasons, of which the presence of stressors
is usually a critical element. A very few are
obligate pathogens that kill animals merely
by being present. Most of the problems in
hatcheries arise from bacterial species that
are not obligate pathogens.
It is also important to realize there
has been an inordinate focus on Vibrios
when many other species of bacteria
could (and do) cause problems. Control
efforts should not be focused on total
elimination of all bacteria, but instead
should target those production areas
where it is possible to minimize the overall bacterial loads.
global aquaculture advocate
As with any agricultural process,
aquaculture production stages are linked
and overlap others. Broodstock sold in
huge numbers commercially become the
sources of eggs and nauplii that, in turn,
are sold to become the source of postlarval shrimp stocked in production systems
for growout to commercial sizes.
Broodstock come from a variety of
sources. Most – especially for Pacific
white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei – are
from commercial operations that sell
genetically selected animals that are usually also specific-pathogen-free (SPF),
typically for pathogens the World Organization for Animal Health dictates
should not be present.
Black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon,
are available from similar sources,
although there is still significant use of
wild broodstock at black tiger farms.
Routine Procedures
For Maturation Facilities
The use of SPF animals has had a
dramatic impact on shrimp farming globally, although it has not always proven to
be the salvation that many envisioned it
could be. There are many reasons for this.
Suffice it to say that regardless of the
source of the animals, maturation facilities should all be doing certain things
routinely.
Aside from efforts to minimize the
levels of bacteria entering maturation systems, the focus should be on controlling
the potential for horizontal transmission
throughout the production process.
While mass spawning is the norm, for
example, individual spawning offers
greater control.
When females spawn, bacteria present
on them and in their ovarian fluids and
feces can readily attach to the surfaces of
eggs. Females should be rinsed with a
surface disinfectant such as formalin for a
short period before being placed in
spawning tanks to lessen the external
loads of bacteria.
Females should be removed from
spawning tanks as soon as possible after
spawning – easier when animals are
spawned individually. The eggs should be
collected and washed with copious
amounts of clean water between surface
disinfection protocols using formalin,
iodophors or other compounds that have
been shown effective in reducing the levels of attached bacteria.
After the eggs hatch into nauplii,
healthy nauplii are collected by their
attraction to light and seeded into hatchery tanks. Prior to their addition to the
tanks, they should be washed in a manner
similar to that used to surface disinfect
the eggs.
These procedures are aimed at significantly reducing the levels of bacteria on
external surfaces. Bacteria present in eggs
cannot be eliminated in this manner. If
tests determine this is a problem, the
broodstock need to be treated with
appropriate antibiotics in a clean production system and given feeds that are not
carrying potential pathogens.
Contamination
Assuming the water in production
systems is properly treated and that an
effective tool for managing microbial
loads in production tanks is used, perhaps
the greatest sources of contamination
from bacteria in the early life stages are
Artemia and algal culture systems.
There are many ways to mitigate
these contaminants, ranging from the use
of bacterial amendments to the use of
chemicals such as formalin or chloramine-T to kill any surface-attached
Vibrios and airborne contaminants that
occur as a result of where and how the
Artemia are produced. Alternatively, Artemia nauplii can be collected and surface
disinfected as with shrimp. The use of
copious amounts of clean water is essential to dislodge weakened and weakly
attached bacteria.
Algae are often heavily contaminated
with bacteria, as well. This can be mitigated by the use of closed production systems. Where this is not feasible, microbial amendments can lower overall nonbenign bacterial loads.
Perspectives
It is critical to examine all inputs into
maturation and the early stages of larval
culture to ensure levels of potential
pathogens are controlled. As the animals
molt and various feeds are added to the
production tanks, bacteria will grow.
Again, the use of a bacterial bioremediation amendment can help control the levels of Vibrios throughout this process.
The last link in this process is the
stocking of postlarvae into ponds. Some
of the same tools used in disinfection of
eggs and nauplii can be employed to
lessen the levels of attached bacteria.
The Pillars of Sustainability
Best Aquaculture
Practices is the world’s
most comprehensive
third-party aquaculture
certification program,
addressing all of the
components necessary
to conduct aquaculture
operations in a responsible and sustainable
manner.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
17
production
Stress-Vibrio Dynamics During High-Density,
Zero-Exchange Production Of White Shrimp
Tzachi M. Samocha, Ph.D.
Texas A & M AgriLife Research Mariculture Lab
at Flour Bluff
4301 Waldron Road
Corpus Christi, Texas 78418 USA
t-samocha@tamu.edu
David I. Prangnell, Ph.D.
Table 1. L. vannamei performance
in a 62-day nursery trial.
Average weight (g)
Maximum weight (g)
Minimum weight (g)
Coefficient of variation
Yield (kg/m3)
Feed-conversion ratio
Survival (%)
Yellow (x 1,000)
Green (x 1,000)
Texas A & M AgriLife Research Mariculture Lab
at Flour Bluff
Total (x 1,000)
Leandro F. Castro, M.S.
Green (%)
Summary:
Vibrio infections are an increasingly common problem
in intensive shrimp culture. As evidenced by study
results, weekly Vibrio monitoring can be a useful tool
for predicting bacterial disease outbreaks. Nurseryphase shrimp appeared healthy, and GCFU Vibrio
numbers were very low. However, the stress of harvest
and restocking, combined with water quality stressors, likely depressed the shrimp immune systems and
resulted in increased vulnerability to Vibrio infection.
Concurrently, disruption of the established bacterial
community may have caused a shift in the balance of
non-pathogenic and pathogenic Vibrio populations.
Vibrio infections are an increasingly common problem in
intensive shrimp culture. Recent outbreaks around the world in
both traditional and biofloc systems are significantly reducing
production and proving to be a limiting factor in the further
development of recirculating aquaculture and super-intensive,
biofloc-dominated shrimp culture systems.
Many Vibrio species are ubiquitous in shrimp culture water,
but do not negatively impact shrimp unless a stressor is present.
To better understand Vibrio dynamics during a shrimp production cycle, the authors monitored Vibrio populations during
nursery and growout phases in super-intensive, zero-exchange,
biofloc-dominated raceways.
Trial Setup
Nursery and growout trials were conducted in two, 100-m3
greenhouse-enclosed raceways with 1.1 m mean water depth.
Each raceway was equipped with two optical dissolved-oxygen
probes and an in-line D.O.-monitoring system. Aeration, mixing and circulation were generated by 14 high-pressure injectors
driven by up to two, 2-hp pumps per raceway. Solids concentra-
18
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
tions were maintained within the desired range using a settling
tank and foam fractionator for each raceway.
For the nursery phase, raceways were stocked with 5- to
10-day-old Litopenaeus vannamei postlarvae weighing 0.93 ± 0.56
mg from specific pathogen-free, Taura-resistant and fast-growth
hybrid broodstock. Two days prior to stocking, the raceways were
filled with 90% 10-ppm chlorinated natural water and 10% aged
seawater at a salinity of 30 ppt. In addition to manually mixing
every second day for the first three weeks, injectors were operated
in the raceways at full flow for five minutes twice daily. Water
flow to these injectors was gradually increased over time.
The postlarvae were fed a combination of a commercial
microencapsulated Artemia replacement and dry postlarvae feed
for the first eight days post-stocking, and then appropriately
sized particles with an immune booster and nutritional supplement for the remainder of the nursery phase. A commercial
nitrifying bacteria product and white sugar were used to enhance
nitrifying and heterotrophic bacterial activities to control nitrogen species. At the conclusion of the 62-day nursery phase,
shrimp were harvested, weighed and held for restocking.
For the growout phase, biofloc-rich water from the nursery
phase was reused to make up 87.5% of the raceway volume and supplemented with 12.5% disinfected seawater. Shrimp harvested from
the nursery phase at about 6.45-g weight were restocked into the
two raceways at a density of 458/m3. No water exchange was conducted during either phase. Municipal freshwater was used to compensate for water losses due to evaporation and biofloc control.
The shrimp were fed a 40%-protein commercial feed and harvested after 38 days. Feed was supplied continuously by belt feeders.
Feed particle sizes and rates were adjusted on an ongoing basis
according to twice-weekly growth sampling and weekly checks of
shrimp size variation, assumed growth, feed conversion and survival.
A commercial probiotic was added every third day during the
nursery phase and daily during the growout phase. Vibrio concentrations in the culture water were monitored twice weekly
using thiosulfate citrate bile salts sucrose (TCBS) agar plates
6.43
10.50
0.50
31.0
3.28
0.81
94.6
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Nursery
Growout
3.89
0.09-12.20
0.005
0-0.10
3.89
0.09-12.20
0.21
0-1.77
7.85
3.45-17.70
5.860
0-14.30
13.70
5.30-27.75
38.74
0-72.00
Table 3. L. vannamei performance
in a 38-day growout trial.
Susan Laramore, Ph.D.
Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute
Florida Atlantic University
Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
Raceway 2
6.49
11.90
0.60
35.6
3.43
0.81
97.8
Table 2. Vibrio colonies (CFU/mL) expressed on agar
plates from nursery and growout culture water.
Florida Organic Aquaculture
Fellsmere, Florida, USA
Shrimp mortalities and exuviae recovered during a growout
outbreak of Vibrio caused by multiple culture-related stressors.
Raceway 1
Survival (%)
Final weight (g)
Growth (g/week)
Yield (kg/m3)
Feed-conversion ratio
Raceway 1
Raceway 2
79.5
18.37
2.20
6.02
2.07
71.6
19.01
2.31
6.92
1.61
throughout both phases and Vibrio chromogenic agar plates late
in the growout. Vibrio from the hemolymph and hepatopancreas
of moribund shrimp was also cultured using these methods.
Results
At the conclusion of the nursery trial, survival was high at 95
to 98%, and the 0.81 average feed-conversion ratio was low
(Table 1). Water quality variables were all within the range suitable for L. vannamei culture. Mean temperature, salinity, D.O.
concentration and pH were 26.6° C, 30.4 ppt, 6.7 mg/L and 8.1,
respectively. Mean total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) and nitrite
nitrogen (NO2-N) values were 0.76-0.80 and 1.60-2.27 mg/L,
respectively. Total suspended solids (TSS) remained below 511
mg/L for the duration of the trial.
Non-sucrose-fermenting (green colony-forming units, GCFU)
Vibrio concentrations remained below 50 CFU/mL – less than 9.1%
of the total colony concentration throughout the trial – and were
only observed on 12.1% of plates (Figure 1). Sucrose-fermenting
(yellow colony-forming units, YCFU) Vibrio concentrations were
variable throughout the nursery trial, reaching concentrations as
high as 12,200 CFU/mL (Table 2). There was no evidence of Vibriosis or chitinoclastic bacterial infections in either raceway.
During the nursery harvest and subsequent 24-hour holding
period, the shrimp (particularly those from raceway 1) were subject to multiple stressors, including overcrowding, physical handling, low dissolved-oxygen levels, and high water temperature
and suspended solids levels. The shrimp experienced approximately 20% mortality prior to restocking. Seven days into the
growout phase, a new wave of shrimp mortalities commenced in
raceway 1 and quickly spread to raceway 2.
Subsequent mortalities in both raceways resulted in early termination of the growout trial. At its conclusion, survival was
71.6 and 79.5% in the two raceways, with final shrimp weights
of 18.37 and 19.01 g. Shrimp grew an average 2.2 and 2.3 g
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May/June 2015
19
Perspectives
This study demonstrated the roles that multiple environmental
and handling stressors play in triggering Vibrio outbreaks during
transfers of shrimp from one production phase to the next, underscoring the importance of weekly Vibrio monitoring in predicting
bacterial disease outbreaks. It further demonstrated how quickly
bacterial diversity can change in a biofloc system. Even with additions of probiotics, environmental stresses can cause a shift to
more pathogenic species.
These observations underscore the complexity of bacterial
interactions within a biofloc system and warrant further investigation into avoiding and controlling detrimental Vibrio outbreaks
in super-intensive, zero-exchange biofloc systems.
20
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
Concentration (CFU/mL)
Nursery
Concentration (CFU/mL)
weekly, although feed-conversion ratios were relatively poor:
1.61 to 2.07 (Table 3).
Water quality parameters were within the ranges suitable for
L. vannamei culture. Mean temperature, salinity, D.O. and pH
were 30.3° C, 30.4 ppt, 6.1 mg/L and 7.6, respectively. Mean total
ammonia nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen values were 1.09-1.32
mg/L and 0.15-0.21 mg/L, respectively. Nitrate levels increased
over time, reaching as high as 187 mg/L. TSS remained below
600 mg/L during the trial. GCFU Vibrio concentrations started
increasing in both raceways after day 4 and were generally similar
in concentration to YCFU, reaching 14,300 CFU/mL.
The total Vibrio concentration increased as the trial progressed, reaching 27,750 CFU/mL. Results suggested the presence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus and V. alginolyticus
in the culture water and the hemolymph and hepatopancreas tissues of moribund shrimp. 16S rRNA sequencing confirmed the
presence of these three species, along with V. harveyi and V. mytili in moribund shrimp hemolymph.
12,000
Yellow Colonies
Green Colonies
9,000
6,000
3,000
0
1 14 2431 4556
Day
15,000
Growout
Yellow Colonies
Green Colonies
10,000
5,000
0
3 1525 36
Day
Figure 1. Sucrose-fermenting (yellow) and non-sucrose-fermenting
(green) Vibrio concentrations as expressed on agar plates over the
course of the nursery and growout phases.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
21
production
the bottom line
Feed Trays – The Good, The Bad, The Ugly
Thomas R. Zeigler, Ph.D.
Senior Technical Advisor
Past President and Chairman
Zeigler Bros., Inc.
400 Gardners Station Road
Gardners, Pennsylvania 17324 USA
tom.zeigler@zeiglerfeed.com
Scott E. Horton, M.S.
Nutrition Marina S.A. de C.V.
Sinaloa, Mexico
Information gleaned from the use of feed trays can be both helpful and misleading.
The authors encourage the verification of primary assumptions to reality.
Shrimp Feed Trays
Summary:
Feed trays are typically used to
avoid overfeeding in aquaculture
production systems. They are
sometimes used to deliver 100%
of the feed that is fed, and other
times a small number of trays are
used as a guide to evaluate broadcast feeding techniques. They are
credited with reducing feed cost
per unit of production, but there
is seldom mention of their effects
on optimizing overall crop profitability.
Industries evolve because of change.
The shrimp industry is experiencing significant change in numerous areas,
including intensification, markets, economics, regulation, genetics, feeds and
nutrition. In spite of such changes, it is
frequently human nature to continue to
use traditional production methods that
have worked satisfactorily in the past,
although they may not be as effective in
optimizing profits under present and
future conditions.
22
May/June 2015
The use of feeding trays addresses the
need to reduce overfeeding and related
feed costs, and improve shrimp pond bottoms, water quality and associated water
discharges. It is based on the critical
assumptions that all feed leaving the trays
is carried off by shrimp, and that all the
feed that leaves the trays is consumed and
digested by the shrimp.
Feeding shrimp using feed trays
involves placing a quantity of feed on a
properly designed feed tray, placing the
feed and tray in the water at the pond
bottom and observing the rate of feed
disappearance from the tray over time.
The rate of disappearance of the feed is
used to determine the amount of feed
that should be fed each day.
Rapid feed disappearance suggests
that more feed should be fed, and slow
feed disappearance suggests that less feed
should be given to culture animals. In
some cases, all of the feed offered to the
shrimp in a pond is placed on trays for
feeding. In other cases, a small number of
trays are used as a sample measurement,
while most of the feed is applied by
broadcast feeding.
Feeding trays evolved in Taiwan to
global aquaculture advocate
feed shrimp in ponds with highly
degraded bottoms. In the 1980s, the
Peruvian industry adopted the technology
to control the application of medicated
feeds and estimate mortality. Feed tray
use also spread to Brazil and Guatemala.
Their use in Guatemala went beyond the
monitoring of feed consumption to a tool
for monitoring the health of the shrimp.
The Good (Strengths)
Feed consumption varies because of
the genetic capacity of the shrimp, as well
as temperature and other physical conditions in the pond. Additionally, feeding
varies daily due to shrimp molting states.
When used correctly for 100% of the feed,
trays provide much greater control over
consumption rates and other benefits.
• Feed-conversion ratios are reduced.
• Per-unit feed costs are reduced.
• Growth is frequently improved.
• Culture conditions are improved.
• Improved water quality supports
increased stocking density, greater yield
and reduced environmental pollution.
• Information can be provided on size
class distribution.
• The presence of predators and competitors can be established.
• Trays can determine uninhabited
areas of ponds where animals are not
feeding.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
23
• Regular feed tray use causes more
frequent observation of the animals,
which contributes to more rapid
management decisions concerning
feed rates, health management and
harvesting times.
• Shrimp feeding on dead animals
transport the dead ones to trays in
the process of searching for fresh
feed. This provides a method for
observing even minor mortalities.
• It is believed that shrimp contract
acute hepatopancreatic necrosis
mainly because of contaminated
pond bottoms, not the water column. Feed that contacts pond bottoms becomes contaminated and
acts as a substrate for bacteria. The
consumption of feed that spends
more time in a pond increases the
chances of disease development. The
use of feed trays reduces the contact
of feed with the bottom.
The Bad (Limitations)
The employees who perform feeding
must be competent, properly trained and
economically motivated. Using trays
without proper supervision can cause
huge problems. Additional considerations
are outlined below.
• Trays should be on buoys, not tied
to fixed posts that result in depressions in pond bottoms. This requires
two-person feeding teams and
results in substantial cost increases.
• The number of daily feedings per
day is limited because of the time
required to apply the feed.
• Feed tray designs must be correct,
but there is no industry standard.
• The amount of feed that can be placed
on a tray at one time is limited.
• The decision to increase or decrease
feeding rates is based on human interpretation. It is not an exact science and
is thus subject to considerable error.
• The amount of trays and related
gear can be considerable, and this
equipment requires maintenance.
• Feed that leaves the feed trays by
currents or other means besides
shrimp can lead to misinterpretation
and overfeeding.
• Feed that remains on trays, although
the shrimp are hungry, can lead to
underfeeding. Shrimp dive and dig
for feed dropped near trays, which
causes depressions that fill with
uneaten feed and detritus that is
repulsive to the shrimp. Shrimp also
avoid shallow areas with excessive
sunlight, low oxygen levels or excessive water flows, so these are undesirable locations for feed trays.
• Feed removed from trays by shrimp
that consume only a portion of it can
lead to misinterpretation and overfeeding. At temperatures of 33° C and
above, shrimp rapidly remove feed
from trays, but do not grow faster,
according to reports from Thailand.
The Ugly (Pitfalls)
It is a given management responsibility to continually attempt to improve efficiency, productivity and profitability. In
spite of this, very few articles in the liter-
Feeding with feed trays increases labor and other costs, requiring careful cost-benefit
analysis.
24
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
ature provide detailed analyses of the
effects of feed trays on pond profitability.
Reducing feed-conversion ratios reduces
feed costs, but sensitivity analyses clearly
show that profitability is primarily
affected by yield, which is made up of
animal size, survivability and selling price.
Studies report that using feed trays
improves growth rates, which is logically
believed to be a result of improved water
quality. However, it is quite possible that
growth rates may not be optimum
because animals are not fed sufficient
quantities of feed to maximize their
genetic potential for growth.
Absent from reports on feed trays is
the presence of a positive control in ponds
using feed trays, which could demonstrate
that shrimp fed from feed trays grow at
the maximum potential rate. Without
knowing if shrimp are growing at their
maximum rate based on their genetics,
valid economic conclusions concerning the
use of feed trays are not possible.
A review of the limitations clearly
shows numerous reasons why the use of
feed trays can result in incorrect conclusions concerning optimum feeding rates
for maximized growth rate and survival.
When broadcast feeding is based on a
few sample feed trays in the ponds, there
is considerable opportunity to significantly underfeed or overfeed the shrimp.
This is especially true as stocking densities are increased.
Perspectives
The use of feed trays in shrimp culture has undoubtedly contributed to
greater productivity, efficiency and profitability, but conditions are changing. The
aquaculture industry must continually
challenge existing management protocols
to see if assumptions remain accurate
under current practices. This article
strongly suggests a serious review of the
various techniques and assumptions associated with the use of feed trays.
Although seldom verified, many producers still assume that all feed leaving
feeding trays is carried off, consumed and
digested by the shrimp. Only a few
reports from Australia have attempted to
verify these assumptions by sending divers into ponds to observe the shrimp
directly.
Bottom Line:
Challenge feed tray
assumptions and
improve profits.
production
sustainable aquaculture practices
Embodied Resource Use
In Feed-Based Aquaculture
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
School of Fisheries, Aquaculture
and Aquatic Sciences
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830 USA
boydce1@auburn.edu
Aaron McNevin, Ph.D.
Director, Aquaculture
World Wildlife Fund
Washington, D.C., USA
The LCA concept is an eloquent and
technically correct way of assessing the total
Aquaculture feed production provides a good example of how embodied resources
impacts of a product. However, in evaluatcan influence overall resource use at the farm level.
ing the use of resources and impacts of
aquaculture production, there is a danger of
the entire array of embodied resources and
impacts being assigned to the aquaculture production facility.
Summary:
In life cycle analysis of aquaculture, there is a danger
of the entire array of embodied resources and impacts
being assigned to the production facility. Producers
have no control over the inefficiencies or impacts
associated with feed production, but can help lessen
resource use through good management practices.
Improving feed conversion not only reduces resource
use and impacts, but also lowers the amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus discharged to the environment.
Better feed conversion also lowers production costs.
Life cycle analysis (LCA) is becoming popular for accounting
the total amount of resources used and the cumulative negative
environmental impacts for producing and using products. In
LCA, products are usually assessed “from cradle to grave.” A
product is made, used and disposed of, with each step requiring
resources and having impacts.
Several LCAs have been published for aquaculture products.
They reveal much greater use of inputs for producing aquaculture products than those used at the farm level – even if the
LCA is conducted only to the farm gate.
Much of the difference in use of resources estimated by LCA
and the actual use of resources at the farm level results from what
are called embodied, embedded or virtual resources used in producing the inputs used at the production facility. These embodied
resources include water, land, nutrients, energy, equipment and
other materials necessary to produce and use the farm-level inputs.
Catfish Feed, FCR Example
Feed production and use for ictalurid catfish farming in Alabama, USA, provides a good example of how embodied
resources can influence overall resource use at the farm level.
Each metric ton of feed for ictalurid catfish production in Alabama, has embodied in it 0.311 ha land, 314 m3 water and 27.8
kg nitrogen and 4.13 kg phosphorus from fertilizers that were
used to produce the plant ingredients included in it. It also has
5.04 gigajoules (GJ) of embodied energy in processing feed
ingredients, manufacturing and transportation. This does not
include the embodied resources necessary for manufacturing the
machinery and vehicles used in providing and using the feed.
At the farm, the producer uses feed, but has no control over
the resources or impacts associated with its production and
delivery. The only direct, farm-level energy use associated with
ictalurid catfish feed is the small amount used in mechanical feed
application. Of course, catfish farms also use energy for other
purposes – mostly mechanical aeration.
