Volume 23 Issue 3
August 2009
ISSN 1832-4436
Registered by Australia Post
Publication No: 233066 / 00023
(a)
forward
δ
backwa
rd
(b)
3
FIG. 3: The structure from Pendry et al [6], which guides light around a central cavity by structuring of the spatial distributions
of the tensors of dielectric permittivity and magnetic permeability.
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
1
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
ABN 63 009 548 387
AOS News is the official news magazine of the Australian Optical Society. Formed in 1983, the Society is a nonprofit organisation for the advancement of optics in Australia. Membership is open to all persons contributing to, or
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Physics Department
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Optical Sciences Group
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RSPhysSE
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Christopher Chantler
School of Physics
University of Melbourne
Parkville, Vic 3010
Halina Rubinsztein-Dunlop
Department of Physics
University of Queensland
QLD 4072
Ben Eggleton
Director, CUDOS
School of Physics
University of Sydney
Sydney, NSW 2006
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School of Electrical, Electronic
& Computer Engineering
University of Western Australia
35 Stirling Highway
Crawley, WA 6009
2
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AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
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October 2009.
Editor
Michaël Roelens
Finisar Australia
244 Young Street
Waterloo NSW 2017
Tel: +61 (0) 2 9581 1613
Fax: +61 (0) 2 9310 7174
michael.roelens+aos@gmail.com
AOS News is the official news
magazine of the Australian
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expressed in AOS News do not
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August 2009
Volume 23 Number 3
AOS News
Articles
9
Optical Trapping and guiding of absorbing particles in air,
Vlad Shvedov et al
13
Conference Report: 11th International Conference on
Education & Training in Optics & Photonics, by John Love
15
Conference Report: Nanophotonics Down Under 2009, by
Min Gu and James W. M. Chon
16
Feeling with Photons, by Ian Littler
26
Metamaterials: changing the physics of wave propagation,
by Ross McPhedran
31
Temperature insensitive optofluidic photonic crystal
devices, by Christian Karnutsch et al
35
Sydney and Macquarie Universities visit Finisar Labs, by
Bill Corcoran
37
The Optics Suitcase: Physics Outreach in Far-North
Queensland Schools, by Sarah Midgley
Departments
1
Conference Announcement: KOALA 09
5
President’s Report – Benjamin Eggleton
5
Conference Announcement: ACOLS/ACOFT 2009
7
Editor’s Intro – Michaël Roelens
7
Conference Watch
39
Product News
44
Index of Advertisers & Corporate Members Information
Cover Pictures:
• Background: Picture of the largest sundial in Australia (and the southern hemisphere) located in Singleton in the Hunter Valley (photo by John Love)
• Insets (left to right)
• Agglomerated nanoclusters suspended in air, scattering light (see page 10)
• Pendry’s structure guiding light around a central cavity (see page 26)
• Artist’s impression of an underwater fibre-optic permanent seabed seismic
array for reservoir monitoring (see page 16)
3
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Postgraduate Study
The Institute for Photonics and Optical Science (IPOS), a Centre within
The University of Sydney, offers two postgraduate coursework degrees from
March 2009: a Graduate Diploma in Photonics and Optical Science, and a
Masters in Photonics and Optical Science. These courses are available to
Australian and international students and should appeal to anyone wishing
to demonstrate higher-level knowledge of their discipline to employers in
industries that involve optical, photonic or imaging technologies.
Graduate Diploma
The course runs over two semesters (one year), commencing in March and finishing in late November. Students take four units of study per semester, each involving lectures, practical training and tutorials. Part time
enrolment is possible.
Diploma Graduates will have the training, advanced knowledge and skills to enter industry as senior engineers or scientists. In addition to their technical training they will receive training in business skills (project
management, business planning, IP awareness).
Masters
The Masters course runs over three semesters, including the two semesters of coursework and a third semester during which the student conducts a research project under the supervision and training of an IPOS
academic staff member. Part time enrolment in the Masters course is permitted.
Masters graduates will have all the the training, skills and knowledge provided by the Diploma course, but
will have received further training in the experimental techniques, problem solving, analysis and reporting
skills required for independent research, increasing their value to any employer. Masters graduates with a
sufficiently high pass may be eligible to apply for scholarships to enter a PhD program.
Units of study
A brief synopsis of each unit of study follows. Students have 3 – 5 contact hours per unit per week, with at
least the same number of hours of independent study, so full time study would consume 35 – 40 hours per
week.
Optical instrumentation and Imaging
Optical sources and detectors
Geometrical optics and optical design –image formation, lenses and mirrors, aberrations and tolerancing; collimators, cameras, objective lenses. Use of
computer design packages to design optical systems
for specific applications. Computer-based image
processing principles in the spatial and frequency
domains - noise removal, tomography and image
restoration techniques.
Detailed overview of sources and detectors of optical
radiation. Principles of operation and application of
lasers (diode lasers, fibre lasers and solid state diodepumped lasers; short pulse lasers and high power
gas lasers); light emitting diodes and other sources
of radiation. The properties of semiconductor lasers
and detectors are explained in terms of the materials
properties of semiconductors.
Continued over page ...
4
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
President’s Report
W
elcome to this exciting edition of the AOS Newsletter. I hope everyone is
planning on attending our flagship event - the ACOFT-ACOLS meeting
to be held in Adelaide from 29th November to the 3rd of December. This
promises to be an exciting conference with many high profile international speakers. It is
also satisfying to see the ACOFT meeting co-located with the ACOLS meeting, which is
a trend that should continue in the future.
Please attend the AOS AGM to be held in Adelaide at the ACOFT-ACOLS meeting
from 5-6pm on Monday, November 30th on level 5, in the Student Union Bldg, at the
University of Adelaide. The AGM is an important event in the AOS calendar and includes
elections of new councilors. You need to attend the AGM if you want to contribute to
this process.
I also want to mention the KOALA conference that will be held at the University of
Sydney from 23-27th November and is open to all students in optics and photonics. You
will note the 1 page advertisement in this issue including the details on how to attend the
meeting. I strongly encourage all students to consider submitting to this meeting. The AOS is proud to support the
KOALA meeting! Enjoy this issue. Congratulations to Michael Roelens for another very strong newsletter!.
—Benjamin Eggleton
AOS President
Australasian Conference on Optics, Lasers and Spectroscopy and Australian
Conference on Optical Fibre Technology
in association with the International Workshop on Dissipative Solitons
29 November to 3 December, Adelaide South Australia
www.acoft.com.au
Important Dates
Call for papers close 3 August 2009
Call for papers acceptance advice 14 September 2009
Early bird registration close 12 October 2009
For further information, please contact
ACOLS/ACOFT 2009
Plevin and Associates Pty Ltd
PO Box 54 Burnside South Australia 5066
Telephone: +61 8 8379 8222
Facsimile: +61 8 8379 8177
Email: events@plevin.com.au
5
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
AOS Executive
PRESIDENT
Ben Eggleton
CUDOS
School of Physics,
University of Sydney
Sydney NSW 2006
Tel: 0401 055 494
Fax: (02) 9351-7726
egg@physics.usyd.edu.au
VICE PRESIDENT
Judith Dawes
Division of ICS
Macquarie University,
Sydney NSW 2109
Tel: (02) 9850 8903
Fax: (02) 9850 8983
judith@ics.mq.edu.au
SECRETARY
John Holdsworth,
School of Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, University of Newcastle,
Callaghan 2308 NSW
Australia
Tel: (02) 4921 5436
Fax: (02) 4921 6907
John.Holdsworth@newcastle.edu.au
HONORARY TREASURER
Stephen Collins
Optical Technology Research Lab
Victoria University
PO Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC 8001
Tel: (03) 9919 4283
Fax: (03) 9919 4698
stephen.collins@vu.edu.au
PAST PRESIDENT
Hans-A Bachor
ARC Centre of Excellence for QuantumAtom Optics, Building 38
The Australian National University,
Canberra ACT 0200
Tel: 02 6125 2811
Fax: 02 6125 0741
hans.bachor@anu.edu.au
6
AOS Councilors
Ken Baldwin
Laser Physics Centre
ANU, RSPSE
Canberra ACT 0200
Tel. (02) 6125 4702
Fax. (02) 6125 2452
kenneth.baldwin@anu.edu.au
Murray Hamilton
Department of Physics, University of
Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005
Tel: (08) 8303 3994
Fax: (08) 8303 4380
murray.hamilton@adelaide.edu.au
John Harvey
Department of Physics,
University of Auckland,
Private Bag 92019,
Auckland, New Zealand
Tel: (+64 9) 373 7599 X88831
Fax: (+64 9) 373 7445
j.harvey@auckland.ac.nz
Ann Roberts
School of Physics,
University of Melbourne
VIC 3010
Tel: (03) 8344 5038
Fax: (03) 9439 4912
a.roberts @physics.unimelb.edu.au
Halina Rubinsztein-Dunlop
Department of Physics,
University of Queensland,
St Lucia, QLD 4072
Tel: (07) 3365 3139
Fax: (07) 3365 1242
halina@kelvin.physics.uq.oz.au
David Sampson
OBEL, School of Electrical, Electronic
& Computer Engineering,
University of Western Australia
M018, 35 Stirling Highway
CRAWLEY WA 6009
Tel. (08) 6488 7112
Fax (08) 6488 1065
Mrs Gerri Springfield
INDUSTRY REPRESENTATIVE
Coherent Scientific
QLD 4053
Tel. 0407 974 365
Fax (07) 3355 3982
gerri.springfield@coherent.com.au
Min Gu
Faculty of Engineering and Industrial
Sciences, Swinburne University of
Technology, PO Box 218, Hawthorn
VIC 3122
Tel: (03) 9214 8776
Fax: (03) 9214 5435
mgu@swin.edu.au
Affiliates: OSA and SPIE
Corporate Members
ARC CoE for Quantum-Atom Optics
Australian Fibre Works
Bitline System
Coherent Scientific
CUDOS
DiOptika
Lambda Scientific
Laserex
Lastek
NewSpec
oeMarket.com
Optiscan
Raymax Applications
Warsash Scientific
Wavelab Scientific
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Editor’s Intro
E
ver since I’ve become the editor of this newsletter, I have made small changes where I saw room
for improvement and tried to convince the member base to submit articles, photographs, and
other content that is of interest to people in optics across Australia and New Zealand. I am
at a point now where I need more input from you, the reader, to further improve the newsletter.
Here are a few questions:
• What is the most interesting article you have read in a recent issue of the newsletter?
• Have you ever submitted an article to the newsletter?
• How thoroughly do you read the newsletter?
• Which other optics magazines/newsletters do you read?
• Do you ever read the online (pdf ) version of the newsletter?
• How satisfied are you with the style/layout of the newsletter?
• Which information would you like to see in the newsletter?
• Which regular sections should be added/removed?
• How many other people read your copy of the newsletter?
• What do you think about the language of the articles (too scientific/not scientific enough)?
• What do you think about the length of the articles?
• Did you ever get in touch with an author after reading his/her article in this newsletter?
It would be great to know the answers to some of these questions from as many members as
possible. I realise however that we live in a time of online polls, one-line tweets and by the time
you get back to your computer, most of you will have already forgotten about these questions...
Still, it’s worth trying: please send any and all feedback to this address:
michael.roelens+aos@gmail.com, and enjoy the rest of the newsletter!
—Michaël Roelens
Editor
Conference Watch
Bose-Einstein Condensation 2009, Frontiers in Quantum Gases
Sant Feliu de Guixols (Costa
Brava), Spain
05 - 11 September 2009
Shanghai, China
30 Aug. - 3 Sept. 2009
Sydney
9 - 11 September 2009
http://www.iqoqi.at/bec2009
CLEO/Pacific Rim 2009
http://www.siom.cn/cleo/conference.asp
International Conference on Plastic Optical Fibres (POF)
http://pof2009.mtci.com.au/
International Conference on Optical Communications and Networks Bejing, China
15 - 17 September 2009
http://www.icocn.org/
European Conference on Optical Communication
Vienna, Austria
20 - 24 September 2009
Belek-Antalya, Turkey
4 - 8 October 2009
http://www.ecoc2009.at
Annual Meeting of the IEEE Photonics Society
http://www.ieee.org/organizations/society/leos/LEOSCONF/LEOS2009/index.htm
Frontiers in Optics 2009/Laser Science
San Jose, California, USA
11 - 15 October 2009
University of Sydney
23 - 27 November 2009
Adelaide
29 Nov. - 3 Dec. 2009
http://www.frontiersinoptics.com/
Conference on Optics and Laser Applications (KOALA)
see page 1
ACOFT+ACOLS
see page 5
7
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
NewSpec
8
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Optical trapping and guiding of absorbing particles in air
Vlad Shvedov, Anton Desyatnikov, Andrei Rode, Yana Izdebskaya, Wieslaw Krolikowski, and Yuri Kivshar
Nonlinear Physics Center and Laser Physics Center, Research School of Physics and Engineering,
Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia
We have developed a novel approach for three-dimensional optical guiding in air, and applied it
for demonstrating the guidance of clusters of carbon nanoparticles with the size in the range 0.1-10
micrometers, for laser powers lower than one milli Watt. The optical trap is created by two counterpropagating doughnut-like vortex beams, and it allows trap simultaneously several particles as well
as their stable positioning and controlled propagation along the optical axis.
