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LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA
BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA
M A L AY S I A
KDN PP11720/1/2006 ISSN 0128-4347 VOL.26 JUNE-AUGUST 2005 RM10.00
ENERGY
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Volume 26 June - August 2005
contents
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4
President’s Message
Editor’s Note
6
Announcement
7
Cover Feature
Low Energy Building in Putrajaya, Malaysia
14 Tsunamis – Dynamics Of Wave Energy
Propagation And Mitigation Measures
21 Earthquake Induced Energy: Sources And
Hazard Analysis For Structural Earthquake
Resistant Design In Peninsular Malaysia
26 Pilot Centralized Solar Power Station In
Remote Village, Rompin, Pahang
Guideline
31 Code Of Professional Conduct
10
Update
33 Policy On The Use Of Water Related Products
Engineering & Law
34 Instructions & Variations - Part 1
16
Feature
40 Malaysia Energy Supply Industry:
Unique Roles Of Energy Commission
44 Clean Development Mechanism In Malaysia
29
48 The Coming Of Eurocodes
Engineering Nostalgia
56 That which was in 1945……
56
r On
Semina SSIONAL
NCE
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THE INGENIEUR 2
President’s Message
KDN PP11720/1/2006
ISSN 0128-4347
VOL. 26 JUNE-AUGUST 2005
Members of the Board of Engineers Malaysia
(BEM) 2004/2005
President
YBhg. Tan Sri Dato’ Ir. Hj. Zaini Omar
Registrar
Ir. Dr. Mohd Johari Mohd Arif
Secretary
Ir. Dr. Judin Abdul Karim
Members of BEM
YBhg. Tan Sri Dato’ Ir. Md Radzi Mansor
YBhg. Datuk Ir. Md Sidek Ahmad
YBhg. Datuk Ir. Hj. Keizrul Abdullah
YBhg. Mej. Jen. Dato’ Ir. Ismail Samion
YBhg. Datuk Ir. Santhakumar Sivasubramaniam
YBhg. Datu Ir. Hubert Thian Chong Hui
YBhg. Dato’ Ir. Ashok Kumar Sharma
YBhg. Dato’ Ir. Abdul Rashid Maidin
Ir. Prof. Abang Abdullah Abang Ali
Ir. Prof. Dr. Mohd Ali Hashim
Ir. Prof. Dr. Ruslan Hassan
Ir. Ishak Abdul Rahman
Tuan Hj. Basar Juraimi
Ar. Paul Lai Chu
Ir. Ho Jin Wah
Ir. P E Chong
Editorial Board
Advisor
YBhg. Tan Sri Dato’ Ir. Hj. Zaini Omar
Chairman
YBhg Datuk Ir. Shanthakumar Sivasubramaniam
Editor
Ir. Fong Tian Yong
Members
Ir. Mustaza Salim
Ir. Chan Boon Teik
Ir. Ishak Abdul Rahman
Ir. Prof. Dr. K. S. Kannan
Ir. Prof. Dr. Ruslan Hassan
Ir. Prof. Madya Dr. Eric K H Goh
Ir. Nitchiananthan Balasubramaniam
Ir. Shahkander Singh
Ir. Prem Kumar
Economic development in developing countries
requires ready access to energy as increasing
urbanisation and industrialisation both create greater
demands for energy. This situation is highly reflective
of ASEAN as these trends characterize most of the
countries in the region since 1980s. During the same
period, energy modelling systems revealed that
economic growth could be maintained in conjunction
with significantly slower growth in energy supply –
meaning both these growth can be decoupled.
Energy consumption in buildings can be considerably reduced through
integrated building design (with the co-operation of engineers, architects
and equipment suppliers) of new buildings and proper maintenance of existing
buildings. Reference should be made to the MS 1525:2001 Code of Practice
on Energy Efficiency and the Use of Renewable Energy for Non Residential
Buildings which was developed to encourage the design of new and existing
buildings so that they may be constructed, operated and maintained in a
manner that reduces the use of energy without constraining the building
function, nor the comfort or productivity of the occupants and with
appropriate regard for cost considerations. The Low Energy Office (LEO)
building of the Ministry of Energy, Water and Communications in Putrajaya
is a demonstration of the application of MS 1525 and serves as a showcase
building that exhibits readily available energy efficient and cost effective
features that can be replicated by other buildings.
Engineers should be well versed with the MS 1525 and work as a team
together with architects, contractors, interior decorators and equipment
suppliers to design energy efficient buildings not only to reduce energy
consumption but also to reduce impact on the environment caused by power
generation.
TAN SRI DATO’ Ir. HJ. ZAINI BIN OMAR
President
BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA
Executive Director
Ir. Ashari Mohd Yakub
Publication Officer
Pn. Nik Kamaliah Nik Abdul Rahman
Assistant Publication Officer
Pn. Che Asiah Mohamad Ali
Design and Production
Inforeach Communications Sdn Bhd
Buletin Ingenieur is published by the Board of
Engineers Malaysia (Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia)
and is distributed free of charge to registered
Professional Engineers.
The statements and opinions expressed in this
publication are those of the writers.
BEM invites all registered engineers to contribute
articles or send their views and comments to the
following address:
Publication Committee
Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia,
Tingkat 17, Ibu Pejabat JKR,
Jalan Sultan Salahuddin,
50580 Kuala Lumpur.
Tel: 03-2698 0590 Fax: 03-2692 5017
E-mail: bem1@jkr.gov.my publication@bem.org.my
Web site: http://www.bem.org.my
Advertising/Subscriptions
Subscription Form is on page 54
Advertisement Form is on page 55
Editor’s Note
Engineers may have harnessed many and varied forms
of energy for the benefit of the mankind, but there are still
untamed natural energies that are yet to be fully understood.
This issue attempts to cover a wider range of these forms of
energy, such as tsunami, lighting and ocean wave, as well as
the efficient use of energy and matters of policy that, we
hope, will be of interest to our readers.
On the Engineering Nostalgia front, we are very pleased, and thankful,
to receive some collection of old photos from a Village Development Officer
in Bentong on behalf the headman of Sri Telemong village in Pahang. The
objects depicted in the photos may be simple but they certainly evoke the
atmosphere and environment of an unsettled period.
We hope you, our readers, will enjoy this issue and we look forward to
more contributions from you.
Ir. Fong Tian Yong
Editor
THE INGENIEUR 4
Seminar On
PROFESSIONAL INDEMNITY INSURANCE
28th July 2005
THE SAUJANA, KUALA LUMPUR
2 km Off Jln Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah, Airport Highway, Subang, 47200 Subang, Selangor
(Formerly known as Hyatt Regency Saujana Subang)
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Organised By
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To create awareness on the concept and
practice of Professional Indemnity Insurance
in the engineering consultancy industry.
●
To gather feedback and comments from
practising engineers on the advantages and
disadvantages of Professional Indemnity
Insurance coverage for professional
engineering services.
Cancellation/refund: No refund will be made but substitute
participant is allowed. Please inform the BEM Secretariat
in advance of substitution.
CPD
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(Professional Engineers only)
Enquiries
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THE INGENIEUR 5
Announcement
Publication
Calendar
The
The following
following list
list is
is the
the Publication
Publication Calendar
Calendar for
for the
the
year
year 2005.
2005. While we normally seek contributions from
experts
experts for each special theme, we are also pleased to
accept
accept articles relevant to themes listed.
Please
Please contact the Editor or the Publication
Publication Officer
Officer in
in
advance
advance if you would like to make such contributions
or
or to
to discuss
discuss details and deadlines.
September
September 2005: WASTE
WASTE
December
2005:
WATER
December 2005: WATER
March
March 2006: ENGINEERING PRACTICE
June 2006: MINERALS
By Ole Balslev-Olesen, Steve Lojuntin, CK. Tang, K.S. Kannan,
DANIDA (Danish International Development Assistance) Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, Malaysia.
Figure 1: East facade of the LEO Building
I
n September 2004, the Ministry
of
Energy,
Water
&
Communications (MEWC) moved
to its own 17,800 m2 building in the
Federal Government Administrative
Capital, Putrajaya, situated between
Kuala Lumpur and the new Kuala
Lumpur International Airport.
The Government of Malaysia
wanted their new MEWC building to
be a showcase building for energy
efficiency and low environmental
impact, and design support from the
Danish International Development
Assistance (DANIDA) programme was
requested and granted. The building
demonstrated integration of the best
energy efficiency measures, optimised
towards achieving the overall best
cost-effective solution.
The Danish and local experts
have since January 2001, in cooperation with Malaysian architects
and engineers, optimised the overall
design of the building and its energy
systems for minimum energy
consumption. A computerized design
tool was introduced as a key
instrument in the optimization of the
building design and the design input
of the energy systems. In August
2002 the detailed design of the
building was finalised, and the
turnkey contractor, Putra Perdana
Construction Sdn Bhd. started
construction.
An ambitious goal was set for the
energy efficiency of the building:
Energy savings of more than 50%
compared to conventional design.
THE INGENIEUR 7
The energy saving features was
achieved at an extra construction
cost of less than 10% of the total
building costs, giving a payback time
of less than 10 years.
The cost target of maximum 10%
extra costs for the energy efficiency
measures have been confirmed
through the design and build tender.
The computer modelling using the
Energy-10 computer software has
predicted more than 50% energy
savings. A subsequent energy
monitoring follow-up programme is
in progress. The energy monitoring
during use will add vital credibility
to the predictions, that major energy
savings and environmental benefits
can be achieved in the building
sector of Malaysia.
cover feature
Low Energy Office Building in
Putrajaya, Malaysia
cover feature
The new MEWC LEO building
(Figure 1) demonstrates the feasibility
of the energy efficiency measures
according to the new Malaysian
Standard MS 1525:2001 “Code of
Practice on Energy Efficiency and use
of Renewable Energy for Nonresidential Buildings”. Following this
code, the LEO building must have an
energy consumption less than 135
kWh/m2 year. The predictions are, that
the LEO building will have an energy
index close to 100 kWh/m2 year. This
is a very good performance compared
to typical new office buildings in
Malaysia and the ASEAN region,
having an Energy Index of 200–300
kWh/m2 year. The energy index is
currently being continuously
monitored.
The energy efficiency measures
that contribute to achieving the goal
of an Energy Index of 100 kWh/m2
year are:
● Creation of a green environment
around and on top of the building.
● Optimisation
of building
orientation, with preference to
south and north facing windows,
where solar heat is less than for
other orientations.
● Energy efficient space planning.
● A well insulated building facade
and building roof.
● Protection of windows from direct
sunshine and protection of the
roof by a double roof
●
●
●
●
●
Natural ventilation in the atrium
Energy efficient cooling system,
where the air volume for each
building zone is controlled
individually according to demand
Maximise use of diffuse daylight
and use of high efficiency lighting,
controlled according to daylight
availability and occupancy
Energy efficient office equipment
(less electricity use and less
cooling demand )
Implementation of an Energy
Management System, where the
performances of the climatic
systems are continuously
optimised to meet optimal comfort
criteria at least energy costs
Building Characteristics
The climate in Malaysia is hot and
humid. Temperatures over the year
and day varies typically between 24oC
and 35oC, and the humidity is high.
This has important implications for
the design of modern energy efficient,
air conditioned office buildings. In the
office working areas, a controlled,
conducive environment is essential
for occupant comfort and for
productive output.
In the LEO Building, the windows
are primarily orientated to the North
and the South (Figure 3). This
orientation receives less direct
sunshine, and only shallow out
Figure 2: The “Punch Hole” windows provide shading to the windows
THE INGENIEUR 8
shading is required to shade off the
sun. East and west orientation
receives more sun, and the sun is more
difficult to shade off due to the low
sun angles for the radiation in the
morning and in the afternoon.
Exterior shading is most efficient,
as the sun is stopped before it enters
the building. In the LEO Building, two
types of window façade are used: the
punch hole window facades (Figure 2)
in the lower floors, and curtain wall
windows with exterior shading
louvers in the upper floors. Towards
the east, shading is deeper to protect
against the low morning sun. The
windows constitute 25-39% of the
façade area, depending on
orientation. The western façade has
virtually no windows. The window
glazing is a 12 mm thick light green
tinted glazing with visible light
transmission of 65% and a shading
coefficient of 0.59.
The walls of the LEO building
consists of 200 mm aerated concrete
and exterior surface have light colors
to reduce solar heating of the walls.
The lightweight concrete wall has an
insulation value which is 2.5 times
better compared to traditional brick
wall.
The roof of the building is
insulated with 100 mm of insulation,
compared to normally only 25 mm
of insulation. Furthermore, the roof
surface is protected by a second
canopy roof, which prevents direct
solar radiation onto the roof. Along
the perimeter of the roof, green
landscaping provides shading and
improves the aesthetics of the roof
areas, which can be used for various
functions.
On top of the atrium, there is a
two-storey high thermal flue (solar
chimney). The air in the glazed cavity
is heated by the sun, and the rising
hot air pulls air out of the atrium, and
fresh air is entered at the bottom of
the atrium.
The local temperature outside the
building can be reduced by using the
cooling effect of trees, greenery and
water areas. In cities with little
greenery, the “heat island effect”
occurs, causing air temperature to be
several degrees higher than in green
areas. An air temperature of 35oC
cover feature
Figure 3: The North and South facades of the LEO building
instead of 28oC is critical to both
comfort in the city and cooling load
of its buildings. The green layout and
the large water areas of Putrajaya help
to create optimal comfortable, local
micro-climatic conditions for
buildings and people.
In Malaysia, daylight is plentiful
during the normal office hours
throughout the year. Therefore,
daylight can be an important light
source to help reduce energy use for
artificial lighting, provided adequate
building design, as discussed later in
this paper is incorporated in the
project development.
Comfort & Indoor Air Quality
Human thermal comfort depends
on a range of climatologically and
physiologically related parameters. In
a tropical climate context, a person
will be increasingly uncomfortable
with increased air temperature,
humidity and radiant temperature
(temperature of the surfaces
surrounding the person). Increased air
velocity and reduction of the clothing
level can help in improving the
comfort level.
The recommended indoor
temperature range is from 23oC to
26oC and the recommended relative
humidity is 60%-70%. As both the
required temperature and humidity
parameters are lower than outside air,
full climatization is normally required
for the working areas, in order to
satisfy optimal human comfort and
working condition. Buildings
therefore have to be tight, and the
fresh air intake has to be controlled
for optimum quality of the indoor air.
In the LEO Building, intake of outside
air is controlled according to CO2 level
of the indoor air, and thereby
controlled according to the occupancy
level. The more people in the building,
the more fresh air intake required.
It is noted that low temperature
and low humidity is uncomfortable,
unhealthy and expensive. Office air
temperatures lower than 22oC to 23oC
means that people will have to dress
up with warmer clothes, and the
cooling load of the building increases.
In the LEO Building, the quality
of the indoor air is further improved
by the use of electronic air cleaners,
instead of normal fibre filter to clean
the incoming air from particle
pollutants.
Daylight
Natural light is the preferred light
source fo human beings. This
perception has now also been
scientifically proven: People prefer
daylight, be it in the offices or in
shops, as our children learn more and
better in daylit schools. Furthermore,
daylight is a free source, which is
THE INGENIEUR 9
available throughout the normal
office hours.
The challenge in daylight design
of buildings is to design windows and
shading which lets daylight in,
prevents sunlight to enter the
building, and reduces glare problems
from the windows. In the LEO
building, these criteria are achieved
through a combination of exterior
shading and a glazing, which allows
65% of the light through, and allows
only 51% of the heat through. The
atrium allows daylight (Figure 4 &
Figure 5) access to deeper parts of the
building, thereby improving energy
savings and user comfort.
In order to fully utilise daylight
to offset artificial lighting, the
artificial lighting has to be controlled
so that it is automatically shut off
when daylight is sufficient to satisfy
the lighting need, which is an
illumination level of 300-400 lux. In
the LEO building, a daylight
responsive control system on lighting
system is combined with a motion
detector, which automatically shuts
off lighting and reduces cooling once
an office is unoccupied.
In the future, advanced glazing
will become available. Glazing that
filters the sunlight such that visible
light has preference and the solar heat
is avoided. These spectrally selective
glazing reflect the invisible infrared
and ultraviolet and heat away from
cover feature
the building. Such spectrally reflected
glazing, which normally will be
combined with sealed double
windows will significantly improve
energy efficiency of buildings, and
more architectural freedom with
respect to façade design will be
possible. Figure 6 shows the space
layout design of the LEO building.
Office Appliances
Office equipment such as
computers, printers and copy
machines, are responsible for
increased electricity consumption and
thereby also responsible for additional
increase in cooling load. Therefore,
special emphasis has been made in
the LEO Building to reduce the
electricity consumption for
equipment, and a guideline for
procurement of energy efficient office
equipment has been produced.
Simulation with the Energy-10
computer tool confirms the
significance of office equipment on
the overall energy consumption.
Using energy efficient office
equipment,
the
electricity
consumption for the equipment can
be reduced from 25 to only 10 kWh
per m2 per year. In addition to this,
the cooling load is reduced by further
10 kWh per m2 per year.
Figure 4: Daylight entering the atrium space
Figure 5: The atrium space
Figure 6: Interior
space design to
maximize daylight
T H E I N G E N I E U R 10
cover feature
150 W
80 W
30 W
Figure 7: Energy consumption of office equipment
The main energy consuming office
equipment in modern office is the
Personal Computer, with its screen
(Figure 7). Energy consumption is
reduced by purchase of energy
labelled computers with software that
automatically reduces energy
consumption during idle periods.
Furthermore, LCD screens are much
more energy efficient than the
traditional bulky CRT screen. Also,
LCD screens provide better user
comfort with less reflection than the
CRT screens, and they take up much
less space on the desk. Therefore, all
in all, the extra cost of flat screen,
now typically less than RM1,000 can
easily be defended from an overall
perspective.
Portable laptop computers are
much more energy efficient than
stationary computers because they are
optimised for maximum battery life.
The extra price for a laptop compared
to a desktop computer with LCD
screen is now less than RM1,000. This
extra investment is very attractive
given an extra flexibility and the
energy consumption per PC is reduced
to approximately to 30W for a laptop.