The sum of resources used is much greater for total resources
(embodied plus farm-level use) than for resources used directly
on the farm (Table 1). Producers can have an important role in
lessening the total amount of embodied resources consumed in
aquaculture production up to the farm gate level.
Consider two ictalurid catfish farms, one whose fish production reflects an average feed-conversion ration (FCR) of 1.6 by
virtue of good feed management and one that has an FCR of 2.3
because of overfeeding – a typical occurrence. Since catfish farms
with different FCRs often have similar production, it will be
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
25
Table 1. Direct use of resources at the farm level
compared to the use of embodied resources for
feeds to produce 1 mt of ictalurid catfish at a farm
with 2.0 FCR and 6,000 kg/ha production.
Resource
Land (ha)*
Water (m3)**
Energy (gigajoules)
Nitrogen (kg)
Phosphorus (kg)
Table 2. Feed and embodied resource use
in channel catfish production at 6,000 kg/ha
at farms with different FCRs.
Direct Use
Embodied
Use
Total Use
Variable
2.3
1.6
Embodied
Resource Use
(%/0.1 FCR
improvement)
0.208
3,000
6.01
0
0
0.595
682
10.08
27.8
4.13
0.803
3,682
16.09
27.8
4.13
Feed use (kg/mt fish)
Embodied resources
Land (ha/mt fish)
Water (m3/t fish)
Energy (GJ/mt fish)
Nitrogen (kg/mt fish)
Phosphorus (kg/mt fish)
2,300
1,600
-100
0.715
722.0
11.59
63.90
9.90
0.500
502.0
8.06
44.50
6.60
-0.031
-31.4
-0.50
-2.80
-0.47
* Includes the farm area devoted to supporting a 1-ha water surface area
** Annual water use of 18,000 m3/ha
assumed that both farms produce the average 6,000 kg/ha of fish
per year typically achieved by catfish farms in Alabama. The
actual farm-level contributions to embodied resource use in feed
are illustrated for the two FCRs in Table 2. The reduction in
resource use by decreasing the FCR from 2.3 to 1.6 is about 30%.
The reductions per 0.1 unit improvement in FCR also are given
in Table 2.
In addition to lessening the embodied resources and associated impacts, reducing FCR also lowers the amounts of nitrogen
and phosphorus discharged to the environment in farm effluent.
Moreover, reduction in FCR lessens the amount of feed needed
to produce a unit weight of fish, thereby lowering production
costs. In the example in Table 2, 700 fewer kilograms of feed are
needed to produce 1 mt of fish at an FCR of 2.3 than at 1.6. At
current feed costs, this represents a savings of around U.S. $385/
mt fish produced.
Feed-Conversion
Ratio
Efficiency Benefits
The benefits of improving the efficiency of aquaculture present a “win-win” situation for both producers and conservation of
resources and ecosystems. Nevertheless, some may see the
embodied and direct use of resources for feed necessary for
intensification of aquaculture as a reason to promote less-intensive aquaculture – especially aquaculture based on natural productivity in ponds. Of course, most of the species internationally
traded are produced with feed and do not contribute a great deal
to feeding the undernourished. However, the use of feeds for
aquaculture species sold in domestic markets in developing
countries is increasing.
The production of aquaculture must essentially double by
2050, and much of this increase will be in the culture of lowertrophic-level species for domestic markets in developing coun-
tries. But there is simply not enough land available to allow sufficient expansion of aquaculture based on natural productivity –
even if productivity is stimulated by manure application or
chemical fertilization. Thus, feed-based aquaculture is extending
to pond culture of tilapia, carp and other lower-trophic-level
species produced as a protein source for low-income families in
developing countries.
According to the Alltech Global Feed Survey, 34.4 mmt of
feed were used in aquaculture in 2012. At an average feed-conversion ratio for all species of 1.6, this equates to 21.5 mmt of production. The total production of species that potentially can be
raised on feed was 51.5 mmt. This suggests that about two-thirds
of the current production of species that can be reared on feed are
indeed based on feeding. A similar estimate has been made by the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
There is urgent need to provide human necessities for the
future using no more than or even fewer resources than those currently used. Thus, the management practices necessary to assure
efficiency in land, water, feed and energy use should be given
highest priority in efforts to promote responsible aquaculture.
Editor’s Note: The authors of this article recently wrote Aquaculture,
Resource Use and the Environment, a book published in February
by Wiley-Blackwell. Embodied resource use, a major topic in the book,
is a critical concept that is increasingly being used to evaluate food
production systems.
Perspectives
Unfortunately, intensification of aquaculture (and agriculture) is not a panacea that will assure plenty of food for the
future. There may not be enough resources to allow production
of the increasing quantity of food needed by the growing population. Moreover, the earth may not be able to absorb the accumulated impacts of this production and avoid changes in climate
and ecosystems that will negatively affect both food production
and human life.
The different sectors of the world food system, as well as the
production of other human necessities, compete with each other
for resources, so the culprit in resource use and ecosystem degradation is not food production per se, but the growing human
population and its demands for goods and services.
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production soy-fed fish news
Soybeans: Truly Sustainable Feed Ingredient?
Part II. Non-GMO Alternatives, Sustainability Certification
Kelly Coleman
Coleman Communications
P. O. Box 88
Laupahoehoe, Hawaii 96764 USA
kcoleman@hawaii.rr.com
we were able to convert some of our
farmland back to wildlife conservation
land, which is part of our commitment to
biodiversity. That has provided a habitat
for songbirds, bees, migratory birds and
butterflies. We’d have to claim that land
back to get the same yield from specialty
crops, and losing that wildlife habitat is
something you can’t put a price on.”
Nationally accepted protocols ensure that U.S. soybeans are raised sustainably.
Summary:
Although today’s soybeans offer
many benefits, farmers can also
plant alternatives, sometimes on
the same farms that raise genetically modified beans. Organic
beans meet specific market
demands, and a conventionally
bred non-GMO bean has been
developed for use in aquafeeds for
carbohydrate-intolerant marine
fish. For production of all soybeans in the United States, the
Soybean Sustainability Assurance
Protocol certification ensures the
soy supply chain operates with
sound environmental objectives,
social responsibility, promotion
of economic growth and continuous improvement in agricultural
practices.
Research and development that began
decades ago led to the widespread use of
today’s superior-performing soybeans.
Considered genetically modified organisms
(GMOs), these beans are safe to produce
and eat, and offer a range of benefits that
include the use of significantly less pesticides and herbicides, greater yields, cleaner
water and healthier soil.
28
May/June 2015
Although such benefits naturally support their global culture, farmers do have
alternatives to GMO soybeans.
Non-GMO Alternatives
Some farmers raise organic beans to
meet market demand. This can be done
on the same farms that raise GMO
beans, but in separate fields according to
organic protocols. There is also a conventionally bred non-GMO bean developed
expressly for use in aquafeeds. It offers
higher omega-3 and lower oligosaccharide content for better digestion by carbohydrate-intolerant marine fish.
“It all comes down to market
demand,” said Laura Foell, who farms
soy and corn with her family in Sac
County, Iowa, USA. “Farmers could be
persuaded to grow organic or specialty
beans, but the cost is much higher
because of the extra inputs and labor costs
required, and the environmental costs of
wind and soil erosion due to increased
tillage. If the price point can be met on a
consistent basis, we’ll be more open to
produce those beans.”
Foell pointed out that because yields
are typically lower with non-GMO
beans, more land is required to grow the
same amount of harvest.
“With biotech beans, we can get the
same yield on less acreage,” she said. “So
global aquaculture advocate
Sustainability Assurance
Protocol
Whether biotech, organic or nonGMO conventionally grown, American
soybeans are grown in accordance with
the U.S. Soybean Sustainability Assurance Protocol (SSAP). The SSAP was
developed in 2013 to ensure and document that every link in the U.S. soy supply chain operates sustainably, with sound
environmental objectives, social responsibility, promotion of economic growth
and continuous improvement in agricultural practices.
The protocol describes the regulations, processes and management practices that ensure sustainable soybean production, and is a key part of the overall
U.S. soybean producer sustainability program. The approach is audited, measurable, quantifiable and results-driven, and
international certification is available.
The protocol focuses on four sustainability directives:
• Biodiversity
The protocol prohibits soybeans
from being produced on highly
diverse grasslands, forests and wetlands. It ensures the protection of
the habitats of endangered or
threatened species and migratory
birds.
• Conservation Practices
Producers practice conservation tillage to increase soil health and reduce
erosion, runoff and energy use. The
protocol prescribes crop rotation to
improve soil biodiversity and precision farming techniques to reduce
inputs, such as small doses of fertilizer applied beneath the soil for each
seed planted, as opposed to topside
spraying of an entire field.
• Human Health And Welfare
Producers must comply with all federal and state laws for the protection
of the environment, laborers and
health of the community.
• Continuous Improvement
The protocol encompasses the
numerous federal and state programs
for conservation, environmental
quality, agricultural water enhancement and wildlife enhancement. It
includes the continuous technology
transfer of best management practices developed by the National Sustainable Soybean Initiative and field
office technical guides for local soil
conditions. It also mandates the
development of additional performance metrics.
A certificate of compliance with the
Soybean Sustainability Assurance Protocol can be provided to international feed
mills from U.S. soy exporters to confirm
the soy they export was produced with
sustainable farming practices.
Sustainability Certification
This type of sustainability certification for feed ingredients is becoming
more important and necessary, according
to Chris Stock, sales manager for feed
company Zeigler Brothers.
“We are feeling downward pressure
from retailers and consumers to obtain
various sustainability certifications,”
Stock said. “Zeigler is a specialty feed
company within the aquaculture industry,
which means we must constantly innovate and work with alternative ingredients. We adopted soy a long time ago and
are very comfortable with it.”
Stock said Zeigler does get questions
about the sustainability of feed ingredients.
“We’re always looking to bolster our
statements on feed sustainability, which
is hard to define because it’s a consumerdefined term. Certification of soy ingredients grown under the SSAP will help
to appease consumer concerns.”
Brent Babb, regional director at the
U.S. Soybean Export Council, said SSAP
has been benchmarked against the
Roundtable for Responsible Soy (RTRS)
in a comprehensive 2013 study and found
to be equivalent in establishing sustainability standards.
“The U.S. Soybean Sustainability
Assurance Protocol actually has higher
standards in biodiversity and wildlife protections than the RTRS, especially concerning endangered species and diverse
ecosystems such as grasslands, forests and
wetlands,” Babb said. “The main points of
differentiation between the two standards
are in social justice protections for labor.
Since most American soy producers are
self-employed family farmers, these
requirements aren’t applicable to U.S. soy.”
Babb pointed out that SSAP was
recently recognized as equivalent to the
Dutch Feed Industry Association’s sustainability standards for feedstuffs
imported throughout Europe. This is
seen as a step forward for allowing U.S.
soy grown in accordance with SSAP to
be accepted by various European sustain-
ability certification schemes for aquaculture, poultry and swine production.
Continued Commitment
Dr. Michael Cremer, senior technical
advisor for the Global Soy in Aquaculture
Program for the U.S. Soybean Export
Council and a key architect of that program
for the past 25 years, pointed out that as
much as sustainability has recently become
a global buzzword for the food industry, it’s
nothing new to U.S. soybean farmers.
“The U.S. soy industry has always
been committed to producing soy products in a sustainable way,” Cremer said.
“That also holds true for the Global Soy
in Aquaculture Program. By promoting
soy as an alternative protein to limited
supplies of wild-caught fishmeal and fish
oil in aquafeeds, our focus has always
been to help global aquaculture become
more sustainable and scalable to meet
growing demand.”
Article
Submissions
Contact
Editor Darryl Jory
for author guidelines.
E-mail:
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
Telephone: +1-407-376-1478
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
29
production
Table 1. Nutritional composition of dry test diets.
Diets Affect Abalone Meat Quality,
Shell Color
Feed
Pacific dulse
Test diet
Commercial feed
Test Diet
Test Diet + Pacific Dulse
Cecilia Viljoen
Big Island Abalone Corp.
Kailua Kona, Hawaii, USA
Commercial Feed
Commercial Feed + Pacific Dulse
The shell color and meat of abalone varied relative to the diets fed to the animals.
Summary:
A preliminary study investigated
the effects of diet on the meat
quality and shell color of Pacific
abalone. A test diet and a commercial abalone feed resulted
in lower meat protein content
compared to that achieved with
a diet of Pacific dulse seaweed.
The artificial diets also caused
the abalone to have yellow or
orange shells. The seaweed diet
alone resulted in abalone with
dark-brown shells. However,
a combination of seaweed and
either artificial diet improved
abalone growth, meat quality and
shell color.
Abalone is a highly prized seafood.
Pacific abalone, Haliotis discus hannai, is
the most important species of abalone
cultured in Hawaii, USA.
Wild Pacific abalone eat red and
brown seaweeds and have a dark-brown
shell. Hawaii Abalone Co. has used a red
seaweed, Pacific dulse (Palmaria mollis),
to culture abalone and obtain a darkbrown shell color, which is preferred by
30
May/June 2015
the international seafood market, especially in Japan. However, feeding Pacific
abalone with an artificial, commercially
available diet has typically resulted in the
abalone appearing yellow, green or pink
in color.
There is great demand for the development of a formulated diet for cultured
abalone to support sustainable production
of this shellfish. Unfortunately, culturing
seaweed is expensive, and it is difficult to
mass produce. The authors therefore performed research to evaluate the effects of
artificial diets, the seaweed P. mollis, and
combinations thereof on abalone growth,
meat quality and shell color.
Diet Preparation,
Feeding Methods
An artificial test diet was prepared by
extrusion through a single-screw extruder
at the feed mill of the Oceanic Institute
in Hawaii. Each of five, 2,000-L tanks
was stocked with about 5,000 juvenile
Pacific abalone of similar size, reflecting a
total biomass of about 35 kg. The mean
weight and shell size of the abalone were
7.1 g and 35.3 mm, respectively. Each
tank received approximately 500 L/hour
of 200 µ-filtered seawater at ambient
temperatures of 17.5 to 19.5° C, with pH
global aquaculture advocate
at 8.2 ± 0.2 and salinity of 32 to 35 ppm.
For the first week of the trial, all abalone were fed Pacific dulse. After the first
week, each tank received one of the following diets: Pacific dulse as a control, a
test diet, the test diet plus Pacific dulse, an
imported commercial feed, and the commercial feed plus Pacific dulse. The feeding trial lasted 220 days. The abalone were
fed three times weekly in the single-diet
treatment, but twice with the artificial diet
plus one time Pacific dulse weekly for the
combination diet treatments.
Diet Composition
The proximate composition of the
diets is shown in Table 1. The 29.4%
crude protein content of the test diet was
lower than the 35.7% protein content of
the commercial feed, but its crude lipid
content was over double that of the commercial feed. Freeze-dried Pacific dulse
had only 22.1% crude protein and less
carbohydrate and gross energy, but higher
ash content than the two artificial diets.
The amino acid profiles of the diets
and abalone meat were also analyzed.
The percentages of seven essential amino
acids in the test diet, commercial feed
and Pacific dulse were higher than those
in abalone meat, which may suggest they
should meet the requirements for abalone
growth. However, levels of arginine and
threonine were 19 to 43 and 57 to 124%
lower, respectively, than those in abalone
meat. These two essential amino acids
might be limiting in these diets.
Growth, Survival
Table 2 shows the growth rates of the
Crude
Protein
(%)
Crude
Lipid
(%)
Ash
(%)
Carbohydrate
(%)
Gross
Energy
(cal/g)
95.3
91.8
91.2
22.1
29.4
35.7
2.1
4.7
1.6
38.5
7.3
6.0
32.6
50.6
47.9
2,510
4,312
4,126
Table 2. Abalone growth and survival
after 220 days feeding with different diets.
Zhi Yong Ju, Ph.D.
Aquatic Feeds and Nutrition
Department
Oceanic Institute of Hawaii
Pacific University
41-202 Kalaniana`ole Highway
Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795 USA
ZhiYong.Ju@hpu.edu
Dry
Matter
(%)
Stocking
Weight Size
(g)
(mm)
Feed
Pacific dulse
Test diet
Test diet +
Pacific dulse
Commercial
feed
Commercial
feed + Pacific
dulse
Monthly
Growth
Harvest
Mortality
Weight
(g)
Size
(mm)
Weight
(g)
Size
(mm)
(%)
6.93
7.08
7.62
35.07
35.32
36.20
29.98
21.96
28.27
57.25
51.58
56.13
3.20
2.07
2.87
3.08
2.26
2.77
7.64
22.33
4.38
6.77
34.80
27.70
55.75
2.91
2.91
10.94
6.95
35.10
32.24
58.65
3.51
3.27
22.86
Table 3. Nutritional composition of dry abalone
meat from different diet treatments.
Feed
Pacific dulse
Test diet
Test diet + Pacific dulse
Commercial feed
Commercial feed + Pacific dulse
Crude
Protein
(%)
Crude
Lipid
(%)
Ash
(%)
Carbohydrate
(%)
79.61
60.19
69.82
55.03
66.18
3.83
2.74
3.23
2.59
3.20
8.86
6.44
7.38
6.36
7.98
4.38
27.10
15.58
33.13
19.11
abalone based on weight and accumulative mortality after 220 days of feeding.
Feeding abalone with the test diet or the
commercial feed alone resulted in growth
rates of 2.07 and 2.91 g/month, respectively, compared to monthly growth of
3.20 g for abalone on the seaweed diet.
Combining Pacific dulse with the test
diet or the commercial feed improved
abalone growth by 39 and 21%, respectively. Pacific dulse fed alone and in combination with the test diet also reduced
abalone mortality.
Meat Composition,
Shell Color
Feeding the natural and artificial diets
resulted in different nutrient compositions in abalone meat samples (Table 3).
Feeding Pacific dulse resulted in a
79.61% higher crude protein content
than feeding the test diet (60.19%) or
commercial feed (55.03%). Combining
Pacific dulse with one of the two diets
increased crude protein, but lowered the
level of carbohydrate in abalone meat.
Feeding abalone with Pacific dulse
alone resulted in dark-brown shells for all
abalone produced. Feeding the two artificial diets resulted in yellow or pink shells
and light meat color, while combining
Pacific dulse with the two diets led to
dark-brown shells and dark meat color.
It is not clear why Pacific dulse
improved the abalone meat protein content and growth rate. Previous research
reported that abalone fed an artificial diet
had substantially higher glycogen content
than abalone fed Gracilaria species red
seaweed, which is consistent with these
results.
It is possible the high accumulation of
the carbohydrate may depress the growth
of abalone. The high energy level of the
current artificial diets may also have
impaired feed intake. Thus, the abalone
might not have received enough nutrients
for protein synthesis and growth. Furthermore, the amino acid balance for the
test diets might not have been optimized
for the nutritional requirements of this
species.
Finally, the low ash and high carbohydrate content in the artificial diets may
not be optimal for growth of the abalone
based on the nutritional profile of the
seaweed that promoted the best growth
in this study. The two artificial diets
might also lack pigments or some essential factors for the dark-brown appearance for abalone. Further research will be
needed to address these issues.
Perspectives
Based on growth performance and
effects on the finished product, neither
the test diet nor the commercial feed
could compete with the seaweed for
Pacific abalone aquaculture. However,
combining the test diet with the seaweed
improved culture performance. These
results suggested that artificial feed can
partially replace seaweed for current production. More research is warranted for
developing an optimal diet for Pacific
abalone production.
Established in 1997, the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) is
an international, non-profit association dedicated to advancing
responsible aquaculture through advocacy, educational
outreach, scientific research and global leadership.
GAA recognizes that aquaculture is the only sustainable means of increasing the seafood supply
to meet the food needs of the world’s growing population and has made a long-standing
commitment to advance responsible aquaculture practices and grow a sustainable global
seafood supply.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
31
production
Table 1. Cumulative mortality of tilapia parasitized with
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis after challenge by F. columnare.
Theronts/fish
0
30,000
0
30,000
0
30,000
F. columnare
Isolate
Number
of Fish
Dead
Fish
Mortality
(%)
No
No
ALM-05-53
ALM-05-53
TN-3-2012
TN-3-2012
48
48
48
48
48
48
0
1
14
29
0
12
0
2.1
29.1
60.4
0
25.0
Table 2. Genome copy of F. columnare in tissues
of tilapia exposed to I. multifiliis theronts at three days
after exposure to different F. columnare isolates.
Tissue
Parasitism Enhances Tilapia Susceptibility
To Flavobacterium columnare
Summary:
The bacterium Flavobacterium
columnare and parasite Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (Ich) are
common pathogens that can cause
heavy economic losses for fish
culture. The authors conducted a
study to evaluate the susceptibility of hybrid tilapia to F. columnare, including fish mortality and
bacterial numbers in fish after
parasitism by Ich. Ich-parasitized
tilapia had higher mortality when
co-infected with F. columnare than
non-parasitized fish did. The bacterial numbers in Ich-parasitized
fish were 10 fold or higher than in
non-parasitized fish.
In aquaculture systems, fish are commonly infected by multiple pathogens.
The Gram-negative bacterium Flavobacterium columnare and the parasite Ichthyophthirius multifiliis are two common
pathogens of cultured tilapia. The optimum temperature ranges for the organisms overlap at 20 to 25° C, which
explains why their effects are often seen
together.
F. columnare is the causative agent of
columnaris disease. Columnaris is generally regarded as an external infection with
clinical signs of skin lesions, fin erosion
and gill necrosis. Many commercially
important freshwater fish worldwide are
32
May/June 2015
susceptible to columnaris, which can
result in high mortality.
I. multifiliis, commonly referred to as
“Ich,” is a protozoan parasite in various
freshwater fish worldwide. The parasite
damages fish gills and skin, results in high
fish mortality and leads to substantial economic losses for aquaculture. The life stages
of Ich include an infective theront, a parasitic trophont and a reproductive tomont.
A study by the authors evaluated
whether hybrid tilapia infected with I.
multifiliis were more susceptible to F.
columnare. Bacterial numbers in gill and
kidney tissues were also compared between
parasitized and non-parasitized fish.
Fish, Parasite, Bacterium
Sex-reversed hybrid tilapia were used
as experimental fish because they are
commonly cultured in intensive production. The tilapia fry were reared to experimental size – 9 cm in length and 12 g in
weight – in indoor tanks at the Aquatic
Animal Health Research Unit of the
United States Department of Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service in Auburn,
Alabama, USA.
The I. multifiliis strain used was isolated from an infected fish from a local
pet shop and maintained by serial transmission on channel catfish. To culture
theronts for the infection trial, heavily
infected fish with maturing I. multifiliis
were anesthetized and rinsed in tank
water. The skin was gently scraped to
dislodge the parasites. Isolated trophonts
global aquaculture advocate
De-Hai Xu, Ph.D.
USDA Agricultural Research Service
Aquatic Animal Health Research Unit
990 Wire Road
Auburn, Alabama 36832 USA
dehai.xu@ars.usda.gov
Craig Shoemaker, Ph.D.