INTRODUCTION
Trapping and manipulation of particles with optical
tweezers was first demonstrated more than two decades
ago [1] and it remains a very active field of research nowadays [2, 3]. Traditionally, stable optical trap of microand nanoparticles is achieved by one of two ways: either
a high numerical aperture objective is used to tightly focus the incident beam [1, 2]; alternatively a second equal
and opposite beam is added to balance the force of the
first, forming a counter-propagating trap [4–6]. Also, depending on the relative refractive index of a particle and
the surrounding medium, the particles are trapped either in the intensity minima or maxima of the beam [7].
The vast majority of optical trapping and manipulation
experiments, however, were carried out with particles immersed in liquids where the buoyancy of the particles simplifies the trapping and suppresses the particle motion.
Little work has been carried out on airborne particles
due to the difficulties associated with the significantly reduced buoyancy and viscosity compared to liquid based
traps [8–11]. The main difficulty with optical trapping of
absorbing particles in air is the presence of an additional
and strong, when compared to trapping in liquids, photophoretic force, which prevents the use of the radiation
pressure-based optical tweezers [2].
Nevertheless, it has been experimentally observed [7,
12] that using a vortex beam with the ring-shaped transverse intensity profile [13, 14] leads to a strong twodimensional confinement of absorbing particles on the
”dark” optical axis. The key step forward that we
make here to realize a fully three-dimensional trapping
is the implementation of the dual-beam scheme [4] with
counter-propagating vortex beams. Photophoretic force
occurs due to non-uniform distribution of temperature
over the particle surface irradiated by a vortex beam.
The longitudinal on-axis confinement is achieved by a
balance of photophoretic forces induced by two beams
on the opposite sides of a particle while the transverse confinement by the bright intensity ring which
also compensates for gravity in the horizontal scheme.
We have demonstrated in experiments that the photophoretic forces acting on strongly absorbing particles in
air can be tailored in such a way that they allow trapping
and manipulation of agglomerates of carbon nanoparticles [15].
In this paper we review the ability of non-contact optical trapping and transport of carbon nanoclusters in
open air and show the manipulation of several particles by changing the parameters in dual vortex beam
trap based on our recent experimental and theoretical
results [15, 16]. The optical trap allows stable positioning and controlled guiding of particles along the optical
axis.
OPTICAL TRAPPING IN AIR
Aiming to construct an optical trap in air we use
the scheme of a dual-beam trap with two counterpropagating optical vortices beams. Schematic of an optical trap is shown in Fig.1. A detailed description of
the scheme is presented in Ref. [15]. Vortices, i.e. optical beams carrying phase singularities, posses a core
with a vanishing intensity, similar to ”doughnut” shape,
which coincides with the location of the phase singularity [13, 14, 17]. The topological structure of optical vortices can be derived from the mathematical concept of
zeros of complex-valued functions with helicoid-shaped
phase as and the field vorticity is characterized by topological charge l (Fig.1). The doughnut symmetry of the
vortex beam is necessary for stable radial trapping of particles. On the other hand, for stable capture of a particle
in a longitudinal direction the focal planes of the forward
and backward counter-propagating beams are separated
by the distance δ, for equal powers of two beams the
trapping position is in the middle between two planes
(see Fig. 1(a)).
In the majority of cases, the photophoretic forces in air
are several orders of magnitude stronger than the radiation pressure, and hence the translation distance, acceleration, as well as the translated mass of particles in such
optical duct can reach unprecedented values. Therefore,
the radiation pressure forces in our case can be neglected.
The longitudinal Fz and transverse FR photophoretic
forces exerted by a vortex beam with the ring radius w
on small spherical absorbing particle with radius a by
a  w can be evaluate [16]
Fz  κ
P a4
,
2 w4
(1)
9
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
2
(a)
(a)
forward
(b)
δ
backwa
Relative Population %
rd
20
10
1 µm
2
4
6
8
10 12 14 16 18 20
Nanoparticle Size, nm
FIG. 2: Scanning Electron Microscope image of typical carbon particle collected from the optical trap (a) and Transmission Electron Microscope image of single nanoparticles (b).
The inset shows the nanoparticle size distribution with the
maximum at 6 nm.
(b)
FIG. 1: (a) Schematic dual-beam trap for absorbing particles created by the standing wave of two counter-propagating
and co-rotating vortex beams. The focal planes of the forward (blue) and backward (red) beams are separated by the
distance σ. Particle (green sphere) is subject to illumination
from both sides. (b) A photo fragment of the experimental
setup with a particle trapped in air. The bright spot seen between the lenses is the light scattered from the agglomerated
nanoclusters. An insert shows a side view of the particle.
FR  −κP
3µ2
4 Ra3
3 w4 (Z)
(2)
here κ  lf ρa T (kfa+2ka ) , thermal conductivity kf and absorption depth lf of the particles, and the parameters of
air are: viscosity µa , temperature T , mass density ρa ,
and thermal conductivity ka ; P is laser power, R is the
distance between the particle center and the optical axis.
To realize photophoretic force-based optical trapping
in air we used the agglomerated carbon nanoparticles [18, 19] produced with high-repetition-rate laser ablation technique [20]. Such particles combine three important features for effective demonstration of trapping
ability: they are highly absorbing laser radiation, they
have low density ρf = 10 mg cm−3 , low thermal conductivity kf = 0.0266 W m−1 K−1 , and the absorption
depth lf = 35 µm.
Figure 1(b) illustrates the fragment of the experimental setup with a particle trapped in open air. The particles scatter sufficient amount of the light to be visible
by naked eye, while the temperature of the carbon particle in the trap is well below the activation temperature of 3000 C for its oxidation. Once being captured, a
10
0
particle remains stationary for many hours and the photophoretic force trapping is sufficiently robust to trap
particle even when the operating power is reduced below
one milli Watt. Many collected carbon particles in the
experiment have the linear size of the order from 100 nm
to over 10 µm (Fig. 2(a)). Such micron size particles are
consisted from a large number individual nanoparticles
with size range from 4 nm to 8 nm (Fig. 2(b)). A simple
theoretical model of the photophoretic force trapping [16]
shows that the trapping efficiency decays rapidly for particles larger than the vortex ring radius w; in our experiment this value was of the order of 10 µm which agrees
well with the size of the largest trapped particle.
Behavior the particle with typical radius a=1µm in
our experiments can be evaluated by Eq.(1,2). The
air parameters in the experiments are µa = 1.73 ×
10−5 N s m−2 , T = 298 K, ρa = 1.29 mg cm−3 , and
ka = 0.0262 W m−1 K−1 , and the parameters of the
beams are the vortex ring radius w0 = 8.4 µm and the
typical power P = 0.01 W. Thus, the actual longitudinal force on the particle is Fz = 8.4 × 10−13 N and
the transverse force FR = 3 × 10−11 N. For comparison,
the gravitation force is Fg = mg = 4.1 × 10−16 N , here
g = 9.81ms−2 is the standard gravity and the particle
mass m = 4πρf a3 /3 = 4.2 × 10−14 g [15].
OPTICAL GUIDING OF PARTICLES
The general problem of a moving particle under the
action of photophoretic forces is extremely complex. It
involves two major issues. Firstly, proper consideration
must be given to the scattering of electromagnetic wave
by the particles. This is a complex issue even in the
simplified case of a plane wave interacting with an ideal
spherical particle. The problem simplifies substantially
in case the particle is in the equilibrium position at the
balance point of the light field intensities. In this particular case the thermal forces are also in balance and the
particle is in the equilibrium regardless of the complex
temperature distribution on the surface. The distance of
transporting particles within the trap was limited only
by the angular beam convergence by the focusing lenses
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
3
Backward beam
Forward beam
(a)
(b)
(c)
x
z
FIG. 3: Stationary positioning of particle along optical axis by
changing relative intensity of the beams. The particle moves
to the left and to the right along optical axis periodically
by means of periodically changing relative intensity of two
counter-propagating beams.
Z, µm
1000
800
600
400
200
(a)
-50
0
50
100
Angle θ, degrees
(b)
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
Z, μm
FIG. 4: Guiding of particles in air. The position Z of a
trapped particle measured as a function of the polarizer angle
θ (a). Vertical bars measure the spot size of the recorded
particle images such as those superimposed in (b); arrows in
(b) from left to right correspond to angle θ equals 90◦ , 94◦ ,
98◦ and 102◦ accordingly.
since the trapping in radial direction is defined only by
the intensity profile in the beam.
The stable position of the particle in the trap was moving when we varied the relative beam intensity (Fig. 3).
The particle moves towards the beam with lower power
and it is in the middle if two beam powers are equal (Fig.
3(b)). Thus, if we fix any special power ratio, we can
determine the stable position of the trap in the specific
point.
For optical guiding experiments we modified the dualbeam trap and included a half-wave plate and polarizing beam-splitter cube with low extinction ratio 1:13 for
optical control over the axial position Z of the particle
(Fig.4). By varying the tilt angle θ of the half-wave plate
we are able to change the power ratio ε(θ) = Pf /Pb of
the forward (Pf ) and backward (Pb ) vortex components.
Typical total power was P = Pf + Pb = 0.01W and
beam waist each counter-propagating beam was 8.4 µm.
Imbalance of the powers illuminating particle from both
sides shifts the trapping position towards a weaker beam,
this shift is limited by the cube extinction ratio. We developed a theoretical model in [16], which predicts the
location Z of the trap as a function of the tilt angle θ,
the size of the spherical particle a, vortex ring radius w,
and the distance separating focal planes of two beams δ.
In particular, we show that for a < w/2 the stationary
position Z does not depend on the particle radius a, and
it is determined only by the separation δ and the power
ratio ε(θ).
The experimental result is presented in Fig. 4(b). The
particles were trapped in a fixed position along the zaxis for each tilt θ changed with the step of 2◦ . The
focal planes are separated by δ = 2.0± 0.2 mm, and we
could pinpoint the particle position anywhere within the
distance of about 1 mm. The precision of the particle
position was within 2 µm.
When the power ratio of both beams is constant, two
counter-propagating optical vortex beams have only one
point where the position of the particle will be stable.
However, simultaneous trapping of many particles possible if we consider more complex multi-ring vortices given
by the Laguerre-Gaussian beams LGln , here the integer
index n, in addition to the topological charge l, indicates
the number of radial nodes (dark rings) in the transverse
intensity distribution. The small relative tilt angle between such beams leads to several additional points of
stable balance on the optical axis. Therefore, it remains
unexplored whether the regular structures of many particles can be trapped in air. We can control the position of these points by changing the trapping parameters
such as the relative tilt angle and the distance between
beam waists. Thus, we can generate the stable multitrap for several particles. This tilt results in a complex
light pattern with multiple minima shown in Fig. 5(a).
Experimental results of the dynamics guiding of several
particles are presented in Fig. 5(b). In contrast to a
single trap, the particles interact strongly in a multiple
trap.
CONCLUSIONS
We have demonstrated a novel all-optical method for
trapping and manipulating small absorbing particles in
gaseous media based on photophoretic force. We have
realized experimentally, in open air, the robust threedimensional guiding of absorbing microns size particles,
over the distances of several millimeters, as well as their
acceleration up to velocities of 1 cm/s and simultaneous
trapping of a large number of particles. Our projections
show that up-scaling of optical beam size will allow larger
11
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
4
(a)
z
z
particles to be trapped and transported over longer distances, keeping trapping powers as low as few mW. The
ability of capture and controlled transport of nanoparticles in air by optical vortices may find wide applications
in trapping and transport of airborne absorbing particles. The nanoparticles agglomerated and collected in
the non-contact and remote trap can be further investigated in terms of their physical properties and chemical
activity. The outcomes are of fundamental importance
for a wide range of other fields of science, such as interstellar dusty plasmas and atmospheric physics.
(b)
500 µm
FIG. 5: Multiple trap with tilted beams. (a) Volume plot
of the longitudinal cut through the total intensity calculated
for two counter-propagating Laguerre-Gaussian beams LG12
tilted in the vertical direction by 0.02 rad. The yellow surfaces
cut out the regions of small intensity where particles can be
trapped. (b) The side view of several particles simultaneously
trapped with tilted beams.
[1] A. Ashkin, J. M. Dziedzic, J.E. Bjorkholm, S. Chu, Opt.
Lett. 11, 288 (1986).
[2] D. G. Grier, Nature 424, 810 (2003).
[3] K. Dholakia, P. Reece, M. Gu, Chem. Soc. Rev. 37, 42
(2008).
[4] A. Ashkin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 24, 156 (1970).
[5] J. Morris, A. Carruthers, M. Mazilu, P. Reece, T. Cizmar, K. Dholakia, Opt. Express 16, 14 10117 (2008).
[6] G. Roosen and C. Imbert, Phys. Lett. A. 59, 6 (1976).
[7] H. Rubinsztein-Dunlop, T. Nieminen, M. Friese, N. Heckenberg, Adv. Quantum Chem. 30, 469 (1998).
[8] R. Omori, T. Kobayashi and A. Suzuki, Opt. Lett., 22,
816 (1997).
[9] N. Magome, M. I. Kohira, E. Hayata, S. Mukai and K.
Yoshikawa, J. Phys. Chem. B, , 107, 3988 (2003).
[10] R. J. Hopkins, L. Mitchem, A. D. Ward and J. P. Reid,
Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 6, 4924 (2004).
[11] D. McGloin, D. Burnham, M. Summers, D. Rudd, N.
Dewara, S. Anand, Faraday Discussions 137, 335 (2008).