For comparison, energy consumption
for stationary computer with CRT
screen is around 150W.
Cooling, Lighting & Transport
The largest energy consumption
for an office in Malaysia is for its
cooling and lighting, which normally
accounts for 60%-70% and 25%-30%
of total energy consumption
respectively. The rest of energy use is
for pumps, motors and lifts for
vertical transport. Finally, energy is
used for office equipment, the plug
loads.
Figure 8: Independent circuit arrangement for light fittings.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 11
Apart from being free, daylight is
also a very efficient light source,
measured in light (lumen) received
compared to the unwanted heat
(watts) that accompanies the light.
Diffused daylight with an efficiency
of around 120 lumen/watt is twice as
good as traditional fluorescent
lighting around 60 lumen/watt.
In the LEO Building, high efficiency
light fixtures are installed. This, in
combination with a reduction of the
illumination in offices according to the
new standard, reduces the installed
lighting load from typically 20W/m2
to only around 10W/m 2 . The
illumination level is reduced from 500
lux to approximately 335 lux in the
office space.
The lighting circuits are arranged
so that lights at the perimeter can be
independently controlled from the
interior lights (Figure 8).
cover feature
Additional Feature: PV Panels on the roof top
The mechanical and electrical
(M&E) equipment for the building also
includes high efficiency motors
(HEMs) for pumps and fans, with
variable speed drives (VSDs) for
optimum operational efficiency. The
VSDs reduce motor power and
electricity consumption drastically for
part load condition, which is the
normal load condition.
Each floor has its own air handling
unit (AHU) and it is sub-divided into
smaller zones, where the provision of
chilled air is controlled with a Variable
Air Volume (VAV) damper. The VAV
damper controls the chilled air
volume to the zone according to the
temperature setpoint.
Energy Management
A comprehensive energy
management system (EMS) is a
prerequisite for actually achieving the
low energy consumption, for which
the building has been designed. The
energy management system monitors
on a continuous basis the energy
consumption of the building. This
allows for the comparison of actual
energy consumption with predicted
consumption and with typical
previous consumption, and action can
be taken if abnormal high energy
consumption is registered.
Additional Feature: Water wall in the atrium
T H E I N G E N I E U R 12
cover feature
Figure 9: Energy saving features applied one by one
Energy management requires the
installation of adequate metering as a
means of measuring the energy used.
As the saying goes “you cannot manage
what you cannot measure”. In addition,
the EMS shall incorporate a computer
software tool, which helps the building
energy management to optimise the
performance of various energy systems
for cooling and lighting, such that
optimal user comfort is achieved at least
cost in purchase of energy.
The LEO Building will be equipped
with a comprehensive Energy
Management System. For each floor
and each section (east or west wing),
energy consumption for cooling,
lighting and plug loads is monitored
individually. Furthermore, temperatures
in various parts of the zone are
monitored. The detailed monitoring
data of the LEO building will be made
available for further study by academia
and professionals.
Successful energy management can
only be achieved if there is a competent
energy management authority in
addition to the traditional building
management services. The Ministry has
therefore created a special position for
energy manager. He will be responsible
for the day-to-day energy management
activities including advising the
organisation related on energy
management activities.
Conclusion
The use of computer design tools
means that an overall optimisation of
the building energy design can be
carried out at the drawing table. Extra
costs for some energy saving building
elements can be offset by reduced
costs for other elements, such as
reduced investment costs for the
cooling system caused by a more
efficient building envelope, that
reduces the maximum cooling load.
Furthermore, using life cycle
calculations, extra costs for energy
saving features can be offset by
savings in energy costs over the life
cycle of the building.
The LEO Building has been
optimised using the Energy-10
computer software from National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, Denver
US. Among the many computer
design tools available, Energy-10 was
chosen, as it is very user-friendly, yet
sophisticated, calculating the energy
balance of the building hour by hour
throughout a year.
Figure 9 shows the effect of
applying the main energy saving
features, one by one. It is seen, that
reduction of the internal heat gains
from lighting and office equipment
is of major importance. It is noted,
that the increase of the room
T H E I N G E N I E U R 13
temperature by only one degree
reduces energy consumption by 10%.
Therefore it is also very costly to have
too low room temperatures in the 2022oC region.
The extra costs for the energy
efficiency features of the LEO building
have been RM5 million, or 10% of the
total building costs. With an electricity
price presently at 29 cent per kWh, the
extra costs will be paid back within
the first 10 years of the building
lifespan. Energy efficiency is very costeffective, it should be applied
throughout the building sector, and the
implementation of Malaysian Standard
1525:2001 Code of Practice the Use of
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
for non-domestic buildings, is seen to
be well justified. BEM
Acknowledgements
This demonstration project is
supported by the Ministry of Energy,
Water and Communications (MEWC),
Economic Planning Unit and DANIDA
(Danish International Development
Assistance). The achievement is based
on a positive and fruitful co-operation
between MEWC, the Putrajaya
Holdings Project Team, JKR Putrajaya
Team, Main Contractor and the
DANIDA Team.
By Prof. Madya Ir. Dr. Eric Goh, Head - AMQUEST RESEARCH, USM Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Prof. Dr. Koh Hock Lye, Chairman - ECOMOD, School of Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Source: NOAA, 2005
feature
Tsunamis – Dynamics Of
Wave Energy Propagation
And Mitigation Measures
Propagation of 2004 Asian Tsunami wave after formation over designated time period
Tsunamis have received increased global public attention due to the
recent outcome of the Asian Tsunami Disaster that has affected the
lives of millions of people around the world combined with a shocking
death toll of over 280,000 inhabitants (AFP, 2005). This is greatly due
to their perilous wave energy and extensive destruction caused on
impact upon reaching coastal areas. The United Nations had to mobilise
the world’s largest relief operation spanning several countries bordering
the Indian Ocean to accommodate all the nations affected by this
single energy-intensive natural occurrence. The destruction arising from
the recent tsunami incident is phenomenal. Statistics of lives lost and
millions affected round the world are just numbers, however several of
us engineers unfortunately could put faces to some of the statistics
presented on the news. One of the authors’ closest colleagues whom
the authors had the opportunity to work with under the international
research exchange programme is Doctorandus (Drs.) Junaidi, a very
efficient and pro-active academic, based at Syiah Kuala University Banda Aceh. Till today the authors are still optimistic, and will continue
to hope for the best, since he and his family have been classified only
as ‘missing’. As responsible engineers, the authors wish to put on
record our sincere sympathies to all those affected by the Asian Tsunami
Disaster as the trauma and pain of all those directly and indirectly
affected by this recent calamity is beyond comprehension. This feature
highlights the causes of tsunamis, the disastrous energy unleashed by
nature and their impact; supplemented by engineering innovations
for successful early warning detection and proposed mitigations
measures to minimise the possible loss of lives and property against
future potential occurrences.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 14
T
sunamis are formed due to the
disruption of any body of water
caused by the sudden
displacement of the seafloor.
Earthquakes, submarine landslides,
volcanic eruptions or even meteorite
impacts may cause tsunamis. All
oceanic regions of the world are
subjected to the threat of tsunamis;
however, tsunamis are concentrated
in the Pacific oceans and its marginal
seas. Tsunami is thus basically a
waveform that originates from deep
water, typically more than 1000m; but
as a wave travels towards the shore;
its wavelength is progressively
reduced, while the wave heights may
be progressively increased. The
tsunami that devastated the shorelines
of 11 countries on December 26, 2004,
was triggered by a mega-thrust
earthquake with a high magnitude of
nine on the Richter scale making it
the most powerful for the past 40
years (CNN, 2005). Mega-thrust
earthquakes are a potentially very
destructive type caused when a
tectonic plate in the Earth’s crust slips
under another one. The last highest
toll for an earthquake-tsunami
combination took place on December
feature
Source: Digital Globe, 2005
Satellite images of Banda Aceh before and after Tsunami scenario
28, 1908, when a 7.2 magnitude
quake struck Messina, Italy, killing an
estimated 70,000 to 100,000
inhabitants. A 7.8 magnitude
earthquake near Alaska generated the
most destructive tsunami in 1946.
The 35m height waves caused
extensive damage in the neighbouring
Hawaiian Islands.
Initiation and Dynamics of Tsunami
Wave Propagation
The main criterion that determines
the size of the tsunami wave is the
amount of vertical sea floor
displacement. Not all earthquakes
produce tsunamis. No destructive
tsunami was however observed on
March 29, 2005 (though tremors were
felt in Kuala Lumpur, Petaling Jaya,
Klang, Penang, Ipoh and Melaka)
during the recent powerful earthquake
measuring a high of 8.5 on the Richter
scale with its epicentre off the west
coast of Sumatra (The Sun, 2005). The
March 29, 2005 event did not create
any tsunamis because the recent
earthquake originated in shallow
waters. Earthquakes must occur near
deep-seated ocean floor and of a large
enough magnitude to create
movements on the sea floor for the
development of tsunamis.
The
December 26, 2004
earthquake incident off the coast of
Sumatra displaced millions of litres
of overlaying seawater resulting in the
formation of a massive tsunami (CNN,
2005). Upon formation, the tsunami
high-energy wave then fans out in
Source: Tyler, 2005
A tsunami comprises a series of
waves of extremely long periods and
wavelengths and is generated in a
body of water by an impulsive or
rapid vertical disturbance of the sea
floor. A tsunami is formed when the
seafloor is suddenly raised or lowered
due to a violent earthquake. The
potential kinetic energy that results
from pushing water above mean sea
level is then transferred to the
initiation for the propagation of the
tsunami wave. The most destructive
tsunamis are formed from the
occurrence of large earthquakes in
deep waters with an epicentre or fault
line near or on the ocean floor. These
usually occur in regions of the earth
characterized by high geological
activities due to the collision of the
plates along tectonic plate boundaries.
A tsunami can have a period ranging
between 10 minutes and one hour and
a wavelength in excess of 700 km.
The term tsunami, meaning harbour
wave in Japanese, was adopted for
general use in 1963.
The recent December 26th Asian
Tsunami Disaster was due to the
displacement of water caused by an
undersea earthquake, with a high
magnitude of nine on the Richter
scale, arose from the slippage of the
Australian and Eurasian plates 160
km centred off the west coast of
Sumatra, Indonesia at a depth of 10
km (BBC, 2005). Rapid underwater
shift between the two tectonic plates,
resulting in the seafloor being shunted
vertically by 10-30m at the site of the
rupture, created a violent reaction in
the displacement of seawater from the
equilibrium position.
Landscape of Banda Aceh after Asian Tsunami incident
T H E I N G E N I E U R 15
feature
Innovations In Early Detection
Of Tsunamis
all directions from the source at
enormous speed propagating like
ripples. Tsunamis formed can travel
up to the speed of approximately 960
km/hr at the deepest point, equivalent
to the speed of a commercial jet
(NBC10, 2005). At lesser depths, the
travel speed will be less, perhaps 300
km/hr. As the tsunami wave reaches
shallower waters, friction slows down
the front of the wave. The trailing
waves pile onto the waves in front of
them, like a rug crumpled against a
wall (Folger, 1994). The destructive
force of the tsunami wave at the point
of impact will depend on how the
energy is focused, the travel path of
the tsunami waves, the coastal
configuration and the offshore
topography. The energy of the
tsunami waves speed is converted to
height and sheer force when it reaches
the shores causing extensive damages
to lives, property and the
environment. Walls of water from the
recent Asian Tsunami reached to a
height of ten metres, equivalent to the
a four-storey high building, when it
slammed into the coastal areas of
Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand and
as far away as east Africa; a distance
of 6000 km! Other regions worldwide
badly affected by the recent tsunami
incident include Sri Lanka, India,
Kenya, Somalia, Tanzania, Seychelles,
Maldives, Bangladesh, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands; and Burma.
A Deep-Ocean Assessment and
Reporting of Tsunamis System is
popularly known by the acronym
DART. The DART system, or
tsunameter, comprises a seafloor
bottom pressure recording (BPR)
system with a sensitivity of detecting
the occurrences of tsunamis as small
as one cm (PMEL, 2005). This
efficient detection system is attached
to a moored surface buoy for real time
communications. Data is transmitted
from the BPR sensors on the sea floor
to the surface buoy by means of a
high-tech acoustic link (NOAA,
2005). The data recorded can then
be swiftly relayed via a satellite link
to ground stations for signals
demodulation and subsequent
dissemination to the respective
Tsunami Early Warning Centres for
analysis. Initial research on the
development and practical application
of the first DART systems was carried
out in the 1990s. It was observed
from research findings that in marine
environment the seafloor BPR sensor
system had a life of two years;
however the surface buoy structure
has a current design life of one year
(PMEL, 2005). Results indicate a
standard DART system, with a robust
and reliable track record, has a
cumulative data return of 96%
Countries worldwide affected by recent Asian Tsunami
T H E I N G E N I E U R 16
feature
Initation and Dynamics
of Tsunami waves
Origin of Tsunami wave
at earthquake zone
efficiency. The placement of the DART
System at various strategic locations
should assist in the data collection of
wave movements at high-risk
earthquake zones which are potential
sources in the creation of tsunami
waves. These DART Systems perform
continuous measurements; real-time
reporting and can thus act as effective
early warning systems for any
unforeseen occurrences of tsunamis.
Tsunami Modeling And Forecasting
The primary objectives of tsunami
modeling and forecasting should
include:
● knowledge database on how
tsunami wave propagation and
wave scattering is affected by
oceanic or seabed topography,
● interpretation and modelling of
wave characteristics and patterns
based on various site and climatic
scenario,
● determination
whether
modification of site conditions can
decrease the probability in the
occurrences of tsunamis.
From research studies carried out
around the world, a suite of numerical
simulation codes known collectively
as the MOST (Method of Splitting
Tsunami) Model has been
implemented and tested, with
computer estimates agreeing well with
observations. The MOST model is
capable of simulating three processes
of tsunami evolution, which includes
generation by the earthquake,
transoceanic propagation, and
inundation of dry land. This model
has shown its capabilities of
simulating tsunami simulation
generated by a source near Alaska,
its propagation across the Pacific
Ocean and its subsequent run up onto
the Hawaiian shoreline (Titov and
Gonzalez, 1997); it will be used
subsequently to develop tsunami
hazard mitigation tools for the Pacific
Disaster Center(PDC).
Run up of a tsunami onto dry land
is probably the most underdeveloped
part of any tsunami simulation model,
primarily because of the serious lack
of two major types of data: high
quality measurements for testing of
the model, and fine resolution
bathymetry and topographic data.
Recently, a series of large scale run
up experiments have been conducted
at the Coastal Engineering Research
Center (CERC) of the US Corps of
Engineers (Briggs et al., 1995).
Further, several post tsunami surveys
have also been undertaken to provide
high quality data. The MOST model
has been successfully used to
simulate inundation due to tsunami
that occurred on July 12, 1993 in the
region Hokkaido-Nensai-Oki. The
MOST model code will be parallelized
and implemented on the SP super
computer at the Maui High
Performance Computing Center
(MHPCC) in an attempt towards the
development of useful tsunami
hazard mitigation and forecasting
tools. In the distant future, it may
become technically feasible to
execute real time model runs for
providing hazard mitigation
guidance, as a tsunami event
unfolds. The computation of 6.5
hours of tsunami propagation on the
MOST model would take about an
hour on an SGH octane workstation.
However, this computational time
would drop dramatically, perhaps by
a factor of 10-100, on faster parallel
architecture platforms, such as the
MHPCC super computer. However, an
operational real time model
forecasting capability must await
improved and more detailed
characterization on earthquake in
real time (Yeh et al., 1993; Yeh et
al., 1995). Advances in satellite
technology allows for further
innovation in the modeling and
refinement in the prediction of
tsunami
occurrences
and
characteristics. The ability to use
satellite/GIS technology should also
lead to improvements in the future
forecasting of potential hazardous
impacts of tsunamis.
Tsunami Early Warning Detection System
T H E I N G E N I E U R 18
feature
Potential Occurrence of Megatsunami at La Palma
Cumbre Vieja is the most active
volcano in the Canary Islands, rising
two km above sea level with averaged
slopes of 15 to 200. Responding to
stresses associated with the growth of
a detachment fault under the volcano
west flank, a big portion of the island
is likely to slide off into the deep
ocean. It has been observed that the
scalp extended for a width of 4 km
with a maximum offset of 4 m. This
provided scientists with the
speculative conjecture that a flank
failure is inevitable, following an
expected future eruption near the
summit. It is anticipated that such a
failure will send a slide block 15 to
20 km wide and 15 to 20 km long,
with a volume of 150 to 500 km3, into
the ocean (Ward and Day, 2001). This
block will cascade down the steep
offshore slope for about 60 km until
it reaches the flat ocean floor at 4,000
m depth with a peak velocity of 100
m/s. Computer simulations indicate
that the leading wave height may
reach 900 m within two minutes after
the initial flank failure. Within five
minutes, the leading wave height
would drop to 500 m after 50 km of
travel. At 10 minutes, the slide would
have run its course, the tsunami
disturbance would have grown to 250
km in diameter and several hundred
meter-high waves would have rolled
up the shore of the three western most
islands of the Canary chains. After
several hours of travel across the
Atlantic Ocean, this tsunami would
arrive at the coasts of North and South
America, with waves of tens of meters
in height, causing inundations
reaching tens of km. It has been said
that this mega tsunami will definitely
happen; it is a matter of when, not if.
Hence the implications of this event
happening are beyond comprehension
at this moment.
Natural Protection Against Impact
of Tsunamis
Studies carried out by
international experts indicate that
natural mangrove forests left intact
and healthy coral reefs assists to
minimise the intense destructive
impact of tsunami waves when they
reach the shore (NGN, 2005). Coral
reefs act as natural breakwaters
complemented by mangroves that
exists as natural shock absorbers.
Government agencies worldwide
lately have come to appreciate the
effectiveness of natural fauna and
flora to act as buffer zones to slow
the speed of the waves down in future
occurrences of tsunamis.