Benjamin LaFrentz, Ph.D.
USDA Agricultural Research Service
Aquatic Animal Health Research Unit
were placed in a tank with 20 L water
and incubated at 22 to 24° C. Two isolates of F. columnare were used
in this study: ALM-05-53 obtained from
a channel catfish and TN-3-2012 isolated
from a hybrid tilapia. The isolates were
inoculated in modified Shieh broth and
incubated aerobically on a shaker set at 28°
C for 24 hours. Following 24 hours of
growth, the concentration of the bacterium was determined by bacterial plate
count to define the number of colonyforming units (CFUs) per milliliter.
F. columnare Infection Trial
The fish were divided equally into
four tanks with 100 fish/tank for parasite
infection. I. multifiliis was added to each
of two tanks at 30,000 theronts/fish. The
tilapia were exposed to theronts for one
hour with aeration. The fish in the other
two tanks were not exposed to I. multifiliis theronts, but kept in water for one
hour with aeration.
Gill
Kidney
F. columnare
Isolate
GE/mg
0
0
30,000
30,000
0
0
30,000
30,000
ALM-05-53
TN-3-2012
ALM-05-53
TN-3-2012
ALM-05-53
TN-3-2012
ALM-05-53
TN-3-2012
415
197
5,703
2,526
472
84
8,180
1,587
Five days after the theront exposure,
10 fish from each tank were inspected for
parasite infection by wet mount from
caudal fins under a microscope. All
examined fish from the infected tanks
showed light infections of I. multifiliis.
The remaining fish were divided into 18
tanks with 20 fish/tank.
Treatments included a non-infected
control, tanks infected by I. multifiliis
alone, tanks infected by F. columnare
ALM-05-53, tanks infected by I. multifiliis and exposed to F. columnare ALM05-53, tanks infected by F. columnare
TN-3-2012, and tanks infected by I.
multifiliis and exposed to F. columnare
TN-3-2012.
For challenge with F. columnare, fish
were immersed in water in buckets with
ALM-05-53 or TN-3-2012 at 4 x 107
CFU/mL for 15 minutes. Fish not
exposed to the bacteria were kept in water
with Shieh broth for the same duration.
Prevalence of F. columnare
Tilapia infected with Ichthyophthirius multifiliis show white spots on skin and fins (left). Flavobacterium columnare infection causes
lesions in the caudal fin.
Theronts
/Fish
F. columnare In Fish Tissues
Three days after the challenge, gill and
kidney tissue from two fish randomly sampled from each tank were collected for F.
columnare quantification. Each tissue sample of about 20 mg was macerated with a
sterilized pestle in a microcentrifuge tube.
DNA was extracted and purified.
Real-time polymerase chain reaction
(qPCR) testing was used for the quantitation of F. columnare in infected fish.
The qPCR was performed using two F.
columnare-specific primers and a duallabeled probe. Bacterial DNA in each
milligram of tissue was determined as
genome copies per milligram of tissue.
Results
The fish showed 2.1, 0 or 29.1% mortality when infected by I. multifiliis alone,
with F. columnare TN-3-2012 alone or
with F. columnare ALM-05-53 alone
(Table 1). The parasitized fish showed
25.0% and 60.4% mortality after exposure
100
ALM-05-53 – No Ich Exposure
75
TN-3-2012 – No Ich Exposure
50
ALM-05-53 – 30,000 Theronts
25
TN-3-2012 – 30,000 Theronts
0
Figure 1. Prevalence of F. columnare in tilapia
exposed to I. multifiliis theronts at
three days after
exposure to different F. columnare
isolates.
to F. columnare TN-3-2012 and ALM05-53, respectively.
Mortalities were significantly higher
in I. multifiliis-parasitized fish than the
non-parasitized fish after exposure to F.
columnare. F. columnare was isolated from
33 to 50% of non-parasitized tilapia and
from 83 to 100% of parasitized tilapia
three days after exposure to F. columnare
(Figure 1). The bacterial numbers increased significantly in the gill tissues of parasitized
fish compared to those of non-parasitized
fish after exposure to F. columnare. The
bacterial number in gill tissue of parasitized fish (5,702 genome equivalents/mg)
was 14-fold higher than the level found
in non-parasitized fish (415 G.E./mg)
three days following exposure to F.
columnare ALM-05-53 (Table 2). The
parasitized fish showed a bacterial load of
2,526 G.E./mg, which was 13-fold
higher than the 197 G.E./mg load in
non-parasitized fish after exposure to F.
columnare TN-3-2012.
Similarly, the kidneys of parasitized
fish showed significantly higher bacterial
numbers than those of non-parasitized
fish after exposure to F. columnare (Table
2). The bacterial number in kidney tissue
of parasitized fish was 17-fold higher
than that of kidney tissue from non-parasitized fish after exposure to F. columnare
ALM-05-53.
Perspectives
The mucus and epidermis of fish are
the first lines of defense in protecting
against invasive microorganisms. Fish
mucus contains a variety of antimicrobial
compounds, such as antibacterial peptides, lysozyme, proteases and antibodies
that protect underlying epidermal cells
from bacterial adhesion and colonization.
Parasite infection by I. multifiliis
resulted in damage to the fish skin and
gills. When the burrowing theronts move
between epithelial cells to seek sites for
adherence, they push epithelial cells apart
and cause cell injury.
This study demonstrated that parasitic
infection enhanced bacterial invasion,
resulted in high numbers of bacteria in fish
tissues and subsequently increased fish
mortality. This work suggested that the
prevention of parasite infection in fish will
not only reduce the direct damage caused
by the parasites, but also reduce fish mortality due to bacterial co-infection.
Day 3
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
33
production
National Broodstock Improvement Network
Concept For Breaking Inbreeding/Disease Feedback Loop
A smallholder farm/hatchery owner
in Indonesia shares a view of his strain
of red carp fingerlings.
Summary:
The authors propose a National
Broodstock Improvement Network
system in which aquaculture can
be managed at the national level
in a way that breaks the link between inbreeding and hatchery
size. Many smallholder farmers
rely on seed from small hatcheries that is thought to be both inbred and without biosecurity protection. The network would focus
on collecting tissue or DNA
samples and exchanging information about gene pools to prevent
inbreeding by hybridizing stocks
and enhancing performance with
new breeders.
In the September/October 2014 issue
of this magazine, the main author suggested that disease crises in tropical
shrimp aquaculture and perhaps other
kinds of aquaculture are amplified by
inbreeding. Increased mortality from disease raises the level of biosecurity regulation, and tightened regulation increases
inbreeding that further increases mortality in a self-amplifying feedback loop
while disease crises grow worse.
A key component of this hypothesis is
34
May/June 2015
that current strategies for countering disease cause, as side effects, progressive
reductions in the number, size and genetic
diversity of aquaculture gene pools. This
is a direct result of biosecurity and stocktransfer restrictions, and an indirect result
of higher prices and reduced availability
of high-quality stocks as biosecurity
tightens.
Generally speaking, the smaller a
population is, the faster it accumulates
inbreeding. Smallholder farmers, in particular, often rely on seed from small and
poorly managed hatcheries. Many such
hatcheries are presumed to produce seed
that is both inbred and without biosecurity protection.
Do small hatchery broodstocks really
have to become inbred? Yes, according to
the basic theory of random mating in simple populations of finite size. However,
the theoretical answer can be “no” in populations that have more complex structure.
In this follow-up to the previous GAA
article, the authors suggest aquaculture can
be managed at the national level in a way
that breaks the link between inbreeding
and hatchery size.
National Broodstock
Improvement Network
The authors propose a strategy for
genetic improvement that might be called
a National Broodstock Improvement
Network (NBIN) consisting of partially
interconnected, but independently evolving broodstocks. The NBIN strategy is
complementary to but very different from
a traditional nuclear breeding center
strategy that has a single, centralized
breeding program and one or very few
separate gene pools.
The NBIN is a network of aquaculture
gene pools, not a network of institutions.
To be more precise, it is a network for
exchanging information about gene pools.
Physical exchange of breeders, fry and
postlarvae already takes place just about
everywhere aquaculture is practiced.
An NBIN should facilitate the coexistence of any number of public and private
broodstocks of different sizes, locations
and origins. Traditional nuclear breeding
centers could and should be important
components of an NBIN, but their main
global aquaculture advocate
Roger W. Doyle, Ph.D.
Genetic Computation Ltd.
1-4630 Lochside Drive
Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
V8Y2T1
rdoyle@genecomp.com
Cherdsak Virapat, Ph.D.
Director General
Network of Aquaculture Centres
in Asia-Pacific
Bangkok, Thailand
Wongpathom Kamonrat, Ph.D.
Senior Fishery Expert
Aquatic Biodiversity
Thai Department of Fisheries
Bangkok, Thailand
objective – increased yield – would be
folded into a wider national strategy for
long-term preservation of genetic biodiversity. The NBIN would both assist and
make best use of nuclear breeding centers
and the myriad small farmer/breeder operations that spring up wherever easily propagated aquatic species such as shrimp, tilapia, carp and catfish are cultured.
How NBINs Might Work
A National Broodstock Improvement
Network would obtain tissue or DNA
samples from participating broodstock
owners who want to prevent inbreeding
by hybridizing their stocks with new
breeders. Using information from the
DNA, the NBIN would suggest who,
among other participants in the network,
has broodstock that would be most suitable for reducing inbreeding and/or
enhancing performance in any hatchery
that requests this advice.
Selective genetic improvement within
local broodstocks would remain entirely
in the hands of the broodstock operators
and would not be a cost burden to the
NBIN. Physical exchange of breeders and
fry would also be the responsibility of
hatchery operators, just as it is now. Biosecurity issues would be handled as they
should, but would not be the responsibility of the NBIN, which is solely a network of information flow.
Local exchanges of aquaculture brood
stock and seed are popular and somewhat
Fingerlings are shared at a governmentsponsored exchange in a market near
Bogor, Indonesia.
organized in some places. But existing networks are defective in one crucial respect:
Their participants lack the gene-tic information they need to manage inbreeding.
Preserve Biodiversity,
Minimize Inbreeding
The strategic goals of an NBIN are to
conserve genetic biodiversity at the
national level and minimize inbreeding at
farm level, thus reducing susceptibility to
disease, as well as providing other production benefits. Each local participant
benefits by receiving advice on the very
best exchanges for each local hatchery.
In the process of providing this
advice, the NBIN would facilitate gene
flow among broodstock populations of
various sizes located in different parts of
the country and managed in different
ways with different selection objectives
and types of ownership. Satisfying the
individual needs of local participants
would, if calculations on the DNA data
are properly done, automatically increase
the effective population size and reduce
the loss of diversity at the national level.
A wide variety of selection objectives
and selection environments are inherent in
the NBIN concept because it can extend
over a range of environments and farming
systems. NBIN participants would constitute a national “meta-population” with all
the evolutionary advantages that term
implies in terms of environmental resilience, genetic diversity, rapid local adaptation, very large effective population size
and minimal inbreeding depression in the
component broodstocks.
Inbreeding associated with strong
selection would be virtually eliminated by
the large effective population size of the
interconnected meta-population. Local
additive genetic diversity – scope for evolution – would be maintained by gene
flow among the component gene pools.
Central Laboratory
A central laboratory would be needed
to characterize DNA received from participating broodstock owners and also to
give advice on what broodstock
exchanges or purchases would be most
useful for each breeder in the network.
The most relevant genetic information
would include heterozygosity and
genomic diversity, genetic distance from
other broodstocks and unique or rare
DNA sequences, or those with advantageous expression profiles. Data on local
selection environments, history and performance would also be required. Technologies for collecting and analyzing such
information are proliferating rapidly and
steadily getting cheaper.
Perspectives
The implementation of a National
Broodstock Improvement Network would
support the protection and development of
a genetically diverse array of public and
private broodstocks that have a variety of
environment- and market-specific genetic
characteristics. Although the NBIN concept has never been tried, an NBIN should
sustain both genetic biodiversity and
genetic improvement at the same time.
Informal, non-secure genetic exchange
is taking place all the time in the real
world of tropical aquaculture. In the form
of broodstock copying, transfers lie at the
root of the inbreeding/disease feedback
loop. An NBIN should make these ongoing exchanges more beneficial to individual hatcheries and at the same time block
the runaway positive feedback loop that is
likely amplifying disease problems at the
national level.
The strategic goals of an
NBIN are to conserve
genetic biodiversity at
the national level and
minimize inbreeding at
farm level, thus reducing
susceptibility to disease,
as well as providing other
production benefits.
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May/June 2015
35
Plankton Communities In Shrimp
Monoculture, Integrated Biofloc System
Dr. Alfredo Olivera Gálvez
Departamento de Pesca e Aquicultura
Universidade Federal Rural
de Pernambuco
Rua Dom Manoel de Medeiros,
s/n Dois Irmãos
CEP: 52171-900
Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
alfredo_oliv@yahoo.com
Clarissa Vilela Figueiredo
da Silva Campos
Ítala Gabriela Sobral dos Santos
Yllana Ferreira Marinho
Departamento de Pesca e Aquicultura
Universidade Federal Rural
de Pernambuco
Dr. Luis Vinatea
Departamento de Aquicultura
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
Luis Otavio Brito
Departamento de Assistência
Técnica e Extensão Rural
Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco
Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
A variety of microalgae species were identified, including Bacillaria (A), Chaetoceros
(B), Nitzschia (C, Heterokontophyta), Aphanothece (D), Oscillatoria (E, Cyanobacteria)
and Gymnodinium (F, Dinophyta).
Recife, Brazil, to assess the plankton community in an integrated biofloc system
with Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus
vannamei, and red algae, Gracilaria birdiae.
Exchange (mg oxygen/L/hour)
production
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
Gross Photosynthesis
Respiration
0.4
0.6
Net Photosynthesis
light intensity was kept at about 1,000 lux
using a fluorescent lamp with a natural
photoperiod. Molasses (40% organic carbon) was added once a day as a carbon
source to maintain the carbon:nitrogen
ratio at 12:1. Hydrated lime was used to
maintain alkalinity and pH above 100
mg/L and 7.5, respectively.
Stocking, Sampling
The experimental units were stocked
with shrimp of 0.34 ± 0.01 g initial weight
at a density of 500 shrimp/m3. The shrimp
were fed daily at 8 a.m., noon and 4 p.m.
with a 40%-protein commercial shrimp
feed, adjusted in volume daily according to
the estimated shrimp consumption, mortality rate and leftover feed.
Samples of G. birdiae biomass were collected at the Pau Amarelo beach in Pernambuco, Brazil, and stored in plastic bags
for laboratory analysis. Water was drained
from all the samples, and weighed after the
material was carefully inspected to eliminate
encrusted organisms. Seaweed with reproductive structures, signs of depigmentation
Figure 1. Photosynthesis and respiration levels in the
water column
of monoculture
and integrated
biofloc systems
during a 42-day
experiment.
and necrosis was discarded.
The seaweed was cultivated in rectangular (20.0 x 6.5 x 2.2 cm) polyvinyl chloride modules placed horizontally in tanks.
The rectangular modules also were used
in control tanks without seaweed.
Water column respiration and photosynthesis were recorded on weekends
during the experiment. Gross and net
photosynthesis and water column respiration were measured by the classic dark
and light bottle method. Initial and final
oxygen concentrations were measured
with an oxygen meter.
Once a week, vertical sampling was
performed using 600-mL plastic bottles
for phytoplankton collection. The water
was filtered through a cylindrical-conical
net with 15-μ mesh to 15 mL, providing
a 40-fold more concentrated sample. The
phytoplankton was fixed with formalin,
buffered with borax and stored in 10-mL
plastic containers.
Results
The shrimp survival rates were all
above 89% during the 42-day experimental period. The 1.29 average feed-conversion ratio (FCR) and 4.0-g final weight
of the shrimp in the integrated biofloc
systems were significantly higher (P < 0.05)
than the 1.74 FCR and 3.12-g weight in
the control group.
The mean gross photosynthesis (0.3620.437 mg oxygen L/hour), net photosynthesis (-0.223-0.281 mg oxygen L/hour)
and respiration (0.416-0.544 mg oxygen L/
hour) in monoculture and integrated biofloc system are shown in Figure 1. The
gross photosynthesis and respiration positive values and the negative net photosynthesis observed were similar to the results in
biofloc systems predominantly associated
with heterotrophic microorganisms.
About 61 genera of phytoplankton
belonging to the Heterokontophyta phylum were identified. Their densities were
about 30,000 cells/mL in both treatments.
Cyanobacteria were the most abundant
organisms, followed by Chlorophyta,
Heterokontophyta, Euglenophyta and
Dinophyta (Figure 2). However, cyanobacteria predominance in integrated biofloc system was less than in the monoculture system. This may be attributed to the
increase of organic matter and phosphate
in the water, and the competitive advantages of these cyanobacteria over other
plankton groups. Therefore, control of the
cyanobacteria had been evaluated in a biofloc system with additional diatoms.
About 13 genera of zooplankton
belonging to the Rotifera phylum and the
Copepoda, Protozoa and Cladocera
groups were identified. Their densities
were about 1,700/L in both treatments.
Study Setup
Summary:
The authors performed a study to assess the plankton community in an integrated biofloc system with Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, and
red algae, Gracilaria birdiae. Once a week over seven weeks, phytoplankton
were sampled in three tanks with monoculture of shrimp and nine tanks with
integrated biofloc systems containing shrimp and algae. Shrimp survival was
above 89% during the experiment. Feed conversion and final shrimp weight
were better for the biofloc system than the monoculture system.
In intensive shrimp culture systems,
the microbial community of bacteria,
algae, zooplankton and other microorganisms plays important roles in nutrient
cycling, providing nutritional compounds
such as fatty acids that are essential to the
survival and growth of shrimp.
Traditional systems that integrate the
production of shrimp and seaweeds have
36
May/June 2015
been proposed to promote the reduction
of wastes as well as cyanobacteria and
other harmful species due to competition
for nutrients during the photosynthetic
processes of the seaweed. The authors performed a study at the Sustainable Mariculture Laboratory of the Fisheries and
Aquaculture Department of the Rural
Federal University at Pernambuco in
global aquaculture advocate
Once a week over seven weeks, phytoplankton were sampled in three tanks with
monoculture of shrimp and nine tanks
with integrated biofloc systems containing
L. vannamei and Gracilaria algae with wet
weights of 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 kg/m3.
Five days prior to stocking the shrimp
and seaweed, water from a matrix tank
(total ammonia nitrogen level at 0.2
mg/L, nitrite nitrogen at 0.3 mg/L,
nitrate nitrogen at 2.2 mg/L, alkalinity
133.9 mg calcium carbonate/L and total
suspended solids at 133.6 mg/L) was
mixed and equally distributed to fill 12,
40-L black-plastic tanks to approximately
25% of the volume. The remaining 75%
of the tanks was filled with seawater.
No water exchange was carried out
during the experimental period, except for
the addition of dechlorinated freshwater to
compensate for evaporation losses. The
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global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
37
Integrated
Biofloc System
Monoculture
0.03%
0.07%
0.02%
0.14%
1.45% 15.15%
1.99%
Cyanobacteria
20.01%
Heterokontophyta
Chlorophyta
83.36%
77.97%
Euglenophyta
Dinophyta
Figure 2. Relative abundance of phytoplankton in monoculture and integrated biofloc
systems during a 42-day experiment.
Monoculture
Integrated
Biofloc System
13.52%
18.04%
39.94%
8.05%
43.10%
33.98%
Protozoan
Cladocera
Copepoda
Rotifera
10.16%
33.21%
Figure 3. Relative abundance of zooplankton in monoculture and integrated biofloc systems
during a 42-day experiment.
Rotifers were the most abundant zooplankton in the biofloc tanks, followed by
copepods, protozoans and cladocerans
(Figure 3). The addition of organic carbon
in shrimp tanks favored the growth of the
zooplankton community, probably due to
increased availability of organic matter.
The Rotifera density of 700-790/L,
which was higher than in the other zooplankton groups, probably related to the
adaptation of these organisms to higher
levels of nutrients and solids. Similar
results were reported for biofloc or zero-/
minimal-water-exchange systems.
Perspectives
In the integrated biofloc system, it
seems plankton communities shifted,
with decreased amounts of cyanobacteria
and increased Heterokontophyta and
Chlorophyta. On the other hand, there
were fewer Protozoa and increased rotifers and Cladocera. This exchange probably improved the levels of protein and
polyunsaturated fatty acids in the biofloc,
which contributed to better shrimp
growth in the integrated system.
These results suggested additional
research should be undertaken to evaluate
the biochemical and digestibility attributes of the biofloc.
Rotifers were the most
abundant zooplankton in
the biofloc tanks, followed
by copepods, protozoans
and cladocerans.
Simplicity
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sophistication
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ORI
ADVANCED CULTURE & ENRICHMENT PRODUCT FOR ROTIFERS
www.skretting.com
38
May/June 2015
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globalSantiago,
aquaculture
May/June 2015 39
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production
400
Yield (g/m2)
Study Seeks Candidates For Blue Shrimp
Polyculture In New Caledonia
Dr. Trung Cong Luong
6
The outdoor culture system was set up at Saint Vincent station in Boulouparis,
New Caledonia, to help find suitable fish for polyculture with shrimp that could
contribute to sustaining the area’s shrimp industry.
Summary:
Seasonal pathologies reduce the
profitability and sustainability
of the shrimp-farming industry
in New Caledonia. A study was
therefore conducted to estimate
the effects of polyculture of blue
shrimp with goldline rabbitfish
or mullet on production performance and environmental quality.
The fish did not affect shrimp
production, and the combined
shrimp/fish yields were significantly greater than the yield from
shrimp monoculture. Changes
in environmental quality in all
treatments were few and minor
throughout the culture period.
The farming of blue shrimp, Litopenaeus stylirostris, has been practiced for
over 30 years in New Caledonia, where
semi-intensive growout techniques produce an annual average production of
around 2,000 mt. The shrimp industry,
however, is affected by seasonal mortalities caused by “syndrome 93” during the
cold seasons or “summer syndrome” dur-
40
May/June 2015
ing the warmer months. These pathologies reduce profitability and affect the
sustainability of the industry.
Blue Shrimp/Fish Polyculture
Shrimp/fish polyculture has demonstrated itself as an ecologically and economically sound method of sustainable
shrimp culture and an effective choice for
solving and/or minimizing some of the
problems the shrimp industry currently
faces. Studies on polyculture of penaeid
shrimp with omnivorous fish have found
a remarkable improvement in water quality. The fish help to reduce organic
wastes and selective phytoplankton, clean
the pond bottom and increase nutrient
uptake into cultured animals.
Based on a literature review, herbivorous siganids and omnivorous mullets
could be excellent candidates for polyculture with shrimp because the fish help
decrease the impacts of disease, prevent
deterioration of the environment and
increase the production in the ponds.