[12] M. Lewittes, S. Arnold, G. Oster, Appl. Phys. Lett. 40,
455 (1982).
12
[13] J. F. Nye, M. V. Berry, Proc. R. Soc. London A 336, 165
(1974).
[14] M. S. Soskin, M. V. Vasnetsov, Prog. Opt. 42, 219 (Ed.
E. Wolf, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2001).
[15] V. G. Shvedov, A. S. Desyatnikov, A. V. Rode, W.
Z. Krolikowski, Yu. S. Kivshar, Opt. Express 17, 5743
(2009).
[16] A. S. Desyatnikov, V. G. Shvedov, A. V. Rode, W.
Z. Krolikowski, Y. S Kivshar, Opt. Express, 17, 8201
(2009).
[17] C. N. Alexeyev, M. A. Yavorsky, V. G. Shvedov, J. Opt.
Soc. Am. B 25, 643 (2008).
[18] E. G. Gamaly, A. V. Rode, Encyclopedia of Nanoscience
and Nanotechnology 7, 783 (American Scientific Publishers, Stevenson Range, 2004).
[19] A. V. Rode, E. G. Gamaly, B. Luther-Davies, Appl. Phys.
A 70, 135 (2000).
[20] B. Luther-Davies, Kolev, V. Z., Lederer, M. J., Madsen,
N. R., Rode, A. V., Giesekus, J., Du, K.-M. Duering,
Appl. Phys. A 79, 1051 (2004).
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Conference Report
11th International Conference on
Education & Training in
Optics & Photonics
5-7 July 2009
Technium OpTIC, St Asaph, North Wales
Ray Davies demonstrates an optical
finger movement sensor
T
About 75 delegates from 20 countries
attended, including 3 from Australia,
and between them presented 50 papers
and posters. Generally speaking the
presentations were focused on either
strategies for enhancing student
interaction, ability and understanding of
optics and photonics or the incorporation
of technical aspects of existing and new
areas of optics and photonics. The whole
range of education from kindergarten to
graduate coursework was covered, as well
as outreach and industrial training. A
significant number of presentations were
devoted to a range of compact optics and
photonics laboratory kits.
One of the more impressive talks was
given by Ray Davies from the Photonics
Academy of Wales who has successfully
encouraged local secondary school
students to fabricate quite sophisticated
light-based sensory and robotic devices
from component modules by emphasizing
the functions that these modules can
perform, rather than focusing on the
underlying theory and components of
each module.
Another highlight was a talk given
he 11th International Conference
on Education & Training in
Optics & Photonics (ETOP)
was held at Technium Optic outside
of the village of St Asaph (south of the
coastal town of Rhyl) in North Wales.
The Technium Optic is a publicly funded
business incubator located in the relatively
large local business park and houses a
variety of optics and photonics start-up
companies, as well as an auditorium and
various meeting rooms. ETOP is held
every 2 years and originated in 1988
in the USA since when it has been
held in Russia, Hungary, Holland,
Mexico, Singapore, France, Canada
and the USA (twice) normally as a
stand-alone meeting.
The 3-day event was overseen by
the Conference Chair, Alan Shore
from the University of Bangor, and
the Deputy Conference Chair, Deb
Kane from Macquarie University. Conference delegates in medieval costume.
by John Love
by Christopher Sansom from Cranfield
University that outlined a very specialised
industrial masters degree course associated
with the multi-university supported UK
International Knowledge Centre in
Ultra-Precision and Structured Surfaces.
Sophisticated machinery at this Centre
can produce large mirrors and structured
surfaces with a design accuracy of about
1 in 108.
One interesting but slightly worrying
paper covered students’ misconceptions,
such as “light travels farther at night
than during the day”, “a converging
lens increases the speed of light”, “the
bigger the source of light, the smaller the
shadow”, etc.
On the social side of the meeting, the
Welsh weather ensured that a barbecue
of Welsh lamb patties and pork and
leek sausages, accompanied by a small
band, performed outside in the rain
while delegates sat inside insulated
from both the weather and the music.
The Conference Dinner consisted of a
medieval banquet held in a castle-cumhotel at Ruthin, complete with medieval
costumes, finger eating of food and
13
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
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AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Welsh singing. The latter included the
Welsh song “Men of Harlech” that had
been drummed into me whilst at school
in England.
ETOP is supported both
organisationally and financially by the
Optical Society of America (OSA),
IEEE-the Photonics Society, SPIE
and the International Commission
for Optics (ICO). The Long Range
Advisory Committee (LRAC) comprises
representatives from each of these
organisations (I am currently the ICO
representative) plus staff members from
OSA and SPIE.
The next ETOP in 2011 will be held
in Tunisia, subject to the agreement of
the supporting Societies. After 2011, the
LRAC is proposing that ETOP be held on
a yearly basis rather than the current 2-year
basis to reflect the increasing number of
countries interested in hosting ETOP
and the increasing scope of optics and
photonics and its impact on education
and training. In odd years proposals to
host ETOP will be welcomed from any
country and in even years it will probably
be collocated with a major conference
of one of the supporting societies, but
not necessarily held in North America.
Over the last few years the AOS has tried
unsuccessfully on two occasions to attract
ETOP to Australia but with the increasing
interest in this meeting from Australia,
hopefully it might be third time lucky,
possibly in 2012 or 2013.
John Love is with the College of
Physical Sciences at the Australian
National University, Canberra.
Conference Report
Nanophotonics Down Under 2009
21-24 July 2009
Melbourne Convention Centre
N
anophotonics Down
Under 2009 Devices
and Applications
(SMONP 2009) was held at
Melbourne Convention Centre,
Melbourne from June 21-24,
2009.
This meeting was held under
the banner of The Sir Mark
Oliphant Conferences (SMO) International Frontiers of Science
and Technology, a conference
series under the Australian
Government’s International
Science Linkages Programme. The
SMO conferences are designed
to stage strategically significant
international conferences in
Australia on high priority, cutting
edge, multi-disciplinary themes,
and the Nanophotonics Down
Under 2009 fulfilled its aim
nicely. It attracted leaders in the
interdisciplinary field of solar cells,
nanoplasmonics, biophotonics
and photonics crystals, as well
as 120 presentations from 18
different countries (total 165
participants) to provide forum
for emerging applications of
nanophotonics.
The program of SMONP
2009 was preceded by a Public
Lecture and High School Teachers
Workshop scheduled on Sunday
21st June. The lecture and
workshop was to expose general
public to the current research
in nanophotonics, and the
speakers (Martin Green, Masud
Mansuripur, Paul Mulvaney
and Tim Senden) did not
disappoint. Their lectures were
dexterously delivered to integrate
audience with varying scientific
background.
The main event was opened
with Suntech Co. Ltd CEO Dr
Zhengrong Shi from China,
who gave an excellent overview
of the solar cell industries and
how Suntech is prepared to move
forward by fusing nanophotonics
in next generation solar cells.
Prof. Susumu Noda from Kyoto
University was the second plenary
speaker, who presented equally
exciting developments in dynamic
by Min Gu and James W. M. Chon
NP2009 group photo
Loser table receiving olive oil gifts at the wine tasting game
Winner table receiving gifts at the wine tasting game
15
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
photonic crystals and lasers for ultracapacity communications. The sessions
followed, on photovoltaics, nanomaterials,
nanoplasmonics, plasmonics, optical
circuits, biophotonics, metamaterials,
optical storage and optical tweezers.
Throughout the sessions, it was evident
that efforts put in to integrate optically
addressable nanostructured materials for
enhancing performance of solar cells,
photovoltaics, communications, storage
and medical applications.
The conference also featured Rachel
Won from Nature Photonics for a
promotional talk, in which she announced
the first inaugural impact factor of Nature
Photonics – massive twenty something
that got everyone talking. It was a great
achievement for the journal to reach such
level in such a short period of time.
The winery tour at Domain Chandon
and conference dinner at the Stone of the
Yarray Valley on Tuesday night was a lively
event. The wine tasting game at the Stone
provided opportunity to taste great variety
of wines produced locally. It perhaps was a
little biased towards locals as evidenced by
the winners (Ben Eggleton, David Moss
and the Aussie cohorts) and losers (Masud
Mansuripur, Nikolay Zheludev, Rachel
Won and their international cohorts),
but it nevertheless was a great social event
for everyone.
Min Gu and James W. M. Chon are
with Centre for Micro-Photonics,
Faculty of Engineering and Industrial
Sciences Swinburne University of
Technology
Feeling with Photons:
Fibre-Optics for Geophysical Measurement
by Ian Littler
A
prototype fibre-optic sensor system with a breakthrough combination of
characteristics for permanent seabed seismic arrays has just been
completed at the Australian National University in collaboration
with an oil and gas services company, Benthic Geotech. The results
which demonstrate the potential
of this approach are presented as
are the next steps in up-scaling the
system to a commercial product.
Introduction
In a galaxy far away in time and space, two
massive neutron stars spiral in towards
each other. As they do, the immense
inertia of the system creates ripples in
space-time, which emanate out into the
universe, taking with it the energy that
ultimately leads to their coalescence
into a fast spinning black hole. The
ripples emanating from the system are
gravitational waves and, while they have
not yet been directly observed, large-scale
interferometers around the world, capable
of resolving length changes smaller than
a proton, may soon directly record such
16
events - opening a new window on the
universe and its origins. However, spinoff technology with ground breaking real
world applications may be a lot closer
even than that.
The Centre for Gravitational Physics
at the Australian National University,
under the guidance of Prof. David
McClelland, has long been involved as
part of these international collaborations,
contributing to the science of these
precision interferometers. In 2003, Dr
Malcolm Gray, Jong Chow and I (the
author) recognised the potential of
adapting these precision methodologies
to fibre-optic measurement applications
and began to explore the capabilities of
the approach on a shoe string budget.
Later, the team was joined by Dr
Daniel Shaddock who contributed his
considerable expertise in digital signal
processing. One of the first successful
Fig. 1. Artist’s impression of an underwater fibre-optic
permanent seabed seismic array for reservoir monitoring.
The sensor grid allows subterranean structures to be imaged
acoustically, mapping drainage patterns and increasing
extraction efficiency.
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
outcomes of that pioneering work has
been a prototype fibre-optic sensor array
for acoustic imaging of subterranean
rock strata under the sea. Indeed, one
potential application is for monitoring
the drainage of oil reservoirs for more
efficient extraction. In 2005, the project
attracted an industrial partner from the
oil and gas energy sector, Benthic Geotech
(renowned for its undersea drilling
robots), and an ARC linkage grant of total
value $1.2 million. The prototype fibreoptic sensor array project has just been
completed, and the system capabilities
have exceeded the expectations of the
commercial partner. The next phase of
commercialisation now begins.
While the global financial crisis
continues to unfold around the world,
the accompanying slowing demand and
production has meant that oil prices have
retreated from the highs of mid 2008,
dampening oil companies’ appetite for
new investment for the time being. Of
course, if you don’t ride a Vespa, this is
a temporary reprieve from pain at the
pump. Global demand will invariably
return and production will once again
fail to keep pace, leading to rising energy
prices. Solar and other renewable sources
of energy will begin to make significant
inroads, especially as carbon trading
schemes are fully implemented. Yet, oil
will continue to be an important portable
energy source as well as a fundamental
raw material for many manufactured
goods. It is a resource, too precious to lose
during recovery from the reservoir.
Permanent Seabed Arrays for
Monitoring Oil Extraction
Novel ways to increase oil extraction
efficiency are currently being considered
and a hot topic is the imaging and
monitoring of how drainage patterns of a
specific oil reservoir evolve during resource
extraction [1]. Three-dimensional seismic
imaging of subsurface structures has
been around for decades. Indeed, sensor
arrays towed behind ships have been
used routinely to map underground
strata in efforts to detect subterranean
oil and gas reservoirs. Trials of permanent
seabed seismic sensor arrays have been
conducted over the last decade or so,
as a way of monitoring exactly how a
reservoir drains over the lifetime of a
field, which can be 20 years or longer.
Such knowledge can be used to increase
extraction efficiency, with an additional
60 million barrels (6%) on the Valhall
field anticipated [2].
In permanent seabed monitoring, an
array of seismic sensors is laid out on a
grid over the reservoir and a mechanical
impulse source in used to provide
seismic illumination of the rock strata.
Alternatively, the fracturing of the rock
strata under the stress of oil extraction
can generate many individual point
sources, providing passive information
of the reservoir’s evolution over time.
Complex software can then reconstruct
the stratified structure or create fracture
maps from the information collected
by the grid of many sensors. The sensor
information can include multi-axis
velocity or acceleration and/or dynamic
pressure.
Traditional Electronic Approaches
Traditional sensors for acoustic
imaging have been based on electronic
devices. Since many reservoirs are located
under oceans, electronic systems do not
have the requisite reliability in seawater
to endure over the lifetime of an oil field.
In addition, large-scale electronic systems
are heavy and complicated, requiring
additional cabling for telemetry, as well
as multiple cross cabling for timing,
increasing deployment and system
complexity. Many kilowatts of undersea
electrical power are also required for these
systems, to provide power for each sensor’s
preamplifier. Despite the drawbacks, field
sea trials of electronic life of field seismic
(LoFS) arrays, as pioneered on a BP
field off the Norwegian coast, have been
regarded as successful.
Enter Fibre-Optics
Fibre-optics arrays represent a more
viable option for emerging sub sea sensor
applications, given the multitude of
advantages vis-à-vis electronic solutions.