Tsunami Hazard Mitigation
Programme
Acknowledging the importance
of potential impact from
earthquakes, the Ministry of Works
and Board of Engineers Malaysia
had organised a ‘Seismic Risk’
Seminar in 2001. Several
international and local eminent
speakers presented very informative
findings ranging from Building
Codes & Standards, Global & Urban
Risk Management, and Seismic
Hazard Assessment to Earthquake
Protection of Buildings. Little did
we all realise that all the findings
presented then would be so
invaluable in the aftermath of the
recent Asian Tsunami incident.
The primary aim for the
implementation of an efficient
Tsunami Hazard Mitigation (THM)
T H E I N G E N I E U R 19
Programme is to reduce loss of lives
and property. Principal proposals
for implementation of effective
THM Programmes are:
1. Design of Tsunami Early
Warning System
● Proposed
system must be
efficient and robust to withstand
the damage and harsh daily
tropical weather conditions,
● System selected must be accurate
since unnecessary evacuation
results in loss of revenue and
community’s trust on reliability
of the system,
● Setup of a Tsunami Warning
Task Force for effective
coordination of manpower.
2. Development of Effective
Design and Planning for
Coastal Construction
● Manual should act as a guidance
to Government agencies and
professionals in building design
and construction,
● Guidelines
should present
innovative engineering practices
for the design, siting,
construction and maintenance of
structures in potential high-risk
● Adoption of THM building
standards in high-risk tsunami
areas at coastal areas should be
encouraged,
feature
●
●
Voluntary relocation of essential
facilities (such as schools, power
stations and hospitals) from highrisk tsunami areas,
Post-disaster construction plans
should be drawn up for all highrisk tsunami areas based on
potential damage projections.
3. Implementation of effectual
Evacuation Plan and Logistics
● Evacuation procedures and
escape routes and safe areas
should be clearly drawn up
against potential disaster,
● Impending and post-tsunami
logistics, with close cooperation
of all emergency agencies, should
be confidently carried out to
ensure a high level of safety for
the local community,
● Establishment
of tsunami
resource centres for benefit of
local coastal community,
● Conduct
public
tsunami
education programs to practice
systematic evacuation and
enhance public awareness.
Conclusion
This feature is a valuable reference
in presenting the conditions for the
occurrences of tsunamis, their highintensity wave energy, engineering
innovations for implementation of
tsunami early warning systems and
proposals for effective design of
Tsunami Hazard Mitigation
Programmes. This should act as a
catalyst for further compilation of an
information database that is useful
for the future design and
development of efficient early
detection system for potential
tsunamis and the effective
implementation of Tsunami Hazard
Mitigation programmes. Smart
partnerships between the relevant
Government agencies and experts
from the engineering fraternity
should better prepare the nation to
meet any further challenges posed
by potential global occurrences of
tsunamis to enhance the safety of the
coastal community and property at
high-risk tsunami areas. BEM
REFERENCES
AFP - Agence-France Presse (2005).
Missing expected to take tsunami toll
past 280,000. Australian Broadcasting
Corporation., http:// www.abc.net.su
BBC (2005) Tsunami disaster. http://
www.bbc.co.uk
Briggs, M.J., Synolakis, C.E., Harkins,
G.S. and Green, D.R. (1995). Laboratory
expt. of tsunami runup on circular
island. Pure Appl. Geophys., 144(3/4),
569-593.
CCH-City & County of Honolulu (2005).
Regulations within flood hazard districts.
http://www.co.honolulu.hi.us
CNN (2005) Earthquake triggers deadly
tsunami. http://www.cnn.com.
FEMA-Federal Emergency Management
Agency (2005). Coastal Construction
Manual – FEMA 55. http://
www.fema.gov
Fine, I.V., Rabinovich, A.B., Bornhold,
B.D., Thomson, R.E. and Kulikov, E.A.
(2004). The Grand Banks landslidegenerated tsunami of November 18,
1929: preliminary analysis and
numerical modeling. Elsevier: Marine
Geology.
Folger, T. (1994) Waves of
Destruction. Discover Magazine, May
1994, pp. 69-70).
IOC-UNESCO (2005). Towards a
Tsunami Warning and Mitigation
System in the Indian Ocean.
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission. http://ioc.unesco.org
Feb. 1, 1974, Wellington, New Zealand
R. Soc. N .Z. Bul., 15, 51-60
NGN-National Geographic News (2005).
Tsunami
Proofing.
http://
news.nationalgeograhic.com
NOAA (2005). Tsunami. http://
www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami.
NBC10 (2005) Tsunamis. http://
www.nbc10.com
PMEL (2005) Tsunami Event. http://
www.pmel.noaa.gov
Schwab, J. (2005) Planning lessons from
the India Ocean Tsunami Disaster. Am.
Planning
Association.
http://
www.planning.org
State of Oregan (2005). Natural Hazards
Mitigation Plan – Tsunami. http://
csc.uoregan.edu
The Sun (2005) Tsunami alert. The Sun
– 29th March 2005. 1
Titov, V. V. and Gonzalez, F. I. (1997).
Implementation and Testing of the
Method of Splitting Tsunami (MOST).
NOAA/PMEL Tech. Memo. ERL PMEL112. No. 1927.
Ward, S. N. (2001). Landslide Tsunami,
J. Geophys. Res. 106, 11, 201-11, 215.
Ward, S. N. and Day, S. (2001). Cumbre
Vieja Volcano—Potential collapse and
tsunami at La Palma, Canary Islands.
Am. Geophys. Union. Paper:
2001GL000000.
Mofjeld, H.O., Titov, V.V., González F.I.
and Newman J.C. (1999). Tsunami
Wave Scattering In The North Pacific.
www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami
Wigen, S. O. (1989). Report on the
Assessment and Documentation of
Tsunamis for Eastern Canada.(Unpub)
Tide and Tsunamis Services, Fulford
Harbour, B.C., 16 pp.
Murty, T. S. (1984). Storm surgesmeteorological ocean tides. Bull. 212,
Fish. Research Board, Canada, Ottawa,
897 pp.
Yeh, H., Imamura, F., Synolakis, C. E.,
Tsuji, Y., Liu, P. L. –F. and Shi, S. (1993).
The Flores tsunamis. Eos Trans. AGU,
7(33), 369, 371-373.
Murty, T. S. and Wigen, S. O. (1976).
Tsunami behaviour on the Atlantic
coast of Canada and some similarities
to the Peru coast. Proc. IUGG Symp.
Tsunamis and Tsunami Res., Jan. 29-
Yeh, H, Titov, V., Gusiakov, V.K.,
Pelinovsky, E., Khramushin, V. and
Kaistrenko, V. (1995). 1994 Shikotan
earthquake tsunami. Pure Applied
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T H E I N G E N I E U R 20
By Assoc. Prof. Dr. Azlan Adnan, Mohd. Rosaidi Abas, and Hendriyawan, Structural Earthquake Engineering Research
(SEER), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
A
n earthquake is a sudden
shaking of the earth caused
by the breaking and shifting
of rock beneath the earth’s surface.
The energy released from such
movement, produces seismic waves
that propagate through layers of
bedrocks and the earth’s surface, to
the structures. The seismograph
located at the bedrock can measure
the magnitude and the distance of this
earthquake focus point whilst the
accelerograph records the ground
accelerations at the earth’s surface
and the structures. These instruments
are important in order to keep track
and monitor the sources of earthquake
activities as well as to understand the
effect and the earthquake hazard to
the ground surface and the structures
above it. In Malaysia, research in this
area is progressing very well with
supports from the Ministry of Works,
Ministry of Science, Technology, and
Innovation, Construction Industry
Development Board (CIDB), Public
Works Department, and Malaysia
Meteorological Service Department.
Earthquake engineering research
needs to be aggressively developed
even though in the country with low
to moderate seismic activity levels
such as Malaysia. Lessons learned
from the 1985 Mexican earthquake
and the 1957 San Francisco
earthquake had shown that an
earthquake could have a significant
effect, although at longer distance,
due to long period component of
shear waves. Hence, the research is
needed in order to predict the
possibility of earthquake in the future
that can cause damage to buildings
and structures in Malaysia and to find
the solutions for mitigating the
effects. The research should cover the
investigation and solution to the
problems prompted by damaging
earthquakes, and consequently the
scope of work involved in the
practical application of these
solutions (e.g. in planning, designing,
constructing and managing
earthquake-resistant structures and
facilities).
Peninsular Malaysia is located in
the stable Sunda Shelf with low to
medium seismic activity level.
However, several previous big
earthquakes occurred near Sumatra
dated November 2, 2002 (M =7.4),
January 22, 2003 (M = 5.8), July 25,
2004 (M = 7.3), December 26, 2004
(M = 9) and March 28, 2005 (M = 8.7),
should be considered as a warning
sign that earthquakes can have a
significant effect although at longer
distance due to the characteristic of
long period component of shear
waves and local sites. Some of those
earthquakes had caused cracks to a
few buildings in Penang, Kuala
Lumpur, and Gelang Patah, as well
as tremors in other cities in Peninsular
Malaysia.
Seismicity of
Peninsular Malaysia
Regions geographically distant
from plate boundaries tend to be
classified as low seismicity areas.
Peninsular Malaysia lies in the
southern edge of the Eurasian plate
and is consequently an example of a
low seismicity area in which close to
the most seismically active zone, the
Sumatra Subduction Zone (the interplate boundary between the IndoAustralian and Eurasian plates). The
T H E I N G E N I E U R 21
Indo-Australia plate is moving slowly
northeastward (7cm/year). This causes
pressure to build up and eventually a
point will be reached where the
strength of the rock cannot resist the
imposed stresses, which are released
in an earthquake as seismic waves.
The Sumatra Subduction Zone tends
to have earthquakes measured at
magnitude 9. Besides that, Peninsular
Malaysia is closer to the Sumatra
fault. This clearly defined transform
fault is laid in the interior of Sumatra
that is parallel to the trend of the plate
boundary as a result of the component
of plate-motion. The Sumatra Fault
tends to have earthquakes of
magnitude 7.7. Figure 1 shows the
distribution of earthquakes with
magnitude above 5 for the period of
January to May 2005.
Recent giant earthquake of
December 26, 2004 (magnitude 9.2),
which was located over the off west
coast of Northern Sumatra, was well
predicted (Rosaidi, 2001). The
prediction was based on the return
period of large earthquakes off the
west coast of Northern Sumatra in
about 70-100 years. The previous
large earthquake off the west coast
of Northern Sumatra was in 1935
with a magnitude of 7.7. The future
significant earthquakes would be
over the Sumatra Fault and might
give considerable shaking to the
western part of Peninsular Malaysia.
The previous large earthquake over
the Sumatra fault was in 1892 with
magnitude 7.7. Based on the chart
in Figure 2, it can be seen that the
return period for earthquake with
magnitude above 7 and slip rate
averagely ± 15mm/year, is about
100-150 years.
cover feature
Earthquake Induced Energy:
Sources And Hazard Analysis For
Structural Earthquake Resistant Design
In Peninsular Malaysia
cover feature
Kluang, Ipoh and Kota Kinabalu
(Rosaidi, 1998). At present, MMS
operates a total of 14 stations; seven in
Peninsular Malaysia and seven in East
Malaysia. Each station is equipped with
strong motion seismograph.
Seismic Hazard Assessment
Figure 1. Distribution of Earthquakes epicenters (January - May 2005)
Figure 2. Effect of fault slip rate and earthquake magnitude on return period
(Kramer, 1996)
Seismograph Network
in Malaysia
The Malaysian Meteorological
Service (MMS) serves as a national
information centre for seismology.
The MMS started to operate seismic
stations in 1979 by installing four
Short Period (vertical component)
seismographs at Petaling Jaya,
T H E I N G E N I E U R 22
Seismic hazard assessment is a
process to evaluate design parameters
of earthquake ground motions at a
particular site. Usually, the ground
motion parameters considered in this
assessment are peak ground
acceleration and response spectrum.
Generally, seismic hazard assessment
can be divided into three steps as
shown in Figure 3. The first step is to
obtain seismic hazard parameters,
which cover collecting earthquake
data and developing seismotectonic
model for the region surrounding the
site. The second step is to calculate
the ground motion parameters at the
particular site. The analysis is carried
out using attenuation relationship
formula. This formula, also known as
ground motion relation, is a simple
mathematical model that relates a
ground motion parameter (i.e. spectral
acceleration,
velocity
and
displacement) to earthquake source
parameter (i.e. magnitude, source to
site distance, mechanism) and local
site condition (Campbell, 2002). The
final step is to analyse local site
effects. This analysis considers the
effects of topography, stratigraphy,
and shear strength properties of soil.
These characteristics often exert a
major influence on damage patterns
and loss of life in earthquake events.
Generally, there are two methods
to conduct seismic hazard assessment,
i.e. Deterministic Seismic Hazard
Analysis (DSHA) and Probabilistic
Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA). The
selection of these two methods is
influenced by many factors such as
the purpose of the hazard or risk
assessment, the seismic environment
(whether the location is in a high,
moderate, or low seismic risk region),
and the scope of the assessment. The
most comprehensive perspective will
be obtained if both deterministic and
probabilistic analyses are conducted
(McGuire, 2001).
cover feature
Figure 3. General procedure of seismic hazard assessment
DSHA preceded PSHA as the
prevalent form of hazard assessment
for maximum (worst case) earthquake
shaking. It involves development of
a
seismic
scenario
and
characterization of that scenario.
Usually this method is applied to
structures for which failure could
have catastrophic consequences, such
as nuclear power plants and large
dams. The advantages of this method
are its simplicity to apply and being
conservative where the tectonic
features are well defined (line
sources).
The seismic hazard assessment
using deterministic method has been
performed by Structural Earthquake
Engineering Research group (SEER) in
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. This
method calculates the seismic hazard
based on the worst-case scenario of
earthquake expected in a region and
it covers the estimation of maximum
magnitude of probable earthquake to
occur in that region. As shown in
Figure 4, the result of deterministic
analysis has divided the PGA map of
Peninsular into two zones, i.e. the
zone for range between 30 and 50 gals
on the east side of Peninsular
Malaysia and the zone between 50
and 70 gals on the west side (Adnan,
et al., 2002).
The shortcomings of DSHA
method are:
(i) it does not provide information
on the level of shaking that might
be expected during a finite period
of time (such as the useful
lifetime of a particular structure
or facility)
(ii) it produces very conservative and
perhaps unrealistic results, and
(iii) it does not take into account the
effects of uncertainties in the
various steps required to compute
the resulting ground motion
characteristics (Kramer, 1996).
PSHA is a method to analyse
seismic hazard assessment using
Note: 1 gal = 0.001 g; 1g= 9.8m/s2 (g=gravity acceleration)
Figure 4. Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) contour (Adnan, et al., 2002).
T H E I N G E N I E U R 23
probability concept. This method
explicitly consider the uncertainties
of the size, location and rate of
occurrence of earthquake, and the
variation of ground motion
characteristics with the size and
location of earthquakes in the
evaluation of seismic risk. The
objective of PSHA is to quantify the
rate (or probability) of exceedance
of various ground-motion levels at
a site (or a map of sites) given all
possible earthquakes. The design
parameters are usually expressed in
terms of accelerations, velocities or
spectral accelerations with a
specified probability of exceedance.
These parameters are mapped on a
national scale for a standard ground
conditions (e.g. rock or stiff soil).
Mapping to such a scale is called
macrozonation. This assessment is
needed in order to develop the
earthquake resistant design code for
structures such as buildings and
bridges.
cover feature
Figure 5. PGA macrozonation map
of Peninsular Malaysia with 10%
probability of exceedance in 50
years.
Figure 6. PGA macrozonation
map of Peninsular Malaysia with
2% probability of exceedance in
50 years.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 24
landslides. It also provides the basis
for estimating and mapping the
potential damage to buildings. Our
previous study regarding the effect of
local site condition has shown that
the peak accelerations at bedrock may
amplify about two to five times at the
surface due to the effect of local soil
condition (Adnan, et al, 2003) and the
maximum effect of the motion will
affect mostly the low and medium rise
buildings (e.g. the one to 10-storey
buildings) in Penang and Kuala
Lumpur. More soil investigation and
analyses are required in order to
obtain more accurate results to
develop the microzonation map.
Conclusion
The energy released by earthquake
forces produces seismic waves that
cause substantial impact to the
structures. By identifying the
sources of earthquakes through
instrumentation and performing
seismic hazard analysis, a proper
earthquake resistant design of
structures can be obtained. In order
to successfully achieve the mission,
more seismological stations are
needed to properly monitor the
earthquake events around the country
and to help establish more accurate
data for the seismic hazard analysis.
Previous study by SEER group showed
a probability of large earthquakes
above 7 in magnitude could occur at
the Sumatra Fault line, at a distance
as close as 350 km away from Kuala
Lumpur and other cities situated at
the west coast of Malaysia. From the
deterministic analysis, the maximum
peak ground acceleration (PGA) for
Peninsular Malaysia is 70 gal (0.07g)
and for East Malaysia is 150 gal
(0.15g). Through the probabilistic
analysis of Peninsular Malaysia, the
maximum PGA values are 50 gals
(0.05g) for 500 years return period
and 70 gals (0.07g) for 2,500 years
return period. Generally, seismic
design code for civil structures such
as buildings, retaining walls, dams,
bridges and others structures, are
based on compilation of earthquake
analyses, i.e. seismotectonic, seismic
risk, geotechnical and structural
T H E I N G E N I E U R 25
dynamic analysis. The development
of the design code requires not only
civil engineering knowledge but also
other sciences such as physics,
seismology, geology, geophysics and
computer sciences. Therefore, the
coordination and cooperation among
sciences and engineering fields are
needed in order to obtain reliable
results, and workable solutions.
Acknowledgment
Some of the results produced in
this paper were developed as part
of a project funded by the
Construction Industry Development
Board (CIDB) Malaysia, entitled:
“Seismic Hazard Analysis of
Peninsular Malaysia for Structural
Design Purposes”. This support is
gratefully acknowledged. BEM
References
Adnan, A., Marto, A., and
Norhayati. 2002. Development of
Seismic Hazard Map for Klang
Valley. World Engineering
Congress, Serawak.
Adnan, A, Marto, A, and
Hendriyawan. 2003. The Effect of
Sumatra
Earthquakes
to Peninsular Malaysia.
Proceeding Asia Pacific
Structural
Engineering
Conference. Johor Bahru, 26– 28
August. Malaysia.