The authors therefore conducted an
experiment on polyculture of blue shrimp
with goldline rabbitfish, Siganus lineatus,
or Mugil species mullet in a mesocosm
system to evaluate the effects of polycul-
global aquaculture advocate
Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie
Laboratoire Live
Nouméa, New Caledonia
ture on production performance and
environmental quality. Finding suitable
fish for polyculture with shrimp would
contribute to sustaining the shrimp
industry in New Caledonia.
Study Setup
With grant support from the South
Province of New Caledonia Agreement
C.486-10, the study was conducted in an
outdoor system that consisted of 16 circular, 1.7-m2 fiberglass tanks. Each tank
contained a 15-cm layer of sediment and
a 75-cm-high water column with
1,275-L volume. A daily water exchange
of around 10% was applied.
Shrimp fry weighing approximately
2.9 g each were randomly stocked into
the experimental tanks at density of 15/m2.
One month later, rabbitfish or mullet fingerlings were added to the shrimp tanks
to form polyculture treatments.
Hatchery-sourced rabbitfish weighing
25.5 g were stocked into the shrimp tanks
at either 1.2 fish/m2 or 2.4 fish/m2. In
other tanks, 20.5-g wild-caught mullet
were added at 1.2 fish/m2. A control
treatment had no fish. All treatments
were randomly distributed among tanks
with four replicates per treatment.
Shrimp were fed a commercial pel-
Low-Density
Rabbitfish
Polyculture
High-Density
Rabbitfish
Polyculture
Mullet
Polyculture
Contol
Figure 1. Production
yields in experimental
treatments. Bars with
different letters are significantly different
(P < 0.05).
b
Mullet and rabbitfish are potential
species for polyculture with blue shrimp.
leted feed at 3 to 5% of shrimp biomass
daily. At the beginning and end of 12
weeks of culture, shrimp and fish were
sampled and individually weighted to
evaluate the growth performance. Environmental parameters were regularly
sampled and analyzed to estimate environmental variations.
Results
At 62.5%, shrimp survival was lowest
in mullet polyculture, while the 80.8%
survival in the high-density rabbitfish
polyculture treatment was highest. In
addition, the standard deviation of
shrimp survival rate decreased from
20.7% in the control to 7.0% in the highdensity rabbitfish treatment.
Although shrimp yields were not significantly different among treatments, the
values of 145.4-170.3 g/m2 for rabbitfish
polyculture were greater than the 143.2
g/m2 yield for the control. The mullet
treatment had a slightly lower value of
130.3 g/m2.
These results showed the presence of
the fish had no negative effect on shrimp
growth. The shrimp growth obtained in
this study was also similar to the results
recorded in other research on blue shrimp
monoculture in earthen ponds in New
Caledonia.
The 100% fish survival and growth
rates were similar in all polyculture treatments. The fish yield, however was significantly higher in the high-density treatment with rabbitfish. The total combined
shrimp and fish yields were higher in the
polyculture treatments than the shrimp
production in the control (Figure 1).
The overall feed-conversion ratio
(FCR) was significantly lower in the
Feed-Conversion Ratio
Pr. Yves Letourneur
b
100
ADECAL/Technopole/Programme
ZoNéCo
Nouméa, New Caledonia
IFREMER Lead
B. P. 2059
98846 Nouméa, New Caledonia
hugues.lemonnier@ifremer.fr
ab
200
Dr. Sébastien Hochard
Dr. Hugues Lemonnier
a
a
0
IFREMER Lead
Nouméa, New Caledonia
Fish Yield
300
Nha Trang University
Nha Trang, Vietnam
Florence Royer
Shrimp Yield
Figure 2. Feed conversion in experimental
treatments. Bars with
different letters are
significantly different
(P < 0.05).
4
b
ab
a
2
0
Low-Density High-Density
Mullet
Rabbitfish Rabbitfish Polyculture
Polyculture Polyculture
high-density rabbitfish polyculture than
those in the mullet polyculture and the
control (Figure 2). Furthermore, rabbitfish polyculture decreased FCR by 31.6%
and 47.4% in the low- and high-density
rabbitfish treatments, respectively, compared with the control.
Water Quality
All the results indicated that there
were few changes in the environmental
quality in all treatments throughout the
culture period. The 22.4-26.5° C temperature and 5.5-9.4 mg/L dissolved oxygen,
salinity and 8.2 pH levels were similar in
all treatments and generally within suitable ranges for shrimp and fish growth.
Turbidity, total dissolved nitrogen
and total ammonia nitrogen values were
only slightly different among treatments.
Although the mean soluble reactive phosphorus concentration was significantly
higher in the high-density rabbitfish
polyculture than those in the other treatments, its values maintained low in all
treatments (0.15 to 0.26 µ).
No significant difference was observed
in all sediment parameters among polyculture treatments and the control. Values for
Contol
pH ranged 6.8 to 6.9. Trends in redox
potential were similar across all treatments.
Perspectives
Rabbitfish have fast growth, tolerance
of crowding and a range of environmental
conditions, good flavor, and high demand
and market prices. The results of this
study indicated that polyculture of blue
shrimp with goldline rabbitfish produced
an excellent secondary crop and also
improved food utilization without adverse
effects on shrimp production and additional environmental degradation in the
culture system.
Although shrimp/mullet polyculture
did not get high results for production
performance and environmental improvement, mullets are also potential species
for polyculture with shrimp. The omnivorous fish could help control organic
matter in polyculture systems.
Further research needs to be conducted to find the optimum density and
biomass of fish and shrimp to achieve consistently high production and maximum
environmental efficiency. Studies of pathological conditions could test the effects of
co-culture on conditions such as vibriosis.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
41
production
Coastal Aquaculture Must Adapt
To Climate Change In Bangladesh
Netting placed around ponds
can control the escape of
stocked fish and exclude
predator fish during floods.
Nesar Ahmed, Ph.D.
Professor
Department of Fisheries Management
Bangladesh Agricultural University
Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh
nesar_2000@yahoo.com
The construction of higher pond dikes and bamboo fencing may help shrimp and prawn
farmers in coastal Bangladesh adapt to the effects of climate change.
Summary:
Aquaculture provides nutrition,
livelihoods and export earnings
in Bangladesh. However, shrimp
culture in coastal Bangladesh is
threatened by climate change
variables that include flooing,
cyclones, drought, salinity changes
and rising sea levels. Holistic
planning can help reduce the
impacts. Dams and embankments could protect coastal farms
and create water bodies for cage
culture. Cropping of fruit trees
and vegetables on dikes protects
against soil erosion. Fencing
around ponds limits escapes and
keeps predators out. Tree planting can also protect against
cyclone damage.
Bangladesh is one of the most suitable
countries in the world for coastal aquaculture because of its favorable biophysical
resources and agroclimatic conditions. The
coastal aquaculture sector in Bangladesh is
dominated by farming of export-oriented
freshwater prawns, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, and black tiger shrimp, Penaeus
monodon. As part of agricultural development in coastal Bangladesh, prawn and
shrimp farming were initiated in the 1970s
42
May/June 2015
and began to expand rapidly in the 1980s.
Over the last three decades, prawn
and shrimp culture has undergone a revolutionary development in coastal Bangladesh. Thousands of farmers have converted their low-lying rice fields to prawn
and shrimp farms, locally known as
“gher.” The practice of farming in rice
fields, combined with high prices for
prawns and shrimp in international and
local markets, and increased household
consumption of rice and fish, has led to
an increasing number of farmers.
There are now about 850,000 farmers
involved with 275,000 ha of prawn and
shrimp farms in Bangladesh. Their total
production has gradually increased from
75,000 mt in 2003-2004 to 140,000 mt
in 2012-2013 – an average annual growth
rate of 9% over the last decade.
In 2012-2013, Bangladesh exported
around 44,000 mt of prawns and shrimp
valued at U.S. $396 million. Overall, the
coastal aquaculture sector plays an important role in the economy of Bangladesh,
providing food, nutrition, income, livelihoods and export earnings.
Climate Change
However, while the coastal aquaculture
sector provides a wide range of economic
benefits, it has recently been threatened by
climate change. Bangladesh is a global hot
spot for climate change. According to the
global aquaculture advocate
Global Climate Risk Index 2015, Bangladesh is ranked sixth among countries vulnerable to climate change, while it was
ranked first in 2012.
Climatic variables including coastal
flooding, cyclones, drought, rainfall variation, salinity changes, rising sea level and
shifting sea surface temperatures have
been identified as threats to prawn and
shrimp production. These changes could
have severe impacts on export earnings
and overall consequences for the economy
of Bangladesh.
Adaption strategies must be developed to cope with the challenges. Adapting coastal aquaculture to climate change,
however, requires a combination of strategies and policies. A holistic approach to
planning may help reduce the impacts of
climate change on coastal aquaculture in
Bangladesh.
Adaptation Strategies
Various community-based strategies
can be implemented for adaption to climate change. Coastal river management
and community flood-control devices,
including earthen dams and embankments, could help protect coastal aquaculture farms. Embankments could also
turn open water bodies to productive use
in floodplain aquaculture through cage
and pen culture.
User conflicts and equity issues may
arise for access to open waters, as they are
considered common resources. Nevertheless, community-based fisheries management can be an option to manage these
resources. Cage culture has already been
introduced in the rivers of Bangladesh.
Dike Crops, Mixed Culture
floods. Additional cropping through
plantings of fruit trees and vegetables on
dikes can help protect aquaculture farms
from soil erosion and sedimentation during floods. Moreover, fencing and netting around ponds can limit prawn and
shrimp escapes, as well as the entry of
predators and wild fish during floods.
Community irrigation facilities using
groundwater with proper drainage systems could aid prawn and shrimp culture
in the dry season. Moreover, the introduction of drought-resistant and salt-tolerant rice varieties may help co-culture
with prawn and shrimp in rice fields. In
addition, integrated systems for the culture of prawns, shrimp and brackishwater
fish could be incorporated to cope with
saltwater intrusion into rice fields.
Currently, the mixed culture of
prawns and shrimp is rare in coastal Bangladesh, as prawns grow in freshwater,
while shrimp grow in brackishwater.
Nevertheless, field experience has suggested that mixed prawn-shrimp culture
is possible, as both are euryhaline species
able to tolerate a range of salinity.
Rainwater, Forestry
Harvesting of rainwater with storage
facilities may also help coastal aquaculture during the dry season. Bangladesh
falls in a region of huge rainfall in the
monsoon belt, with the Himalayas to the
north and the Bay of Bengal to the south.
Using rainwater for freshwater prawn
culture and pond dike cropping may
increase water use efficiency.
Social forestry through tree planting
and the creation of greenbelts in coastal
areas may also help protect against
cyclone damage. Moreover, mangrove
regeneration would increase resilience to
climate change through protection from
the effects of tidal surges. Mangrove
planting has been instrumental in maintaining ecosystems in the Sundarbans in
southwest Bangladesh, the largest mangrove forest area in the world.
Perspectives
Some of these adaption strategies are
costly, so support for minimizing the
adverse impacts of climate change on
coastal aquaculture remains a key responsibility of government. Institutional support, including coordination and cooperation among governmental and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and
local communities, is essential for the
implementation of adaption strategies.
The active involvement of local governments may help develop the capacity of
coastal communities to implement adaption
strategies. With the help of relevant NGOs,
the Department of Fisheries can provide
technical assistance to farmers. Strong collaboration among these stakeholders will
provide a platform for knowledge sharing on
evolving adaption strategies.
The creation of greenbelts
in coastal areas can help
protect against cyclone
damage and tidal surges.
The construction of higher pond
dikes is another adaption strategy to protect prawn and shrimp farms during
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
43
marketplace
Certified Clarity In Aquaculture
Def ined Tiers Could Provide Clearer Framework
Michael Tlusty, Ph.D.
Director of Ocean Sustainability
Science
New England Aquarium
Central Wharf
Boston, Massachusetts
02110-3399 USA
mtlusty@neaq.org
Øisten Thorsen, M.S.
Principal Consultant
Benchmark Sustainability Science
New York, New York, USA
Sustainability: A Journey
The Vietnamese axiom “same same but different” currently applies to certification.
Understanding what producers want to be the same and what they want to be different will
help move certification forward to maximize its value. Photo of Nguyen Tan Duy Phong.
Summary:
Aquaculture certification programs
essentially mark milestones on
the journey toward more sustainable practices. There is a role for
a clearly defined starting point of
“minimum acceptable standards,”
but it is equally important to create incentive structures to enable
producers to “move up the ladder”
and differentiate themselves
regarding what constitutes best
practices and highest quality. The
goal for all should be to improve
the worst practices, grow public
acceptance and provide incentives
for producers to improve through
a clearly defined differentiation
framework.
44
May/June 2015
Over the last few years, we have seen a
number of certification programs judging
the performance of aquaculture facilities
using different criteria and metrics in a situation that can be described by the Vietnamese expression “same same but different.”
This common phrase is used in an effort to
find common ground and similarities
between things that, in fact, are different.
In seeking to address this overlap, some
– like Lee Van Quang, chairman of Minh
Phu Seafood, a major aquaculture producer
in Vietnam – argue for one common certification for the whole industry in order to
prevent the significant “waste of time and
money” companies like his spend on meeting different standards. Others see a future
where separate standard owners continue to
offer different certifications for distinct
markets and needs.
global aquaculture advocate
Essentially, certification programs
mark milestones on the journey toward
more sustainable practices. As such, there
is a role for a clearly defined starting
point of “minimum acceptable standards.” However, to ensure a responsible
future for the sector, it is equally urgent
to create robust incentive structures to
enable producers to “move up the ladder”
and differentiate themselves regarding
what constitutes best practices and highest quality.
Addressing the needs of all sectors is
crucial to prevent the aquaculture industry from becoming stale and complacent,
and to instead encourage innovative
approaches and continuous improvement.
The goals for all should be to improve or
eliminate the worst practices, grow public
acceptance for good industry practices
and provide incentives for producers to
become better and differentiate themselves through integrated, vertical and/or
horizontal differentiation.
Integrated Differentiation
Many aquaculture certification programs focus on environmental and social
To ensure a responsible
future for the sector, it is
equally urgent to create
robust incentive structures
to enable producers to
“move up the ladder” and
differentiate themselves.
issues at the farm level. However, a number of issues go beyond the farm and
require a more holistic approach. For
example, the recent issues of forced labor
on Thai fishing vessels used to collect
industrial fish and antibiotic residues in
processed shrimp fall beyond the scope of
most farm-level certification programs.
The Best Aquaculture Practices
(BAP) program, as an example, includes
components for hatcheries, farms, feed
mills and processing plants. Such integrated differentiation is a way to show
holistic improvement of the supply chain
beyond the farm.
Vertical Differentiation
In their 2015 paper titled “Vertically
Differentiating Environmental Standards: The Case of the Marine Stewardship Council,” Simon Bush and Peter
Oosterveer refer to vertical differentiation
as how a single certification program may
create a tiered structure, and thus have
differentiated levels within the same program. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design certification for buildings, with its platinum, gold and silver
levels, is a pertinent example.
Horizontal Differentiation
Horizontal differentiation refers to
how independent certification programs
differ among each other. The goal of
horizontal differentiation is to have different programs address different points
of the impact curve to create a framework
for continual improvement. However,
within a given component of the production chain, it is important to establish a
starting point or baseline, as well as
markers to help us determine the level of
progress on our journey.
Because of the wide range of stakeholder input on farm standards, the
authors would argue that the Technical
Guidelines for Aquaculture Certification
from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations,
currently being operationalized by the
Global Sustainable Seafood Initiative
(GSSI), provide such a baseline.
Levels Of Farm Certification
How does differentiation work in
practice? Let’s assume we build a threetier certification system for aquaculture
farms based on the common GSSI
benchmark, to be delivered by one or
many standard owners. This would utilize a common set of criteria with metrics
set at different levels to ensure that if a
producer secured the top-tier or “gold”
certification, it would automatically also
qualify for any market requiring a lessrigorous “silver” or “bronze” level of farm
certification, without any additional
paperwork, audits or costs.
This would assure that everyone is
playing by the same rules, reduce confusion and cost, and provide a clear direction for improvement.
Bronze
The lowest tier in such a horizontally
differentiated farm standard would comprise the minimum acceptable level of
practice. This approach is being developed by the GSSI, and would assure that
certification programs meet basic requirements for impact assessment and organizational processes. This level of assurance
may also be provided by the implementation of government regulations in line
with FAO’s technical guidelines.
Silver
Since they provide independent verification of specific environmental, food
safety, and social criteria above a baseline
standard, let us propose the moderately
rigorous BAP farm standards could be
applied in silver-level certification.
The main benefit of this tier would be
to offer a more substantial certification by
providing independent, third-party assurance that participants adhere to the standards and criteria developed by multiple
stakeholders with views that go beyond
those of just the industry’s inner circle.
Silver status should drive progress
across a number of issues, including food
safety, traceability, environmental sustainability, animal welfare, social factors
and human rights.
Gold
Differentiation is also required at the
higher end of the scale. This would help
to continuously improve practices, as well
as meet the demands of progressive
retailers and producers looking for elevated brand identity associated with the
highest standards for certified seafood. A
gold tier could help spur a “pull” to the
top by applying more-stringent metrics
for environmental, economic and ethical
practices.
Since the Aquaculture Stewardship
Council standards arose from the World
Wildlife Fund Aquaculture Dialogues,
which targeted the top 20% of producers,
their environmental and social standards
are generally considered more demanding
than those of BAP, but they lack several
food safety and other criteria included by
BAP. Furthermore, the Sustainable Fisheries Partnership’s 2011 report “A Comparison of Tilapia Certification Schemes,”
an early assessment of tilapia farm standards from BAP, GlobalGAP and the
Aquaculture Dialogues, failed to demonstrate clear-cut differences.
To avoid the “same same but different” scenario and accurately differentiate
standards programs as tiers of performance will require harmonization of criteria and metrics to create clearly defined
levels of performance.
The gold tier could also be addressed
by company-specific schemes that merge
standards for high quality and responsible
practices. These would be akin to the
specialty coffee sector’s “Direct Trade”
initiatives, or in wild fisheries, what
Simon Bush and Peter Oosterveer called
the MSC+ (Marine Stewardship Council
certification plus) category, often relying
on joint branding with well-respected
non-governmental organizations.
To avoid the “same same
but different” scenario will
require harmonization of
criteria and metrics to
create clearly defined
levels of performance.
Certified Clarity
The aquaculture industry needs to
adjust to a mindset away from simply
“doing less bad” to begin building a narrative and framework for “net positive”
aquaculture. Integrated, vertical and horizontal differentiation are important modes
to communicate the real benefits and
impacts the sector has around the world to
consumers. The major certification programs, in partnership with government
regulators, have an opportunity to establish such a differentiated framework and
to harmonize standards accordingly.
The authors believe integrated, vertically and horizontally tiered certification
systems – based around common benchmarks for all standards – point the way
forward. To fulfill its promise, such a system will require cooperation at best, and
transparency at a minimum.
We urge the developers of each aquaculture certification program to consider
how their program can align within a differentiated framework to ensure that producers, retailers and consumers clearly
understand where different standards fit
on the journey toward sustainability.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
45
marketplace
FAO Fish Indices Enhance
Global Seafood Price Evaluations
RESPONSIBLE
BUSINESS FORUM
ON FOOD AND
AGRICULTURE
MELIÁ HOTEL,
HANOI, VIETNAM
23 – 24 JUNE 2015
Dr. Frank Asche
University of Stavanger
4036 Stavanger, Norway
frank.asche@uis.no
Dr. Sigbjørn L. Tveterås
ASEAN BEYOND 2015:
COLLABORATION FOR EQUITABLE GROWTH
University of Stavanger
“jumped” into the top 10 list to take the
fifth and sixth positions. Aquaculture has
become the preferred source of seafood
products in the United States. On a
global level, aquaculture is predicted to
account for two-thirds of the seafood
supply by 2030, according to the World
Bank.
Seafood Trade Competition
The influence of aquaculture on
global seafood prices comes through
increasing international seafood trade
competition. During the last few years,
the Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) has published a fish price index in the publication Food Outlook that provides useful information on global fish prices.
Based on the 2012 FAO statistics, one can estimate that 78%
of world seafood production was exposed to some kind of international trade competition. This share is probably even higher
now, and importantly, competition has resulted in more harmonized price movements.
This is not to say that seafood prices exposed to competition
now move in parallel, because there are still substantial differences among seafood products and their markets. Nevertheless,
it does mean that seafood prices today share common long-term
trends to a larger degree than they did, say, 20 years ago. This is
particularly the case for price movements across different geographical seafood markets consisting of relatively homogenous
products such as whitefish, tuna and salmon.
Table 1. Most-consumed seafood species
in the United States, 2000 and 2012.
The FAO indices compare the relative supply and demand-related pricing of individual
species or sectors against an aggregate index. Wild-capture species typically have
higher prices, with lower pricing for farmed seafood.
Summary:
A growing share of global seafood trade is dominated
by species from aquaculture. The industry influences
global seafood prices by increasing international trade
competition. The fish price indices published by the
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations report the aggregate effects of seafood supply
and demand. Indices for individual species that track
above the aggregated index reflect scarce supply, while
the indices below represent more abundant species. Wildcapture species typically have higher prices, with lower
pricing for farmed seafood.
A growing share of global seafood trade is dominated by a
limited number of species, and often from aquaculture. These
species are the most technologically and commercially successful
products in the aquaculture industry, with Pangasius, salmon,
shrimp and tilapia as some of the most important ones.
The increasing dominance of these farmed species is reflected
in the eating habits of consumers in the United States. Table 1
shows the top 10 seafood species in the U.S. in 2000 and 2012.
The species dominated by aquaculture supply are highlighted in
blue. Besides abundant capture species such as pollock and tuna,
aquaculture products are increasingly lending U.S. consumers’
choices for seafood.
Shrimp and salmon both moved up one place to the first and
third positions in 2012. At the same time, tilapia and Pangasius
46
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
2000
HELP BOOST SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE IN ASEAN
Feeding a global population of 9 billion by 2050 will require transformational changes to
our farming and aquaculture systems, already under pressure from climate change and
overfishing. We would like to invite you to Asia’s leading annual business event on food
and agriculture which will bring together more than 350 leaders from business, ASEAN
government ministries, agricultural associations and the finance sector.
Working groups at the Responsible Business Forum in Hanoi will produce actionable
recommendations for successful public-private partnerships, to increase the global
supply of sustainably produced commodities, while improving livelihoods and
reducing environmental impacts.
Species
(kg/capita)
Species
(kg/capita)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Canned tuna
Shrimp
Pollock
Salmon
Catfish
Cod
Clams
Crabs
Flatfish
Scallops
1.59
1.45
0.72
0.72
0.45
0.34
0.21
0.17
0.19
0.12
Shrimp
Canned tuna
Salmon
Pollock
Tilapia
Pangasius
Catfish
Crab
Cod
Clams
1.91
1.18
0.88
0.59
0.59
0.29
0.25
0.24
0.23
0.15
Readers of Advocate Magazine
can enjoy a 20% discount on the
full ticket price by entering this
unique code: GAARBFV15F
when registering online at
www.responsiblebusiness.com/forum
SPEAKER HIGHLIGHTS
For the full agenda and list of speakers,
please visit the website at
www.responsiblebusiness.com/forum.