So far, a number of fibre-optic systems
have been proposed and limited trials
with oil companies have been undertaken.
Compared with electronic systems, there
is a decrease in weight and bulk of greater
than a factor of ten, since many sensors
can be multiplexed on a single 125 µm
optical fibre. This assists deployment and
results in an increase in system reliability.
Based on experience with undersea
optical fibre telecommunications cables,
the lifetime of these fibre-optic seismic
systems should be more than 20 years.
In addition, the underwater section of
a fibre-optic system is less complex and
intrinsically high-bandwidth, with no
need for separate telemetry cabling. It
can also be completely passive, requiring
no underwater power of any kind.
Yet deployment of these systems has
been slow, principally because of oil
company conservatism. There must be
overwhelming evidence for an increase at
the bottom line, but access to production
fields for testing is difficult without the
right partnership.
The key requirements for a sub sea
permanent fibre-optic sensor array are
• Sensor sensitivity at least to the lowest
noise floor of the sea of interest
• Bandwidth 5 Hz to 300 Hz
• Appropriate transducers to convert real
signals into strain
• High dynamic range
• Ability to multiplex many sensors onto
a single fibre
• Long range operation to cover the area
of the reservoir ~50 km2
• System scalability to many 1000’s of
sensors
• System reliability and longevity
Fibre-Optic Geophysical Systems in
Development
Key players in this space include,
Optoplan (a subsidiary of Wavefield
17
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
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18
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AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Inseis) with its product “Optowave”,
Stingray (a joint industry project between
Qinetiq and Input/Output seismic
imaging) with “Fosar” and Petroleum
Geo-services with “Optoseis”. In each
of these cases, real world signals are
converted into fibre strain, which, in
turn, changes the phase of the light used
to interrogate the state of the sensor. The
method for measuring the phase change
of the light in each case is essentially via
two-beam interferometry, with sensitivity
to the external perturbation increased by
using coils of fibre in excess of 20 m.
“Optowave” is an intrinsically
channelised solution based on the
interference of pulses reflected from a
series of fibre Bragg gratings A sensor
station is made up of five such gratings
three for each of the accelerometer axes,
one for hydro-dynamic pressure and one as
a reference. Each seismic station occupies
4 time division multiplexed (TDM)
channels with some 20 wavelength
division multiplexed (WDM) channels
available for a total of 80 channels per
fibre. Loss per sensor is largely determined
by the partial reflectivity of each Bragg
mirror and bend loss in the sensor coil.
Strong Rayleigh Backscattering in the
reflected signals is ameliorated via a
modulation scheme - demonstrated in
a 1.1 km length of fibre. Optoplan has
recently secured the tender for a LoFS
project to be deployed by ConocoPhillips
on the North Sea Ekofisk oil field.
The “Fosar” system, with a long history
and origins in UK defence research, has
many similarities with “Optoseis” of
Petroleum Geoservices, in that the sensors
comprise broadband interferometers
using fibre couplers for sensor branching
and optical beam return. Wavelength
division multiplexing is accomplished
using external components, where as
time division multiplexing is achieved by
cascading fibre coupled interferometers
in series. Each scheme differs mainly in
the details of implementation. While
the time division multiplexing channel
count claimed in both cases is high,
the method of
cascading couplers
in series introduces
extremely large
total loss due to
branching loss at
each of the couplers.
For instance, an
insertion loss per
coupler of just -1 Fig. 2. Bragg mirrors written into the core of optical fibre
dB, leads to a total form a compact Fabry Perot Interferometric wavelength
channelised sensor. Multiple bounces of laser light within
system loss per the structure amplify the phase change imposed on the light
wavelength of -38 making it highly sensitive to strain perturbations.
dB for 16 TDM
channels. For long-range operation over at the Centre for Gravitational Physics
tens of kilometres, optical amplification together with our industrial partner
of some kind is then required especially, Benthic Geotech, is a completely different
since in the “Fosar” system launch approach [3], with significant benefits for
powers must be kept small because of the seabed arrays. Rather than use a long coil
onset of Stimulated Brillouin Scattering of fibre (>20m) to increase sensitivity to
(SBS), due to the narrow-band fibre-laser perturbations, a Fabry Perot cavity a few
centimetres in length, with in-fibre Bragg
sources used.
Optoseis has been trialled in the mirrors, constitutes the strain sensor.
Phase amplification of around a factor
shallow water of the Gulf of Mexico
using a single wavelength, and a TDM of 30 is achieved via multiple bounces
channel count of 16 in an 800 m cable of the interrogating light between the
containing multiple fibres. A range of mirrors. The advantages are that, there are
12 km, to 3000m depth, has also been no bend losses as in a tightly wound fibre
demonstrated in the laboratory. Trials coil, no specialty fibre is required which
of the “Fosar” like systems using optical reduces splice loss, and transducer design
hydrophones, have achieved ranges of can be smaller and simpler.
The precise wavelength of the Fabry
over 40 km using optical amplification,
with the number of channels per fibre Perot mode is determined by borrowing
predicted to exceed 100. Rayleigh sensitive radio frequency RF modulation
Backscattering is minimized by operating and signal extraction techniques from
gravitational wave astronomy. Briefly,
the sensors in transmission.
when a laser beam is phase modulated,
sidebands appear adjacent to the carrier
The ANU Fibre-Optic System –
frequency separated from it by the
Accelerometer Array
The fibre sensor system prototyped modulation frequency. The Fabry Perot
Fig. 3. The reflection spectra of three closely spaced FFPI channels. Clearly shown
are two Fabry Perot modes, which are impedance matched. Only one mode is
employed for sensing in each channel. The out-of-band sidelobes, due to imperfect
apodisation of the FBGs, shown here are not to scale. Coupled with reflections from
the slight impedance mismatch, these can cause inter-channel cross-talk.
19
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Fibre Optic &
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AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Fig. 4. Sensor Array Hardware - Left: Analog to Digital Converters and Digital Signal Processing boards. Right: Distributed
Feedback (DFB) Diode Laser.
possesses a wavelength dependent intrinsic benefits of this extraction method
phase response; such that, the effect of are twofold. Firstly, it is immune to laser
detuning the carrier frequency from the intensity noise, enabling measurement
resonance is to phase shift the carrier down to the shot noise limit, so that
relative to the sidebands. The result only very small optical signal powers are
is a conversion of phase modulation required to achieve picostrain sensitivity.
into amplitude modulation, with the Secondly, since the sidebands and carrier
co-propagate,
wander
does
magnitude
depending
on the
value
of processing
processing occurring
on FPGA
digital
signal
boards. polarisation
The use of digital
processing
means
that increasing
the number
of sensors becomes
a straightforward
cut-and-paste operation
not cause
signal fading.
the
detuning.
Subsequent
demodulation
of a piece of software code.
Strain changes in the length of
of this amplitude modulation creates an
In the following figure, the strain spectra for four concurrently operating sensors are shown,
the
are torelated
to thenoise
changes
“error
signal”
as
a
sensitive
measure
of
the
along with strain calibration signals. The sensor noisefibre
floor due
the frequency
of one
free
running
laser
is
also
shown.
This
free
running
noise
floor
has
a
typical
1/√F
dependence,
but
mismatch of the Fabry Perot resonance in the wavelength of the Fabry Perot
can be suppressed by nearly two orders of magnitude (35 dB) when the stabilization loop is
following
formula:
from
laser
carrier
frequency.have
Thethe modes
closed. the
Thus,
all four
sensor-channels
requisite via
strainthe
sensitivity
for seabed
seismic
��
�
� 0.72
�L
L
Sensitivity [pε/rt Hz]
Typically, the full width half maximum
(FWHM) of a Fabry Perot mode is 10-6
the wavelength of light. The frequency
of the mode can be determined via RF
modulation extraction technique to a
precision 106 times better than the mode’s
FWHM. Therefore, the overall strain
sensitivity of our sensor is of order 10-12
or picostrain.
An important capability for a largearrays, with a demonstrated lower frequency in the infrasonic at 5 Hz.
area array is the ability to detect strain
signals over very long lengths of fibre
Ch1
Ch2
Pre-stabilised Lasers - Strain Spectra
Ch4
Ch3*
26-11-2007
(100 km), without degradation in signal
ch2 free
10000
to noise. Ideally, such a system should
Calibration signals
involve no active elements under the
water. Key to achieving the breakthrough
1000
Free running DFB laser
range of our approach was to avoid
TDM, because of its associated high
loss, and concentrate on delivering a
100
wavelength division multiplexed (WDM)
Suppression
system with a high channel density and
low inter-channel cross-talk. Fortunately,
10
since the Fabry Perot cavities were passive,
the fibre into which the Bragg gratings
were written could be of very high
Stabilised DFB lasers
1
quality and thus precisely apodised to
1
10
100
1000
10000
Frequency [Hz]
minimize sidelobes. Our commendations
Fig.
Calibrated
of the
four sensors
interrogated
by its go to Teraxion of Quebec City, Canada,
Fig.5.5 Calibrated
strainstrain
spectraspectra
of each of of
theeach
four sensors
interrogated
by its respective
pre-stabilized
respective
laser,concurrently.
with all lasers
operating at
concurrently.
The suppression
laser, withpre-stabilized
all lasers operating
The suppression
10 Hz of frequency
noise is
approximately
two orders of
magnitude
below that of the free
laser
at 10
Hz of frequency
noise
is approximately
tworunning
orders
ofnoise.
magnitude below that of who provided attentive and supportive
the free
running
noise. transducer, this noise floor is sufficient to enable very weak supply of our custom Bragg grating
After
addition
of anlaser
appropriate
seismic waves propagating in the seabed to be detected. Yet, dynamic range is also important to
accommodate a wide range of signal strengths. With the laser locked firmly to a Fabry Perot
mode of the sensor, the dynamic range is only limited by the current tuning range of the laser.
For these noise floors and for a typical DFB diode laser tuning range, the dynamic range is 120
dB in a measurement bandwidth of 300 Hz. This is sufficient for seismic applications.
21
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
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Ph. +61 2 9319 0122 | www.warsash.com.au
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
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23
Ph. +61 2 9319 0122 | www.warsash.com.au
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
components. Also important was the
careful impedance matching of the
cavities which, coupled with the low
sidelobes noise, kept the inter-channel
crosstalk better than -75 dB for adjacent
channels and better than -110 dB for nonadjacent channels. Multiplexed operation
was possible over an unprecedented 100
km of fibre with negligible signal to
noise degradation, and approximately
80 WDM channels possible in 65 nm of
optical bandwidth.
An important deliverable of this
research was to have a clear path via
which to scale the system up to 1000’s
of sensors. This meant that at each
decision point, scientific and engineering
as well as economic considerations
had to be taken into account. For
such a heavily wavelength division
multiplexed approach, laser cost was an
important consideration. Distributed
Feedback (DFB) diode lasers from the
telecommunications industry are the
ideal candidates as they can provide
adequate power for transmission over
100 m, whilst being relatively inexpensive
with a small footprint. Indeed, the
company Infinera has already successfully
integrated ten such lasers onto a single
Silicon chip.
In a strain sensor system based on
multiple bounces of the interrogating
laser beam in a cavity i.e. an unbalanced
interferometer, frequency noise of the
laser sets the measurement noise floor.
The advantage of DFB lasers is that the
linewidth is relatively large, allowing
high powers to propagate in the fibre
without Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
(SBS). However, the large linewidth
of the free running laser translates into
unacceptable laser frequency noise
below 100 Hz. Unlike active sensor
approaches, the DFB diode lasers can be
actively stabilized via current feedback
to suppress the frequency noise to the
picostrain level, right down to infrasonic
frequencies [3].
In our implementation, ever mindful
of the need to scale up later on, a scheme
24
whereby all lasers could be stabilised
to a single optical frequency reference
was employed. In addition, rather than
use analogue stabilization circuitry, all
signals were digitized at 40 MSamples/s,
with all processing occurring on FPGA
digital signal processing boards. The
use of digital processing means that
increasing the number of sensors becomes
a straightforward cut-and-paste operation
of a piece of software code.
In the following figure, the strain
spectra for four concurrently operating
sensors are shown, along with strain
calibration signals. The sensor noise floor
due to the frequency noise of one free
running laser is also shown. This free
running noise floor has a typical 1/√F
dependence, but can be suppressed by
nearly two orders of magnitude (35 dB)
when the stabilization loop is closed.
Thus, all four sensor-channels have the
requisite strain sensitivity for seabed
seismic arrays, with a demonstrated lower
frequency in the infrasonic at 5 Hz.
After addition of an appropriate
transducer, this noise floor is sufficient
to enable very weak seismic waves
propagating in the seabed to be detected.
Yet, dynamic range is also important to
accommodate a wide range of signal
strengths. With the laser locked firmly
to a Fabry Perot mode of the sensor, the
dynamic range is only limited by the
current tuning range of the laser. For
these noise floors and for a typical DFB
diode laser tuning range, the dynamic
range is 120 dB in a measurement
bandwidth of 300 Hz. This is sufficient
for seismic applications.
Of course, whilst an all-optical strain
sensor system with a breakthrough
combination of characteristics has been
demonstrated, transducers are required
to convert real signals into strain. An
ideal transducer is impedance matched,
insensitive to undesirable signals, and
possesses one degree of freedom for direct
signal-to-strain one to one mapping.
To demonstrate this system in a
real application, an accelerometer has
also been designed and implemented.