Kramer, S. L. 1996. Geotechnical
Earthquake Engineering, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey
Mohd Rosaidi C. A., 2001.
Earthquake Monitoring in
Malaysia, Proceedings for the
Seismic Risk Seminar, Malaysia,
2001.
Mohd Rosaidi C. A., 1998.
Seismological Activities in
Malaysia. Proceedings for the 5th
ASEAN Science and Technology
Week, Hanoi, Vietnam, 12-14
October 1998.
cover feature
The preliminary research of PSHA
has been performed by SEER to
develop macrozonation map of
Peninsular Malaysia. The analysis was
carried out for two hazard levels, i.e.
10% and 2% probability of
exceedance in 50 years for bedrock
of Peninsular Malaysia. The contour
maps of Peak Ground Acceleration
(PGA) at 10% and 2% probabilities
of exceedance in 50 years for bedrock
of Peninsular Malaysia can be seen
in Figures 5 and 6. The PGA contour
map across the Peninsular Malaysia
has a range between five and 50 gals
for 10% probability of exceedance in
50 years hazard levels or 500-year
return period of earthquake, and
between 10 and 70 gals for 2% in 50year hazard levels or 2500-year return
period of earthquake. The hazard
levels show the trend of the contour
to increase constantly from the
southwest to the northern side of
Peninsular Malaysia.
It should be noted that the
preliminary analyses have not
considered the local site effects.
Geotechnical factors often exert a
major influence on damage patterns
and loss of life in earthquake events.
Even in the same vicinity, building
response and damage can vary
significantly due to variation of soil
profiles. In the case of the 1985
Mexican earthquake, the greatest
concentration of damages occurred at
the Lake Zone of the Mexico City,
which is approximately 400 km from
the epicenter. Distant fault together
with soft soil amplified the vibration
from the source to the site. This effect
becomes more dangerous for high-rise
buildings or structures, which have
fundamental periods close to that of
seismic wave at the soil surface. In
other countries, several attempts have
been made to identify their effects on
earthquake hazards in the form of
maps or inventories. Mapping of
seismic hazard at local scales to
incorporate the effect of local soil
conditions is called microzonation.
Microzonation for seismic hazard
has many uses. It can provide input
for seismic design, land use,
management, and estimation of the
potential for liquefaction and
cover feature
Pilot Centralized Solar Power Station
In Remote Village, Rompin, Pahang
By Iszuan Shah Syed Ismail, Azmi Omar, Hamdan Hassan , * TNB Research Sdn. Bhd.
Malaysia has electrified the whole Peninsular Malaysia with about 95% grid connected electricity.
The other 5% is associated with a number of widely deployed unelectrified small rural areas which are
related with the aborigines. Diesel-electric power supply to the rural area, Kg. Denai has been replaced
by a PV-diesel-battery hybrid system.
The use of photovoltaic modules as a hybrid component in these systems is marginally cost-effective.
In still smaller systems such as those found at remote holiday homes, PV modules are more cost
effective rather than extending the grid.
The usual or normal system using solar as a source for electricity in rural areas is a standalone system
for each house. For this project, a pilot centralized solar power station was the source of electricity to
light up the 15 houses at Kampung Denai, Rompin, Pahang, Malaysia. This system was the first solar
photovoltaic system installed at an aborigine’s village in Malaysia. The village was chosen because
there is a primary school. Moreover, the remote communities are living in stratification, which makes
electrical wiring easier.
The pilot solar hybrid power station consisted of 10 kW photovoltaic panels, 10 kW inverter, 150 kWh
batteries and other balance systems. A generator set with capacity of 12.5kVA was installed for
monsoon season.
This paper will present the status of the system, system load and future developments.
T
NB has been involved with solar
power since the 1980s. At that
time, most solar projects
undertaken by TNB in Peninsular
Malaysia were associated with
decentralized stand-alone system for
the Rural Electrification Programme.
As it is very expensive to provide
electricity supply from the grid to the
rural area, stand-alone solar PV
systems were recognized as a costeffective option to electrify the remote
villages.
Building solar power stations will
contribute to the objectives of the
Eighth Malaysian Plan to supply
about 5% of electrical energy through
the application of renewable sources
of energy.
In cases where communities are
widely scattered, remote and far away
from the unified grid, solar energy can
play an important role in their socioeconomic development. Solar
photovoltaic is the most promising
technology to supply energy to those
communities. Remote communities
and villagers are characterized, in
most cases, by being very small in
size, widely spread with relatively low
load demands. Their main domestic
energy consumption needs are for
residential purposes (e.g. small
lighting units, radio, television,
refrigerator, etc). Each community
consists of between 30 and 50 houses.
Kampung Denai is located about
35 km from the nearest main road
connecting Rompin and Mersing. The
residents are 158 orang asli scattered
in 22 houses. The current electricity
supply is from an 18.6 kW powered
generator set. The electricity supply
is from 7 p.m. to 11 p.m. which is
insufficient for the residents.
With this pilot project, TNB
Research hopes to design and install
a standardized, stand-alone Solar
Power Station suitable for this
country. The technical capabilities and
economic value of the pilot project
can be demonstrated.
CRITERIA OF SELECTION
Kampung Denai has been chosen
to be the first pilot solar power station
for its remote location. Furthermore,
* The authors are attached to TNB Research Sdn Bhd (TNBR), a wholly owned subsidiary of Tenaga
Nasional Berhad (TNB). The views expressed herein are attributable to the authors and do not
represent those of TNB and TNBR.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 26
cover feature
Figure 1. Road to Kampung Denai
Figure 2. Example of unelectrified house
Figure 3. Example of electrified house
it is situated about 14 km from the
unified electric network, where it is
very costly to extend the grid to small
and very far communities. Due to this
reason, Kampung Denai has been
identified as one of the possible sites
for the application of the pilot solar
power station.
Kampung Denai has a primary
school, which implies the need for
longer hours and reliable supply of
electricity. By having electricity during
school hours, students can learn in a
more comfortable environment, which
can contribute to effective learning.
Access to Kampung Denai is by
both land and river. The journey from
Rompin will take 45 minutes using
four-wheel drive and 10 minutes by
boat. For the time being, most of the
residents use the river for their daily
routine.
Figure 4. Primary School at Kampung Denai
Figure 5. Solar Radiation Profiles at Mersing, Johor
T H E I N G E N I E U R 27
cover feature
Figure 6, 7 and 8 show the load
consumption at Kampung Denai
taken on October 23-25, 2001. On
October 23, the power consumption
was low because the orang asli were
not aware that TNB staff were
measuring the load profile. The next
day, the load was not constant and
was around 1kW higher since it was
raining and most of the communities
stayed at home. On the last day, the
power consumption was high due to
hot weather and weekly gathering
with all the residents. As a result,
Figure 5 shows a constant load with
maximum demand of 4.2kW.
DATA ANALYSIS
The controller is capable of
downloading and storing the
monitoring data. The data
downloadable are stated in Table 1.
Table 1. Available data for
downloading from controller
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Site Load
Diesel & Inverter load (kW)
Diesel & Inverter frequency (Hz)
Battery voltage (V)
Battery Volts (V/cell)
Battery Amps (A)
Solar Amps (A)
Battery Temperature oC
Battery kW
Solar kW
Figure 6. Genset Power Consumption (23/10/2001)
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
Table 2 shows the main equipment
used for the solar power station. This
system was commissioned on
December 19, 2002.
Table 2. The System Equipment
Equipment
PV arrays
Inverter
Generator
Battery
Capacity
10 kW
10 kW
12.5kVA
150 kWh
Figure 7. Genset Power Consumption (24/10/2001)
Solar panel
Sharp monocrystalline solar
panels were used for high efficiency
output. A total of 60 solar panels with
rated capacity of 10.5kW were used.
Each solar panel was rated 175w with
voltage Vmp of 35.4 and short circuit
current, Isc of 4.95. The panels face
south with tilting angle of 15 0. Five
arrays with 12 panels were connected
in series.
Figure 8. Genset Power Consumption (25/10/2001)
T H E I N G E N I E U R 28
Battery
A total of 120 batteries with
capacity of 816Ah of each cell were
used in the system. From this, 60
batteries were connected in series and
cover feature
Figure 9. Battery Configuration in Container
Figure 10. The Solar Power Station in Rompin
paralleled in two arrays. Each cell rated voltage was
2.35V and the minimum voltage was 1.85V before the
generator sets comes in. Each battery has a 1000-cycle
life and deep of discharge of 80%. Hawker deep cycle
sealed lead acid battery was chosen as the storage system.
Generator
Generator capacity was rated 12.5kVA with storage
diesel tank of 1000litre. The genset lifetime is estimated
at 10000hours. The genset fuel curve slope (L/hr/kW) is
0.25. Kubuta diesel generator was used as a back-up
power system.
Controller
A bi-directional static power pack inverter with
rated capacity of 10kW was used to control and
stimulate the system so that all equipment can
synchronize into working the system at its highest
efficiency. The controller is capable of showing solar,
THE INGENIEUR
cover feature
Furthermore, the system could
enhance the capabilities of TNB and
TNBR into training capable and
knowledgeable staff on solar energy.
FUTURE
In future, TNB Research would
install a weather monitoring system.
This is to comply with IEC17025. This
includes solar radiation, ambient and
solar panel temperature. The solar
power station will also supply
electricity for new school activities.
Figure 11. Schematic Diagram of Solar System
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, there is a good
potential for pilot solar power station
in remote and rural areas. This pilot
system is functioning very well
without any major problem from the
day it was installed.It is the first solar
hybrid power station and a pilot
project by TNB Research Sdn. Bhd.
Success of this project shows potential
of electrifying rural and remote areas.
The design is a pioneer to ensure
renewable energy is the future of
electricity supply in areas located far
from urban fringes. BEM
References
Figure 12. The new 3-storey School
battery, generator and inverter
output at real time value and also
storage data for a few days’ data.
The programme from the controller
can be downloaded for research
purposes.
SYSTEM DISTINCTION
The prominent aspect of the
system was the first ever
functioning centralized solar power
station installed in Malaysia. Other
than that, it uses bidirectional
controller that can operate
intelligently between solar, battery
and generator set. Moreover, it
enables the controller to be
integrated with other renewable
energy such as wind or micro
turbine. To save space for further
extension, the solar panels were
mounted on top of the container
which also acts as a shield for the
generator set from heat and rain.
The system voltage was 120V to
stabilize system reliability and
improve voltage drop. The controller
can also function to download data
of solar radiation, temperature and
also system output such as solar
panel, battery, generator and load
to the users.
The pilot solar power station
provides a continuous, reliable and
maintenance free system. It rarely
needs any maintenance due to its
stability
and
reliability.
Additionally, the benefit of the
system is preservation of the
environment by reducing the
emission of green house gases.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 30
[1] Iszuan Shah Syed Ismail,
Zaidon Hj. Awang, A.
Subaramaniam
[2] Ahmad Hadri Haris, 2002,
Final Report for a Pilot
Project to Study the
Performance of
GridConnected Solar Photovoltaic
System in Malaysia, TNB
Research Sdn. Bhd.
[3] Ahmad Hadri Haris, 2003,
Added Values of GridConnected Solar Photovoltaic
System, TNB
[4] IEA-PVPS, 2001, Operational
Performance, Reliability &
Promotion of Photovoltaic
[5] Van Dyk, E.E, et al. 2002.
Long-term Monitoring of
Photovoltaic Devices in
Renewable
Energy. Vol 25.
pp183-197. UK.
Code Of Professional Conduct
1.0 A Registered Engineer shall at all times hold
paramount the safety, health and welfare of the
public.
1.1 A Professional Engineer shall approve and sign only
those engineering documents that he has prepared
or are prepared under his direct supervision.
1.2 A Professional Engineer shall certify satisfactory
completion of a piece of work only if he has control
over the supervision of the construction or installation
of that work, and only if he is satisfied that the
construction or installation has fulfilled the
requirements of the engineering design and
specifications.
✃
1.3 A Registered Engineer shall not reveal facts, data or
information without the prior consent of the client
or employer except as authorized or required by law
or when withholding of such information is contrary
to the safety of the public.
1.4 A Registered Engineer having knowledge of any
violation of this code and Local Authorities regulations
shall report thereon to appropriate professional bodies
and, when relevant, also to public authorities and
cooperate with the proper authorities in furnishing
such information or assistance as may be required.
1.5 When the professional advice of a Professional
Engineer is overruled and amended contrary to his
advice, the Professional Engineer shall, if the
amendment may in his opinion give rise to situation
that may endanger life and/or property, notify his
employer or client and such other authority as may
be appropriate and explain the consequences to be
expected as a result of his advice being overruled and
amended.
2.0 A Registered Engineer shall undertake assignments
only if he is qualified by education and experience
in the specific technical fields in which he is
involved.
2.1 A Professional Engineer shall not affix his signature
to any plan or document dealing with subject matter
in which he lacks competence, nor to any plan or
document not prepared under his direction and
control.
2.2 A Professional Engineer shall not accept assignment
and assume responsibility for coordination of an entire
project and sign and stamp (P.E. stamp) the
engineering documents for the entire project unless
each technical segment of the project is signed and
stamped personally by the qualified engineer who has
prepared the respective segment of the project.
3.0 A Registered Engineer shall issue public statements
only in an objective and truthful manner.
3.1 A Registered Engineer shall be objective and truthful
in professional reports, statements and testimony. He
shall include all relevant and pertinent information
in such reports, statements, or testimony, which
should bear the date indicating when it was current.
3.2 A Registered Engineer may express publicly only
technical opinions that are founded upon his
competence and knowledge of the facts in the subject
matter.
3.3 A Registered Engineer shall not issue statement,
criticism or argument on technical matter that is
inspired or paid for by interested parties, unless he
has prefaced his comments by explicitly identifying
the interested parties on whose behalf he is speaking
and by revealing the existence of any interest he may
have in the matter.
4.0 A Registered Engineer shall act for each employer
or clients as faithful agent or trustee.
4.1 A Registered Engineer shall disclose all known or
potential conflicts of interest that could influence
or appear to influence his judgement or the quality
of his services.
4.2 A Registered Engineer shall not accept
compensation, financial or otherwise, from more
than one party for services on the same project, or
for services pertaining to the same project, unless
the circumstances are fully disclosed and agreed to
by all interested parties.
4.3 A Registered Engineer shall not solicit or accept
financial or other valuable consideration, directly or
indirectly, from outside agents in connection with
the work for which he is responsible.
4.4 A Registered Engineer as advisor or director of a
company or an agency shall not participate in
decision with respect to particular services solicited
or provided by him or his organization.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 31
guidelines
CIRCULAR NO. 3/2005
guidelines
4.5 A Registered Engineer shall not solicit or accept a
contract from a body or agency on which a principal
or officer of his organization served as a member of
that body or agency unless with knowledge and
consent of that body or agency.
4.6 A Registered Engineer while acting in his professional
capacity shall disclose in writing to his client of the
fact if he is a director or member of or substantial
share holder in or agent for any contracting or
manufacturing company or firm or business or has
any financial interest in any such company or firm
or business, with which he deals on behalf of his
client.
4.7 All professional advice shall be given in good faith.
5.0 A Registered Engineer shall conduct himself
honourably, responsibly, ethically and lawfully so
as to enhance the honour, reputation and
usefulness of the profession.
5.2 A Registered Engineer shall not offer, give, solicit or
receive, either directly or indirectly, any contribution
to influence the award of a contract which may be
reasonably construed as having the effect of intent
to influencing the award of a contract. He shall not
offer any gift or other valuable consideration in order
to secure work. He shall not pay a commission,
percentage or brokerage fee in order to secure work.
5.3 A Registered Engineer shall check with due diligence
the accuracy of facts and data before he signs or
endorses any statement or claim. He shall not sign
on such documents unless, where necessary,
qualifications on errors and inaccuracies have been
made.
5.4 A Registered Engineer shall respond, within
reasonable time, to communication from the Board
or any other relevant authority on matter pertaining
to his professional service.
5.5 A Registered Engineer shall not maliciously injure
or attempt to maliciously injure whether directly or
indirectly the professional reputation, prospect or
business of another Engineer.
(1) supplant or attempt to supplant another
Engineer;
(2) intervene or attempt to intervene in or in
connection with engineering work of any kind
which to his knowledge has already been
entrusted to another Engineer; or
(3) take over any work of another Engineer acting
for the same client unless he has
(i) obtained a letter of release from the other
Engineer or obtain such letter through the
client, provided that this requirement may
be waived by the Board; or
(ii) been formally notified by the client that the
services of that other Engineer have been
terminated in accordance with the
provisions of any contract entered into
between that Engineer and the client;
provided always that, in case of dispute over
non-payment or quantum of any
outstanding fees, the client shall request
the Board to be the stakeholder under the
provision of Section 4(1)(e)(ea)
5.7 Except with the prior approval of the Board, a
Registered Engineer shall not be a director or
executive of or substantial shareholder in or agent
for any contracting or manufacturing company or
firm or business related to building or engineering.
If such approval is given, such Engineer shall not
undertake any contract work wherein he is engaged
as a consulting engineer in such project unless it is
in respect of a “design and build” project.
5.8 A Registered Engineer shall not be a medium of
payment made on his client’s behalf unless he is so
requested by his client nor shall he, in connection
with work on which he is employed, place contracts
or orders except with the authority of and on behalf
of his client.
5.9 A Registered Engineer shall not
(1) offer to make by way of commission or any other
payment for the introduction of his professional
employment; or
(2) except as permitted by the Board, advertise in
any manner or form in connection with his
profession.
5.10 A Professional Engineer in private practice shall not
without the approval of the Board enter into
professional partnership with any person other than
a Professional Engineer in private practice, a
Registered Architect, a Registered Quantity Surveyor
or a licensed Land Surveyor.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 32
✃
5.1 A Registered Engineer shall not falsify his
qualifications or permit misrepresentation of his or
his associates’ qualifications. He shall not
misrepresent or exaggerate his responsibility in or
for the subject matter of prior assignments.
Brochures or other presentations incident to the
solicitation of employment shall not misrepresent
pertinent facts concerning employers, employees,
associates, joint venturers, or past accomplishments.