We look forward to seeing you there!
Francis Pangilinan
Presidential Adviser on Food
Security and Agricultural
Modernization, Philippines
Peter Timmer
Cabot Professor, Emeritus,
Harvard University
Kavita Prakash-Mani
Special Advisor, Grow Asia,
World Economic Forum
Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Development
VIETNAM
2012
Rank
REGISTER NOW!
Chris Ninnes
Chief Executive Officer,
Aquaculture Stewardship
Council
Annette Pensel
Director Sustainability
Innovations, 4C Association
Puvan Selvanathan
Head of Food & Agriculture,
UN Global Compact
Carson Roper, International Business Development Manager, Global Aquaculture
Alliance, will speak as a panelist during the industry-led aquaculture working group.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
47
300
E.U.
USA
Shrimp
Price Index
250
Asia
Japan
Africa
200
150
FAO Fish Price Index
Whitefish
Pelagic Fish
Salmon
Tuna
100
50
0
2002200320042005200620072008200920102011201220132014
Figure 4. FAO fish price indices with base period (100)
in 2002-2004.
450
Price Index
The increase in international seafood trade competition can
be visualized by showing international seafood import flows.
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the growth in seafood trade based on
the data used for the calculation of the FAO fish price index on
imports of fresh and frozen seafood products to the European
Union, Japan and United States. These import flows accounted
for approximately 70% of the total imports to the areas.
The figures show the real value of the seafood imports to
these three markets in 1990 and 2011, respectively, using the
price index as a deflator. This means the thickness of the arrows
can be interpreted as a measure of the volume of seafood import
flows.
The thicker arrows for 2011 in Figure 2 reflect the growth in
seafood imports, especially from Asia, but also from other
regions. The total real value of seafood imports in 1990 to the
E.U., Japan and United States was U.S. $24.5 billion, compared
to $39.7 billion in 2011. In real terms, this corresponded to an
annual import growth of 2.3%, but the corresponding nominal
Other Fish
Dairy Index
400
Sugar Index
350
Food Index
300
Cereals Index
250
Meat Index
200
150
Oils ndex
Fish Index
100
50
South
America
Oceania
0
2002200320042005200620072008200920102011201220132014
Figure 5. FAO food and fish price indices with base period (100)
in 2002-2004.
growth in seafood imports was actually 4.7% – from U.S. $23.4
billion in 1990 to $61.0 billion in 2011.
Figure 3 shows both the sizes and shares of seafood imports
sourced from capture fisheries and aquaculture for 1990 and
2011. The figure illustrates that growth in the aquaculture supply has allowed seafood trade to grow. It can also be inferred
from this trend that seafood has become more commodified,
knowing that aquaculture consists of fewer species of more
homogenous size and quality.
Figure 1. Real value of seafood imports to the United States,
European Union and Japan in 1990.
E.U.
USA
Asia
Japan
Africa
South
America
FAO Information
Oceania
Figure 2. Real value of seafood imports to the United States,
European Union and Japan in 2011.
E.U.
USA
1990
2011
1990
Japan
2011
1990
2011
Aquaculture
Capture
Figure 3. Seafood import sizes and shares sourced from fisheries
and aquaculture, 1990 and 2011.
48
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
FAO’s fish price index is calculated and updated based on
the 608 unique import product categories of fish and seafood
provided by the Norwegian Seafood Council in cooperation with
the FAO. In Figure 4, the thick blue line is the aggregated FAO
fish price index, while the others are sub-indices representing the
individual price development of the species groups included in
the aggregated price index.
A simple way to interpret this graph is that price indices that
track above the aggregated price index reflect scarce supply of
those species groups, while the indices below represent species in
relatively abundant supply. For example, the sharp rise in salmon
prices from 2009 to 2011 was caused by an outbreak of infectious
salmon anemia in Chilean aquaculture that seriously affected
global supply. Salmon prices returned to previous levels close to
the main index in late 2011, showing the flexibility of aquaculture production in the longer term.
Looking at the indices overall in the graph, a pattern that
emerges is that those species whose total supply depends mostly
on capture fisheries are the ones that usually are above the aggregated index. This includes tuna and pelagic fish. Species that
depend on mostly aquaculture supply are below or close to the
main index. Imported shrimp, which is mainly farmed, is clearly
below the main index.
Finally, whitefish is an odd category. This was driven by
high-value cod fish in the 1970s and 1980s, and then by lowervalue species like hake and Alaska pollock in the 1990s. However, today the whitefish market is broader and includes farmed
species like catfish, Pangasius and tilapia, as well.
All fish species that can be used as raw material in whitefish
products such as fish fingers and frozen fillets form this market.
This has obviously led to strong price competition. This is also
reflected in the price index for whitefish, which for some period
was actually below the main price index. To reiterate a point
made earlier, price movements have become more harmonized
within traded species groups, but as the graph shows, price differences between groups can be substantial, at least in the short
to medium term.
Food Index Comparison
In Figure 5, the green aggregated fish price index line is
compared to FAO’s other food price indices. As the figure
shows, fish has remained price competitive in comparison to
other food items. That said, the graph shows that the overall
food price index, which excludes fish prices, has been on a
downward slope since 2011.
Price movements have become more
harmonized within traded species groups,
but price differences between groups can
be substantial.
This means that the relative price competitiveness of seafood
has declined, although it has remained price competitive relative
to meat, the closest substitute among other food products. This
is interesting, as the prices of key aquaculture inputs like fishmeal and fish oil have tended to increase compared to other feed
inputs. This indicates that aquaculture’s dependence on these
feed inputs is not a serious limiting factor for farmed output.
The relative price competitiveness
of seafood has declined, although it has
remained price competitive relative
to meat, the closest substitute among
other food products.
Aggregate Effects
The FAO fish price indices clearly convey information about
scarcity in seafood markets. In the short and medium terms,
changes in scarcity (i.e., price) are normally driven by changes in
supply (e.g., changes in fish stock abundance or disease outbreaks in aquaculture). In the longer term, however, scarcity also
depends on how demand develops in markets, such as economic
growth in emerging markets, economic downturns or changes in
consumer tastes for seafood products.
The FAO price indices reflect the aggregate effects of all of
these supply and demand influences. As such, the indices are a
natural starting point for greater understanding of the underlying
drivers in seafood markets.
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FAO Fish Price Index
BootH
#214
May/June 2015
49
marketplace
seafood and health
Nutrition, Food Security Take Center Stage
Roy D. Palmer, FAICD
GILLS
2312/80 Clarendon Street
Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
roydpalmer@gmail.com
www.gillseafood.com
Urbanization and increasing living standards and income are key drivers in ongoing
increases in seafood demand and fisheries development.
Summary:
The Global Nutrition Report 2014 highlights that nutrition is a concern in all
countries, not just low-income ones. Some countries in Europe are proposing to address obesity using a multi-sectorial government approach focused
on improving school lunches, controlling marketing to children, taxing overprocessed foods and promoting physical activity. A whole-of-government
approach should be considered, taking into account the local context. Urbanization and rising living standards are key drivers in the ongoing increases in
seafood demand and fisheries development.
While seafood sales may not be
improving as much as they should in
some countries (e.g., the United States, as
mentioned in my column last issue), we
clearly are seeing some giant steps in getting seafood on the agendas of many of
the main world health, nutrition and food
security meetings.
Such progress is never made unless
discussions take place at the highest levels, so everyone connected with promoting seafood along the lines of human
health, nutrition and food security needs
to be applauded for the recent successes.
The battle is far from over, but clearly
the tide is turning. When governments
such as Mexico’s make commitments
about increasing their countries’ seafood
consumption, you start to see the benefits
of all the hard work.
50
May/June 2015
Global Nutrition Report
One of the most important documents of last year was the Global Nutrition Report 2014 (www.ifpri.org/publication/global-nutrition-report-2014) from
the International Food Policy Research
Institute. Its opening paragraph says:
“Good nutrition is the bedrock of human
well-being. Before birth and throughout
infancy, good nutrition allows brain functioning to evolve without impairment and
immune systems to develop more
robustly. For young children, good nutrition status averts death and equips the
body to grow and develop to its full
potential. Over the course of the human
lifespan, it leads to more effective learning at school, better-nourished mothers
who give birth to better-nourished children, and adults who are likelier to be
global aquaculture advocate
productive and earn higher wages. In
middle age, it gives people metabolisms
that are better prepared to ward off the
diseases associated with changes in diet
and physical activity. Without good
nutrition, people’s lives and livelihoods
are built on quicksand.”
Obesity In United States,
United Kingdom
This report has a special chapter on
malnutrition in the United States and
United Kingdom that should be ringing
warning bells everywhere. That section of
the report highlights that nutrition is a
concern in all countries, not just lowincome ones, with many high-income
countries struggling with their own nutrition issues.
Obesity rates in the United States
have more than doubled in adults and
children since the 1970s – obesity is now
a leading public health problem. Nearly
69% of U.S. adults and 32% of children
and adolescents are overweight or obese.
In most sex-age groups, the prevalence of
obesity is lower among whites than
among blacks and Mexican Americans.
Many U.S. households suffer not only
from the consequences of overweight and
obesity, but also from food insecurity. In
2012, 14.5% of U.S. households were
food insecure, as defined by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, at some time
during the year.
According to the Feeding America
website, in 2013, 49.1 million Americans
lived in food-insecure households, including 33.3 million adults and 15.8 million
children. The website explains that
although related, food insecurity and poverty are not the same. Poverty is only one
of many factors associated with food insecurity. Issues such as higher unemployment, lower household assets and certain
demographic characteristics also lead to a
lack of access to adequate, nutritious food.
In the United Kingdom, 67% of men
and 57% of women are considered overweight or obese. More than a quarter of
children are also overweight or obese. In
Western Europe, the United Kingdom
lags behind only Iceland, where 74% of
men and 61% of women are overweight
or obese, and Malta, where the figures are
74% and 58%, respectively.
Multi-Dimensional Response
While some areas of obesity are
trending down, it is too early, according
to the experts, to understand the causes
of this trend. Various examples of policy
change will be important for countries to
consider as they begin to grapple with
these issues.
Some countries in Europe are proposing to address the obesity epidemic using a
multi-sectorial government approach,
focusing on improving school lunches,
controlling advertising and marketing to
children, taxing junk foods and over-processed foods, and promoting physical
activity. Countries such as Mexico are taxing unhealthy foods and making a commitment to increase seafood consumption.
Accountability
Global Nutrition Report 2014 states:
“The United States, United Kingdom
and other high-income countries must be
accountable for making progress toward
the World Health Assembly target on
preventing an increase in the number of
children under 5 who are overweight. A
whole-of-government approach, as proposed by some European countries,
should be considered, taking into account
the local context.”
This extensive report highlights that
few countries are free from malnutrition,
and many countries experience multiple
burdens of malnutrition. Still, the
emphasis is put on children under the age
of 5, followed by the multiple dimensions
of the nutrition status of women, then
stunting, micronutrient deficiencies, and
overweight and obesity.
The report also has highlighted the
stable long-term relationship between
improvements in the underlying drivers
of stunting (such as food supply, clean
water and sanitation coverage, and women’s secondary education enrollment) and
decreases in stunting rates.
Nutrition Champions
There is much to be gleaned from this
document, but it is essentially aimed at
what it calls “Nutrition Champions” and
their current and potential allies, e.g.,
people and organizations who can form
productive partnerships to accelerate
improvements in nutrition outcomes.
The major messages and recommendations for those seeking to accelerate malnutrition reduction through stronger policies, programs, research and advocacy
obviously need to be tailored to audiences
at the global, regional, national and subnational levels, according to context.
The Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture for Food Security and Nutrition report
by the High Level Panel of Experts for the
United Nation’s Committee on World
Food Security brings the whole issue into
perspective from an aquaculture standpoint. That report highlighted that capture fisheries and aquaculture provide 3.0
billion people with almost 20% of their
average per-capita intake of animal protein, and a further 1.3 billion people with
about 15% of their per-capita intake. The
share exceeds 50% in some countries.
In Asia, where fisheries are extremely
important, and fish farming has developed rapidly over the last 30 years, total
dietary protein intake from fish is
between 50 and 60% in Cambodia, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. Fish
provides a similarly significant proportion
of protein in the diets of those who live
in most small island states.
Rising Demand
The continual growth in fish production – mostly from aquaculture since the
1990s – and improved production efficiency and distribution channels enabled
the per-capita supply of fish for food to
more than triple at world level since 1950,
from 6 kg/year in 1950 to 19.2 kg/year in
2012. However, this global figure masks
some important regional distinctions.
Asia accounts for almost two-thirds of
global fish consumption and annual percapita consumption of 21.4 kg in 2011 – a
level similar to the 22.0 kg/person level in
Europe. Africa, Latin America and countries in the Near East had the lowest yearly
per-capita consumption: 10.4, 9.9 and 9.3
kg, respectively, in 2011.
World population growth – and more
importantly urbanization and increasing
living standards and income – are key
drivers in the ongoing increases in seafood demand and fisheries development.
Demand has been rising in both the
developed and developing world at more
than 2.5% yearly since 1950, and as wealth
increases in highly populated countries
such as China and India, demand is likely
to continue its rise.
Perspectives
Of the key messages and recommendations presented in the Global Nutrition
Report 2014, clearly front and center is that
improvements in nutrition status contribute
to many of the proposed Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that will form the
primary global accountability mechanism
for the next 15 years. Nutrition should be a
prominent focus of the SDG framework,
but currently only 1 of 169 SDG targets is
explicitly related to nutrition.
Interestingly, the report states clearly
that single-issue malnutrition is on the
wane, and the days of separating undernutrition from overweight and obesity are
numbered, if not over. Countries are
increasingly facing complex combinations
of malnutrition and need to put more
resources to resolving the issues.
As an example, it highlights that of
122 countries with data on stunting
among children under 5, anemia in
women of reproductive age and obesity in
adults, fewer than 20 experience only one
type of malnutrition. Importantly, the
complexity should not be an excuse for
inaction, but an urgent call for more
effort to strategize, prioritize and
sequence actions.
“Complexity must focus action, not
stifle it” is a strong message to all nutrition
actors regarding the need to be more
aware of the nutritional, financial and
political risks of addressing each burden in
isolation. Given these multiple burdens, as
well as the trend toward decentralization
of nutrition programming by governments, it is more important than ever to
produce subnational and other disaggregated analyses of nutrition outcomes.
Can our industry come together and be
a catalyst for change in this important area?
Single-issue malnutrition
is on the wane, and the
days of separating undernutrition from overweight
and obesity are numbered,
if not over.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
51
marketplace
food safety
and technology
xxxxxxxxxxxxx
Human Enteric Viruses In Shellfish
Part I. Rotaviruses
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
University Distinguished Professor
flickg@vt.edu
Infectious rotaviruses can be found in many shellfish samples and growing waters
worldwide. Human population density greatly influences the contamination levels.
Summary:
Commercially harvested shellfish
have been reported to cause gastroenteritis when humans consume
virus-contaminated products.
Rotaviruses are one of the main
types of viruses able to survive and
persist in the aquatic environment.
Rotavirus contamination is caused
by discharges of sewage effluents,
urban runoff and waste from boats,
and via rivers when wastewater
discharges occur in freshwater.
Studies with various shellfish species have shown that infectious
rotaviruses can be found in many
waters worldwide.
Viruses pathogenic to humans have
been detected in shellfish harvested from
approved waters. Based on the fecal coliform indicator and the presence of Escherichia coli, commercially harvested shellfish, oysters, mussels, clams and cockles
have been associated with gastroenteritis
outbreaks. Contamination occurs from
discharges of treated and untreated sewage effluents, unintentional discharges by
urban runoff and waste inputs from
boats, and via rivers when wastewater discharges occur in freshwater. Also, contamination from wild and domestic ani-
52
May/June 2015
mal sources have been significant
contributors, as well.
Until recently, it was difficult to assess
viral contamination and its potential
impacts on public health. The main
pathogenic enteric viruses able to survive
and persist in the environment and contribute to outbreaks are the enterovirus,
hepatitis A virus, Norwalk-like virus,
rotavirus and astrovirus.
Detection
Technological advances in molecular
detection methods have led to the development of sensitive, specific assays, such
as reverse transcription polymerase chain
reaction (RT-PCR) and hybridization,
for the detection of viruses, including
those that grow poorly or not at all in cell
culture, including Norwalk-like virus,
hepatitis A virus and rotavirus. Moreover,
preliminary steps, such as concentration
of viruses from samples and nucleic acid
purification, are essential for final PCR
accuracy and reproducibility.
Different methods have been proposed for determining viral contamination based on whole shellfish or dissected
tissues for all types of virus. The method
based on dissected tissues is considered to
be specific, reliable and reproducible,
providing a nucleic acid extract that
allows detection of most enteric viruses.
Rotavirus disease is most common in
infants and young children. However,
global aquaculture advocate
David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
davekuhn@vt.edu
Food Science and
Technology Department
Center for Applied Health Sciences
Duck Pond Drive
Virginia Tech (0418)
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA
older children and adults can also become
infected with rotavirus from consumption
of contaminated shellfish. Once a person
has been exposed to rotavirus, it takes about
two days for the symptoms to appear.
Vomiting and watery diarrhea can last from
three to eight days. Additional symptoms
include loss of appetite and dehydration,
which can be especially harmful for
young people, the elderly and immunocompromised. Healthy adults who contract
rotavirus disease tend to have milder symptoms when compared to others.
European Studies
Various studies have been performed
to examine viral contamination. In a
study in France, oysters, Crassostrea gigas,
and mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis,
were collected from three sites subjected
to occasional bacterial contamination
confirmed by fecal coliform counts. Bacterial contamination above the European
standard of 300 fecal count/100 g was
detected in nine samples, and Salmonella
was detected in one sample.
Viral contamination was found
mainly during the winter season. Nine of
the 11 oyster samples were contaminated
by more than three types of viruses.
Rotavirus was detected in 30 samples,
representing 27% of the tested animals.
In areas subject to sewage discharge,
mussels were prohibited for collection
and human consumption. At one sampling site, 13 samples were negative, and
23 were positive for viral contamination.
Sixteen of the samples contained rotaviruses. Single-virus contamination was
detected in two rotavirus samples.
At another site, 13 of 37 samples
were contaminated by at least three types
of viruses. Rotavirus was detected alone
in three samples and with other viruses in
22 samples. Viral detection in both the
oyster and mussel samples was seen
mainly during the cold months of
November through March.
A study was conducted on human
enteric virus occurrence in shellfish in
European markets. In Spain, the study was
conducted on both the Atlantic coast and
the Mediterranean Sea. As anticipated,
within each of the 11 sampling areas on the
Atlantic coast, the human population density showed a clear influence on the contamination levels of the samples.
Rotavirus was detected in a low percentage of the samples. No rotavirus was
reported from samples obtained from the
Mediterranean Sea. Samples taken from
Italian waters contained a rotavirus contamination of 32%.
In Greece, no rotavirus was detected
in shellfish obtained from various growing areas, and with or without depuration. However, 100% of retail samples
tested positive for rotaviruses.
Shellfish samples analyzed for rotavirus contamination from the United Kingdom, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway,
Sweden, Denmark and Germany were
negative.
positive for rotavirus. Infectious rotavirus
contamination was confirmed at 12.5%.
The objective of another study in
Brazil was to evaluate water samples and
mussels, Mytella guyanensis, collected in a
mangrove area characterized by a continuous discharge of domestic sewage.
Although Escherichia coli was detected at
low densities in water samples, mussels
were shown to be more than 400 times
more contaminated throughout the study
period. Rotaviruses were detected in 88%
of the water samples and 100% of the
mussel samples. The high rates of contamination were anticipated.
In Mexico, samples of C. virginica
oysters were collected in Mexico City to
determine the presence of rotavirus genotypes and evaluate their potential to produce gastrointestinal infections. Out of
63 samples, 16% of the oysters tested
positive for rotavirus contamination.
In other research, the prevalence and
molecular characterization of rotaviruses
in Thailand were examined. A total of
114 water samples and 110 C. belcheri
oyster samples were collected and tested
for group A rotavirus.
The rotavirus was detected in 21
water samples and six oyster samples.
Twenty-five rotavirus strains were classified into four genotypes: G1, G2, G3 and
G9. G1, G2 and G9 strains demonstrated genetic sequences similar to
human strains, whereas G3 was closely
related to animal strains.
In South Korea, viruses were collected
from 152 shellfish samples – 51 C. gigas
oysters; 51 Manila clams, Tapes philippinarum; and 50 Mytilus coruscus mussels.
While other viruses were present, including norovirus, hepatitis A virus and hepatitis E virus, no rotavirus was detected.
Asian Studies
As reflected in the results of the above
studies, rotaviruses are anticipated to be
present in many shellfish and their growing waters. Infants and young children
are most affected by rotavirus-caused gastroenteritis, although they are not customary consumers of shellfish.
Adults may suffer illness from rotaviruses, but since their symptoms are not
usually severe, the illnesses are often not
reported to health authorities. However,
as our population continues to age and
more individuals are immunocompromised, regulatory agencies having jurisdiction in shellfish safety may conduct
additional research to determine the
health risks rotaviruses present and propose regulations accordingly.
A viral pollution study was conducted
in China in 45 primarily commercial
shellfish-growing areas near coastal cities.
A total of 162 samples were collected
during the month of August. The samples consisted of 91 clams of seven species, 19 Sinonovacula constrictai and Solen
grandis razor clams, 18 Mytilus edulis and
Perna viridis mussels, 17 Crassostrea gigas
and C. plicatula oysters, nine blood clams
of three species and eight Pecten farreri
and P. yesoensis scallops.
Using polymerase chain reaction
analysis, rotavirus was detected in 7% of
the samples: eight clams, two razor clams
and one blood clam. No rotavirus was
detected in oyster, mussel and scallop
samples.
Perspectives
North, South American
Studies
Samples of water and Crassostrea gigas
oysters were taken from the southern
region of Brazil to provide viral contamination data for further epidemiological
studies and governmental actions. In 84
water samples taken from June through
May of the following year, 19.0% were
www.gaalliance.org/goal
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
53
marketplace
u.s. seafood markets
Indian, Indonesian Shrimp Lead Rising U.S. Imports
Paul Brown, Jr.
shrimp to the U.S., just behind India. Imports of HLSO shrimp,
likely easy-peel, jumped sharply, while peeled imports were up
8%. HLSO imports were spread evenly across most count sizes.
Vietnamese shrimp imports were even with a year ago. Peeled
U.S. Fresh Salmon Imports Set Records
Whole Fish
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
P. O. Box 389
Toms River, New Jersey 08752 USA
pbrownjr@urnerbarry.com
January salmon
imports from
Chile reached
the third-highest monthly
volume ever.