Since the length of our strain sensor is
centimetres rather than tens of metres
as in traditional passive interferometric
approaches, the accelerometer design
and construction is comparatively simple.
A small free proof mass is attached to
one end of the short section of fibre
containing the Fabry Perot cavity while
the other end is firmly attached to the
ground. When the ground accelerates,
tension develops in the fibre tuning the
Fabry Perot mode and registering the
acceleration. Refinements to this basic
conceptual design allow it to operate in
any orientation and ensure appropriate
transducer transfer characteristics.
With all four accelerometers operating
concurrently, the sensitivity demonstrated
Light Source
DFB diode laser
Sensor Passive fibre Fabry Perot –
plus appropriate transducer
Signal Processing
Digital - FPGA
Range
100 km with no amplification
Sensitivity of Strain e Sensor
<5x10-12 e/√Hz @100km
Sensitivity of Accelerometer
< 60 ng/√Hz @100 km
Lower Frequency
5 Hz demonstrated
Channel Density
1 channel per 100 GHz
Multiplexing Capability
80 channels per fibre
Inter-channel Cross-talk
Better than -75 dB
Dynamic Range
(closed loop inferred)
120 dB (300 Hz bandwidth)
Table 1. Key Prototype Capabilities
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
was better than 45 ng/√Hz for all
channels in a bandwidth up to 300 Hz.
When the loop of fibre was extended to
100 km in length, negligible degradation
in signal to noise was observed, with all
channels below 60 ng/√Hz. This level of
noise matches well the lowest noise floors
in an ocean environment.
The key capabilities of the prototype
are summarized in the table below.
Working within an Industrial
Linkage
For researchers in groups accustomed
to funding via discovery grants, industrial
linkages can be challenging. This is partly
because the drivers and cultures of private
enterprise vis-à-vis universities are very
different. While in universities the focus
is on scholarship, autonomy, publication,
and collegiality, for the industrial partner
profit, control, confidentiality, and
contractual compliance are paramount.
It is important that these differences are
clearly understood and teased out early
in the collaboration, lest tensions arise
later on through misunderstandings. In
addition, such projects can represent a
diversion from core business for both
parties. Universities are structured around
the business of teaching and discovery
grant based research and have designed
their accounting and reporting systems
as well as human resource policies
accordingly. These may not meld well
with the expectations and operations of
the industrial partner. For the company’s
part, the impact on operations of the
current climate can mean that growth
projects play a secondary role to more
immediate concerns, especially for small
players. Yet these challenges augment
the daily work of researchers. They can
be met providing the right personnel are
available with a mix of university and
industrial experience, coupled with a
pragmatic approach and no immediate
need to publish. However, individuals
with this mix of skills and experience
do not fit traditional ARC or university
career path models.
Commercialisation and Next Steps
Each stage of commercialisation may
involve different project deliverables and
investment partners. Linkage grants up
to a few million dollars are suitable for
early stage commercial development
and can take the project up to the
initial pilot stage The dichotomy that
exists is that large companies do not
wish to get involved in this early phase
because of the distraction it represents,
whilst small entrepreneurial companies
generally do not have the required capital
to take a project through all stages of
commercialisation to completion.
It was clear from the start of this
project that the deliverable at the end
of the project would form the main
marketing device for attracting next stage
funding. The primary objective was to
deliver a self-contained prototype device
demonstrating all the key capabilities,
with development focused on de-risking
and demonstrating the novel aspects of
the invention. That is, given limited time
and resources, the prototype would not
include elements, which while important
for the final production device, did not
represent innovative steps or, in any case,
might constitute existing intellectual
property of a future commercialisation
partner. Since the prototype would be a
scaled down version of the final product,
a clear pathway to scale also needed to
be articulated. Moreover, performance
and production economies steered
development decisions.
The Global Financial Crisis (GFC)
has had a significant impact on venture
capital markets. It is uncertain when
more favourable conditions will return
although there is some sign of green
sprouts (GS) emerging and strengthening
of balance sheets (BS). At present,
several avenues are being considered to
progress this development to a largescale demonstration. Companies have
been identified which have the requisite
intellectual property and expertise to
create synergies, the required capital,
and the requirement for a robust, long-
lived, and reliable solution to permanent
seabed seismic monitoring. Surveillance
applications which require a stealthy,
completely passive sensor system with
a 100 km range form the basis of a
complementary development path.
Conclusion
An Australian Research Council
linkage grant has enabled us to take a
sophisticated interferometric technique,
usually only found in fundamental science,
and meld it with fibre-optics to create an
industrial prototype, demonstrating a
breakthrough combination of capabilities
for permanent seabed seismic sensor arrays.
Industrial linkages can be challenging for
university groups whose core business is
not working with industry, but can be
rewarding and successfully completed
with the right personnel. Yet this is but
one step on the commercialisation path,
with many twists and turns ahead.
References
[1]“Oil and gas applications: Probing oil
fields,” Hilde Nakstad & Jon Thomas
Kringlebotn, Nature Photonics 2,
147 - 149 (2008)
[2]“ S e i s m i c s h i f t o n Va l h a l l ,”
Upstreamonline, September 01,
2003 http://www.upstreamonline.
com/live/article31368.ece
[3]“Pico-strain multiplexed fiber optic
sensor array operating down to infrasonic frequencies,” Ian C. M. Littler,
Malcolm B. Gray, Jong H. Chow,
Daniel A. Shaddock, and David E.
McClelland, Opt. Express 17(13),
11077-11087 (2009)
Ian Littler MBA PhD is with the Centre
for Gravitational Physics, Australian
National University, Canberra.
25
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Metamaterials:
changing the physics of wave propagation
Metamaterials: changing the physics of wave propagation
W
R.C. McPhedran
by Ross C. McPhedran
e consider the question of the appropriate definition of metamatute for Photonics and Optical Science, School of Physics, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
three to four times the period (for the
terials, and what separates them from composite materials and
photonic
crystals.
We then
discussofexamples
of the and
surprising
feaWe consider the question
of the
appropriate
definition
metamaterials,
what separates
them
neighbourhood of the first band-gap,
from composite
photonic crystals.
We then
examples of the
surprising features
tures materials
which canand
distinguish
the behaviour
of discuss
waves propagating
in materials
with a refractive index contrast of 3:1),
which can structured
distinguishon
thea scale
behaviour
of waves propagating
in materials
structured
on of
a scale fine
fine compared
with the wavelength
of light
with that
and the wavelength to feature size is
compared with the wavelength of light with that of waves propagating in conventional homogeneous
waves propagating in conventional homogeneous optical materials. We also
optical materials. We also consider the question of homogenizability: whether wave properties
of of this magnitude for experimental
often
consider
the question
of to
homogenizability:
whether
properties
of such
such structured
materials
are able
assimilated of with
thosewave
of some
equivalent
unstructured
metamaterials (particularly those being
material. structured materials are able to assimilated of with those of some equivalent
constructed for visible and near-visible
unstructured material.
PACS numbers:
wavelengths, for which lithographic
T h e Wi k i p e d i a d e f i n i t i o n o f these are usually considered distinct from challenges make it difficult to achieve
METAMATERIALS
metamaterials is a I.
goodDEFINING
starting point
metamaterials, as their features are of better ratios).
for discussion: A metamaterial (or meta similar size to the wavelength at which they
We show in Fig. 1 the interaction of
pedia definition
of metamaterials
is a good
point for
meta material)
material)
is a material which
gainsstarting
its function,
anddiscussion:
thus cannotAbemetamaterial
approximated (or
a spatially
localized set of parallel beams
l which gains its properties from its structure rather than directly from its composition. To distinguish
properties
from itsmaterials,
structure the
rather
than as a homogeneous
material.
with ahas
photonic
ls from other
composite
metamaterial
label is usually
used for a material which
unusualcrystal. The wavelength
directly
from
its
composition.
To
distinguish
There
are
elements
of
these
comments
is
chosen
that negative refraction is
The term was coined in 1999 by Rodger M. Walser of the University of Texas at Austin. He [1] so
defined
ls as: metamaterials from other composite which are universally agreed upon: achieved. The multiple beams created by
pic composites
having
a synthetic,label
three-dimensional,
periodic
cellular
architecture
designed
to produce
materials,
the metamaterial
is usually structuring
media
on a scale
fine compared
reflection
withinanthe crystal can be seen.
mbination, not available in nature, of two or more responses to specific excitation.
used for a material
which
has unusual
with the
unusual
We give in Fig. 2 a
second example of
gnetics researchers
often use
the term
quite narrowly
forwavelength
materials delivering
which exhibit
negative refraction.
A
properties.
was coined
in 1999Metamaterials
by properties.
However,
commentstructures,
the unusual
on in the
entry The
the term
comment
is made:
usually
consistthe
of periodic
andoptical
thus properties which can
imilarities
withM.
photonic
and frequency
selective
surfaces.
However,
these are
considered
Rodger
Walser ofcrystals
the University
of Texas that
negative
refraction
is required
to usually
be achieved
with structured materials. The
m metamaterials,
featuresmetamaterials
are of similarbe
size
to the wavelength
at which they
andphotonic
thus crystal combines the
at Austin.asHetheir
[1] defined
demonstrated
for classification
as function,
sixteen layer
proximated as a homogeneous material.
Macroscopic
composites
a aagreed
metamaterial
would notmedia
be widely
properties
of ultrarefraction, preventing
elementsas:
of these
comments
which arehaving
universally
upon: structuring
on a scale
fine compared
by many
The diffractive
of beams, with
velength synthetic,
deliveringthree-dimensional,
unusual properties.periodic
However,accepted
the comment
that researchers.
negative refraction
is required spreading
to be
d for classification
as
a
metamaterial
would
not
be
widely
accepted
by
many
researchers.
The
original
cellular architecture designed to produce an original Veselago paper [2] and much antireflection, so the beam enters the
per [2] and
much combination,
recent worknot
have
stressed
rangework
of unusual
phenomena
which can be achieved
optimized
available
in the
recent
have stressed
the range
photonic crystal with essentially no
ropriate structuring: as well as negative refraction, negative Goos-Hanchen shift, reversed Doppler effect,
nature, ofetc.
two or
more
responses tobetween
specific photonic
of unusual
phenomena
which can beis also
reflective
disturbance.
iation pressure,
The
distinction
crystals
and metamaterials
one which
is
Electromagnetics
researchers
through appropriate
structuring:
Another
aspect of the Wikipedia
sustain. excitation.
Indeed, the
former is often
used with achieved
the wavelength
around three
to four times
the period
hbourhood
the the
firstterm
band-gap,
with a refractive
index
3:1), andnegative
the wavelength
to feature
oftenof use
quite narrowly
for as well
as contrast
negative of
refraction,
comments
which may need to be qualified
of this magnitude for experimental metamaterials (particularly those being constructed for visible and
materials which exhibit negative refraction. Goos-Hanchen shift, reversed Doppler is the insistence that to be a metawavelengths, for which lithographic challenges make it difficult to achieve better ratios).
further onofina the
entry localized
the effect,
radiation
etc. material,
system should be able
in Fig. A1 little
the interaction
spatially
set negative
of parallel
beamspressure,
with a photonic
crystal.theThe
made: Metamaterials
TheThe
distinction
between
photonic
to be within
homogenizablei.e., accurately
is chosencomment
so that isnegative
refraction isusually
achieved.
multiple
beams
createdcrystals
by reflection
the
be seen. consist of periodic structures, and thus have and metamaterials is also one which is modeled by an equivalent homogeneous
Fig. 2 a second example of the unusual optical properties which can be achieved with structured materials.
many similarities with photonic crystals difficult to sustain. Indeed, the former is system. It is generally the case that those
layer photonic crystal combines the properties of ultrarefraction, preventing diffractive spreading of beams,
and frequency selective surfaces. However, often used with the wavelength around in the metamaterial work backwards
from experimental or numerical data
to effective dielectric and magnetic
permeabilities, without reference to the
extensive literature on homogenisation
in the mathematical and composite
material communities [4]. In particular,
the Bergman-Milton bounds provide a
1. A periodic
set of beams,
localized
withisaincident
Gaussian
is incident
on crystal
riodic set ofFig.
beams,
each localized
with a each
Gaussian
profile,
onprofile,
a six layer
photonic
high-index
quickofway
of deciding whether effective
six layer
photonic crystal
of high-index
dielectric rods
in asecond
low index
background.
s in a low aindex
background.
The wavelength
corresponds
to the
band,
and is chosen so that negative
dielectric
or
magnetic permeabilities
The wavelength
corresponds to the second band, and is chosen so that negative
d Goos-Hanchen
shift are evident.
lie within the permitted region for
refraction and Goos-Hanchen shift are evident.
26
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
2
the flow lines join up smoothly, leaving
no trace of their diversion by the rock.