5.6 A Registered Engineer shall not directly or indirectly
Update
Policy On
The Use Of Water
Related Products
as at April 8, 2005
Issued by Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor Sdn Bhd
(SYABAS)
Policy on uPVc pipes and fittings
●
SYABAS will continue to use uPVc pipes and fittings
(Class E) but restricted to external reticulation for
low cost residential development projects until
December 31, 2005. Beyond this date, the use of any
uPVc pipes for any external reticulation will not be
approved.
●
SYABAS will not approve the use of uPVc pipes and
fittings for internal plumbing as a continuation of
current policy.
Policy on the use of FRP Panel tanks
●
SYABAS will not approve the use of FRP Panel as a
ground tank and elevated tank for system to be
handed over to SYABAS as a continuation of current
policy.
●
SYABAS will not approve the use of FRP Panel as
suction tank and roof tank for buildings (internal
system) as a continuation of current policy.
●
Based on the practical issues of replacing or
modification to existing supporting structures,
SYABAS may continue to use FRP Panel as a
replacement/maintenance of some existing FRP Panel
tanks in Selangor, WP Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya.
THE INGENIEUR
engineering & law
Water ResourcesAnd
Management
In *
Instructions
Variations
Malaysia – The Way Forward
By Ir. Harbans Singh K.S.1
Part 1
T
he topic of this paper appears at first blush to deal
with two important but disparate topics. However,
on a closer examination, there is a significant nexus
between the two if one were to examine them in the light
of the administration of a typical contract and eventually
in situations involving claims 2. To do justice to the above
captioned title, it is my intention to deal with each
separately and then attempt to establish their relationship
within the context of a construction contract; a task to be
accomplished within the time constraints imposed on this
session.
In dealing with the individual topics, the discussion will
be confined only to the principal matters and issues; the
details being left to be referred to the relevant treatises.
Furthermore, the presentation on Instructions will delve
primarily on the subject of ‘Instructions to Contractors’
and Variations focused on ‘Variation Claims’. In the
process, the main areas of concern for practitioners will
be touched upon and the principal issues of contention in
everyday practice amplified. I am sure that the other
learned presenters will expand upon some of the collateral
issues directly or indirectly in their respective papers so
as to present the whole picture to the participants; this
being the main objective of this conference.
INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CONTRACTOR
3
In administering a particular contract, one of the most
important powers available to the contract administrator
is the issuance of instructions. Whether these be intended
to ensure that the contractor rectifies defective work or
carries out variations to the contract, the power to issue
such instruction remains the most effective tool in the
hands of the contract administrator.
In parallel to the existence of such power, is a
corresponding duty to issue relevant instructions
pertaining to specific matters either on his own volition
or upon the request of the contractor; such instructions
being necessary to enable the purposes of the contract to
be met. This duty is amply underlined in RIBA’s Plan of
Work Diagrams 9 to 11 4 to which reference be made. It is
the intent of this section to develop the initial introduction
and explain certain salient features in sufficient detail.
administrator and/or the employer to issue instructions
to the contractor 5.
In practice, however, most standard forms of conditions
of contract include such express contract provisions;
examples of which include PAM ‘98 Forms (With &
Without Quantities Edns) Clause 2.0, CIDB Form (2000
Edn) Clause 3, IEM.CE1/89 Form Clause 5, JKR 203 &
203A Forms Clause 5, etc.
It is pertinent to note that except for the PAM ‘98 SubContract Form, there are no such express provisions in
the other commonly encountered Nominated Sub-Contract
Forms such as JKR 203N (Rev. 10/83), JKR 203P (1983),
IEM.CES 1/90; 6 etc.
*
1.
2.
3.
4.
Contractual Provisions
5.
In the absence of any express contractual provision to
the contrary, there is no general right under a typical
engineering/construction contract for the contract
6.
This paper was presented at KLRCA/MIArb’s International
Conference on Construction Law and Arbitration held on the 26rd
- 28th April 2005 at Nikko Hotel, Kuala Lumpur.
Director, HSH Consult Sdn. Bhd.
Especially those going under the title of ‘Variation Claims’.
See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. ‘Engineering and Construction Contracts
Management: Commencement and Administration’ at P253 –
260.
Covering Stages J to L in conjunction with the NJCC Guide ‘The
Management of Building Contracts’.
See ‘Construction Contracts Law and Management’ [2nd Edn] by
Murdoch and Hughes at P262.
For use in conjunction with IEM.CE1/89 Form (For Civil Engineering
Works).
T H E I N G E N I E U R 34
An instruction can be either of an oral nature or in writing;
though the latter appears to the more common form. A
majority of the standard forms of conditions of contract
require all instructions issued by the contract administrator
to be ‘in writing’; an example being clause 2.5 7 PAM ‘98
(With Quantities) Edition which stipulates:
All instructions issued by the Architect shall be in writing.
If the Architect issues an instruction otherwise than in
writing it shall have no immediate effect, but shall be
confirmed in writing by the contractor to the Architect
within seven (7) days. If within seven (7) days upon
receipt of the contractor’s confirmation, the Architect does
not dissent to it in writing, then the contractor’s
confirmation shall be deemed to be an Architect’s
Instruction. The said instruction shall have taken effect
on the date when the contractor’s confirmation was issued.
immense. However, in practice the more commonly
encountered instructions are of the principal varieties as
stipulated herebelow 10:
●
To vary works under the contract;
●
To resolve any discrepancy 11 in or between the contract
documents;
●
To remove from site any materials or goods brought
thereon by the contractor and the substitution of any
other materials or goods therefore;
●
To remove and/or re-execute any works executed;
●
To open up for inspection of any work covered up;
●
To rectify and/or make good any defects;
●
To dismiss from the works any person under the
contract as empowered by the specific clauses;
●
To expend any Provisional Sum/P.C. Sum included in
the Contract Sum;
●
To undertake any matter which is necessary and
incidental to the carrying out and completion of the
works under the contract; and
●
To carry out specific requirements of the contract for
which the contract administrator is empowered under
the contract.
Similar requirements are expressed in the various other
forms.
Cognisance should be taken of the following issues
pertaining to this matter 8:
●
In the clauses adverted to here above, the principal
requirement is for the instruction to be merely in
writing. Therefore, the instruction need not be in any
form so long as it is written. This would presumably
encompass letters, memoranda, facsimile, drawings,
confirmed minutes of meeting and entries in site diaries.
It is a moot point whether ‘e-mail’ falls within this
classification.
●
The general position is that the contractor is not obliged
to carry out an instruction until it is reduced to writing
by the contract administrator. The date of such an
instruction shall be the date it is subsequently
confirmed in writing;
●
If the contractor receives oral instructions, the
contractor must write in to the contract administrator
confirming the oral instructions. The latter then has a
reasonable period 9 to effect such written confirmation.
The instruction is then valid from the date of
confirmation; and
●
If the contract administrator dissents or refuses to
confirm, the contractor need not act on the instruction.
If, however, the contractor nevertheless complies with
the oral instruction; the contract administrator may
confirm the instruction at any time up to the issue of
the final certificate i.e. retrospective confirmation.
Types
As most standard clauses pertaining to instructions are
widely drafted, the range of such instructions that can be
issued by a contract administrator are accordingly
Procedural Requirements and Validity
The procedural requirements governing the subject of
‘instructions’ are usually stipulated in the respective
conditions of contract. To be effective the instruction
must strictly comply with the form and procedure as laid
down in the conditions of contract.
A number of issues arising from this matter which must
be taken due note of are listed hereunder:
●
Once a contractor has received a properly issued
instruction from the contract administrator, the duty
of compliance is on him e.g. Clause 2.1 PAM ‘98 Forms
(With & Without Quantities) Edns. 12 which reads:
7.
8.
Entitled ‘Instructions To Be In Writing’
See also ‘The Malaysian Standard Form of Building Contract’ [2nd
Edn] by Sundra Rajoo.
9. Usually about 7 days depending on the circumstances.
10. See for example Clause 5(a) JKR 203 Form (Rev. 10/83) and Clause
10.01 Putrajaya Conditions of Main Contract.
11. Ambiguity, inconsistency, divergence, etc.
12. See also Clause 3.1 CIDB Form, Clause 5(b) JKR 203 & 203A
Forms, etc.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 35
engineering & law
Form
engineering & law
‘The contractor shall (subject to clauses 2.3 and 2.5)
forthwith comply with all instructions issued to him
by the Architect in writing in regard to any matter in
respect of which the Architect is expressly empowered
by these conditions to issue instructions’
The period for compliance should be within the duration
expressly stipulated in the instruction itself or if none is
stated expressly, within a reasonable period thereof:
London Borough of Hillingdon v Cutler 13.
●
Should the contractor fail to comply, the remedies
available to the employer are confined to the express
contractual remedies and/or the remedies under the
common law.
The express contractual remedies alluded to here above
include:
(a) Employment of third parties to effect the work under
the instruction e.g. clause 2.2 PAM ‘98 Forms (With
& Without Quantities) Edns, etc.; or
(b) Determination of the contractor’s employment if such
ground is stipulated and the requirements met e.g.
Clause 25.1 14 PAM ‘98 Forms With & Without
Quantities) Edns, etc.
As for the common law remedies, this includes the extreme
action for breach of contract.
A contract administrator must be mindful not to issue an
invalid instruction; such an instruction being one where
the contract administrator has:
(a) Acted ‘ultra-vires’ i.e. beyond the powers given to
him under either the contract and/or the letter of
delegation of powers; or
(b) Not followed or breached the specific procedural
requirements expressly stipulated in the contract.
A contractor if issued with such an instruction can
challenge its validity 15 and refuse to carry it out. Any
insistence by the contract administrator or employer for
the contractor to effect such an instruction can be an
actionable breach of contract. Should however the
contractor decide to comply with and carry out an invalid
instruction, he cannot subsequently look to the employer
for payment and/or compensation.
Two further issues that need to be considered in summing
up this section concern the mode and the timing of the
issue of instructions. The instructions are normally issued
at the behest of the employer 16 , the contract
administrator’s initiative or upon application by the
contractor depending upon the particular circumstances
involved. The instructions usually can be issued
throughout the duration of the contract i.e. right up to
the issue of the final certificate until the contract
administrator becomes ‘functusofficio’.
Liabilities
In issuing instructions to the contractor, the contract
administrator acts as an agent of the employer with real
and/or ostensible (apparent) authority. Hence, the
employer is generally liable directly as principal, and
vicariously for any breach of warranty on the part of his
agent: EMS Bowe (M) Sdn. Bhd. v KFC Holdings (M)
Bhd. & Anor 17. However, this is subject to the important
caveat as lucidly illustrated by Murdoch and Hughes in
the following extract 18:
….. a contract administrator who exceeds his or her
authority risks being held personally liable to a third
party with whom he or she deals. In addition, the law of
agency contains another trap for the unwary. This is
that any agent who signs a written contract on behalf of
a client will be treated as a party to it and thus personally
liable, unless the contract itself makes it clear that it is
signed merely as an ‘agent’ …..
Pursuant to the above discussion, it is clear that where
the contract administrator is expressly authorized 19to
issue certain instructions the employer is bound. But
where he exceeds his authority he may be personally
liable for damages: Sika Contracts Ltd. v Gill 20.
INSTRUCTIONS AND VARIATIONS: THE NEXUS
21
For a variation to be tenable at law, it must be valid in
the first place. Unless such a change meets the validity
test, the contractual consequences ensuing thereof cannot
arise and accordingly cannot be enforced. Therefore,
the contractor cannot be compelled to comply with any
variation order issued and he on his part may not be
able to recover his contractual entitlements as to
additional costs and/or time, for instance. It is hence
apparent that the central issue of validity forms the
essence of a contractually tenable and therefore
enforceable variation; a matter that continues to generate
disputes in many a contract in the engineering/
construction industry.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
[1960] 2 All E.R. 361.
e.g. sub-clause 25.1(iii) and (vi) for instance.
See also clause 2.4 PAM ‘98 Forms.
e.g. for matters involving changes in the employer’s requirements
[1999] 6 CLJ 513. See also ‘Construction Law in Singapore and
Malaysia’ [2nd Edn] by Robinson & Lavers at P323.
‘Construction Contracts Law and Management’ [2nd Edn] at P258
& 259.
either in the Conditions of Contract and/or Letter of Delegation
of Power.
[1978] 9 BLR 15.
See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. ‘Engineering and Construction Contracts
Management: Post-Commencement Practice’ at P455 – 464.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 36
●
The legal nature of the proposed change i.e. contract
conditions governing variations and the common
law rules governing the scope of change; and
●
The formalities governing the change e.g. issue of
the variation order by the designated person and the
applicable procedural requirements.
Valid Variations
Each one of the said factors will be dealt with in a greater
depth below.
(A) General
1. Contract Conditions Governing Variations
When one classifies a variation as ‘valid’, the
fundamental reference is in terms of posing the question:
has the change been carried out in compliance with a
valid variation order? The latter therefore serves as the
ultimate ingredient in the context of the instant
discussion.
It is settled law that a contractually valid variation order
can only be issued if there is a term 26 in the contract
permitting the same and strictly in accordance with this
term. Should there be no such term or that the provisions
of an existing term be not complied with, any variation
order thereupon issued may, for all intents and purposes,
be contractually invalid and thereforeunenforceableTo
cater for the eventuality of permitting such variations to
be effected, most if not, all the standard forms of conditions
of contract have incorporated express stipulations in the
conditions of contract thereto. Notable examples of these
include clause 28 CIDB Form, clause 24 JKR Forms 203 &
203A, clause 23 IEM.CE 1/89 Form, etc.; which terms are
also reflected in ‘bespoke’ forms.
The term variation order in turn has no magical meaning
but its precise ambit must be appreciated to ensure that
the elements of validity are not compromised. The best
definition that can be of assistance is the one proffered
by Prof. Vincent Powell-Smith in relation to engineering
contracts which holds a ‘variation order’ to be 23:
An instruction of the engineer 24 to effect a change to the
works as defined in the contract documents. It is
commonplace for a variation simply to be issued as an
engineer’s instruction; it being evident from the content
that it is a variation. Alternatively, variations are issued
separately on variation orders.
From the above definition, the principal elements of a
valid variation order are:
●
It must be in the form of an ‘instruction’ in the formal/
contractual sense;
●
The person issuing the instruction must be the contract
administrator or the person empowered under the
contract to issue such instruction;
●
The instruction must effect a change to the works;
and
●
The works being changed or varied must be spelt out
or defined in the contract documents.
Coupled to the abovementioned elements are a number
of relevant factors that must be considered in determining
the validity of a variation order; the latter being
considered in detail in the subsequent write-up.
In the rare situation of the absence of such an express
stipulation in the contract or it being rendered invalid/
unenforceable, following the discussion hereabove, the
parties have only a number of alternatives available to
them; one of these being to enter into a supplementary
agreement to enable the varied work as envisaged to be
carried out. To preclude such a situation from arising
and to obviate its attendant complications, it is necessary
for the parties to ensure that not only the relevant express
provisions are included in their contract from the very
outset but these are religiously adhered to in the
implementation stage.
2. Common Law Rules Governing Variations
Notwithstanding the presence of and the satisfaction of
the express contractual provisions governing the subject
of variation orders, the parties to a typical contract in
implementing such changes must be mindful of and
comply with the applicable common law rules which
encompass invalid omissions, ‘cardinal’ changes and
recovery without written variation orders.
The said areas of concern have to be dealt with especially
when one deals with the so called ‘Extra Contractual’
claims.
(B) Factors Determining Validity of Variation Order
Chow Kok Fong in ‘Law and Practice of Construction
Contract Claims’ 25 identifies two main factors
determining the validity of a valid variation order,
namely:
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Especially the contractor’s Variation Claims.
See ‘An Engineering Contract Dictionary’ at P 563.
i.e. the contract administrator.
[2nd Edn] at P 50.
or clause
T H E I N G E N I E U R 37
engineering & law
The subsequent write-up has been formulated to address
the instant areas of concern 22. As the boundaries of the
legal principles in this area of the variation field are still
not clear, a general approach will be taken and where
necessary references to pertinent judicial decisions of
the non-conventional jurisdictions may be made to shed
some light on the possible ways of resolving these
problem areas.
engineering & law
3. Issue by Designated Person
For a variation order to be upheld as contractually valid,
one of the main requirements is that it must be issued by
the person empowered under the contract to effect the
same. Such a body or person might be the employer
himself, or the contract administrator, or any other body
or person designated in the contract or authorized
expressly under the contract.
consent of the employer may be a pre-requisite to
the contract administrator’s issuing any variation
orders; 31
●
Where the contract administrator is empowered under
the contract to vary the works, his use of such power
as the employer’s agent is for the purpose of the
contract purely discretionary: Neodox Ltd. v The
Borough of Swinton & Pendlebury 32.
The body or person so designated can be either named in
the contract or empowered through a formal letter of
delegation of power issued after award of the contract
during the currency of the contract 27. The above
requirement is neatly summed up in the following words
by Robinson & Lavers 28:
●
The person who is designated as the party empowered
to issue variation orders is not obliged to exercise the
said power ‘fairly’ as the said power is normally only
for the benefit of the employer and the person
exercising such power is acting as the latter’s agent:
Davy Offshore v Emerald Field Contracting 33.
‘The employer, under all standard forms, is required to
exercise his right to change the contractor’s obligations,
through the agency of the architect (or engineer or
supervision officer). The contractor is generally under no
obligation to accept instructions direct from the employer
except under some governmental forms where such a right
of direct communication is retained for reasons of national
security. The use of the architect as agent in this context
is necessary of course to ensure coordination of the design,
to ensure standardized administrative procedures and
because, in most cases, the initiator of the changes is the
architect himself as his detailed design work progresses….
The contract administrator must be mindful not to exceed
his real or ostensible authority or act beyond the powers
vested in him under the contract or in his professional
services agreement 34. Should such an eventuality
occasion, he may be culpable of acting ‘ultra vires’ with
such possible consequences of rendering any variation
order issued invalid and/or exposing himself to claims of
breach of contract or negligence by the employer.