Janice Schreiber
Angel Rubio
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
Imports of headless, shell-on (HLSO) shrimp, including
easy-peel, were substantially higher in January. Volume from
Indonesia saw a sharp increase, likely in easy-peel shrimp, and
India increased HLSO volume to the U.S. The increases in
HLSO imports were mostly shrimp of 41-50 count and larger.
Peeled shrimp imports were 8% lower in January. Cooked
imports were higher, and breaded imports were lower.
Shipping delays from some areas due to the U.S. west coast
port situation likely contributed to the January increases.
Volumes of HLSO shrimp from Ecuador were up, but its
peeled imports were down sharply. As mentioned above, Ecuador’s
January exports to Asia were 46% of their total exports – up sharply
from a year ago. Exports to Europe and the U.S. were both lower.
Latin American HLSO shrimp of 21-25 and 26-30 counts
have been weak and trending lower. Just recently, a sluggish
demand – at least in part due to inclement weather, particularly
in the Northeast – has also weakened the balance of the market.
The undertone is as yet unsettled as Asian demand develops.
Indian shrimp imports were up over 20% in January compared to a year ago. HLSO imports were up sharply, especially
of 21-25 and 26-30 counts. Peeled imports from India were
down slightly. Cooked imports were also lower.
Discounting was prevalent on both white and black tiger
shrimp, as sellers attempted to balance inventories against
lower-priced replacement offerings.
Summary:
January shrimp imports from Indonesia and India were
up sharply, while Ecuador sent much of its production to
Asia. Imports of headless, shell-on shrimp were substantially higher. Market discounting helped balance inventories against cheaper replacement offerings. Fresh Atlantic
whole salmon and fillet imports reached a record high in
January, when demand usually softens. Chilean product
reached the third-highest monthly volume ever. Increasing whole fish shipments from Canada and Norway are
shifting market share. Imports of frozen whole tilapia
from China surged 32% from the previous month. Fresh
fillets from Costa Rica are recovering, as plentiful supplies
and fair demand brought the high prices of 2014 down.
January imports of channel catfish reached their highest monthly level since January 2010. Replacement costs
reached the highest import price since August 2012. U.S.
imports of Pangasius remain steady.
Shrimp Market
In January, shrimp imports to the United States were up
8.5% compared to those of a year ago (Table 1). Imports from
Indonesia and India, the largest U.S. suppliers, were up sharply.
Imports from Ecuador were down almost 12% due to the fact
that so much of the country’s January production went to Asia.
Vietnamese imports were even with a year ago, while those from
Thailand continued to increase marginally. Imports of Mexican
shrimp were up sharply, and Malaysian imports were also higher.
and HLSO imports were down, while cooked imports rose sharply.
Shrimp imports from Mexico recorded a 103% jump in January
compared to a year ago. The volume was in HLSO shrimp of 31-40
and larger counts, and fairly evenly spread among count sizes.
Asian HLSO and peeled shrimp continued to hold a weak
tone. Discounting was prevalent on both whites and black tigers,
as sellers willingly met bids in an attempt to balance inventories
against the lower-priced replacement offerings. The market was
highly unsettled and weak as it searched for a bottom. Inventories were generally reported ample on most items, while overseas
replacement offerings have continued a downward trend.
Thai imports were higher for the second month in a row,
albeit from previously low levels. The volumes were up for
HLSO, peeled and also cooked shrimp.
Imports from Indonesia and India recorded the largest
increases in January. Indonesia is the second-largest supplier of
Table 1. Snapshot of U.S. shrimp imports, January 2015.
Form
January 2015
(1,000 lb)
December
2014 (1,000 lb)
Change
(Month)
January 2014
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2014
(1,000 lb)
YTD 2013
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Year)
Shell-on
Peeled
Cooked
Breaded
Total
46,782
37,233
14,390
10,300
108,705
43,665
42,312
13,783
7,382
107,142
7.1%
-12.0%
4.4%
39.5%
1.5%
36,649
40,547
12,946
10,832
100,974
27.6%
-8.2%
11.2%
-4.9%
7.7%
46,782
37,233
14,390
10,300
108,705
36,649
40,547
12,946
10,832
100,974
27.6%
-8.2%
11.2%
-4.9%
7.7%
The salmon market started 2015 with a bullish undertone after
demand and prices firmed in December. However, the fresh Atlantic whole fish and fillet markets saw import volumes to the United
States reach a monthly record high in January, causing overall supplies to be ample during times when demand usually softens.
Anecdotal evidence suggested a contraction in Chilean harvests, but figures revealed imports from this country reached the
third-highest monthly volume ever and the highest on record for
the month of January. Urner Barry’s fresh, farm-raised salmon
index remained flat throughout January and continued sideways
into the start of Lent.
January fresh whole fish imports moved up significantly
when compared to the same month a year ago (Table 2). This
was relevant, since improved production in Canada over the last
few months caused an oversupply; imports from this country
were up 73% when compared to January 2013. Also of note have
been imports from Norway, which were virtually on par with the
combined volumes from Scotland and the Faroe Islands. As a
result of the increasing shipments from Canada and Norway, the
market share of the supplying countries changed dramatically
when compared to January 2014.
The Northeast whole fish market in the beginning of April
and end of Lent was mixed. Smaller fish were about steady, and
supplies were fully adequate for a moderate to quiet demand.
Larger whole fish, on the other hand, were steady to full steady
with supplies barely adequate for a moderate to active demand.
All sizes were below their three-year price averages.
The European whole fish market has seen an influx of fish
from Norway. Scottish and Faroe Islands whole fish were also
available in the market, but at a great difference in price. Some
market participants reported a U.S. $1 price difference between
these fish versus Norwegian fish.
The West Coast whole fish market has been unsettled. In
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Sources: Urner Barry foreign trade data, U.S. Department of Commerce.
54
May/June 2015
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May/June 2015
55
January, both higher and lower offerings were collected on all
sizes. The size breakdown from producers was mixed. Demand
improved as the market headed into Holy Week, although the
undertone for after the Easter holiday was unsettled.
All sizes trended near their three-year price averages.
Fillets
January imports of fresh fillets reached a record high for that
month and the third-highest ever, totaling 22.8 million lb. This
represented only a 3% increase from the previous month and a
2% increase when compared to the same month a year ago.
However, Chile, the largest supplier of fresh fillets to the U.S.,
increased its shipments by nearly 8% when compared to the
same month a year ago. Although anecdotal reports suggested
volumes would be lower, official figures revealed a rise.
Some weakness was seen in the market throughout Lent, as
supplies ranged adequate to fully adequate. Demand also ranged
from active to quiet. The market had a somewhat unsettled
undertone going beyond Holy Week. Historically speaking,
demand can be quiet in this period.
Urner Barry previously stated that replacement costs could
level off heading into October or November 2014, a theory not
reflected in official figures until the last few months. The U.S.
Catfish Imports, Pricing Up; Pangasius Imports Flat
Importers reported depleting inventories amid lengthy
inspections and rising replacement costs prior to and during the
harvest in China. Given the data from December, we can note a
U.S. $0.25/lb increase in the import price from November – a
12% increase in costs.
Data from January showed that replacement costs jumped to
U.S. $2.60/lb, the highest import price since August 2012. The
anecdotal evidence collected during the last four months of 2014
was reflected in these rising import prices.
Urner Barry quotations have remained relatively steady after
constant firming throughout 2014.
Table 2. Snapshot of U.S. salmon imports, January 2015.
Form
January
2015 (lb)
December
2014 (lb)
Change
(Month)
January
2014 (lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2014
(lb)
YTD 2013
(lb)
Change
(Year)
Fresh whole fish
Frozen whole fish
Fresh fillets
Frozen fillets
Total
17,409,223
264,830
22,805,807
9,240,304
49,720,164
17,020,850
394,880
22,101,470
7,443,426
49,060,626
2.28%
-32.93%
3.19%
24.14%
5.88%
14,520,623
880,107
22,336,660
9,504,905
47,242,295
19.89%
-69.91%
2.10%
-2.78%
5.25%
17,409,223
264,830
22,805,807
9,240,304
49,720,164
14,520,623
880,107
22,336,660
9,504,905
47,242,295
19.89%
-69.91%
2.10%
-2.78%
5.25%
Sources: Urner Barry foreign trade data, U.S. Department of Commerce.
Whole Tilapia From China Surge, Fillet Pricing Down
Fresh Fillets
January imports of whole tilapia from China surged a dramatic
32% from the previous month.
Total tilapia imports to the United States in January were up
5% from the previous month, but down 6% when compared to
January 2014 (Table 3). None of the three commodity categories
managed to advance from January 2014 volumes.
Frozen Whole Fish
January imports of fresh whole tilapia increased over 10%
from the previous month, but decreased 6% from the same
month a year ago. Imports from China, the main supplier of this
commodity, surged a dramatic 32% from the previous month
and 15% from the same month in 2014.
January imports of fresh fillets increased significantly from
the previous month, but declined 5% from the same month a
year ago. Imports from Costa Rica, the second-largest supplier
to the U.S., appear to be recovering from reduced shipments in
2014, with figures for January increasing 22% from the previous
month. However, these were short by 18% when compared to
January 2014 import levels.
Shipments from Mexico surpassed the 800,000-lb mark,
which pushed the country past Colombia to become the thirdlargest supplier of this commodity to the U.S. Supplies in the
U.S. have been reportedly ample.
Pricing adjusted lower in January, as plentiful supplies and a
fair demand brought the persistently high prices throughout
2014 down. The import price, however, reached the secondhighest level on record at U.S. $3.55/lb, according to the U.S.
Department of Commerce.
Frozen Fillets
January imports of frozen tilapia fillets increased only 2%
from the previous month and decreased 6% when compared to
January 2014. Supplies in the U.S. have been reportedly adequate to ample, with a few discounts noted.
In 2014, U.S. importers paid, on average, the highest prices
on record for frozen tilapia fillets. Import volume reached the
second-highest annual level on record. Replacement costs have
adjusted steeply downward from their 2014 levels. Shipments
that arrived in January came in at a 35% discount when compared to June 2014 product costs.
market, on the other hand, has remained mostly steady with a
few sporadic, yet isolated discounts noted. Still, the recent
undertone has been soft due to dull buying interest.
U.S. imports of Pangasius have remained relatively steady over
the last couple of months.
Channel Catfish
January imports of channel catfish to the United States
surged from the previous month and remained virtually flat versus January 2014 import levels (Table 4). January imports
reached their highest monthly level since January 2010, when
imports barely surpassed the 3 million-lb mark. This surge was
seasonally normal, and January imports were up only 2% when
compared to the same month a year ago.
Pangasius
U.S. imports of Pangasius edged up slightly in January and
also remained virtually flat versus January 2014 levels. These
markets have remained relatively steady over the last couple of
months. Volumes have been steady, and no supply disruptions
have been reported. In some instances, inventories in the U.S.
have been reportedly plentiful.
Those involved in the industry, from producers to traders,
continue to be aware of the structural and legal changes to the
industry as Vietnamese authorities implement important oversight reforms. However, since these have been pushed back, the
effects on the market have been minimal.
Table 4. Snapshot of U.S. catfish imports, January 2015.
Form
Pangasius
Channel catfish
Total
January
2015 (lb)
December
2014 (lb)
Change
(Month)
January
2014 (lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2014
(lb)
YTD 2013
(lb)
Change
(Year)
22,068,690
2,786,240
24,854,930
21,516,973
2,351,803
23,868,776
2.56%
18.47%
4.13%
22,449,664
2,733,717
25,183,381
-1.70%
1.92%
-1.30%
22,068,690
2,786,240
24,854,930
22,449,664
2,733,717
25,183,381
-1.70%
1.92%
-1.30%
Sources: Urner Barry foreign trade data, U.S. Department of Commerce.
through the
development of its
gaa recognizes
that
aquaculture is the only
sustainable means
of increasing seafood
supply to meet the food
needs of the world’s
growing population.
Best Aquaculture Practices certification
standards, GAA has become the leading
standards-setting organization for aquaculture
seafood.
Table 3. Snapshot of U.S. tilapia imports, January 2015.
Form
January
2015 (lb)
December
2014 (lb)
Change
(Month)
January
2014 (lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2014
(lb)
YTD 2013
(lb)
Change
(Year)
Fresh fillets
Frozen whole fish
Frozen fillets
Total
4,915,289
9,059,085
45,906,755
59,881,129
4,138,447
8,218,778
44,638,235
56,995,460
18.77%
10.22%
2.84%
5.06%
5,199,129
9,669,140
48,882,332
63,750,601
-5.46%
-6.31%
-6.09%
-6.07%
4,915,289
9,059,085
45,906,755
59,881,129
5,199,129
9,669,140
48,882,332
63,750,601
-5.46%
-6.31%
-6.09%
-6.07%
Sources: Urner Barry foreign trade data, U.S. Department of Commerce.
56
May/June 2015
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®
learn more at www.gaalliance.org
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
57
innovation
Real-Time PCR Offers Sensitivity,
Specificity In Detecting AHPND Plasmid
Jee Eun Han, DVM, Ph.D.
School of Animal and Comparative
Biomedical Sciences
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona 85721 USA
jeehan@email.arizona.edu
Kathy Tang, Ph.D.
Carlos Pantoja, Ph.D.
Brenda White
Donald Lightner, Ph.D.
School of Animal and Comparative
Biomedical Sciences
University of Arizona
Highly sensitive new assays can be used for quantification of pathogens in water
and shrimp samples from farms.
Summary:
Real-time, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR)
analysis has become an attractive
alternative for quantification of
the acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) pathogen
in infected shrimp. The authors
developed a qPCR assay to quantify a virulence plasmid harbored
by the bacterium that causes
AHPND. The assay has high
sensitivity, and results can be
obtained within half an hour.
In addition, this method can be
used for quantification in water
and shrimp samples from farms.
Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis
disease (AHPND), also known as early
mortality syndrome, has caused severe
mortalities in farmed populations of Litopenaeus vannamei and Penaeus monodon
shrimp. The disease has led to significant
production and economic losses at shrimp
farms and to the aquaculture industry in
general in affected regions.
Clinical signs of the disease in infected
shrimp include an empty gastrointestinal
tract and whitish, atrophied stomach and
58
May/June 2015
hepatopancreas. The causative agent was
determined to be the unique strains of the
bacterium Vibrio parahaemolyticus that
contain the pirA- and pirB-like toxin
genes. These genes are located in a large,
69-kb plasmid. Plasmids are self-replicating, double-stranded DNA molecules that
pass between bacterial cells through conjugation and transformation.
Initially, diagnosis of AHPND could
only be accomplished through histological examinations and laboratory bioassays.
Later, molecular diagnostic methods
based on conventional polymerase chain
reaction testing targeting pirA- and/or
pirB-like genes became available. However, quantification of the AHPND
pathogen in the infected animals is one of
the most important means for monitoring
disease progression.
Bacterial quantities can be determined
through counting colony-forming units
(CFUs), but this is a laborious and timeconsuming method. Real-time, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR)
analysis has become an attractive alternative for its advantages of speed, sensitivity
and specificity.
PCR Primers, Probe
The PCR primers and specificityenhancing hydrolysis probe for the detection of the virulence plasmid were
global aquaculture advocate
selected from the pirA-like gene. The
primers were used to amplify a DNA
fragment of 135-bp. The probe was synthesized and labeled with different dyes
on either end.
Samples of extracted DNA were
added to a qPCR mixture containing 0.3
µ of each primer and 0.1 µ probe to a
final volume of 10 µL. The qPCR profile
consisted of 20 seconds at 95° C, followed by 40 cycles of 3 seconds at 95° C
and 30 seconds at 60° C.
Sensitivity, Specificity
The detection limit of this qPCR assay
was less than 10 copies of virulence plasmid. The standard curve (102 to 108 copies
of plasmid) is shown in Figure 1. This
method can detect 12 AHPND-causing
V. parahaemolyticus isolates from Mexico
and Vietnam, but did not cross react with
35 non-pathogenic Vibrio bacteria.
Affect Farmed Shrimp
The authors used two cases of farmraised L. vannamei collected in 2012 to
detect and quantify the AHPND plasmid. Case 1 consisted of 32 small juvenile
shrimp collected from China that showed
significant mortalities and severe effects
of AHPND, determined by histological
examination.
By qPCR, DNA extracted from each
shrimp proved to be AHPND-positive.
The quantities of virulence plasmid
ranged from 2.5 x 103 to 4.7 x 106 copies
per milligram of tissue (Table 1).
The second case included 12 juvenile
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
59
37.5
35.0
32.5
30.0
Figure 1. Standard curve
and gel electrophoresis of
the AHPND
qPCR assay.
Insert: Gel
electrophoresis
of amplified
products from
qPCR.
Ct.
27.5
25.0
22.5
M102103104105106107108
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
102103104105106107108
Quantity of Plasmid
shrimp collected from the BenTre Province of Vietnam. These shrimp suffered
high mortalities and were later found to
have AHPND through histological
examination. In qPCR analysis, DNA
extracted from hepatopancreas tissues
found five of the 12 shrimp were positive
for AHPND. The quantities of virulence
plasmid were 3.9 to 5.8 x 105 copies per
milligram of tissue.
Virulence plasmid copy numbers varied widely, ranging 4-105-6/mg tissue.
Thus, the AHPND bacterial load in
affected shrimp would be expected to also
be highly variable. This suggested that factors other than bacterial load, such as
shrimp age or size, the presence of other
pathogens or environmental conditions,
may influence the mortalities in affected
farms.
Laboratory-Infected Shrimp
Article
Submissions
Contact
Editor Darryl Jory
for author guidelines.
Shrimp collected from laboratory
infections were analyzed for AHPND. In
bioassay 1, a per os feeding experiment,
specific-pathogen-free L. vannamei with
a mean individual weight of 1 g were fed
shrimp feed mixed with AHPND V.
parahaemolyticus. The bacteria were first
grown to 1 x 109 CFU/mL and mixed
with shrimp feed at a 1:1 ratio.
Laboratory
Bioassay
1
2
3
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
4
* Copies/mL water
60
May/June 2015
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Table 1. Quantities of plasmid in
laboratory-infected shrimp and water samples.
E-mail:
Telephone: +1-407-376-1478
All 50 infected shrimp became moribund or died within two days. These
shrimp were positive for AHPND by histological examination and qPCR. The
quantities of virulence plasmid ranged
from 2.5 x 103 to 4.7 x 106 per milligram
of tissue (Table 1).
In bioassay 2, shrimp were exposed to
AHPND V. parahaemolyticus by immersion at a concentration of 2 x 105 CFU/
mL water. All the shrimp died within two
days. By qPCR, the quantities of virulence
plasmid in the moribund/dead shrimp
ranged from 1.8 x 103 to 7.9 x 105 copies
per milligram of tissue (Table 1).
Bioassay 3 was a challenge study to a
selected line of L. vannamei. At a mean
weight of 2 g, the shrimp were stocked in
1,000-L tanks and given feed containing
AHPND V. parahaemolyticus. At day 9,
244 shrimp (48%) survived, whereas none
of the 50 shrimp in the positive control
tank survived after two days.
Histological examination did not
detect AHPND in these surviving
shrimp. By qPCR, the quantities of
AHPND plasmid were 18-390 copies/
mg tissue (Table 1), suggesting this
selected line was better at fending off the
disease. However, these surviving shrimp,
which carried low quantities of pathogenic bacteria, could act as
vectors capable of spreading the disease.
Although hepatopancreas tissue is usually sampled for detecting AHPND V.
parahaemolyticus, a fourth bioassay was
performed to demonstrate that water samples can be used for AHPND diagnostics.
In this bioassay with shrimp fed feed
mixed with AHPND V. parahaemolyticus,
water was sampled from each tank at day
5 and concentrated 50 times. AHPND
was detected in seven of nine water samples by the highly sensitive qPCR, ranging 3.5 x 102 to 2.2 x 106 plasmid copies/
mL water (Table 1). This is relevant,
since it has been reported that AHPND
can be transmitted via water from
AHPND-affected ponds.
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Infection Route
Shrimp
Copies/mg
Tissue
Per os
(1 x 109 CFU/mL)
Immersion
(2 x 105 CFU/mL)
Day 1 (moribund/dead)
Day 2 (moribund/dead)
2.5 x 103-4.7 x 106
2.1 x 105-3.6 x 106
Day 1 (moribund/dead)
Day 2 (moribund/dead)
Day 9 (surviving)
1.8 x 103-2.1 x 105
1.4 x 105-7.9 x 105
Per os
(8 x 108 CFU/mL)
Per os
(1 x 109 CFU/mL)
Water sample
VARIOUS SENSOR INPUT TYPES:
Oxygen
Temperature
Bp
pH/ORP
Salinity
TGP
Optical DO
2 RELAY OUTPUTS:
Alerting Alarm Conditions via Light, Siren or SMS and
Dosing Oxygen or Controlling Blowers
1.8 x 101-3.9 x 102
3.5 x 102-2.2 x 106*
Online Orders: PentairAES.com • Email: PAES.General@Pentair.com
Phone Orders and Tech Advice: +1 407 886 3939 • 2395 Apopka Blvd., Apopka, Florida 32703, USA
© 2015 Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
61
innovation
Peracetic Acid Products Expand Sanitizing,
Organic Water Treatment Options
Lars-Flemming Pedersen,
Ph.D.
Technical University of Denmark
Section for Aquaculture
North Sea Research Centre
P. O. Box 101
DK-9850 Hirtshals, Denmark
lfp@aqua.dtu.dk
Alfred Jokumsen
Technical University of Denmark
Section for Aquaculture
North Sea Research Centre
Villy Juul Larsen
Niels Henrik Henriksen
The Danish Aquaculture Organisation
Silkeborg, Denmark
Introducing diluted PAA to culture units over an hour period ensures even addition
and avoids local peak PAA concentrations and drops in pH.
Summary:
Peracetic acid (PAA) products
can be used as sanitizers to control water quality in aquaculture
systems. As an alternative to formalin, chloramine-T or copper
sulphate, PAA has strong antimicrobial effects, degrades quickly
and is relatively safe to use. Its
mode of action and associated
rapid decay can make optimizing
treatment protocols a challenge.
Continuous low-dose applications seem to be a promising
solution. PAA is among the few
disinfectants approved for
organic aquaculture.
Various chemical agents are used to
improve water quality in aquaculture. An
important part of system management,
water quality control includes measures to
reduce bacterial loads and control fungal
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May/June 2015
and ectoparasitic infestations in freshand saltwater systems.
Some systems rely on continuous disinfection with ultraviolet rays or ozone,
whereas others rely on periodic flushes or
baths using biocides. Peracetic acid
(PAA) is an example of the latter, having
strong oxidizing potential and antimicrobial abilities similar to those of ozone.
PAA products are emerging in numbers
and modes of application, and their aquaculture-related use has increased significantly over the last few years.
Peracetic Acid
PAA is only available in acidified, stabilized solutions with hydrogen peroxide
and acetic acid. The compositions and
strengths of the products vary, with active
concentrations of PAA typically ranging
5-15%/L.