In optics, this effect requires refractive
indices which fall below those of the
ambient material. In fact, if there is an
angular tolerance of qmin set on the angles
of rays reaching and permitted to enter
the central cavity, the law of refraction
says that the effective refractive index
at the cavity boundary, nmin, should be
related to the ambient index n amb by
nmin=nambsin(qmin). Thus, an ideal cloak
Fig. 2.Two Gaussian beams making angles of incidence ±22.5º are incident on a
with qmin=0 requires nmin=0. In practice,
16 layer photonic crystal consisting of high index rods in a low index background.
less than ideal cloaking will be sufficient to
◦
Two GaussianNote
beams
of incidence
are incident
on a 16 layer photonic crystal consisting of high
themaking
absenceangles
of beam
spreading±22.5
in the photonic
crystal.
severely reduce the visibility of the cloaked
ods in a low index background. Note the absence of beam spreading in the photonic crystal.
quantities derivable within the quasistatic Transform Optics And Metamaterials object and cloaking system, particularly if
One feature which might be used to it is desired to have operational cloaking
approximation. If they do not, which may
betweenno
thereflective
study of photonic
be beam
the caseenters
in practice,
then they crystal
will distinguish
over a significant range of frequency.
ntireflection, often
so the
the photonic
with essentially
disturbance.
ther aspect of
the
Wikipedia
comments
which
may
need
to
be
qualified
is
the
insistence
that
probably depend on parameters such as crystals and that of metamaterials is
Ttoh ebe eaametarliest experimental
al, the system
should
be
able
to
be
homogenizablei.e.,
accurately
modeled
by
an
equivalent
homogeneousof cloaking were at
polarization and angle of incidence as well the use in the latter of methods which demonstrations
. It is generally the case that those in the metamaterial work backwards from experimental or numerical data
similarity
between
theon homogenisation
as and
frequency,
and permeabilities,
their dependencewithout
may exploit
microwave frequencies,
and used “unit
ctive dielectric
magnetic
referencethe
to the
extensive
literature
in
equations
of
general
relativity
and
those
not
be
less
complicated
than
that
found
cells”
comprising
appropriately
shaped
thematical and composite material communities [4]. In particular, the Bergman-Milton bounds provide a quick
deciding whether
effective
dielectric
or
magnetic
permeabilities
lie
within
the
permitted
region
for
quantities
of electromagnetism in media where the metallic elements to achieve the correct
in photonic crystals.
ble within the quasistatic
approximation.
If
they
do
not,
whichand
may
often be
the case in are
practice,
then they
will
magnetic
permeabilities
Given these caveats, and the number dielectric
mixtures
of capacitive
and inductive
bly depend on parameters such as polarization and angle of incidence as well as frequency, and their dependence
functions
of
both
frequency
and
spatial
of
people
working
in
both
fields,
it
would
actions
required
to
generate
good
ot be less complicated than that found in photonic crystals.
position.
This similarity
pointed
outandapproximations
seemand
difficult
and notofoverly
useful
to in
to the correct relative
n these caveats,
the number
people
working
both fields,
it would was
seem
difficult
not overly useful
and build too
a walltoo
between
crystals
andPost
metamaterials,
particularly
in the
case where and
the permeabilities [8].
by E.J.
[5], and has been
used to study
try high
and build
high a photonic
wall between
permittivities
are being studied in the context of in-band rather than in-gap properties.
photonic crystals and metamaterials, light absorption by surface-modulated Since this pioneering work, there has
particularly in the case where the former metals, which it was shown in 1980 can been much effort put into pushing
TRANSFORM
METAMATERIALS
transformed
from highly reflecting demonstrations
are being II.
studied
in the context OPTICS
of in- beAND
of cloaking actions
3
to totally absorbing with surprisingly towards frequencies approaching those
band rather than in-gap properties.
feature which might be used to distinguish between the study ofshallow
photonic
crystals
metamaterials
grooves.
In and
workthatofofvisible
light. Very recent work [9] has
use in the latter of methods which exploit the similarity between the equations of general relativity and those
initiated byare
Sir functions
John Pendry
demonstrated
form of cloaking known
tromagnetism in media where the dielectric and magnetic permeabilities
of both
frequencyaand
Ulfused
Leonhardt
as “sweeping
under
position. This similarity was pointed out by E.J. Post [5], and[6]hasand
been
to study light
absorption
bythe carpet” in the near
-modulated metals, which it was shown in 1980 can be transformed
highly reflecting toinfrared,
totally absorbing
[7], from
the correspondence
over an impressive frequency
urprisingly shallow grooves. In work initiated by Sir John Pendrybetween
[6] and Ulf
Leonhardtand
[7], the
correspondence
relativity
range.
n relativity and electromagnetism has been exploited in geometrical approaches to the design of metamaterials.
has beenof cloaking structures,
pect of this work which has most captured widespread attention electromagnetism
is in the demonstration
By Reaction
exploited
resist detection by electromagnetic probes. Light is guided round
a cavityinin geometrical
which objects Cloaking
to be cloaked
are
, and flows like water round a rock: downstream, the flow lines
join
up
smoothly,
leaving
no
trace
of
their
Among
various
proposed ways of
approaches to the design of
on by the rock. In optics, this effect requires refractive indices which
fall
below
those
of
the
ambient
material.
metamaterials. The aspect achieving electromagnetic cloaking, one
, if there is an angular tolerance of θmin set on the angles of rays reaching and permitted to enter the central
work
which has
should be possibility
related is to use cloaking
the law of refraction says that the effective refractive index at of
thethis
cavity
boundary,
nmin , interesting
by
reaction,
most
captured
widespread
0. In on anomalous local
ambient index namb by nmin = namb sin(θmin ). Thus, an ideal cloak with θmin = 0 requires nmin = based
e, less than ideal cloaking will be sufficient to severely reduce the
visibility
of
the
cloaked
object
and
cloaking
a t t e n t i o n i s i n t h e resonance or plasmonic resonance.
, particularly if it is desired to have operational cloaking over a demonstration
significant range
frequency.
This possibility arose out of rigorous
of of
cloaking
earliest experimental demonstrations of cloaking were at microwave frequencies, and used ”unit cells” comprisstudies
intorequired
the electrostatics of systems
structures,
which
resist
propriately shaped metallic elements to achieve the correct mixtures of capacitive and inductive
actions
of cylinders
coated with shell material
by electromagnetic
erate good approximations to the correct relative permittivitiesdetection
and permeabilities
[8]. Since
this pioneering
there has been much effort put into pushing demonstrations of cloaking
actions
frequencies
havingapproaching
dielectric permittivity s either in
probes.
Lighttowards
is guided
round a cavity in which resonance with that of the cylinder core
Fig. 3.The structure from Pendry et al [6], which
objects to be cloaked are ( s = - c) or with that of the surrounding
guides
light
around
a
central
cavity
by
structuring
of
om Pendry et al [6], which guides light around a central cavity by structuring
theflows
spatial
distributions
placed,ofand
like
water matrix material ( s = - m). In the latter case,
distributions
of the tensors of dielectric
ic permittivity the
andspatial
magnetic
permeability.
round a rock: downstream, the particularly surprising conclusion was
permittivity and magnetic permeability.
Very recent work [9] has demonstrated a form of cloaking known as ”sweeping under the carpet”
ver an impressive frequency range.
27
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
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4
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Crystals”, Applied Physics Letters:
87, 111107-1-3.
[4] G.W. Milton (2002). The Theory of
Composites. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, U.K.
[5] E.J. Post (1962). Formal Structure of
Electromagnetics: General Covariance
and Electromagnetics. North Holland,
Amsterdam.
[6] J.B. Pendry et al (2006). “Controlling
electromagnetic ¯elds”, Science 312:
1780-1782
[7] U. Leonhardt et al (2006). “Optical
conformal mapping”, Science 312:
1777-1780.
[8] D . S c h u r i g e t a l ( 2 0 0 6 ) .
“Metamaterial electromagnetic cloak
at microwave frequencies”, Science
314: 977-980.
Fig. 4. A set of seven polarizable molecules about to enter the cloaking region
[9] J. Valentine et al (2009). “An optical
outside a coated cylinder with s very close to -1. The resonant interaction between
cloak made of dielectrics”, Nature
the external applied field, the molecules and the coated cylinder is evident. From
[12].
Materials, published on-line 29
A set of seven polarizable molecules about to enter the cloaking region outside a coated cylinder with s April.
very close to
esonant interaction between the external applied field, the molecules and the coated cylinder is evident. From [12].
that the coated cylinder could behave and the object to be cloaked, or otherwise [10]N.A. Nicorovici, R.C. McPhedran
like a solid cylinder with radius rs2/rc, the cloaked object may be hidden but the
a n d G . W. M i l t o n ( 1 9 9 3 ) .
rather than a cylinder with either the cloaking system may be all too apparent
“Transport Properties of a ThreeIV. REFERENCES
core radius rc or shell radius rs [10]. This (the ostrich effect).
Phase Composite Material: The
in turn can lead to a cloaking interaction,
Square Array of Coated Cylinders”.
M. Walser (2003). W.S. Weiglhofer and A. Lakhtakia. ed. Introduction to Complex Mediums for Electromagif a polarizable
molecule
is placedWA,
outside
Proceedings of the Royal Society A
tics and Optics.
SPIE Press,
Bellingham,
USA.Acknowledgements
R.C.M. acknowledges participation in
the coated cylinder, but within the “zone
442: 599-620.
G. Veselago (1967). ”The electrodynamics of substances with simultaneously negative values of  and µ” (in
influence”
the equivalent larger his cited research from Graeme Milton, [11]G.W. Milton and N.A.P. Nicorovici
ussian). Usp.ofFiz.
Nauk 92:of 517526.
cylinder [11,12]. This method is in Lindsay Botten, Nicolae Nicorovici, Tom
(2006).”On the cloaking e®ects
P. White et al (2005) ”Highly-efficient Wide-angle Transmission into Uniform Rod-type Photonic Crystals”,
some ways complementary to cloaking White, Martijn de Sterke, Stefan Enoch
associated with anomalous localized
pplied Physics Letters: 87, 111107-1-3.
by refraction, in that the former hides and Gerard Tayeb. His work is supported
resonance”, Proceedings of the Royal
W. Milton (2002).
The outside
Theorythe
of cloaking
Composites.
Cambridge
UniversityGrants
Press,Program
Cambridge,
by the Discovery
of theU.K. Society A 462: 3027-3059.
in a region
system,
Research
Council.and Electromagnetics.
and relies
on Structure
material properties
rather Australian
[12]N.A.P.North
Nicorovici et al (2007).
J. Post (1962).
Formal
of Electromagnetics:
General
Covariance
olland, Amsterdam.
than structuring. The latter hides objects
“Quasistatic cloaking of twothe cloaking
system,
and heavily References
dimensional polarizable discrete
B. Pendry et inside
al (2006).
”Controlling
electromagnetic
fields”, Science 312: 1780-1782
relies on structuring of materials to guide [1] R . M . Wa l s e r ( 2 0 0 3 ) . W. S .
systems by anomalous resonance”,
Leonhardt et al (2006). ”Optical conformal mapping”, Science 312: 1777-1780.
Weiglhofer and A. Lakhtakia. ed.
light. Reaction cloaking works with
Optics Express 15: 6314-6323.
Schurig et alarbitrarily
(2006). ”Metamaterial
electromagnetic
cloak
at
microwave
frequencies”,
Science
314:
977-980.
Introduction to Complex Mediums [13]N.A.P.
complicated discrete systems
Nicorovici et al (2008).
for
Electromagnetics
and
Optics.
SPIE
of
polarizable
molecules,
but
its
success
“Finite
wavelength cloaking by
Valentine et al (2009). ”An optical cloak made of dielectrics”, Nature Materials, published on-line 29 April.
Press, Bellingham, WA, USA.
depends on the resonance condition being
plasmonic resonance”, New Journal
A. Nicorovici, R.C. McPhedran and G.W. Milton (1993). ”Transport Properties of a Three-Phase Composite
[2] V.G. ofVeselago
satis¯ed Array
to veryofhigh
accuracy
(cloakingProceedings
of Physics 10: 115020 (16pp).
aterial: The Square
Coated
Cylinders”.
the Royal(1967).
Society A“ The
442: 599-620.
electrodynamics of substances with
quality scales roughly as -log s). Note
that in recent work we have studied
simultaneously negative values of
Prof. Ross McPhedran is with the
and µ” (in Russian). Usp. Fiz. Nauk
how well this type of cloaking works as
Institute for Photonics and Optical
92: 517526.
the wavelength diminishes towards the
Science, School of Physics,
system size [13]. We have found that the [3] T.P. White et al (2005) “HighlyUniversity of Sydney, NSW 2006,
e±cient Wide-angle Transmission
wavelength has to be considerably larger
Australia
into Uniform Rod-type Photonic
than the sizes of both the cloaking system
29
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
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AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Temperature insensitive optofluidic
photonic crystal devices
by Christian Karnutsch, Snjezana Tomljenovic-Hanic, Christian Grillet,
Christelle Monat, Ross McPhedran and Benjamin J Eggleton
R
esonant optical cavities constitute a silicon waveguide in a balanced Machmajor building blocks for the Zehnder configuration [4], and (iv) a
development of a large variety polymer cladding with a negative thermoof applications, ranging from high- optic coefficient deposited on silicon-onsensitivity sensor systems for biomedical insulator waveguides [5].
and chemical applications, to optical
We have suggested a novel approach
switches, microlasers and integrated that is adaptable to a wide range of
optical circuits. The performance of such applications [6], and is based on the
devices depends strongly on their stability tendency of fluids to have refractive
against changes in ambient conditions. For indices which decrease as temperature
example, refractive index sensors based increases, while a range of dielectrics
on optical resonance techniques suffer important in optics have refractive indices
from temperature drift that introduces which vary in the opposite way. Thus,
noise and hence degrades the sensor’s by appropriate design, we can use these
sensitivity [1]. To circumvent these opposite tendencies to cancel each other
problems, we have proposed a principle out, resulting in a thermally balanced
for the temperature stabilization of optical configuration.
photonic crystal (PhC) cavities based on
The key concept of our optofluidic
optofluidics. We introduce a method to temperature stabilization scheme is thus
render a specific mode of a cavity insensitive the infiltration of a liquid with negative
to changes in ambient temperature, and thermo-optic coefficient that can balance
we experimentally demonstrate a PhC the positive thermal drift of the host
cavity with a quality factor of Q≈15 000 photonic crystal (PhC) material. Figure 1
that exhibits a temperature-independent illustrates the temperature dependence
resonance.
of the refractive indices for silicon and a
A number of diverse approaches selected infiltration
have recently been proposed towards the liquid, with thermodevelopment of nanophotonic devices optic coefficients
with temperature insensitive performance. ∂ n S i / ∂ T = + 2 · 1 0 - 4
These include (i) a Fabry-Pérot microcavity K-1 for silicon and
micromachined into a single mode optical ∂nL/∂T=-3·10-4 K-1
fiber [2] (ii) a refractive index material with for commercially
negative thermo-optic coefficient infiltrated available Cargille
use these opposite tendencies to cancel each other out, resulting in a thermally
into the holes of a microstructured optical immersion oil type B.
containing a Bragg grating [3] (iii) For a PhC waveguide
ed optical fiber
configuration.