As can be distilled from the above extract, in most
contracts, this power is delegated to the contract
administrator i.e. the Architect in the PAM Forms,
Engineer in the IEM Forms, Employer’s Representatives
in the Putrajaya Forms, etc. It is pertinent to note that
once the contract designates a specific person as the
official who is empowered to vary the works or a specific
person is delegated this duty, a variation order issued by
any other person will not be contractually valid 29.
Furthermore, in exercising this power, the contract
administrator must ensure that the said power meets the
following criteria 30:
●
It covers the nature of the variation or change ordered;
●
It covers the extent of the variation or change
envisaged; and
●
It meets any express time limit prescribed for exercising
such powers e.g. whether the contract permits variation
orders to be issued after practical completion of work,
etc.
Cognisance should also be taken of the following
characteristics and/or features of the power of the contract
administrator to vary works:
●
The employer may (either in the contract or the letter
of delegation of powers) subject the exercise of the
said power to certain procedural and/or financial
limitations e.g. in Public Works Contracts, the prior
4. Compliance With Procedural Requirements
A primary factor in ensuring the validity of a variation
order issued by the contract administrator is the
satisfaction of the relevant procedural requirements
prescribed in the contract pertaining to the same. As can
be gleaned from the various express contractual provisions
considered previously, most contracts require such orders
to be in the form of written instructions; a classic example
being clause 23(b) 35 of the IEM.CE 1/89 Form which reads:
No such variation shall be made by the contractor without
an order in writing of the engineer. Provided that no
order in writing shall be required for increase or decrease
in the quantity of any work where such increase or decrease
is not the result of an order given under this clause but is
the result of the quantities exceeding or being less than
those stated in the bills of quantities. Provided also that
27. See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. ‘Engineering and Construction Contracts
Management: Commencement and Administration’ - Chapter 4.
28. In ‘Construction Law in Singapore and Malaysia’ at P 322 & 323.
29. See ‘Law & Practice of Construction Contract Claims’ [2nd Edn.]
by Chow Kok Fong at P 53.
30. See ‘Construction Law in Singapore & Malaysia’ [2nd Edn.] by
Robinson & Lavers at P323.
31. See ‘A Guide on the Administration of Public Works Contracts’ by
JKR Malaysia at P 325 to 328.
32. [1958] 5 BLR 34
33. [1991] 55 BLR 1 (QBD).
34. or conditions of agreement.
35. Entitled ‘Orders for Variations to be in Writing’.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 38
A number of significant matters pertaining to such
provisions should be taken cognizance of:
●
●
It is obvious that the empowering express contractual
provision in a typical contract also spells out the
relevant procedural requirements pertaining to the said
matter;
the requirement is usually for the order to vary to be
in the form of an instruction issued by the designated
person i.e. the contract administrator. although the
format of such an instruction is normally not
prescribed, perhaps for evidential reasons, the form is
stipulated i.e. it is to be ‘in writing’;
(c) It has been held that mere references in progress
payment certificates to some extra work, in the
absence of Variation Order Instructions, did not
constitute as Valid Variation Orders: Tharsis
Sulphur & Copper Co. v M’Elroy & Sons 39. This
was also so for unsigned drawings and documents
prepared in a consultant’s office: Myers v Sarl 40.
(C) Effect
The effect of a properly ordered or valid variation order
(especially in the form of a written instruction) is of
immense contractual significance, namely:
●
The duty of compliance is on the contractor i.e. the
contractor is obliged to accept the instruction and carry
out the changes ordered; and
●
Should the contractor refuse to accept the instruction
or fail to comply with its requirements within any
prescribed time limit, his said conduct would by itself
be a breach of contract.
In the latter situations, the employer has a number of
options available to him; these being:
●
●
●
●
the standard forms do not rule out the possibility of
oral instruction being issued but require these to be
ultimately sanctioned or confirmed in writing.
accordingly, there may be a retrospective confirmation
of oral variation instructions perhaps even until the
issue of the final certificate although such a timing
does not constitute good practice and should be
sparingly used and if so, in extenuating circumstances
only;
for lump sum contracts based on bills of quantities, a
written instruction is not required where there is an
increase or decrease in the quantity of work not because
of a variation order but mainly as a result of the final
quantities differing from those stated in the contract
bills; clause 23(b) of the iem.ce 1/89 form as reproduced
hereabove bearing testimony to this assertion.
chow kok fong has summarized the effects of the
procedural requirements in the following manner 36:
(a) Unless expressly stipulated to the contrary in the
contract, a proper written variation order is a
condition precedent to payment for variation
works: Russel v Viscount Sa da Bandeira; 37
(b) As a general rule, should the contractor fail to
comply with the formalities stipulated in the
contract, he cannot insist either under the contract
or on some other imputed contractual promise to
be paid a reasonable sum, even though the
employer derived some benefit from the work
varied: Taverner & Co. Ltd. v Glamorgan County
Council 38; and
●
If the breach is not material and is not sufficiently
serious, the usual remedies for failure to comply with
formal instructions can be implemented i.e. either
a)
The contract administrator can take third party
action i.e. the employer can engage third parties
to undertake the said works at the expense of the
original contractor; or
b)
The employer can himself undertake the works in
question i.e. departmentally, also at the original
contractor’s cost.
Should the breach be material and/or sufficiently
serious, the employer can either:
(a) Determine the contractor’s employment under the
contract provided there is an express provision in
the contract permitting him to do so 41; or
(b) In the absence of any such express provision, if
the contractor’s breach is tantamount to an act of
repudiation, rescind the contract and pursue his
relevant remedies thereupon. BEM
36. See ‘Law and Practice of Construction Contract Claims’ [2nd Edn.]
at P 54.
37. [1862] 13 CB (NS) 149
38. [1940] 57 TLR 243.
39. [1878] 3 App. Cas 1040
40. [1860] 3 E&E 306.
41. E.g. clause 25.1 PAM ’98 Forms (With & Without Quantities
Edn), etc.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 39
engineering & law
if for any reason, the engineer shall consider it desirable
to give any such order verbally the contractor shall comply
with such order and any confirmation in writing of such
verbal order given by the engineer whether before or after
the carrying out of the order shall be deemed to be an
order in writing within the meaning of this clause.
Provided further that if the contractor shall confirm in
writing to the engineer any verbal order of the engineer
and such confirmation shall not be contradicted in writing
by the engineer it shall be deemed to be an order in writing
by the engineer’.
feature
Malaysia Energy Supply Industry:
Unique Roles Of
Energy Commission
By
By Energy
Energy Commission,
Commission, Malaysia
Malaysia
For the last two decades, the Malaysian economy has been growing at a rapid rate, accompanied and
supported by a stable and reliable energy system. The energy system that includes energy supply and
energy end-use technologies is required not only for domestic uses but also for every commercial and
industrial activity. Lack or inadequate energy supply usually means limited benefits for consumers and
limited possibilities for business opportunities.
This article will first elucidate the energy scene and will then describe the roles of Energy Commission
(EC) to regulate the energy supply activities in Malaysia. The focus of this article is the electricity
supply-demand system, which is closely associated with the development of gas supply infrastructure
in Malaysia. The integrated supply-demand power system consists of both the electricity supply
infrastructure, owned and developed by utilities and independent power produces (IPPs) and electricity
end-use technologies owned by consumers in Malaysia.
B
y its nature, electricity is a
domestic premium “energy
source”. One can neither
import nor export electricity without
the physical transmission and
distribution “wires” interconnecting
a country with its neighbours. Like
food production, many developing
countries including Malaysia, strive
to become self-sufficient in electricity
and are therefore very much
dependent on national physical
supply facilities to ensure adequate and
reliable electricity supply. The electricity
supply industry can be categorized into
four main functions, viz:
●
●
Generation - the conversion of
primary energy into electrical
energy, which includes the
operation of power stations and
procurement of primary energy
Transmission - the transfer of
electrical energy in bulk from
generators or import sources to the
distribution level and to large final
consumers, including the transfer
●
●
of electrical energy between
electricity grids and/or between
countries. The transmission system
operator (TSO) is the entity
responsible for running the high
voltage transmission grid and is
the technical centre of any
electricity system.
Distribution - the transport of
electrical energy from the
transmission network (main intake
substations) to final customers
through medium- and low-voltage
distribution cables or wires
Supply – the selling of electricity
to end-users, metering and billing,
and the provision of information,
advice and to some extent,
financing.
Transmission and distribution
functions are natural monopoly and
currently the responsibilities of
Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) in
Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak
Electricity Supply Corporation
(SESCo) in Sarawak and Sabah
T H E I N G E N I E U R 40
Electricity Sdn. Bhd. (SESB) in Sabah.
Supply is still largely monopolized by
these three incumbent utilities but
entries of new players has begun
particularly from embedded highly
efficient co-generation sources e.g.
KLCC, KLIA, CUF in Kertih and
Gebeng.
The generation capacity for
Peninsular Malaysia stands at 17,785
MW. This capacity is expected
available to meet demand up to year
2005. Planting up of two more coal
power plants as planned i.e. Tanjung
Bin in Johor (2,100 MW) and Jimah
in Negeri Sembilan (1,400 MW), will
add more capacity to ensure
forecasted demand in the year 2008
and 2009 is met. Further plant ups
are being finalised to ensure sufficient
generation is available by 2010/ 2011.
Energy Mix and
Customer Choices
After the second oil price hike in
1979, Malaysia unveiled its national
Coal
24.6%
Natural Gas
65.3%
Fuel Oil
2.3%
dependence on imported coal and
later gas, and if we can successfully
manufacture RE cogeneration
technologies in Malaysia, will even
reduce our dependence on imported
technologies. RE sources are site
specific to Malaysia, particularly palm
oil wastes. We view EE programme
including demand side management
as having the potential to de-couple
energy demand from economic
growth and the increasing trend in
energy intensity of the Malaysian
economy can be stabilized and
progressively reduced.
Government Initiatives in RE
and EE projects
Diesel Oil
1.5%
Total : 16,682 ktoe
Figure 1: Energy Input in Power Stations
Source: National Energy Balance 2003
energy policy with three explicit
guiding principles i.e. supply,
utilisation and environmental
objectives. For more than two
decades, mainstream energy
development in Malaysia is driven by
the supply objective to ensure secure
and reliable energy supply to support
national
socio-economic
development. Since its introduction
in 1981, the fuel diversification or
four-fuel strategy of using oil, hydro,
gas and coal has been the mainstay
of national energy policy.
As shown in Figure 1, this strategy
is a great success enabling Malaysia
to develop indigenous energy
resources, particularly gas. With the
assurance of high availability and
reliability of energy supply, rapid
economic development caused energy
consumption to also increase in
tandem. Indeed, average annual
growth rate of energy consumption
increased much faster than economic
growth, particularly electricity that
consistently registered an elasticity of
around 1.5 or more over the last two
decades. Clearly, this situation cannot
continue without a huge cost to the
economy as a consequence of the twin
burdens of importing fossil fuels and
energy technologies for large
centralized power plants.
In 2001, Malaysia expanded the
four-fuel strategy to include
renewable energy (RE) as the fifth
mainstream fuel option. In the
Malaysian context, recurring savings
from energy efficiency (EE)
programmes will also qualify as RE.
The main goal is to complement the
energy supply system with EE, onsite distributed generation including
RE option and other “green”
electricity.
Several demonstration projects on
RE and energy efficiency programmes
were implemented in early 2001, the
beginning of Eighth Malaysia Plan
period (2001-2005). RE electricity
supply can reduce Malaysia’s rising
T H E I N G E N I E U R 41
In promoting greater utilization of
RE resources, demonstration projects
and commercialization of research
findings will be given high priority.
Additional financial and fiscal
incentives for RE projects will be
considered. For EE programmes,
energy efficient products are not
widely available in the local market
and most products must be imported.
When import duties and taxes are
slapped on them, these products are
naturally more expensive. This barrier
is now removed and EE products can
be imported free of duties and even
sales taxes.
The Government has also taken
steps to provide financial assistance
to enhance RE and EE efforts through
the use of the Malaysia Electricity
feature
Hydropower
6.3%
feature
Table 1: Development Allocation/Investments and Expenditure for Energy Sector Programmes,
1995-2005 (RM million)
Programme
Federal
Government
7MP Expenditure
NFPEs
Total
Federal
Government
8MP Allocation
NFPEs
Total
Electricity Sector
2,543.6
23,563.6
26,107.2
2,601.6
22,565.1
25,166.7
Generation (hydro and thermal)
Transmission
Distribution
Rural Electricity
Others
1,389.9
437.6
246.2
463.6
6.3
5,937.4
8,270.8
9,325.2
30.2
7,327.3
8,708.4
9,517.8
463.6
36.5
986.5
494.7
239.3
856.6
24.5
6,943.7
6,275.4
9,346.0
-
7,930.2
6,770.1
9,585.3
856.6
24.5
Oil & Gas Sector
-
30,400.0
30,400.0
-
27,638.0
27,638.0
Upstream
Downstream
Manufacturing
Others
-
12,900.0
11,000.0
5,300.0
1,200.0
12,900.0
11,000.0
5,300.0
1,200.0
-
12,800.0
10,600.0
2,200.0
2,038.0
12,800.0
10,600.0
2,200.0
2,038.0
2,543.6
53,963.6
56,507.2
2,601.6
50,203.1
52,804.7
Total
Source: The Eighth Malaysia Plan
Supply Industry Trust Account
(MESITA). Major IPPs in Peninsular
Malaysia including TNB Generation
contribute 1% of their audited annual
revenues to this trust account, of
which 20% could be allocated for RE
and EE activities.
To facilitate more utilization of RE
in power generation, the Government
launched the Small Renewable Energy
Programme (SREP) in 2001. Under
this programme, small power
generation plants (10MW and under),
which utilize RE, can apply to sell
electricity to TNB and SESB through
the distribution system. EC has been
appointed as the secretariat, which
function as a One-Stop Centre, to
facilitate new investment in the SREP.
●
Future prospects and
sustainability development
●
The Government fully subscribes
to the concept of sustainable
development. The concept of
‘sustainability’ in the Malaysian
energy sector revolves around the
T H E I N G E N I E U R 42
distribution and utilization of energy
resources. Therefore, the primary
challenge for the energy sector is to:
●
ensure adequate, secure, quality
and cost-effective supply of
energy
promote the efficient utilization of
energy
ensure minimum negative impact
on the environment in the energy
supply chain
As shown in Table 1 above, the
Government has provided an
allocation of RM2.6 billion only for
the energy sector in the 8MP period.
However, investment expenditure by
Non-Financial Public Enterprises
(NFPEs) such as TNB, SESCo, SESB
and PETRONAS is expected to reach
RM 50.2 billion. In the 8MP, total
investments by the Government and
NFPEs are reduced by 6.5% compared
to the amount spent in the 7MP
period. It is expected that the
sustainability of energy sector
development can benefit from ongoing initiatives to incorporate RE
and EE as mainstream energy options
in the country.
Energy Commission (EC) was
established under the Energy
Commission Act 2001 on May 1, 2001
and became fully operational on
January 2, 2002. Its main function is
to regulate the energy supply
activities in Malaysia, and to enforce
the energy supply laws, and for
matters connected therewith. EC is
responsible for the setting up and
implementation of an effective
regulatory framework for the
Malaysian electricity supply industry
and gas supply at the reticulation
stage. The energy laws and regulation
governing the EC are:
●
●
●
●
●
●
Energy Commission Act 2001
Electricity Supply Act 1990
Gas Supply Act 1993
Electricity Supply Regulations
1994
Gas Supply Regulation 1997
Licensee Supply Regulation 1990
In line with the Act, EC is
responsible ensuring efficient and
competitive electricity supply industry.
The long-term strategy is geared
towards ensuring the well-being of all
Malaysian citizens and the proper
functioning of the economy, the
uninterrupted physical availability of
electricity and gas at a price which is
affordable for all consumers (private
and industrial), while respecting
environmental concerns and looking
towards sustainable development.
One of the EC’s essential roles is
to ensure that the network
infrastructure is adequate and reliable,
the power generation capacity is
adequate and there is security of the
primary fuel such as gas, coal etc. In
line with this role, the Commission
monitors the price and supply of gas
and coal to power generation and
issues related to them. The function
is carried out through two committees
called Monitoring Committee for Gas
Supply for Power Generation,
EC is well aware of the issues and
challenges of the “mainstream”
energy sector today. Of great
importance are ensuring the
efficiency of the electricity supply
industry through effective economic
regulation. Towards this end EE
regulation is to be introduced. This
regulation will accelerate EE
implementation in Malaysia. At the
same time, campaign on high
efficiency motor and demand side
management activities are being
conducted.
established in 2002, and Coal Supply
Committee, established in 2003. The
Committees comprised Government
representatives and industry players
and are chained by the Commission.
In addition, the Commission also
monitors the security and robustness
of the electricity supply system.
Among steps taken by the Commission
is evaluating the performance of the
Grid System, the efficiency of the
industry and enforcing the terms and
conditions of the licenses issued to
TNB, SESB and IPPs. For the
performance of the Grid system, the
Commission had already conducted a
study and identified measures that
must be undertaken by the system
operator to improve their planning and
operation to avoid any more major
disturbances that will be detrimental
to the economy.
As for the supply activities, the
Commission will be coming out with
a yearly report to benchmark their
performance. Using the findings of the
report, the Commission will conduct
discussions with the stakeholders on
ways to improve their efficiency and
to ensure the agreed upon measures
are implemented.
In addition, the players are required
to carry out management and
engineering audit once in four years
and submit the findings and
recommendations for improvement to
the Commission. The Commission will
ensure that the recommendations are
implemented accordingly.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 43
Conclusion
Economic performance is a
major driver of electricity demand
and the Malaysian economy is
expected to grow rapidly in the
future. In the quest to achieve a
developed nation status as
embodied in Vision 2020 goal,
sustainable development of the
energy sector will become a pivotal
factor for economic competitiveness
and progress. Recent developments
e.g. RE as the fifth fuel, fiscal
incentives for RE and EE projects,
SREP program, EE regulations, in
the pipelines are manifestations of
enduring commitment to pursue a
sustainable energy development
path and to build on the success of
gas–electricity
integrated
development of the last two decades.