This relatively broad concentration
range is the first thing to consider when
planning water treatment. PAA products
are used in most of the rearing phases, for
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egg disinfection and water quality control
in hatcheries, raceways, growout tanks
and delivery ponds. PAA can efficiently
control parasites, reduce dinoflagellates
and suppress fungal infections related to
the handling of broodstock.
Treatment Efficacy
PAA has proven effective in controlling the parasites Ichthyophtirius multifiliis
(ICH), which causes white spot disease,
and Ichthyobodo necator-costia in fish, and
the mold Saprolegnia on eggs.
Prophylactic treatment of eggs is done
by mixing PAA with water and adding
this solution to the inlets of egg trays.
Treatment concentrations applied to
juveniles, fingerlings and growout-size
fish are relatively low, in the range of
2-10 mL/m3, depending on water quality
and the PAA product used. This corresponds to PAA concentrations on the
order of 0.3-1.5 mg/L.
Due to the highly reactive properties
of PAA, residual concentrations rapidly
decline – especially in water rich in
organic matter. This is an issue to take
into account when using PAA. If a system contains large pools of organic matter, higher PAA dosages are needed.
Using a low-dose PAA in organicrich water can result in degradation of the
chemicals within a few minutes, which
has implications for the locations of PAA
applications. If added at the inlet to a
long raceway, for example, the chemical
may degrade before it reaches the end of
the raceway. In such cases, the use of
multiple sites of application or repetitive
dosing is recommended.
System design addressing tank configuration, flow and the presence of biofilters must also be taken into account.
PAA Application
Choosing the correct dose of PAA
depends on the water composition, fish
size, temperature and system design.
Treatment protocols include pulse dosage, where the chemical is added once on
a daily basis. They can also include repetitive additions or continuous low dosage
over prolonged periods.
In systems with low organic matter
content – hatchery facilities and well
water ponds, for example – continuous
PAA application can be a feasible solution to control water quality. Continuous
addition relies on dosage pumps and
adjustment of dose according to flow and
makeup water. Recent experiences at
some Danish fish farms that apply prolonged, continuous daytime addition of
PAA showed that the usual outbreaks of
white spot disease were avoided.
Environmental Impacts
Due to the low doses applied and rapid
degradation of PAA, residual amounts of
the chemical appear at very low levels, if
present at all, in effluents. With half-lives
on the order of a few minutes, PAA prod-
ucts degrade within ponds, raceways or
constructed wetland, leaving no residues to
enter receiving water bodies.
The degradation product of PAA is
acetate. Harmful disinfection by-products
are not formed when using PAA, making
it a benign disinfectant when compared
to chloramine-T, sodium chloride, formaldehyde and copper sulphate.
Worker Safety
PAA products are all acid stabilized
and hence corrosive. All types of handling require precautions such as safety
goggles and acid-resistant gloves. Compared to formalin, which is a severe nasal/
pharyngeal irritant and considered carcinogenic, PAA is relatively harmless.
PAA products have a pungent smell
and should be stored in a place with ventilation. Containers for PAA products
have pressure caps, and PAA should not
be decanted from large to smaller jars.
Organic Requirements
Several Danish rainbow trout producers have been certified organic. According to European Union requirements, at
least 50% of the ova/fry used should be
reared organically. In January 2016, all
organic fish production has to be based
on certified organic fry. This has put even
more focus on optimizing water quality
and implementing disinfectants in an
organic context to replace formalin.
Low-dose, continuous PAA application has shown promising results for a
couple of organic fry producers. The
treatment procedure is effectively controlling white spot disease in the critical
summer period, which normally sees the
addition of formalin, and the application
has not led to the discharge of unwanted
chemical residuals.
Periodic outbreaks of latent diseases
such as rainbow trout fry syndrome, red
mouth disease or furunculosis are
expected to be less frequent when water
quality is good and kept stable under
PAA treatment.
Issues, Improvement
In hatcheries, egg trays, tanks and
raceways can be sanitized with PAA
on a daily basis.
Optimal application of PAA is not
easy. The recommended dosage guidelines depend on the product applied and
the system to be sanitized. As a rule of
thumb, a concentration of 0.2-0.5 mg
PAA/L is typically sought. This concentration is very low, and due to the fact
that no test kits are available, expected
PAA concentrations are often overestimated compared to actual concentrations.
In the case of controlling white spot
disease, PAA application has demands
other than those for baths of formalin or
sodium chloride. The life cycle of the
ICH parasite that causes white spot disease includes a free-swimming stage –
theronts – that can be eliminated by disinfectants. Since the theronts are liberated throughout the day, continuous
chemical application is needed.
In oligotrophic aquaculture systems,
this can be achieved by dripping PAA
into the distribution channel that leads to
the inlets of the ponds. This has proven
effective in some cases, but when system
water becomes rich in organic matter,
higher dosages – which are more difficult
to adjust – are needed.
Continuous PAA application has also
been applied to control unwanted pathogens
in recirculating aquaculture systems. Preliminary observations show the potential of this
and also highlight a potential need for base
adjustment if water reuse is significant.
Troublesome parasites such as gill
amoebae sometimes cannot be sufficiently controlled on farm by current
practices for applying PAA. This often
correlates with insufficient solids removal
and increased organic matter content. It
is expected that hydrogen peroxide, alone
or in combination with PAA, can be a
complementary chemical agent to ensure
proper water quality.
Perspectives
PAA is relatively safe to handle and
degrades rapidly, making it beneficial
from both worker safety and environmental perspectives. The reactiveness,
mode of action and rapid decay, similar
to that of ozone, are challenges for aquaculturists and set high requirements for
proper dosing.
Recent developments within the industry have accelerated better water treatment
practices that now include daily pulse additions, as well as continuous, low-dose applications. As organic aquaculture systems
place added focus on rearing conditions and
water quality, PAA is expected to have a
pivotal role in the future development of
organic aquaculture.
Low-dose, continuous
PAA application is
effectively controlling
white spot disease in the
critical summer period,
which normally sees the
addition of formalin.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
63
aquaculture engineering
TAN, Other Water Quality Factors Affect
Nitrification Rates In Biofilters
Volumetric TAN Conversion Rate
(g/m3/day)
innovation
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
0 0.51.01.52.02.53.03.5 4.04.55.0
Thomas M. Losordo, Ph.D.
Principal Scientist and Chief Engineer
Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc.
400 Regency Forest Drive, Suite 300
Cary, North Carolina 27518 USA
tom.losordo@pentair.com
Dennis P. DeLong, MSM
Moving-bed bioreactors are one of the many types of nitrifying filters used
in commercial aquaculture. (Photo courtesy of North Carolina State University,
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.)
Summary:
An important criterion when studying biofilters is the conversion rate of total
ammonia nitrogen (TAN) to nitrate-nitrogen in production water. Although
nitrification rates have been based on media surface areas, they do not always
reflect the actual nitrification achieved. Volumetric TAN conversion rate is a
direct measure based on filter volume. The physical movement of ammonia
nitrogen from culture tanks to and through biofilters can limit filtration
activity. Bacterial biofilms reduce filter media diffusion. Placement of mechanical filtration directly before biological filters improves nitrification rates.
It is widely recognized that the rate of
nitrification in biofiltration is greatly
influenced by numerous water quality
variables. Assuming that flow does not
limit the rate of nitrification in a biofilter,
perhaps most important are the concentration of total ammonia nitrogen (TAN)
in the system water, water temperature
and salinity, and the amount of organic
carbon in the system water.
In the real world of commercial aquaculture, however, the bacteria create a
biofilm that can effectively cover the
media, possibly in a way that clogs the
topographic or porous features of the
media designed to increase the specific
surface area. This covering of the media
essentially creates new media topography
and reduces the actual surface area used
by the bacteria.
Quantifying Nitrification
Volumetric TAN
Conversion Rate
Historically, studies have reported
nitrification rates based upon media specific surface areas, with value placed on
higher SSA values. In theory, the greater
the SSA, the more living space for bacteria. In an ideal world, this would translate
into higher nitrification rates.
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May/June 2015
Thus, the theoretical nitrification
capacity of a particular filter media based
on SSA does not always reflect the actual
nitrification achieved in the real world.
Recently, it has been suggested that biofilter nitrification rates should be based upon
global aquaculture advocate
Manager of Customer Advocacy
Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc.
Todd C. Guerdat, Ph.D.
Professor
Manchester Community College
Manchester, New Hampshire, USA
TAN conversion per unit of unexpanded
media volume. Referred to as the volumetric TAN conversion rate (VTR), typical
units for this standard measure of nitrification are grams of TAN removed per cubic
meter of biofilter media per day.
The accuracy of this measurement of
nitrification is not inclined to error introduced by assumptions of the inhabitable
surface area of the biofilter media. It is a
direct measure of the capacity of the filter
based on its easily measurable volume.
TAN Concentration Effects
Under most conditions encountered
in commercial aquaculture, TAN concentrations are maintained below 2 mg/L. At
these levels, there is generally a linear
relationship between the TAN conversion rate and TAN concentration in the
filter. When values rise much above 3-4
mg TAN/L, there is usually no further
increase in the rate of nitrification.
Figure 1 is an example of the relationship of the TAN concentration in a biofilter reactor to the VTR used in a recirculating aquaculture system (RAS). The slope
of the near-linear relationship and peak of
Biofilter Reactor TAN Concentration (mg/L)
Figure 1. An idealized example of the relationship between the volumetric TAN conversion
rate and biofilter reactor TAN concentration.
the nitrification rate are specific to the biofilter media and system water quality.
Keep in mind that the rate of nitrification
can be limited by other water quality
parameters, such as dissolved-oxygen concentration, temperature, salinity and concentration of dissolved organic carbon.
Additionally, the turnover rate and
physical movement of ammonia nitrogen
from the culture tank to and through the
biofilter can limit the activity of a biofilter. The designer should pay close attention to the required concentration of
TAN leaving the biofilter. In general, the
lower the TAN concentration, the larger
the biofilter will need to be.
Organic Carbon
Concentration
Dissolved organic carbon in RAS
comes from the degradation of the feces
from the cultured organisms and the degradation of uneaten feed. In general, heterotrophic bacteria degrade and metabolize dissolved and particulate organic
matter. Autotrophs and heterotrophs
compete for space on biological filter
media while they create the biofilm.
Competition for nutrients and oxygen
between these two types of bacteria results
in a stratified biofilm structure. The fastergrowing heterotrophic bacteria tend to
occupy the outer layer of the stratified biofilm, where substrate concentration and
detachment rates are both higher. Slowergrowing nitrifying (autotrophic) bacteria
occupy the inner biofilm layer.
Heterotrophic bacteria have been
shown to have growth rates five times
greater than those of autotrophic bacteria.
By covering the nitrifying bacteria, heterotrophs reduce the diffusion of ammonianitrogen and dissolved oxygen to the nitrifying bacteria, thus negatively reducing the
rate of nitrification by the biofilter.
Decreased nitrification rates have
undesirable effects on water quality,
including higher TAN concentrations,
and create stress on the culture animals.
As the ratio of organic carbon to ammonia-nitrogen increases to 1:1, a reduction
of over 70% of the nitrification rate in the
biofilter can be seen. As such, uneaten
feed and feces should be removed from
the process flow as quickly as possible –
and certainly before the flow enters the
biological filter.
Placement of a mechanical filter
directly before the biological filter will
result in maximum removal of particulate
organic matter, ultimately improving the
biological filter nitrification rate.
Temperature Effects
The influence of temperature on
nitrification in fixed biofilm processes
like those in a biofilter is more complicated than that on the suspended growth
processes found in domestic wastewater
treatment. In suspended growth reactors,
higher biological reaction rates are
observed as the system reaches an optimum temperature, above which rates
usually decrease. Predicting the effects of
temperature on a fixed-film bioreactor is
difficult because, as noted above, the diffusional transport of nutrients and oxygen
into the biofilm is of major importance to
the nitrification rate.
Studies have shown the effects of temperature on nitrification in aquaculture
biofilters are less significant than previously thought. Dissolved oxygen (D.O.)
may become more of a limiting factor at
higher temperatures due to the diffusion
process limitation of oxygen flux.
The D.O. saturation concentration in
water decreases as temperature increases.
Thus, studies have shown that oxygen limitation usually has more impact on biofilter
performance at temperatures between 14
and 27° C than temperature variation does.
Perhaps the most important message
from this is that more attention should be
paid to organic carbon concentration
build-up in recirculating system water.
Since commercial RAS operate at low
TAN concentrations and high feed rates,
the resulting organic loads play a much
larger role in biofilter performance than
temperature or almost any other water
quality parameter.
Salinity Effects
Marine species in general tend to be
more sensitive to elevated levels of ammonia-nitrogen concentrations. Therefore, a
system with saltwater may need to be
designed to maintain lower concentrations
of TAN. There is a relative abundance of
published information on nitrification for
freshwater systems, compared to the information available on seawater systems.
There has been some debate about the
effects of seawater on nitrification. Several
studies showed the rate of nitrification in
saltwater biofilters was approximately 40%
lower than in similar freshwater systems.
Therefore, when designing marine RAS,
one must take into account both the lower
level of tolerance of TAN by marine species and the fact that biofilters have
reduced capacity in saltwater. It is safe to
say that in most cases, marine biofilters
should be larger than freshwater biofilters
for the same feed rates.
Editor’s Note: This article was based on
information by the authors presented in
chapter 31 of the 2009 publication New
Technologies in Aquaculture: Improving
Production Efficiency, Quality and Environmental Management, published by
Woodhead Publishing, Ltd.
Decreased nitrification
rates have undesirable
effects on water quality,
including higher TAN
concentrations.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
65
innovation
reactors (MBR) are being fine-tuned for
use within RAS to eliminate water-flushing requirements and waste discharges,
while reclaiming the water, heat, salinity
and alkalinity that would otherwise be
lost in the effluent.
Emerging Trends In Salmonid RAS
Part II. System Enhancements
Perspectives
Steven Summerfelt, Ph.D.
The Conservation Fund
Freshwater Institute
1098 Turner Road
Shepherdstown, West Virgina
25443-4228 USA
s.summerfelt@freshwaterinstitute.org
John Davidson, M.S.
Travis May
Christopher Good, DVM, Ph.D.
Brian Vinci, Ph.D.
Preparing to harvest culture tanks. Photo by Kevin Stiller.
Summary:
Dozens of land-based, closedcontainment systems are coming
on line to produce salmon. New
projects are bringing new principles into the salmon industry.
Depuration systems maximize
the removal of earthy and musty
flavors in harvested fish. An
emerging trend has been to apply
technologies that increase the
available oxygen provided to fish
while simultaneously improving
carbon dioxide removal without
creating total gas pressure supersaturation. Industry expansion also
hinges upon the development of
pollution-mitigating technologies
to reduce nutrients in effluents.
Currently, just over a dozen commercial facilities use land-based, closedcontainment systems to produce primarily food-size Atlantic salmon, as well as
steelhead and coho salmon. The largest
of these farms are located in Canada,
Denmark, Poland and China. The
‘Namgis First Nation’s Kuterra salmon
farm in Canada and the Langsand Laks
and Danish Salmon facilities in Denmark are frequently highlighted in the
trade press.
When all of these facilities reach full
production levels, their estimated total
production potential will approach 7,000
mt annually. In addition, another dozen
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May/June 2015
facilities are being built or planned around
the world, including additional production
in the United States and Scotland. These
additional projects, which would potentially produce more than 10,000 mt of
food-size salmon, are bringing new principles into the salmon industry.
It is obvious that confidence in recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) technologies has risen. Private investment in
land-based closed-containment fish farms
is growing, and projects with fixed capital
investments of U.S. $1.5 million to $30.0
million are the general trend, but some
larger projects are being discussed. The
technical and biological viability of these
operations has been demonstrated, while
their economic success, considered viable
through theoretical modeling, is now
being assessed in practice.
Rising Quality, Performance
Regulations established in Norway
and other areas are combining with performance criteria developed by owners to
ensure that newly constructed systems
maintain reliable production and excellent water quality and fish health. In
addition, the rising availability of RAS to
smolt and post-smolt producers around
the globe, particularly in Norway, has
increased the number of large production
systems delivered and provided opportunities to make improvements with each
successive generation.
Finishing Systems
Salmonids and many other fish must be
global aquaculture advocate
The Conservation Fund
Freshwater Institute
“finished” or depurated for four to 14 days
to remove earthy flavors that can potentially
accumulate in the fish when grown in RAS.
In particular, most farmers producing rainbow trout, coho salmon, Atlantic salmon
and Arctic char in RAS are paying close
attention to their purge system designs and
standard operating practices.
The goal of purging designs, which
typically incorporate partial water reuse
without a biofilter, is to ensure that depuration systems can be maintained relatively cleanly and kept free from biofilms
in order to maximize the removal of
earthy and musty flavors.
The Freshwater Institute’s purge system utilizes partial water reuse without a biofilter.
has required increasing culture tank
exchange rates and treating large flows
with a combination of centralized aeration and distributed treatment technologies. Distributed C.O.2-stripping technologies can include cascade aeration as
water exits the sidewall drain of a culture
tank, large traditional airlift pumps or
vacuum airlift pumps located adjacent to
the culture tank.
Even in-tank stripping systems can be
used if they do not degrade culture tank
hydrodynamics and impact solids removal.
The increased tank turnover rate and
water treatment technology that must be
applied typically increase both fixed and
variable costs for production, but the
Pollution Mitigation
Industry expansion in some locations
also hinges upon the development of pollution-mitigating technologies to reduce
nutrients in effluents. Large farms must
typically capture and reclaim waste biosolids. Substantial improvements have
been made in dewatering and drying biosolids into a thick slurry or cake that can
be readily used elsewhere.
In addition, more cost-effective technologies, like woodchip bioreactors, are
being applied to remove nitrate from
RAS effluents. Advanced denitrification
technologies such as membrane biological
Digestarom P.E.P. MGE
®
Better digestion for
better feed efficiency
Gas Balancing
An emerging trend to increase production efficiency and reduce operating
costs has been to apply technologies that
increase the available oxygen provided to
the fish while simultaneously improving
carbon dioxide (C.O.2) removal. Increasing oxygen to the fish must be accomplished without creating total gas pressure super-saturation.
Using oxygen transfer technology that
treats the full flow at low pressures without side-stream oxygenation has been
widely applied across North America and
in some other locations to create oxygen
super-saturation while venting nitrogen
off-gas to the atmosphere and reducing
the opportunity for total gas pressure
super-saturation. With the increased use
of pure oxygenation to increase carrying
capacity, carbon dioxide has become a
larger challenge in RAS.
Improving carbon dioxide removal
improved C.O.2 control is critical.
Closed-containment systems are making major strides in the salmonid industry.
They have a small footprint, requiring less
than 1% of the land required by pond culture in warmwater applications, and less
than 1% of the water required by flowthrough salmonid culture, while capturing
and controlling wastes.
Increased economies of scale and
improved water recirculation technologies
have improved RAS economics. RAS have
the potential to produce the best survival
and most efficient feed conversion. In
addition, they provide significant barriers
that prevent escapes and interactions with
wild populations.
And finally – location, location, location – these farms can be built almost
anywhere that makes economic sense to
provide local, fresh seafood or leverage
less-expensive power, feed, labor and
other cost considerations.
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global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
67
innovation
Liposomes Open New Doors In Larval
Fish Nutrition
Matt Hawkyard, Ph.D. Candidate
Seven days after hatching, California yellowtail larvae are about
5 mm in length at this age.
Coastal Oregon Marine Experiment Station
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife
Oregon State University
2030 Southeast Marine Science Drive
Newport, Oregon 97365 USA
hawkyard@onid.oregonstate.edu
Chris Landgon, Ph.D.
Coastal Oregon Marine Experiment Station
Summary:
One approach to enhance the nutritional value of live
prey for fish larvae is to encapsulate water-soluble
nutrients in microparticles fed to the prey. Liposomes,
synthetic microparticles originally developed for the
pharmaceutical industry, can be produced for ingestion
by rotifers and Artemia. A study found that yellowtail
larvae fed rotifers enhanced with liposomes containing
taurine had improved growth. While the production
of liposomes is currently expensive and requires a good
deal of expertise, future methods may make them more
commercially feasible.
Water-soluble nutrients such as free amino acids, vitamins
and minerals present special challenges to those studying the
nutrient requirements of marine fish larvae. Water-soluble nutrients are rapidly lost, or rather leached, from microparticulate
diets when suspended in water. Furthermore, these nutrients are
difficult to manipulate in rotifers and Artemia, which are often
used as live prey for marine fish larvae.
To enrich live prey with water-soluble substances, researchers
often dissolve these nutrients in the water with the expectation
that the live prey will take up these substances by drinking or
absorption. This approach comes with a suite of problems, since
dissolved nutrients may be lost due to oxidation or other chemical reactions and may be metabolized by waterborne microorganisms before rotifers or Artemia can take them up.
In addition, these methods often require large quantities of
nutrients to attain the desired nutrient concentrations in the live
prey. In contrast, lipid-soluble nutrients (e.g., essential fatty
acids like eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) are
relatively easy to manipulate in rotifers and Artemia, largely
because they can be included in emulsified oil droplets fed to the
live prey without fear of nutrient leaching. Likewise, the current
knowledge base regarding larval fish nutrition is heavily skewed
toward lipid-soluble nutrients.
Potential Solution: Liposomes
One solution to the problem of enhancing the nutritional
value of live prey is to encapsulate water-soluble nutrients in synthetic microparticles, which can then be fed to live prey. The
idea of using liposomes to deliver water-soluble nutrients to
aquatic organisms has been proposed since the mid-1980s. Liposomes are synthetic microparticles that were originally developed
68
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
Mark Drawbridge, M.S.
Kevin Stuart, M.S.
Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute
San Diego, California, USA
for the pharmaceutical industry.
Structurally, liposomes are comprised of a phospholipid outer
membrane that encapsulates aqueous core materials. Importantly, liposomes can be produced in a several-micron size that
allows them to be ingested by rotifers and Artemia.
In the 1990s, several studies showed that liposomes could be
used to enrich rotifers and Artemia with vitamins and amino
acids. However, the production methods at that time restricted
the use of liposomes to test tube-scale studies.
As reported by Yoav Barr and Synnøve Helland in 2007
research, advances in liposome production methods have allowed
researchers to produce liposomes at scales that are sufficient to
perform larval growth trials.
OSU Research
Researchers at Oregon State University recently demonstrated that liposomes are highly effective for the enrichment of
live prey with the water-soluble nutrient taurine. Taurine is present in rotifers in very low concentrations, often at levels too low
to measure. However, there is growing evidence that taurine is
an essential nutrient for many marine fish, especially during the
early larval stages.
Furthermore, taurine is highly concentrated in copepods and
may represent up to 1.5% of a copepod on a dry-weight basis.
Since copepods are the nutritional “gold standard” prey for
marine fish larvae, this taurine concentration was the target
researchers hoped to reach in rotifers.