 .
whose air holes have been infiltrated with
a liquid, the effective refractive index
experienced by a guided mode depends
on the combination of the two refractive
indices (PhC host material and infiltrated
liquid), weighted by the filling fraction f,
which represents the relative electric field
overlap with the corresponding material.
Given that thermo-optic coefficients for
most PhC host materials (Silicon and
III-V semiconductors) are positive[7],
while they are negative for most liquids [8]
and polymers [9], there is a large range
of material combinations for which the
effective index of the combination may
be rendered temperature insensitive if the
guided mode has an appropriate fraction
of electric field overlap in each material.
To form a microfluidic doubleheterostructure cavity (see Fig. 2) [10-12]
we infiltrated Cargille immersion oil (see
Fig. 3) into silicon PhC membranes.
Figure 4 shows transmission spectra as
a function of temperature while probing an
infiltrated optofluidic cavity. We observe








Fig. 2. of
Schematic
of an optofluidic
double-heterostructure
  Schematic
an optofluidic
doubleheterostructure
cavity. Top: Ph

cavity. Top: Photonic crystal slab with a line-defect. The
crystal slab with
a linedefect.
The
infiltration
a region
air holes with
infiltration
of a region
of air
holes with of
a fluid
leads toof
a mode


gap effect. Bottom: Schematic of the band diagram along the
leads to a mode
gap effect.
Bottom:
of the
thetransmission
band diagram alo
waveguide
direction.
The greySchematic
area indicates


region where the propagation of photons is allowed in the





waveguide
direction.
Thethegrey
areaindicates
indicates
the gap
transmission

waveguide;
red area
the mode
region whereregion whe
is suppressed.
with a the
frequency
within

propagation of propagation
photons is allowed
in thePhotons
waveguide;
red area
indicates th
the
mode
gap
can
only
propagate
in
the
infiltrated
waveguide
Fig.
1.
Refractive
index
variation
with
temperature
for
silicon
Refractive index variation with temperature for silicon and a liquid at
region.
and a liquid at λ≈1410 nm.
gap region where
propagation is suppressed. Photons with a frequency wit
0 nm.
mode gap can only propagate in the infiltrated waveguide region. 
ey concept of our optofluidic temperature stabilization scheme is thus the
tion of a liquid with negative thermooptic coefficient that can balance the
31
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p region where propagation is suppressed. Photons with a frequency within the
de gap can only propagate in the infiltrated waveguide region. 
property: if
there is a range
of resonances
created by
a system
in which
elements
have opposite
 Schematic
of our infiltration
process:
a microtip
isimmersed
immersedtemperature
into a liquid
Fig. 3. Schematic
of our infiltration
process:
a micro-tip is
dependencies,
into a liquid and is drawn across a photonic crystal to create a
d is drawn across
a photonic
microfluidic
cavity. crystal to create a microfluidic cavity. then there will
often be one
Fabry-Perot resonances sustained by the particular resonance in which field
microfluidic
cavity that
exhibit
among the while
elements
leads toan
ure 4 shows
transmission
spectra
asmoderate
a functionsharing
of temperature
probing
quality factors of the order of Q≈15,000 temperature insensitivity.
iltrated optofluidic
cavity.
resonances
sustained
by the
–20,000. We
derivee
fromobserve
Fig. 4 thatFabryerot
the
In summary,
we have
demonstrated
resonance wavelengths of the Fabry- a scheme to make photonic crystal
crofluidic cavity
that exhibit
quality
of the devices
order ofindependent
Q ≈ 15,000of –
Perot cavity
shift withmoderate
temperature
with factors
nanophotonic
different gradients. In the investigated the temperature of their environment.
000.
temperature range, resonances (2) to (5) Eliminating the temperature-dependence
show a blue-shift of resonant wavelength of a resonance promotes the development
between -0.03 nmK -1 (resonance 2) of robust high [5] sensitivity sensor systems
and -0.06 nmK-1 (resonance 5), while that respond to changes in refractive index
resonance (1) remains exceptionally stable of a liquid while reducing the complexity
at l=1405 nm, with an extremely low otherwise caused by thermal fluctuations.
gradient of -0.003 nmK-1. This represents Temperature insensitivity of cavity
a 20-fold reduction in temperature- resonances may also translate into high
sensitivity compared to resonance (5)
3 and a precision nanophotonic components
27-fold reduction compared to a standard such as microlasers, optical filters and
silicon PhC waveguide [13]. The data in switches.
Fig. 4 illustrates an important generic
The authors thank the Australian
Research Council (ARC)
and the School of Physics,
University of Sydney,
for generous support. We
acknowledge collaborations
with students and colleagues
o n va r i o u s a s p e c t s o f
optofluidic cavities, in
particular with Cameron
LC Smith, Alexandra
Graham, Sanshui Xiao,
N Asger Mortensen, Liam
O’Faolain, and Thomas F
Krauss.
References
[1] I.M White and X.
Fan, On the performance
quantification of resonant
refractive index sensors.
Optics Express, 2008.
16(2): p. 1020-1028.
[2] T . W e i e t a l ,
Temperature-insensitive
miniaturized fiber inline
Fabry-Perot interferometer
for highly sensitive refractive
Fig. 4. Transmission spectra at various temperatures
 Transmission
spectra
at
various
temperatures
measured
on
an measurement.
optofluidic Optics
index
measured on an optofluidic cavity of length 6.8 µm.
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Express, 2008. 16(8): p. 5764-5769.
[3] N. Mothe et al, Thermal wavelength
stabilization of Bragg gratings
photowritten in hole-filled
microstructured optical fibers. Optics
Express, 2008. 16(23): p. 1901819033.
[4] A. Densmore et al, Spiral-path
high-sensitivity silicon photonic
wire molecular sensor with
temperatureindependent response.
Optics Letters, 2008. 33(6): p. 596598.
[5] W.N. Ye et al, Kimerling, Athermal
High-Index-Contrast Waveguide
Design. IEEE Photonics Technology
Letters, 2008. 20(11): p. 885-887.
[6] C. Karnutsch, et al, Temperature
stabilization of optofluidic photonic
crystal cavities. Applied Physics
Letters, 2009. 94(23): p. 231114-3.
[7] F.G. Della Corte et al, Temperature
dependence of the thermo-optic
coefficient of InP, GaAs, and SiC
from room temperature to 600 K at
the wavelength of 1.5 μm. Applied
Physics Letters, 2000. 77(11): p.
1614-1616.
[8] C.B. Kim and C.B. Su, Measurement
of the refractive index of liquids at 1.3
and 1.5 micron using a fibre optic
Fresnel ratio meter. Measurement
Science and Technology, 2004. 15(9):
p. 1683-1686.
[9] Z. Zhang et al, Thermo-optic
coefficients of polymers for optical
waveguide applications. Polymer,
2006. 47(14): p. 4893-4896.
[10] C. Grillet et al, S. Tomljenovic-Hanic,
C. Karnutsch, and B.J. Eggleton,
Reconfigurable photonic crystal
circuits. Laser & Photonics Reviews,
2009.
[11] C.L.C. Smith et al, Reconfigurable
microfluidic photonic crystal slab
cavities. Optics Express, 2008. 16(20):
p. 15887-15896.
[12] U. Bog et al, High-Q microfluidic
cavities in silicon-based twodimensional photonic cr ystal
structures. Optics Letters, 2008.
33(19): p. 2206-2208.
[13] M. Uenuma and T. Moooka,
Temperature-independent silicon
waveguide optical filter. Optics
Letters, 2009. 34(5): p. 599-601.
The authors are with IPOS/CUDOS
at the School of Physics, University
of Sydney.
of lent  m
rive from Figure 4 that the resonance wavelengths of the FabryPerot cavity
ith temperature with different gradients. In the investigated temperature range,
33
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AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Sydney and Macquarie Universities
visit Finisar Labs
O
ne of the problems of being
within a university is the “ivory
tower” problem. Universities
have so much going on that it is quite
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students. It provides a way to ground
ideas of what is going on in optics and
photonics outside our own labs.
A mix of about 25 undergraduate and
postgraduate students and researchers,
pulled together by both the Macquarie
and Sydney University OSA student
chapters, turned up to find out what’s
going on at one of Australia’s photonics
successes. Former Sydney Uni postdoc
Michaël Roelens conducted our lab
tour, with Rebacca Lodin giving us an
overview of the assembly process of the
dynamic wavelength processor (DWP).
It was amazing to hear how much of this
process takes people to minutely tweak
the position of tiny optical components
in order to get light in and out of these
DWP boxes, revealing the intricate nature
of putting together a complex optical
device - a task delicate enough that it still
needs the hands of an intelligent person
to work.
We were then led through to the
testing section, a complex of racks upon
racks of equipment all multiplexed and
shared across the large lab space. Michaël
then ran us through the basics of his pride
and joy - Finisar’s WaveShaper. The story
of how university research (especially from
a Physics faculty!) managed to make its
way to a factory floor was a great example
of how the two worlds of industry and
academia can successfully meet.
Our next stop was the R&D team of
Glenn Baxter and Peter Evans. Even in this
environment, something that should be
vaguely familiar to university researchers,
there were marked differences. The lab was
very tidy, everything labelled, organised
and I don’t think I saw a single piece of
sticky tape holding equipment together!
The focus of research was interesting;
academia is so used to providing first
time demonstrations of complex, novel
devices and then publishing those results.
In contrast these guys wanted to modify
their devices to make them cheaper, more
reliable or more useful to the consumer
– goals that seem only to get a passing
thought in university research.
Ian Clarke then took over and ran
us through a crash course in industrial
photonics. He introduced us to the
idea that it is very rarely the case that a
novel effect or basic idea is turned into a
successful product. Rather it seems that
in industry, the idea is to play a guessing
game as to “what problem application
needs a solution next” and then to go
about finding the cheapest, most reliable
solution to that problem.
The group then rounded off the trip
with an afternoon tea with some of the
by Bill Corcoran
staff at Finisar, which gave us a great
opportunity to have a chat and find out
about what it’s like to be involved in
industry.
All in all, a great trip and a useful
experience - I highly recommend this
type of activity to anyone interested in
industry.
This lab tour was one of the first
joint events organised between OSA
student chapters at Macquarie and Sydney
Universities, a partnership aimed to
continue to provide opportunities like this
for optics students in the future.
The two chapters are co-hosts of the
second annual AOS-sponsored student
conference in optics – the Konference on
Optics And Laser Applications (KOALA),
to be held in Sydney 23rd-27th of November
this year. Student conferences of this type are
a growing phenomenon, linked by the global
IONS optics student conference network
(www.ions-project.org). Email: billc@
phsycis.usyd.edu.au or visit www.physics.
usyd.edu.au/osa for more details.
Bill Corcoran is the President of the
University of Sydney student chapter
of the OSA.
35
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
36
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
The Optics Suitcase:
Physics Outreach in
Far-North Queensland Schools
T
he first physics outreach trip by
PhD student volunteers from the
UQ student chapter of the OSA
took place this month from the 20th24th of April. The outreach trip began in
Mossman, a town 75km north of Cairns
and finished at Magnetic Island off the
coast of Townsville. The trip involved
visiting primary and high schools to
introduce school students to the field of
optics and careers in optics. The trip was
funded, organised and carried out by the
UQ chapter of the OSA.
The OSA Foundation donated an
‘optics suitcase’ to the UQ chapter for
outreach purposes. This pack contains
all the equipment required to make the
outreach activities possible. Each class was
given a one hour presentation on optical
physics with the theme ‘discovering colour
in light’. This included both hands-on
activities for the students and explanatory
demonstrations by the presenters. The
students were given diffraction, polarisation
and liquid crystal activity packets to
investigate and ask questions about. The
presentations were given to years 4-7 and
by Sarah Midgley
10-12. Both the junior and senior students
were very positive about the activities and
the information presented. It was great to
see the excitement and enthusiasm of the
students, with many students remaining
after the presentations to ask additional
questions. Many students also expressed an
interest to study science at university.