EC plays an important role in
regulating energy industry in
Malaysia. The EC has to ensure the
network infrastructure is adequate
to deliver reliable and secure supply
of electricity. Energy pricing issues
need to be analysed continuously.
The Commission must also establish
a
predictable
regulatory
environment, adopting a flexible
approach to regulatory issues and
continue with a progressive action
to increase investor confidence so
that they are able to effectively
contribute towards the efficiency
and improving the competitiveness
of the energy supply industry. BEM
feature
Unique Roles of
Energy Commission
feature
Clean Development
Mechanism In Malaysia
By Nik Mohd Aznizan Nik Ibrahim and Veronique Bovee, Danida/PTM CDM Secretariat
C
limate Change or Global
Warming is one of the most
serious environmental threats
of the 21st Century. It is the only global
environmental problem that receives
the attention of heads of states and
Governments around the world.
As a first global political response
to the threat of climate change, the
United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development
(UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992
agreed upon the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). Five years later the
Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC was
adopted. The Kyoto Protocol includes
legally binding targets for
industrialised countries, also referred
to as Annex I countries, to reduce their
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These
industrialised countries have to reduce
their collective greenhouse gas GHG
emissions by at least five percent
compared to 1990 levels by the period
2008-2012.
Malaysia is a Party to the UNFCCC
and has ratified the Kyoto Protocol on
September 4, 2004. The Kyoto Protocol
entered into force on February 16,
2005. As a developing country,
Malaysia has no quantitative
commitments under the Kyoto
Protocol at present. However, through
the Clean Development Mechanism,
Malaysia can voluntarily participate in
globally reducing emissions of GHGs.
including Malaysia). The CDM is thus
a project-based mechanism and CERs
can be generated by specific projects
that result in a reduction of GHGs,
like Renewable Energy projects,
Energy
Efficiency,
Waste
management, Waste to Energy, Fuel
Switch etc.
The purpose of the Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) is
two-fold. The first objective is to assist
developing countries achieve
sustainable development through
technology transfers, and the second
is to assist Annex I parties achieve
compliance in a more cost-effective
manner. The because the CERs
generated from CDM project activities
can be used by Annex I parties to
offset their national emission
reduction commitments
CDM projects are particularly
important as they are designed to
assist the flow of cleaner technologies
into developing countries in
circumstances where such flows
would otherwise not occur. It will be
up to the host country of the project
to ensure that any project and
investment for which CDM status is
being pursued is one that meets its
goals of sustainable development and
that produces real long-term climate
change benefits.
Malaysia has been following the
negotiations and development of
climate change issues very closely due
to the numerous implications that can
and will arise from the agreements
achieved. As a developing country,
Malaysia is not bound to any
commitments towards reducing its
GHG emissions under Kyoto Protocol.
However, through participation in the
CDM, Malaysia could benefit from
investments in the GHG emission
reduction projects, which will also
contribute towards the country’s
sustainable development goals, the
overall improvement of the
environment and additional financial
flows. Like any other trade, the CER
units accrued through the CDM are a
commodity. These CERs will provide
mutually shared benefits between
developing and developed countries.
Table 1 provides an overview of the
expected potential of CER revenues
for different types of projects in
Malaysia and the corresponding
amount of MW that can be installed
from Renewable Energy. It should be
stressed that the results are still
preliminary and also that the
realisation of this potential will
Table 1: Potential Volume of CERs for different types of projects in Malaysia
Project type
Biogas POME + animal manure
Landfill gas
Reduction of gas flaring
from oil production
Mini hydro
Biomass CHP
Other projects1
Total
What is the Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM)?
The CDM that is established under
Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol allows
UNFCCC
Annex I
parties
(industrialised countries) to earn
Certified Emissions Reductions
(“CERs”) from investments in emission
reduction projects in non-Annex I
parties (developing countries,
What can the role of CDM be for
Malaysia?
CERs per year in 2010
5,900,000
3,700,000
4,600,000
MW electricity
190 MW
45 MW
N/A
70,000
380,000
3,150,000
17,800,000
25 MW
90 MW
N/A
350 MW
Source: RE & EE project, MEWC, PTM, Danida, March 2005
1
Including energy efficiency projects and biomass for industry and central power
T H E I N G E N I E U R 44
to support a certain type of project or
technology, it can withhold national
approval and thus prevent CERs to
be generated and traded.
Current status of CDM
Institutional setup and CDM
projects in Malaysia
Since the ratification of the Kyoto
Protocol, Malaysia has worked
towards implementation of the CDM.
The entire institutional setup for
evaluating CDM project applications
at the national level is in place since
2003. The following institutions have
been established:
●
The Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment has been
appointed as Designated National
Authority (DNA). The DNA is
officially the focal point for CDM
and the main task is to evaluate
CDM projects.
●
Malaysia has put in place
institutions to process CDM
applications. The Technical
Committee for Energy supported
by an Energy Secretariat for CDM
T H E I N G E N I E U R 45
at Pusat Tenaga Malaysia (PTM)
evaluates CDM energy project
proposals. After evaluation by the
Technical Committee, the National
Committee on CDM (NCCDM)
gives the endorsement before the
DNA issues the letter of national
approval.
Apart from the institutional setup, Malaysia has also developed a
national procedure for approving
CDM projects that are submitted to
the DNA for approval. The CDM
approval criteria include indicators to
check whether a project is
contributing to sustainable
development, technology transfer and
whether an Annex I Party is involved
in the CDM project.
In parallel to the preparation
activities of the Government, there
has been an interest from project
developers in Malaysia to participate
and benefit from the CDM. The first
applications for national CDM
approval were received at the end of
2002. In May 2005, 15 applications
for CDM projects have been sent in,
including 14 projects in the energy
sector. Together, these projects will
feature
depend upon the removal of other
existing barriers for these project
types.
Assuming an annual potential of
18 million CERs per year, there is a
substantial CDM potential in Malaysia
of up to 100 million tonnes CO 2
equivalent for the period 2006 to
2012. At market prices between US$3
and US$10 per tonne, this corresponds
to a total capital inflow to Malaysia
from sales of CDM credits (CERs) in
the range between RM1.14 and RM3.8
billion. Bilateral and multilateral
CDM projects might typically leverage
project financing three to four times
this amount, hence contributing
substantially to foreign direct
investment and technology transfer.
From the perspective of Malaysia
the success of the CDM rests upon the
contribution it may make to national
sustainable goals. Whether this will
actually be achieved can be largely
directed by the Government, because
only projects that receive national
host country approval can be
officially registered as CDM projects
and generate CERs. Without such an
approval no CERs can be generated.
In case the Government does not want
feature
Carbon Contracting
Project Idea
Note
(PIN)
Project Design
Document
(PDD)
Host Country
Letter of
Approval
Initial
project
Idea
Verification
&
Certification
Project
Registration
Conditional
Letter of
Approval
Project
Validation
PROJECT DESIGN PHASE
Project
Monitoring
PROJECT
REGISTRATION
PHASE
Issuance of
CERs
$$$
PROJECT IMLEMENTATION
PHASE
Figure 1 – The CDM Project Cycle
generate 1.1 million tonnes of CERs
per year and if implemented about 75
MW of new renewable energy
capacity. With an average market
price of more than US$5, this will
generate more than RM20 million per
year for the development of RE and
EE projects.
What does it mean at the
project level and for project
developers?
The CDM can give financial
contribution to projects reducing GHG
emissions. Projects that have the
potential to reduce GHG in Malaysia
include amongst others:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Renewable energy projects,
including PV, hydro and biomass;
Industrial energy efficiency;
Supply and demand side energy
efficiency in domestic and
commercial sector;
Landfill management (flaring or
landfill gas to energy);
Combined heat and power
projects;
Fuel switch to less carbon
intensive fuels (e.g. from coal to
gas or biomass);
Biogas to energy (from POME or
other sources);
Reduced flaring and venting in the
oil and gas sector
With the introduction of the CDM
there are now two possible revenue
streams for these types of projects:
via traditional cashflows (e.g.
electricity
sales)
and
via
environmental value of the
investment (the value of CERs).
Providing projects fulfill the eligibility
requirements, as set out in the Kyoto
Protocol, and subsequently refined in
later negotiations, there exist good
opportunities for trading CERs.
It should, however, be noted that
not all projects can benefit from the
CDM. Firstly, projects have to meet
the so-called CDM eligibility criteria.
The most important one is that
projects should be additional to what
would have otherwise occurred. This
implies that it should be possible to
demonstrate that the proposed project
activity is not the business as usual
scenario. This can be done by
demonstrating that the revenues of
CDM can help overcome some
existing financial or other barriers.
Secondly, several costs have to be
made to register a project as a CDM
project and before the tradable CERs
can actually be generated. These costs
are also referred to as transaction
costs. The steps that have to be taken
are presented in Figure 1.
The total transaction costs can
vary from an average of US$ 40,000
for small scale projects to US$
120,000 for larger scale projects.
Due to the transaction costs
involved, as a general rule, a project
has to generate at least 25,000 CERs
(one CERs is equivalent to 1 tonne of
CO2eq.) to cover the transaction costs.
This implies that for example for
photovoltaic projects, a minimum of
15,000 solar panels should be
installed in order to weigh out the
transaction costs. Also, in general a
T H E I N G E N I E U R 46
capacity of more than 3 MW of
renewable energy needs to be
installed to outweigh the transaction
costs. In case the project involves
the use of biogas to generate
electricity, such a threshold of 3 MW
does not apply, because the project
will also avoid methane emissions,
which have a global warming
potential that is 21 times higher
than the value for CO2.
Examples of contribution of
CDM at project level
For projects in the energy sector
the saving of GHG emission stems
mainly from the fact that fossil fuels
are replaced or from the fact that
methane emissions are avoided. For
off-grid projects, diesel for engines is
often the replaced fuel. For gridconnected electricity producing
projects, the avoided emissions from
the power stations connected can be
calculated according to international
standards. Preliminary calculations
for Peninsular Malaysia indicate that
approximately 0.6 to 0.7 kg CO2 can
be displaced per kWh of renewable
electricity generated.
For combined heat and power
projects, GHG emissions may also be
saved from the production of heat.
However, for those projects where
biomass is currently being used for
heat production (which is the case in
many palm oil mills) no extra GHG
savings accrue for the heat produced
from biomass combustion, since this
is assumed to be a zero emissions fuel
source. This because the CO2 emitted
from burning the biomass is
considered equal to the uptake of CO2
by the plants.
Projects that involve the
avoidance and/or use of methane
that would otherwise have escaped
to the atmosphere give a significant
contribution to reducing GHG
emissions. This is particularly true
since methane is global warming
potential that is 21 times higher
than CO2.
In research done under the RE and
EE programme funded by Danida,
preliminary estimates indicate that
projects that displace grid electricity
only, the CDM can contribute 1.2 sen/
KWh for projects in Peninsular
feature
Malaysia. This is assuming a price
of US$5 per CER. For off-grid
projects and projects located in
Sarwak this is slightly higher. The
same is true for projects that save
the consumption of electricity. For
these projects the potential income
of sale from CERs can contribute to
direct cost savings of 5 -10% of the
electricity tariff in a scenario with
US$5/CER.
However, if a project at the same
time also avoids methane emissions,
which is the case for POME and
landfill gas projects, the CDM
contribution can be as high as 10sen/
KWh of electricity generated. This is
a significant contribution compared
to the maximum TNB tariff of 17 sen/
kWh in Peninsular Malaysia.
CDM can thus have a significant
impact on the financial viability of
power generation projects utilising
POME or landfill gas. Without the
CDM, the development of a power
generating plant using landfill gas
or POME as a fuel source is unlikely,
whereas with the CDM revenues this
has become a viable option for
project developers. On the other
hand, the CDM has only a marginal
impact on projects that displace
electricity only.
Conclusion
There are both direct and indirect
benefits of using CDM as an element
in the energy policy. This is true at
the project level as well as at the
national and global level. Globally,
it will contribute towards reducing
GHG emissions and thus combating
climate change.
The direct benefits at the project
and national level are linked to the
income from the sale of Certified
Emission Reductions (CERs). With
an assumed price level of US$5 per
CER and the estimated potential of
almost 18 million ton CERs per year
the annual income will be in the
order of RM300 million per year or
a total of RM1.5 billion before 2012.
Indirect benefits consist of
contribution to the implementation
of environmentally friendly
technologies in Malaysia and
towards reducing the dependence on
fossil fuels.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 47
Moreover, the Government of
Malaysia, in the Eighth Malaysia
Plan (2001-2005) extended the then
existing four-fuel strategy to include
renewable energy as the fifth fuel
after oil, coal, hydro and natural gas
in the electricity generation fuel mix.
The Malaysian Industrial Energy
Efficiency Improvement (MIEEIP)
Project, Small Renewable Energy
Project (SREP) and the Biomass
Power Generation and Cogeneration
(BioGen) Project are a few of the
many initiatives taken by the energy
sector to promote and encourage
sustainable energy patterns while
reducing GHG emissions from the
sector. The CDM can act as a
supportive incentive to these already
existing programmes.
In a recent market analysis,
experts pointed out that methane,
biomass and energy efficiency
projects are the most attractive CDM
investment projects in terms of their
cost-effectiveness and sustainable
development benefits. In this respect,
opportunities abound for investing
in attractive CDM project activities
in Malaysia. BEM
feature
The Coming Of Eurocodes
By Ir. Albert K W Tam, Pemborong Pembenaan Tam Kan Sdn Bhd
This article serves to give a brief view of the historical background and the development of Eurocodes.
For more technical details, the reader is advised to search on the Internet for which there are a few
web sites dedicated to this subject. A couple of short technical papers on Eurocode 2 had also been
published in the monthly bulletin of the IEM over the last three years.
As part of the European Union’s desire to do away with technical barriers to trade, a set of European
Codes of Practice in civil and structural engineering is progressively being published. The main purpose
of the Eurocodes is to provide a common platform for design criteria and methods; with a common
understanding of structural design between owners, users, designers, contractors and material and
product manufactures. It also permits the standardization in the preparation and development of
software and design aids. Ultimately, this will enhance and increase the global competitiveness of
their structural engineering consultants, contractors, product manufacturers and suppliers.
The coming of Eurocodes will eventually affect the engineers and the engineering industries in Malaysia
in many ways. The Malaysian engineering community must set its sight in the right direction and gear
up early to meet this new challenge.
E
urope has seen some of the bloodiest wars over a
period of 75 years from 1870 to1945 where France
and Germany, with their allies fought each other to
devastating effect. After the two great wars a number of
European leaders came to the noble believe that the only
way to secure a lasting peace between their countries was
to unite them economically and politically.
Thus, with this purpose in mind in 1951, the ECSC
(European Coal and Steel Community) was set up with
six member states: Belgium, West Germany, Luxembourg,
France, Italy and the Netherlands. The ECSC was such a
success that, within a few years, the same six countries
decided to go one-step further and integrate other sectors
of their economies.
In 1957, they signed the Treaties of Rome, creating
the European Economic Community (EEC) or more
commonly known as the “Common Market”, thus setting
the ball rolling on the removal of trade barriers between
them.
Since then this union of states has became the EU
(European Union) and has grown in size following
successive waves of accessions. Denmark, Ireland and the
United Kingdom joined in 1973, followed by Greece in
1981, Spain and Portugal in 1986 and Austria, Finland
and Sweden in 1995.
The EU has just welcomed a further ten new member
states from the eastern and southern Europe in 2004:
Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. This is
by far the biggest enlargement symbolizing a new EU
and a new Europe.
Bulgaria and Romania are expected to follow a few
years later with Turkey closely behind.
Economic and political integration between member
states of the EU has meant that these countries have to
make joint decisions on many internal and international
matters. Accordingly, they have developed common policies
in a wide range of matters - from agriculture to culture,
from consumer affairs to competition and from the
environment to engineering, transport and trade.
To ensure that the EU can continue to function efficiently
with 25 or more member states, the decision-making system
has been streamlined into EU institutions under the Treaty
of Nice. The Treaty lays down new rules governing the size
of the EU institutions and the way they work. It came into
force on 1st February 2003.
The EU has seen almost half a century of stability, peace
and prosperity. It has undoubtedly helped to raise the living
standards, built a single Europe-wide market, launched the
single Euro currency and strengthened Europe’s voice in
the world. This harmonization process has great implication
on world affairs and affected one way or another, the wellbeing of individuals in a great number of countries.
There have been three important developments in the
EU, which are affecting the practice and profession of
engineering, and its direction in years to come. Of these
three, the last would have the most influence on engineering
practices in Malaysia.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 48
The formation of Fédération Européene d’Associations
Nationales d’Ingénieurs (FEANI) in 1951 as a
federation of professional engineers that unites
national or professional engineering associations
from 26 European countries. FEANI represents the
interests of well over 2 million professional engineers
in Europe and has since strived for a single voice for
the engineering profession in Europe.
Through its activities and services, especially with
the attribution of the Eur Ing professional title, FEANI
aims to secure the mutual recognition of all European
engineering titles and qualifications, to strengthen
the position, role and responsibility of engineers in
society and to facilitate the freedom of engineers to
move and practice within and outside Europe
2.
3.
vital means of designing Civil and Structural engineering
works and are of utmost importance and significance to
both the design and construction sectors of the Civil and
Building Industries in Europe. Like other European
standards in use in EU countries today, Eurocodes will
also be used to assess products for “CE” (Conformite
European) mark. The adoption of the structural Eurocodes
by EU countries has wide implications on the Civil and
Building industries in Europe and other countries
worldwide. This is because about half the countries in the
world has historical background and connections with
the EU countries.
The Eurocodes are:
EuroNorm Reference
The law in the UK protects the use of the title Eur Ing
as a prenominal in front of the name and before all
other ranks and titles. The Eur Ing registration and
the use of the designation are regarded as a guarantee
of competence for professional engineers.
EN 1990
EN 1991
EN 1992
EN 1993
EN 1994
Eurocode 0
Eurocode 1
Eurocode 2
Eurocode 3
Eurocode 4
:
:
:
:
:
The introduction of a single European currency (the
Euro) on 1st January 2002 to effect economic and
monetary union (EMU) within the EU. From that day
the Euros is managed by a European Central Bank.
Euro notes and coins had replaced national currencies
in twelve of the 15 countries of the EU (Belgium,
Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal and
Finland).