They were skeptical that liposomes could elevate the nutrient
concentrations to such a large extent. However, the author and
co-workers recently showed that taurine concentrations as high
as 3% on a dry-weight basis can be obtained in rotifers using
liposome enrichment methods. In other research, the author
achieved copepod-level taurine concentrations with significantly
less taurine usage when compared to methods by which taurine
was dissolved in the rotifer enrichment water.
Research With HSWRI
Oregon State University has partnered with Hubbs-SeaWorld
Research Institute to test liposomes at the HSWRI research
hatchery in San Diego, California, USA. Hubbs-SeaWorld has
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
69
been investigating methods to improve the hatchery production of
California yellowtail, Seriola lalandi, for use in aquaculture.
This research group conducted a growth trial where yellowtail
larvae were fed either rotifers enriched with taurine liposomes
(taurine-liposome treatment) or rotifers enriched with empty liposomes (control treatment). After one week, the researchers found
that larval yellowtail in the taurine-liposome treatment grew larger
than those of the control treatment and also had significantly
higher body taurine concentrations (Figures 1 and 2).
They then tested this approach with taurine-enriched Artemia
and observed only modest treatment effects. This was attributed to
the naturally high taurine concentrations in unenriched Artemia.
While the taurine story is interesting, the significant outcome was that liposomes were a very effective tool for investigating the effects of a key water-soluble nutrient in the diets of
marine fish larvae. Furthermore, this study was conducted at
much larger scale than had ever been attempted with liposomes.
Liposome-enriched live prey were provided to 16, 300-L tanks
for two weeks at high prey densities, demonstrating that these
techniques are possible at the research hatchery scale.
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120
Figure 1. Dry
weights of fish
larvae after
feeding on
experimentally
enriched rotifers for one
week.
100
80
60
40
20
0
Control Treatment
Taurine-Liposome
Treatment
3.5
Taurine Concentration
(% dry weight)
These two merged
digital images show
fluorescently labeled
liposomes (orange
color) in the gut of a
rotifer and a green dye
that was released from
the liposomes into the
body of the rotifer.
Larvae Dry Weight (µg)
140
Figure 2.
Taurine concentrations in
unenriched
rotifers (control), rotifers
enriched with
liposomes containing taurine,
and yellowtail
larvae after
eating rotifers
for one week.
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Control Treatment Taurine-Liposome
Treatment
Rotifers
Fish Larvae
Potential Problem
One potential problem with using microparticles for the
enrichment of live prey is that encapsulated nutrients may not be
fully available to the target organism. For instance, marine fish
larvae may not be able to digest the microparticles and absorb
the encapsulated nutrients. However, recent studies suggested
that taurine provided in liposome-enriched rotifers was highly
utilized by northern rock sole larvae.
It appears that rotifers and Artemia partially digest liposomes,
presumably before the fish ingest them. Evidence for this has been
provided by fluorescent images, where liposomes containing a
green fluorescent dye were used to simulate enrichment of watersoluble nutrients in rotifers and Artemia. After a one-hour enrichment period, the dye appeared to be released from the liposomes
and could be seen in the gut and body of the live prey.
Perspectives
206-842-3609
70
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May/June 2015
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food has never been greater.
Contact SeaShare with your
donation today.
global aquaculture advocate
It is currently not known whether liposomes will have direct
applications in commercial hatcheries. This is because the current production of liposomes requires highly purified phospholipids, expensive laboratory equipment and a good deal of expertise and labor. However, with further development, it is possible
that future production methods may reduce the cost of liposomes
and make them more commercially feasible.
Liposomes appear to be highly effective for the enrichment
of rotifers with water-soluble nutrients. These techniques may be
used to assess a variety of water-soluble nutrients in the diets of
marine fish larvae. It is also possible that liposomes could be
used to investigate the effects of probiotics, antibiotics or other
substances on marine fish larvae.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
71
innovation
Aquaculture Effluent Partially Replaces
Growing Mix For Plant Production
Jason Danaher, Ph.D.
Aquatic System Design
Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc.
2395 Apopka Boulevard
Apopka, Florida 32703 USA
jason.danaher@pentair.com
Jeremy Pickens
Jeffrey Sibley, Ph.D.
Department of Horticulture
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama, USA
100% C.M.
25% A.E.
50% A.E.
Jesse Chappell, Ph.D.
Terrill Hanson, Ph.D.
75% A.E.
School of Fisheries, Aquaculture
and Aquatic Sciences
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama, USA
After 30 days, tomato plant growth parameters decreased in substrate with 25%
or greater aquaculture effluent.
Summary:
Aquaculture effluent can be an
effective fertilizer in land-based
plant production. Research
with tilapia utilized dewatered
aquaculture effluent (A.E.) as a
partial substrate replacement for
tomato plant seedlings. Seedling
growth decreased when effluent
replaced a commercial growing
mix at 25% or more. Plants grown
in substrates with 15% or lower
A.E. grew as well or better than
those in 100% commercial mix.
A.E. can potentially provide appropriate physical, chemical and
nutritional parameters for tomato
plant growth without the need for
watering with nitrogen fertilizer.
Consumer-driven demand for aquaculture products has resulted in the adoption of intensive fish production facilities.
Initial efforts to intensify aquaculture
operations were linked to water quality
degradation because of increased nitrogen
and phosphorus concentrations in discharged wastes. New aquaculture facilities can utilize recirculating aquaculture
systems (RAS) to manage solid waste and
dissolved nutrients in a controlled environment.
An RAS facility allows the producer
72
May/June 2015
to raise fish at high density and minimize
freshwater exchange through mechanical
removal of solids and biological assimilation of dissolved wastes. RAS technology
and aquaculture facilities will be important for future agricultural growth and to
conserve the quantity and quality of water
resources.
RAS Waste
To maintain optimum water quality,
an RAS facility typically must discharge
concentrated waste daily. Aquaculture
effluent is primarily comprised of water,
feces, uneaten feed, nitrogen and phosphorus. Around one-third of the nitrogen
applied to an aquaculture production system is harvested with the target species.
Thus, much is unused, and the potential
for improved nutrient efficiency through
integrated agricultural systems is high.
Aquaponic systems combine fish production with hydroponic plant production
in an RAS. Studies at the University of the
Virgin Islands found dissolved nutrients
from treated Nile tilapia effluent were
capable of supporting a variety of hydroponic vegetable crops and suggested
treated effluent should be redirected into
secondary enterprises that have economic
value or in some way complement the primary production system.
In addition, discharged fish effluent
has been applied to land. Research has
showed aquaculture effluent performed
similar to or better than other organic
and inorganic fertilizers for soil-based
horticulture production systems. Nonetheless, more research is needed to determine methods to utilize the discharged
effluent from RAS for plant production.
5% A.E.
10% A.E.
15% A.E.
20% A.E.
After 30 days, plants grown in substrates with 15% or less A.E. grew similar
to or better than the control.
global aquaculture advocate
C.M. +
Municipal
Biofloc RAS
Biofloc production systems incorporate RAS principles to produce popular
food species like Nile tilapia, Oreochromis
niloticus, and Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannemei. Biofloc systems rely on
mechanical suspension of organic matter
in the water column. Nitrifying bacteria
colonize the suspended organic matter
and help keep toxic ammonia and nitrite
concentrations at safe levels for the target
species, but total suspended solids must
be controlled within the culture system.
5% A.E. + Fertilizer
5% A.E. +
Municipal
Auburn Research
Research at Auburn University sought
to determine methods to utilize the discharged aquaculture effluent for plant
production. Auburn University has two,
100-m3 biofloc tanks housed in a 9.2- x
29.5-m greenhouse at the E. W. Shell
Fisheries Center at Auburn University in
Auburn, Alabama, USA.
Each rectangular tank was stocked with
4,000 tilapia fingerlings with individual
weights of about 100 g. The fish were harvested at a final weight of 550 to 625 g.
The tilapia were fed ad libitum with an
extruded diet containing 36% protein twice
daily for 20 minutes. Calcium hydroxide
was added to the production unit as needed
to maintain pH at 6.8 to 7.0.
Total suspended solids concentrations
were controlled using an external 1.9-m3
tank with a 30° cone bottom. The tank had
a central baffle perpendicular to the incoming water flow that diminished hydraulic
velocity, allowing large particulate matter to
settle and concentrate in the cone bottom.
After exiting the settling tank, treated water
returned to the fish culture tanks. Settled
solids were discharged from the cone bottom tank twice daily.
Solids Flocculation,
Effluent Dewatering
100% C.M.
C.M. +
Fertilizer
After discharge, the effluent was
injected with a polymer to flocculate the
solids before entering a geotextile bag
constructed from a high-strength, porous
polypropylene fabric. The bag was an
effective tool for passively dewatering
effluent that created two separate components. Total suspended solids were
retained within the bag, while a filtrate
Tomato seedlings watered with
100 mg/L nitrogen and grown
in substrates with 0 or 5%
A.E. had better growth than
seedlings grown in the same
substrates and watered with
municipal water. Water source
did not affect plants grown in
10% A.E.
10% A.E. + Fertilizer 10% A.E. + Municipal
low in TSS concentration exited.
After repeated fillings to reach its volumetric capacity, the bag was allowed to
passively dewater. Solids were removed,
allowed to air dry and milled with a hammer mill. The dried solids had a
nitrogen:phosphorus:potassium ratio of
3:11:1, making them a good organicbased material for plant production. Substrates were prepared prior to each experiment by mixing a commercial peat- and
pine bark-based growing mix (C.M.) and
dewatered aquaculture effluent (A.E.)
based on the volume of each substrate.
After mixing, it was important to
evaluate the physical and chemical properties of each substrate, because they are
important factors in plant growth
response. Physical properties like air
space affect gas exchange in the substrate,
while water-holding capacity affects
water retention in the substrate. In gen-
eral, container substrates should provide
physical properties with 10 to 30% air
space and 40 to 50% water-holding
capacity. Also, the chemical properties of
most horticulture substrates should provide pH values of 5.5 to 7.0 and soluble
salt levels below 2.5 µS/cm2.
Experiments
The first experiment evaluated tomato
seedlings grown in four different substrates partially replaced with dewatered
aquaculture effluent. Treatments included
a 100% C.M. control and substrates with
25, 50 or 75% A.E. All plants were
watered with municipal water daily and
provided 100 mg/L nitrogen twice
weekly. Nutrient solution was formulated
from a 20-10-20 water-soluble fertilizer.
After 30 days, tomato plant growth
parameters decreased in the substrates
with 25% and greater A.E. The bulk den-
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73
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the
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A basic economic analysis determined
the material cost of dewatering solids
using the geotextile bag and polymer. It
was based on an actual five-month production period with Nile tilapia produced
in the 100-m3 biofloc system.
The cost of the geotextile bag was
U.S. $171, and two, 19-L biopolymer
buckets ($102 each) were required to
flocculate the discharged effluent. The
total cost of materials was $375.
A total of 1,505 kg of dry-weight diet
was fed to the system over the five-month
production period. Approximately 284 kg
of dry-weight solids, or 19% of the diet
fed, was discharged and captured in the
geotextile bag. This equated to U.S.
$1.32/kg of dry-weight solids.
Fortaleza - Brazil
Nov. 16-19, 2015
USTRY joining for
D
N
I
&
ces
E
C
to m
N
E
I
e
SC
et
se
af
oo
The World Aquaculture Society (WAS) has decided to hold
the Annual Latin American & Caribbean Chapter,
WAS meeting (Lacqua 2015) and the first Regional World
Aquaculture 2015 (RWA’15) in Fortaleza, Brazil. The Associação
Brasileira de Criadores de Camarão (ABCC) has decided to work
with WAS/LACC to join LACQUA15/RWA’15 with FENACAM ‘15 including the XII International Shrimp Farming Symposium and the VIII
International Aquaculture Symposium.
d
d
s
¡NUEVO!
The second experiment demonstrated
that for tomato seedling production, partial substitution of commercially available
potting mix with dewatered aquaculture
effluent had a positive effect on plant
growth and quality if used at a 15% or
lower portion of the mixture. But it didn’t
determine if the nutrients in the aquaculture effluent could replace commercial
substrate and provide adequate nutrition
for tomato transplants, because all plants
were provided a complete nutrient solution twice weekly.
A third experiment evaluated tomato
seedling growth grown under specific
combinations of substrates and water
sources. All plants were grown in one of
the following substrates: a 100% C.M.
control or substrates with 5 or 10% A.E.
Half the plants grown in each substrate
were watered only with municipal water
for the entirety of the experiment. The
other half were additionally given water
that contained 100 mg/L nitrogen from a
20-10-20 water-soluble fertilizer twice
weekly.
Neither substrate nor water source
created sub-optimal physical or chemical
parameters for the tomato seedlings.
Tomato seedlings watered with fertilizer
and grown in substrates with 0 or 5%
A.E. had better growth than those grown
Economic Analysis
Fortaleza, Brazil
d
an
Water Source
in the same substrates and watered with
municipal water only. These potting mixtures alone were unable to supply the
plants with an adequate amount of nutrients, but watering the substrates with 100
mg/L nitrogen improved plant growth.
Water source had no significant
impact on growth for plants grown in
10% A.E., indicating this substrate could
provide optimal physical and chemical
parameters and sufficient nutrients for
tomato plant growth without the need for
watering with 100 mg/L nitrogen.
em
sities of the substrates with these greater
amounts of A.E. increased and resulted in
decreased air space for plant roots. Plant
roots require space for gas exchange, and
the decreased air space negatively affected
plant growth. The substrates with 25% or
greater A.E. content had pH values elevated above 7.0 and soluble salts measured
above 2.5 µS/cm2.
A second experiment evaluated the
growth of tomatoes in five different substrates partially replaced with dewatered
aquaculture effluent. For this experiment,
treatments included a 100% C.M. control
and substrates with 5, 10, 15 or 20% A.E.
All plants were watered with municipal
water and provided 100 mg/L nitrogen
twice weekly.
After 30 days, plants grown in substrates with 15% or lower A.E. grew similar to or better than the control. The
physical properties of substrates with 15%
or less A.E. were sufficient for tomato
seedling growth. The chemical properties
of substrates with 15% or less A.E. maintained optimal pH and soluble salt levels.
However, pH and salt levels began to
increase in substrate with 20% A.E., and
plant growth parameters decreased.
Perspectives
Concentrated aquaculture wastes will
have to be treated on site as RAS facilities intensify their production. Geotextile
technology can treat the discharged aquaculture effluent and create a solids component for traditional horticulture production systems.
Through a series of experiments, the
authors observed that dewatered aquaculture effluent can replace commercial potting mixes and provide tomato seedlings
with adequate nutrients for growth. This
information could be useful for farms integrating aquaculture and horticulture on site.
More info on
www.was.org
This substrate could
provide optimal physical
and chemical parameters
and sufficient nutrients
for tomato plant growth
without the need for
watering with 100 mg/L
nitrogen.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
75
industry news
Bill DiMento
(center) with
SeaWeb President
Dawn Martin and
Champions Judge
John Goodlad.
Photo by D. Harvey,
SeaWeb.
GAA Members Among 2015
Seafood Champions
Several members of the Global Aquaculture Alliance were
honored for their work promoting seafood sustainability at the
Seafood Champion Awards Ceremony held during the opening
reception of the early February SeaWeb Seafood Summit in
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
The event’s first-ever Grand Champion Award was presented to Bill DiMento, corporate director of sustainability at
High Liner Foods, Inc., a Founding and Governing Member of
GAA. DiMento is an internationally recognized seafood sustainability leader with over 35 years of industry experience. He
led High Liner’s efforts to sustainably source all of its seafood.
The Seafood Champion Award for Innovation was given to
Anova Food, LLC, a GAA Sustaining Member, for advancing
sustainable fisheries by incorporating community development
and the well-being of fishers in their work to achieve environmental goals.
The awards recognize individuals and companies for outstanding leadership in promoting environmentally responsible
seafood and ocean health. The winners were chosen from 16
finalists who represented the best in sustainability from around
the world.
“These Seafood Champions are looking beyond the status
quo in best practices and responsible sourcing, and are addressing seafood sustainability in the context of ecological, human
rights and community needs,” SeaWeb President Dawn Martin
said. “That kind of drive, passion and creativity will pave the
path to a healthy future for this economically and environmentally important resource and the rest of us who depend upon the
ocean as part of our daily lives.”
Preferred Freezer Grows In U.S.
Preferred Freezer Services, a global leader in advanced design
and engineered temperature-controlled warehouses, is expanding
is facilities in the United States.
Construction of a new cold storage in the Pacific Northwest
is beginning in Lynden, Washington, to serve the local/regional
agricultural and seafood industries. The U.S. $32 million facility
will include 27,165 m2 of freezer space, 2,888 m2 of temperature-controlled loading docks and 750 m2 of support area. Additional property has been secured for future expansion.
The company expects the warehouse to be open for business
in September.
Preferred Freezer has also expanded its busy Houston
Express location in Houston, Texas, to keep pace with growing
76
May/June 2015
global aquaculture advocate
People, Products, Programs
Please send short news items and photos for consideration to:
Darryl E. Jory
4111 Telegraph Road, Suite 302
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
E-mail: editorgaadvocate@aol.com
Fax: +1-419-844-1638
customer demand. The expansion added 7,865 m2 to existing
freezer space and 1,213 m2 to the loading dock. The extension
offers a 24/7 online information system, on-site inspection capability, packing and labeling services, and a location convenient to
major roadways and the port.
For more information on the new Lynden warehouse, contact Todd Klumok at +1-973-820-4451 or tklumok@preferredfreezer.com. For more on the Houston extension, contact Greg
Muse at +1-281-380-2246 or gmuse@preferredfreezer.com. For
information on all 34 PFS locations, please visit www.preferredfreezer.com.
SeaShare Board
President Glenn Reed
presented the award
to Trident President
Joe Bundrant.
Trident Seafoods Named
Top SeaShare Donor
SeaShare, the non-profit that focuses on the resources of the
U.S. seafood industry to improve nutrition for America’s food
bank network, has presented Trident Seafoods with its 2015
National Fisheries Institute (NFI) Donor of the Year award.
SeaShare Board President Glenn Reed presented Trident
President Joe Bundrant with the award for its donations to the
APA Million Meal program and other charitable endeavors.
“Trident Seafoods has been so important to our success over
the years,” said Jim Harmon, SeaShare executive director.
“Donating fish, services and funding to support many of the
donation projects that we manage, their generosity is a great
example that others want to follow.”
SeaShare combines donations of seafood and processing with
financial contributions to improve the nutritional offerings at
food banks across the United States. Trident, a Seattle, Washington-based vertically integrated seafood company, donated the
equivalent of 13 million meals to SeaShare as of 2014.
Trident Seafoods also coordinates an annual employee fundraising program, donates cans of salmon and gives to the Prohibited Species Donation Program with its boats and processing
plants in Akutan, Sand Point and Kodiak, Alaska.
For additional information, see www.seashare.org.
Harvest Select Expands Seafood
Partnerships
Harvest Select, a U.S.based vertically integrated
catfish producer, recently
announced partnerships
with Star Agro Marine Exports, Ltd. of India and Shaw’s
Southern Belle Frozen Foods, Inc. of Jacksonville, Florida, USA.
“As Harvest Select remains in a growth pattern, these ventures mark our expansion into new seafood lines, which will
allow us the ability to supply our customers with a more diverse
product line,” said Randy Rhodes, president of Harvest Select.
Star Agro Marine Exports is a vertically integrated aquaculture operation specializing in a variety of farm-raised shrimp. It
is certified under the British Retail Consortium (BRC) and Best
Aquaculture Practices programs.
Shaw’s Southern Belle is the largest processor of crab cakes
and other value-added seafood in the U.S. Its BRC-certified
plant boasts state-of-the-art processing capability.
“Harvest Select is proud to work closely with Star Agro and
Shaw’s Southern Belle to promote quality products using our
sales and marketing experience, and national logistics services,”
said Guy Lott, vice president of sales.
Harvest Select’s recent plant expansion sets the stage for
additional seafood-processing and partnership opportunities.
For more information on Harvest Select, visit www.harvestselect.com.
Pentair Offers New Radial-Flow
Settlers
Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems has recently announced
two new lines of radial-flow settlers that efficiently remove particulates from effluent water in
aquaculture systems.
Formerly sold under the
H.E. Group brand name, the
RFS-45 and RFS-60 lines
greatly reduce solids loading in
RFS-45-PNL Settler
a passive design that requires no
additional energy to operate.
Effluent water enters the
RFS liquid inlet, flows upward through the adjustable standpipe
assembly and back down through the stilling well. Solid particulates settle to the cone bottom for removal through a solids outlet. The filtered water flows upward over a V-notch weir into the
launder, exiting though the liquid outlet.
The radial-flow settlers are available in many sizes for various
flow requirements. Maximum flow rates range from 11 to 1,690
Lpm for 45-series settlers and 11 to 713 Lpm for 60-series units.
For additional information, visit www.pentairaes.com.
global aquaculture advocate
May/June 2015
77
calendar
MAY 2015
Best Aquaculture Practices
Auditor Training Course
May 10-16, 2015
Nusa Dua, Bali, Indonesia
Phone: +1-425-582-0372
Web: http://bap.gaalliance.org/workWithBAP/bapAuditorCourse.php
National Restaurant
Association Show
May 16-19, 2015
Chicago, Illinois, USA
Phone: U.S., +1-800-967-4590;
International, +1-240-439-2968
Web: http://show.restaurant.org
World of Seafood
May 20-24, 2015
Bangkok, Thailand
Phone: +65-6500-6712
Web: www.worldofseafood.com
Asia-Pacific Aquaculture
Expo 2015
May 25-27, 2015
Fujian, China
Phone: +86-10-88102348
Web: http://en.apaexpo.com.cn
World Aquaculture 2015
May 26-30, 2015
Jeju, Korea
Phone: +1-760-751-5005
Web: www.was.org/meetings/default.
aspx?code=WA2015
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Polfish Fair
May 27-29, 2015
Gdansk, Poland
Phone: +4858-554-93-62
Web: http://polfishtargi.amberexpo.pl/
title,Jezyk,lang,2.html
JUNE 2015
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June 3-5, 2015
Lisbon, Portugal
Web: www.economistinsights.com/sustainability-resources/event/world-oceansummit-2015/registration
VICTAM International 2015
June 9-11, 2015
Cologne, Germany
Phone: +31-33-246-4404
Web: www.victam.com/?i=190
China International Aquatic
Products Exposition
June 18-20, 2015
Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China
Phone: +86-759-3229030/3229032
Web: www.fisherieschina.com
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July 20-22, 2015
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9
Responsible Business Forum
On Food And Agriculture
47
Seajoy19
Sea Port
77
SeaShare70
Skretting38
Sun Asia Aeration Int’l Co., Ltd
43
Sunwell Technologies Inc.
10
Tyson Animal Nutrition Group
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Uni-President Vietnam Co., Ltd.
69
Urner Barry
55
U.S. Soybean Export Council
71
WengerOBC
YSI, a xylem brand
27
Zeigler Bros., Inc.
IBC
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THE BEST WAY TO PREDICT THE FUTURE IS TO CREATE IT.
—Peter F. Drucker
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