EN 1995
EN 1996
EN 1997
EN 1998
Eurocode 5
Eurocode 6
Eurocode 7
Eurocode 8
:
:
:
:
The introduction of unified international codes of
practice in particular the structural Eurocodes for the
design of buildings and civil engineering structures,
which will replace national codes in the European
Community.
Eurocodes – What Are They?
Eurocodes or more precisely Structural Eurocodes are
a new set of unified international codes of practice
consisting of nine EN (European Standards) covering the
use of common structural materials, design and practice
codes for the design of buildings and civil engineering
structures. They are primarily designed to improve and
streamline the European construction industry to be more
competitive and enhance structural safety and the
professionals and related industries connected with it. They
are applicable to whole structures and to individual
component or elements of structures taking into
consideration all the advances made in the development
and production of and the use of all major construction
materials including concrete, steel, aluminum, timber and
masonry.
The Eurocodes are mandatory for European public
works and are set to become the de-facto standard for the
private sector. They will become the EU member countries’
EN 1999 Eurocode 9 :
Basis of structural design
Actions on structures
Design of concrete structures
Design of steel structures
Design of composite steel and
concrete structures
Design of timber structures
Design of masonry structures
Geotechnical design
Design of structures for
earthquake resistance
Design of aluminium structures
The complete suite of structural Eurocodes is under
the purview and management of CEN (European
Committee for Standardisation). Currently 20 CEN
members representing their national standards bodies of
the EU and EFTA countries including the Czech Republic
and Malta are involved in the production.
The work of drafting the Eurocodes was originally
under the aegis of the European Commission, but was
later transferred to CEN as the official European Standards
body. The history of Eurocodes therefore must go back to
1990 when the Technical Committee CEN/TC 250
“Structural Eurocodes” was charged with the responsibility
of developing the Eurocodes, first as the European Prestandards (ENV) and later as the European Standards (EN).
One might also ask why use the number 1990 as start of
EuroNorm References. One supposes that EN 1990 is most
appropriate as everything began earnest in Year 1990.
As of late last year, the whole suite of 62 ENV is
available for comment by member states. At present, plan
is at hand to convert 54 of the 62 ENV into 57 parts of
the EN – Eurocodes, covering Actions, Steel, Concrete,
Composite Steel and Concrete, Timber, Masonry and
Aluminium, together with Geotechnical design and Seismic
design.
The period for the publication of the 10 EN Eurocodes
is scheduled between Year 2002 and Year 2005. As soon
as an EN Eurocode is published, the period of co-existence
commences between that published EN Eurocode and the
corresponding national codes. They will eventually replace
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the national codes published by respective national
standard bodies or institutions like the BSI (British
Standards Institution) in the UK. It is anticipated that most
European national codes will cease to be in use by Year
2007. In the UK withdrawal of most if not all the British
Standards is certain to take effect by 2007 to 2010.
The first two of the converted Eurocodes (EN 1990
and EN 1991), covering the Basis of Structural Design
and Actions due to self-weight and imposed loads, have
been published during 2002, having successfully passed
through the CEN procedures.
The Objectives Of Eurocodes
As mentioned earlier the main purpose of the Eurocodes
is to improve the international competitiveness of all the
European construction industry and the engineering
professionals and industries connected with it both within
the European Union and outside its borders.
The introduction of a common suite of Eurocodes in
EU will make the practice of engineering, manufacturing
and the profession so much less complicated across borders
of member states.
Other benefits and opportunities brought about by the
adoption of the Eurocodes include:
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the provision of better understanding of design of
structures between owners, and users, designers,
contractors and manufacturers of construction
materials and products.
to facilitate the exchange of construction services
between member states.
to facilitate the marketing and usage of structural
components and parts in member states and other
countries.
the adoption of a common basis for higher education
of learning, research and development in the
construction sector.
provide a strong incentive for the preparation,
development and marketing of common design and
construction aids and softwares.
increase the competitiveness of the European civil
and structural engineering firms, consultants,
contractors, designers and product manufacturers in
their worldwide activities.
National Annexes
While so much so has been said about Eurocodes, a
very important but vital distinction must be made at this
point between the design codes and national regulations
and public authority requirements.
From the outset in the drafting and preparation of
Eurocodes member EU states have recognized that safety
must ultimately remain a national and not a European
responsibility. The safety factors outlined in the Eurocodes
are only the recommended values and that they may be
altered by the national competent authority of each
member state as deemed fit and proper.
This has involved the introduction of some flexibility,
across border, by means of what are commonly known as
NDPs (Nationally Determined Parameters). Each part of
the Eurocode will include a NA (National Annex) giving
national values for certain partial safety factors or NDPs.
The NA may include national practice and local or climatic
conditions (winds etc), classes, methods, level of safety,
durability, different levels of protection and economy
applicable to certain types of work.
In UK, the British Standards Institution (BSI) is the
national standard body responsible for publishing the
structural Eurocodes as the new national standards. Other
national standard bodies will do likewise. Authorization
for use of the Eurocodes will rest with the respective
national competent authority.
The national standard body will be bound to publish
the structural Eurocodes and its annexes in full without
any alterations as published by the CEN. However, this
will be preceded by a national title page and a national
foreword and followed by a national annex NA.
Eurocodes In Brief
The European Commission formally recommended the
Eurocodes as ‘a suitable tool’ for designing construction
works, checking the mechanical resistance of components
and checking the stability of structures vide
Recommendation 4639 of 11th December 2003. Henceforth,
all member states should recognize construction works
designed using Eurocodes.
The Commission has also warned member states that
they should only diverge from recommended values in
Eurocodes when ‘geographical, geological or climatic
conditions or specific levels of protection make that
necessary’. EU member states diverging too far from
recommended values will be told to change their nationally
determined parameters.
A very general brief is presented below for each
structural Eurocode
EN 1990 Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design
(Published 2002)
This is the head document in the suit of Eurocodes
and outlines the principles and requirements for safety,
serviceability and durability of structures. EN 1990 is based
on the limit state concept in conjunction with a partial
factor method and provides the basis and general principles
for the structural design verification of civil engineering
and building works. EN 1990 must be used in conjunction
with EN 1991 to EN 1999 as within them they do not
provide material independent guidance.
In EN 1990, the basic principles of structural design
have been harmonized for the EU member states including
such use of principle construction materials and disciplines
of engineering. Principal construction materials include
concrete, steel, masonry, timber and aluminium but
excluding glass. Engineering disciplines cover
geotechnical, bridge design, fire and earthquake etc.
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The guidance notes available include the following:
EN 1991 provides comprehensive information and
guidelines on all actions that should be considered in the
design of buildings and civil engineering works.
Subjects covered include densities, self-weight,
imposed loads, actions due to fire, snow and wind, thermal
actions, loads during execution and accidental actions.
Other main area covered includes traffic loads on
bridges, actions by cranes and machinery and actions in
silos and tanks.
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Practical use of Eurocode 2
EC2 versus BS8110
How to design beams to EC2
How to design solid slabs to EC2
How to design columns and walls to EC2
How to design flat slabs to EC2
Guidance on deflection
EC2 design flowcharts
Basic design equations
Guide to concrete cover and concrete quality
EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
(Imminent release in 2005)
EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
Eurocode 2 will become the only one design code for
all concrete structures in UK and Europe. It is by far more
comprehensive since it has brought reinforced concrete
design up to date reaping past experience of over 40 years
of UK ultimate limit state design codes BS 8110 and BS
8007.
Eurocode 2 will ultimately replace the following BS
Standards.
More advanced and new methods for the design of a
greater numbers of steel structures when compared to
existing British Standards are included in EN 1993
Eurocode 3. Both bolted and welded joints, rules for shell
and for the design of piles, sheet piling, silos, bridges,
buildings, tanks, crane supported structures, towers and
masts are explained in various sections. Rules for stainless
steel are now included.
BS 5400 for Bridges
BS 6349 for Maritime Structures
BS 8007 for Water-Retaining Structures
BS 8110 for Buildings
EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and
concrete structures
Eurocode 2 has four parts giving comprehensive
information for the design of concrete buildings and civil
engineering works and having the following references.
EN1992-1-1 Common rules for buildings and civil
engineering structures
This covers common design rules.
EN1992-1-2 Structural fire design
This covers design requirements
for fire.
EN1992-2
Bridges
This covers the design of bridges.
EN1992-3
Liquid-retaining structures
This covers the design of liquid-retaining
structures.
EN 1994 covers the common rules for buildings,
structural fire design and bridges. EN 1994 will need to
be used in conjunction with EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design
of concrete structures and EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design
of steel structures.
EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
EN 1995 Eurocode 5 covers the common rules and
rules for the design of buildings, structural fire design
and bridges. EN 1995 uses the limit state design concept
and is performance based. This is unlike the British
Standards for timber which uses the permissible stress
method.
EN 1995 will require software assistance for the designer.
EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures
Eurocode 2 depends on Eurocode 1 for loads. In the
design process various partial factors are to be applied to
the loads according to the limit state under consideration.
The values of various partial factors are contained in
Eurocode 0, as confirmed or modified by the relevant
National Annex.
As EN1992 Eurocode 2 will be the most widely used
document of design engineer, there is now at hand a
number of guidance notes to help comprehension of the
code. These can be downloaded from a web site at
www.eurocode2.info/EC2wpintro_files/EC2wpEC2-2.htm.
EN 1996 covers the design rules for reinforced and
unreinforced masonry, structural fire design and rules for
lateral loading for masonry structures.
EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
EN 1997 Eurocode 7 has three parts.
Part 1:
1:
2:
3:
4:
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General Rules has the following sub-headings.
General
Basis of geotechnical design
Geotechnical data
Supervision of construction, monitoring and
maintenance
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EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures (Published 2002)
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Fill, dewatering, ground improvement
and reinforcement
Spread foundations
Pile foundations
Anchorages
Retaining structures
Hydraulic failures
Overall stability
Embankments
Annexes
Part 2: Design assisted by laboratory testing
This covers the requirements for the execution,
interpretation and use of the results of the
laboratory tests to assist in the geotechnical
design of structures, buildings and civil
engineering works.
Part 3: Design assisted by field testing
This covers the requirements for the execution,
interpretation and use of the results of the field
tests to assist in the geotechnical design of
structures.
EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake
resistance
EN 1998 covers the general rules for the design of
structures for earthquake resistance including seismic
actions and rules for buildings, bridges, strengthening and
repair of buildings, silos, tanks, pipelines, towers, masts,
chimneys, foundations and retaining structures.
EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures
EN 1999 covers the common rules, structural fire design
and fatigue of structures.
Need For Continued Education, Training And
Professional Development
From the UK experiences and feedback it is generally
accepted that both civil and structural designers will have
to undergo a substantial amount of retraining coupled
with new supporting guidance notes, handbooks and
software for the successful implementation of Eurocodes.
There will be definitely a learning curve to follow and the
quality of such learning will depend very much on the
time, amount of available resources and dedication offered
by individual, companies, organizations and governmental
authorities.
The development and usage of appropriate software is
now deemed a higher priority as several Eurocodes will
require programmed software assistance.
Universities and other institutions of higher learning
will also need to remold their courses to meet this new
challenge.
As a part of this effort, Eurocodes Expert has been
established by the Institution of Civil Engineers UK,
Thomas Telford and various other UK construction industry
bodies to provide a vehicle for communicating
developments and guidance on the Eurocodes throughout
Europe. A great amount of up-to-date information and
data can be readily accessed from their web site at
www.eurocodes.co.uk. There is also a free Users’ Group
and newsletter for ICE members and other associated
learned bodies. The same site also provides a platform for
the reader to seek further information on all publications,
events and courses relating to Eurocodes.
Various conference and training programmes are being
developed by institutions and industry bodies in the UK
and elsewhere to help the construction industry adopt
and use the Eurocodes.
Malaysia’s Direction Amidst Winds Of Change
Because of the historical background of many nonEU countries with most European countries in politics,
commerce, education and trade, the introduction of
Eurocodes in the EU will also have great implication in
non-EU countries.
The effect of Eurocodes on individual countries, like
Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong are now being studied
in earnest by their respective engineering profession.
Efforts are now being made to increase the awareness of
the engineers and in the industry on the differences
between Eurocodes and British Standards or equivalent
local standards, which the local construction industry is
heavily relied upon.
Eurocodes are considered international standards and
may ultimately be adopted by the ISO. Because of the
WTO agreement, member countries will see greater
advantages in adopting Eurocodes.
Perhaps it is now an opportune time for Malaysian
engineers and the Malaysian construction industry as a
whole to harmonize their design standards with rest of
the world and to reap this new opportunity in the horizon.
To this end, the Institution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM)
has taken an early step in monitoring the situation closely.
A Position-Paper Committee was formed in July 2001 by
the Civil and Structural Engineering Technical Division
of IEM, to study the impact of the withdrawal of the British
Standards and Code of Practices after year 2007 on the
local construction industry. However, this study is
restricted only to Eurocode 2 as compared to BS 8110 and
not any other Eurocodes.
The Position Paper Committee studied on two possible
scenarios, which can be foreseen, in the withdrawal of BS
8110.
The first and more logical scenario would be a fully
Malaysian Code of Practice for Concrete Structures to be
prepared by local engineering experts. The second is to
adopt the Eurocode with National Annexes concept, which
is currently used in conjunction with EC2, as prepared by
UK.
The first scenario is a mammoth task as it is beyond
the capability of local engineering professionals. It may
well be possible in future when local engineering
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Eurocode is in compliance to ISO format and thus with
its adoption Malaysia will be in a most favorable position
to compete globally and to export engineering skills and
products worldwide. By culture and tradition, Malaysia
has always followed the British codes of practice and since
UK has adopted EC2, it would be prudent for Malaysia to
follow suit. Many technical papers and books are available
for reference, especially in the run up to the full adoption
of EC2 in UK by 2007, thus making the transition easier
and smoother. The Committee recommends that EC2 be
adopted as the concrete code of practice for the local
construction industry after year 2008.
All professional and practicing engineers and aspiring
to-be young engineers will have to learn new terms and
different design approach or philosophy. All other
supporting trades including technicians, contractors,
quantity surveyors and architects will also have to adapt
to terminology and new standard practices.
What is more important is that approving authorities
will have to re-organize standard practices and re-train
qualified engineers to comprehend on new acceptable level
of submitted designs, calculations and drawings.
At present, the Malaysian Standards MS 1195:1991 is
a full adoption of BS 8110:1985, and its use is legalized in
the local Uniform Building By-laws. The withdrawal of
BS 8110 will have wide implications to local construction,
engineering practices and related manufacturing
industries. Changes will have to be made to current
national regulations including the Uniform Building Bylaws to reflect on the new changes.
It is hope that the findings of the IEM Position Paper
Committee will assist the decision –making authority to
make an informed decision on the issue of adopting a
new concrete code of practice, as the Malaysian
Standards.
The full text of the IEM Position Paper - Version 10
for “Concrete Codes of Practice in Local Construction
Industry after 2008” is available from the IEM web site
at www.iem.org.my. Malaysian engineers are advised to
study this paper (24 pages) as it contains valuable
information relating to the issue.
Looking Ahead
Historically, construction regulations and standards
in Malaysia are heavily dependent on British Standards.
British Standards are in the process of being superseded
by European Standards, dubbed by some as the 21st
century Design Codes of Practice. The forthcoming
introduction of Structural Eurocodes will no doubt
represent the greatest change to the manner in which
engineers go about the business of specification and
design and the new working environment ever
experienced by the construction industry.
In addition to new design codes, many of the
associated materials codes are also changing, introducing
new concepts and terminology.
It is noted that IEM has so far only recommended the
adoption of Eurocode 2 for the concrete code of practice
for the local construction industry. However, Eurocode
2 is only a part of the suite of Structural Eurocodes and
there are common references between each Eurocodes.
There is therefore a need also to review and to study in
depth whether other Structural Eurocodes are suitable
for adoption in the local industry.
The effect of the introduction and implementation of
any Eurocodes on Malaysian professionals, academics,
regulatory bodies, standards body and others must be
studied and viewed seriously and positively. Malaysia
must be prepared to face this change in the crossroad in
a concerted manner. It should be done not too quickly
or too slowly.
The impact on higher institutions of learning and
the engineering professions will be paramount with wide
range of textbooks being revised and reissued from time
to time. Software developers also see the commercial
opportunity of a greater market for engineering design
and drafting programmes based on a single suite of
Eurocodes.
If we are to move in tandem with most other countries
then it is time now to take those first few steps. Eurocodes
published by the British Standards Institution are to be
known as BS EN. If such code is to be adopted for
Malaysia with a Malaysian National Annex then it may
be called MS BS EN.
The total number of Malaysian Standards and Codes
of Practice (CP) affected is unknown. In Singapore, a
total of 87 Singapore Standards (SS) and SS CP will be
affected. There is a need to identify and to prioritize the
most important and critical codes to review.
The introduction of Eurocodes requires clear and
strong leadership from the profession and industry in
order to ensure a smooth and effective change from
current standards. It will be necessary also to ensure
that clients are aware of the implications of Eurocodes
from their perspective. Both BEM and IEM should be in
a forefront position in formulating policies for
implementation in consultation with the statutory
authorities.
Professional engineers and practitioners should keep
abreast of the Eurocode itinerary and its detail in respect
of their area of work. Although not all Eurocodes are
now available in their final format, the process of
familiarization should begin now. Engineering
consultants, contractors and organizations should plan
an implementation strategy, which should include their
anticipated adoption date of the Eurocodes, together with
education and training programmes. BEM
T H E I N G E N I E U R 53
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professionals and researchers achieve higher and
distinctive advancement in research and development in
use and construction of concrete. This leaves with the
second scenario for consideration.
There are a number of comments identified by the
Position Paper Committee, of changes to Malaysia in
adopting a new international standard in place of BS 8110.
The most important highlight being reproduced hereunder:
engineering nostalgia
That
which
was
in
1945....
in Kg. Baru Sri Telemong, Pahang
Government Office
Is it a boiler?
Police Post
Courtesy: Mr. Chan Hong Fook, Pengerusi JKKK, Kg. Baru Sri Telemong
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