The trip to Far-North Queensland is
intended to be the first of many outreach
activities which form part of a broader
outreach program being facilitated by
the UQ chapter. Planning for another
outreach trip by UQ chapter
volunteers is currently under
way. Later this year, chapter
volunteers will visit remote
parts of the Northern Territory
in an effort to introduce
school students to the field of
optics and the possibility of
considering a career in science
or engineering.
Sarah Midgley is the VicePresident of the UQ student
chapter of the OSA.
37
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Opto-Mechanics
Contact us for a
copy of our
comprehensive
opto-mechanics
catalogue!
38
Lambda Scientific Pty Ltd, Phone: +61 8 8333 0382, E-mail: sales@lambdasci.com, Web: www.lambdasci.com
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Product News
Ultra low frequency vibration isolation workstation from Kinetic Systems
Warsash Scientific is
pleased to announce
the release of a new
ultra-low-frequency
vibration-isolation
workstation for lighter
loads from Kinetic
Systems. Designated the
2800 Series LLHP, this new workstation is designed
to meet the exacting vibration-isolation requirements
of sensitive equipment weighing in the 100-pound
range (200 pounds max.). KSI uses its proprietary
trifilar pendulum mounts and Active-Air suspension to
provide exceptional horizontal axis vibration isolation
that outperforms other mechanical systems, and a high
level of vertical axis isolation.
The 2800 Series tabletop is 30” square, two inches
thick, and can be constructed of lightweight aluminum
extruded core or a variety of composite cores. Surfaces
are available with or without mounting holes.
The compact, ergonomic design of the 2800
Series incorporates automatic leveling and low natural
frequencies (1.1 Hz along horizontal axis and 1.4
Hz along vertical axis). The workstation can achieve
vertical isolation efficiency of 96% and horizontal
isolation efficiency of 97% (at 10 Hz and above).
Ideal for supporting atomic force microscopes,
analytical balances, etc., the 2800 Series can be
configured for Class 100 cleanroom compatibility
and outfitted with a variety of accessories to increase
the user’s comfort and convenience (padded armrests,
overhead equipment shelves, monitor stands, outlet
strips for lighting, etc.). Kinetic Systems workstations
are proven performers in applications such as
semiconductor processing, telecommunications,
aerospace engineering, and medical research.
Enhanced FL500 laser diode driver now for RoHS Compliance
Warsash Scientific is
pleased to announce
the release of the
re-engineered
FL500 Low Noise
Laser Diode Driver
to integrate with
higher temperature
RoHS-compliant
manufacturing
processes. It is now compatible with reflow processing
less than 250°C.
This surface mount chip is ideal for OEM
instrumentation. It offers exceptionally low noise laser
diode control that can be configured either as two
independent 250mA drivers or a single 500mA driver.
The FL500 can run on a +3V Lithium-ion battery or
up to a +12V power supply. Small size, low noise and
modest power requirements make it the choice for
handheld precision laser instrumentation.
For additional features, including current limit and
photodiode feedback for Constant Power operation,
the FL500 can be used with the FL591 evaluation
board.
Further information on these products is available from: Warsash Scientific Pty Ltd, phone: +61 2 9319 0122,
sales@warsash.com.au, web: www.warsash.com.au
Handheld Electrical Variable Optical Attenuator from oemarket.com
This is a handy handheld variable optical attenuator with digitally adjustable
optical attenuation.
• Large attenuation range, up to 80dB.
• Low insertion loss
• Adjustment step: 0.05dB or 1dB
• Single mode fibre
• Reference attenuation setting
• Frequent attenuation can be stored
• >10 hours operating time with two AA batteries
• 360g weight including batteries
Contact: sales@oemarket.com or Visit www.oemarket.com
39
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Make The Most of Your Connection
The Optical Society of America is your inside track to the optics and photonics community and your link
to an international network of more than 12,000 optical scientists, engineers, and technicians in some 50
countries. This connection, combined with OSA’s strong programs and services, makes OSA membership
a valuable resource for you. Join now!
•
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Connect to
Colleagues
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Employment and Career
Services
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Technical groups
Monthly magazine,
Optics & Photonics News
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Connect to Technical
Information
Technical exhibits
Affiliation with the
American Institute of
Physics (AIP)
Electronic products and
services
Connect to Savings
and Value
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Technical books
Peer-reviewed journals,
incl:JOSA AJOSA
BOptics LettersApplied
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Major conferences
and specialised topical
meetings
Reduced meeting
registration fees (CLEO,
OFC, and others)
As an OSA member,
you are also a member
of AIP. You’ll receive
the monthly magazine,
Physics Today, plus
discounts on other AIP
publications
Substantial discounts on
journal subscriptions and
publications
Join up to 5 OSA
technical groups and 2
application areas, free
Membership discount to
AOS members
Optical Society of America
FAX: +1 202 416-6120 WEB: http://www.osa.org
2010 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20036 USA
40
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Sensors Unlimited’s SWIR Cameras Ideal for Photovoltaic Inspection
Concerned About PV Cell Efficiency? Sensors
Unlimited announces that high resolution, shortwave
infrared (SWIR) area and linescan cameras are
being used to improve the manufacturing yield of
photovoltaic cells. SWIR technology is well suited to
monitor the quality of solar thin films, concentrated
PV, and crystalline cells, to maximize efficiency of the
solar cell manufacturing process through final assembly
of the completed modules.
The InGaAs-based SWIR cameras, which operate
between 0.9 to 1.7 microns, are ideal for inspecting
silicon boules and wafers due to the material’s
transparency beyond 1.2 microns.
The Goodrich cameras reveal voids in silicon
boules, bricks, and ingots before they are sliced into
wafers to produce mono- and multi-crystalline solar
cells. They can also detect hidden cracks by mapping
stress in raw wafers, finished cells, and thin-films
made for solar electricity generating panels. SWIR
cameras can also spot saw marks on the opposite side
of a silicon wafer and/or defects inside the material.
In addition, by applying forward bias to cells to
generate electroluminescence, the SWIR cameras are
used to gauge cell efficiency and uniformity. This aids
improvement of cell manufacturing processes, and aids
matching cells with similar efficiencies for assembly
into modules. The latter step prevents the loss of energy
from the stronger cells which would be lost in heating
the inefficient cells.
Electroluminescence from PV cells captured with a Goodrich SU320KTS
InGaAs SWIR camera (left). This illustrates cell non-uniformity within and
between the cells. Colour camera image of the same set of cells is shown
on the right.
Horiba JY MM-16 NIR Spectroscopic Ellipsometer for Thin Film Applications in the Near Infra Red
The MM-16 NIR is an easyt o - u s e , r a p i d a n d ve r s a t i l e
ellipsometer for demanding
research, process development
and industrial applications in the
photovoltaic, microelectronic,
telecommunication and optoelectronic area. The MM16 NIR Spectroscopic Ellipsometer features a CCD
detection system for rapid and accurate measurement
down to 1s over the spectral range 515-1000nm, and
a 200μm microspot for characterization of patterns.
When fully automated the system provides fast
uniformity mapping of film thickness and optical
constants. For Photovoltaic Applications NIR
measurement enables accurate characterization of:
•Optical bandgap of thin silicon films, CIGS, CdS,
CdTe materials
•Conductivity, resistivity of transparent conductive
oxides (TCO)
The MM-16 NIR spectroscopic ellipsometer is
optimized to provide high signal to noise ratio even
in difficult measurement conditions such as textured
silicon films. A dedicated sample holder is also available
for the measurement of such films.
Flexible Configurations:
•Compact, integrated goniometer to provide a very
cost-effective benchtop metrology tool.
•Automatic configuration: 200mm, 300mm mapping
stage, and/or automatic goniometer for advanced thin
film characterization.
•Integrated in production lines for in-line quality
control of production processes. Standard software
provides the user with the ability to perform a fully
automatic thin film analysis with in-built reporting,
and communication of results to host computers via
TCP/IP and RS232 protocols.
•Mounted in-situ on process chambers for thin film
thickness control of deposited or etched layers.
•An optional Spectroscopic Reflectometer may be
incorporated into the design for added capability.
For more information please contact Lastek at sales@lastek.com.au,
phone: +61 8 8443 8668, web: www.lastek.com.au
High Power 1310nm DFB Laser Diode from oemarket.com
This is linear 1310nm DFB laser diode module suitable for analog optical
transmission.
• High output power MWQ DFB laser diode at 1310nm
• High linearity performance
• 2GHz direct modulation bandwidth
• Built-in isolator and TEC
• 14-pin butterfly cooled package, single mode fiber pigtail
• Output power from 4mW to 21mW
Price: from AUD700.00 per unit
Contact: sales@oemarket.com or Visit www.oemarket.com
41
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
www.oemarket.com
Opto-Electronics
Fiber Optics
Fiber Connection
Test Equipment
High power DFB 1310nm Laser Diode – 14-pin butterfly package, up to 21mW
output power, high linearity, 2GHz direct modulation bandwidth, built-in isolator
and internal TEC and thermistor.
980nm WDM Couplers – filter-based 980/1550nm or 980/1064nm WDM
couplers are key components for various fibre laser systems. Polarization
maintaining or single mode, 1W or 2W optical power handling.
Nx1 Multimode Power Combiner for Fiber Lasers – This device combines up
to seven pump laser inputs, with pigtails of various types of optical fiber
available.
Optical Fiber Mirror – The fiber optic mirror reflects incoming light directly
back, with very low optical loss. It can be used to change the transmission
direction of the optical signal. This device is polarization insensitive.
Bending Insensitive Optical Patchcords – G.657 fiber used with 15mm
bending radius. Standard or armored patchcords available.
Visual Fiber Fault Finder – 650nm torch type red laser source, high
power output to achieve longer fiber detection, output power greater than
7mW. Light weight and compact size, 150grams including batteries.
Bitline System Pty. Ltd.
Fiber Optical Products for the Industry
42
Web: www.oemarket.com
Email: sales@oemarket.com
Tel: 02 9871 0878 Fax: 02 9871 0261
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Quantel Dye Laser
The TDL90 from Quantel is a modular highly efficient dye laser, for pumping
by Q-switched Nd:YAG lasers. A wide range of wavelength conversion options are
available to provide a broad wavelength output range 200nm to 4500nm. When
operated with the Quantel YG980 laser the systems operate harmoniously as one
compact integrated structure. Operation via keypad or external PC is available.
TriVista Triple Spectrometer
The TriVista system from Princeton Instruments is
designed to solve critical spectroscopy applications
requiring high-resolution and stray light reduction.
The TriVista is a triple spectrometer that can operate
in either additive mode for high resolution experiments
or in subtractive mode for extreme stray light rejection.
With its multiple entrance and exit ports, researchers
can configure several different experiments such as UV
Raman or Photoluminescence and be able to switch
between them via software control. When performance
and flexibility are key requirements, the TriVista is
second to none! Features:
•Variable bandpass tunable filter
•Software controlled subtractive or additive
operation
•High-stray light rejection
•Ability to see low frequency Raman bands as close as
5cm-1 from the laser line
•Modular and flexible to accommodate multiple
experiments
•Multiple exit ports and input ports
•Optional multi-purpose sample chamber
•Kinematic grating mounts and motorised slits
•Optional Stokes/Anti-Stokes accessory
TriVista may be used as a conventional triple
spectrometer or may be ordered as the TriVista CRS
(Confocal Raman System) in which it is coupled to an
upright or inverted microscope, allowing spectral and
structural information to be gained on the microscale.
A high degree of confocality is achieved, thus improving
fluorescence rejection and spatial resolution.
TriVista is seamlessly controlled through an
intuitive yet powerful software interface. Switching
between additive and subtractive modes is simply
a mouse-click. Spectrograph calibration, grating
selection and motion, slit and stage movements, as
well as Princeton’s complete range of CCD detectors
are completely controlled within the software interface.
Raman mapping and auto-focus software options are
also available for the TriVista CRS.
For further information please contact Gerri Springfield, Jen Weeks or Paul Wardill on sales@coherent.com.
au, Coherent Scientific, phone: (08) 8150 5200, web: www.coherent.com.au
Magnetic Beam Block / Tool Holder
The Newport Oriel® Reference Cell, which is an integral part of solar simulator
calibration and solar cell I-V characterisation, consists of a readout device and
a 2 x 2 cm calibrated solar cell made of monocrystaline silicon. The cell is also
equipped with a thermocouple assembled in accordance with IEC 60904-2. The
Reference Cell comes with calibration data and an accompanying certificate.
It reads solar simulator irradiance in “sun” units; one sun is equal to 1000 W/
m2 at 25 °C and Air Mass 1.5 Global Reference. This tool’s primary use is the
testing of photovoltaic cells under standard conditions. The Readout Meter
includes two BNC connectors for analogue outputs for the sun irradiance and
the temperature.
Magnetic Beam Block / Tool Holder
The BB-L is a multi-function accessory for the lab, combining the features of a beam block
and beam aligner with a ball driver tool holder. The front surface of the BB-L has a grid pattern of
0.25-in squares which can be used as a reference for aligning or levelling an optical beam. Numbers
are printed on the edge of the grid pattern indicating height, in inches, above the table surface.
Promoting eye safety, unused or stray beams can be easily blocked using the BB-L. Two sets of four
holes (eight in total) are provided in the top for mounting various sizes of ball drivers either English
or metric. Made from black-anodized aluminium alloy its design also incorporates a 3-element
magnetic base to allow quick and stable placement on to the stainless steel surface of an optical
table. The base also includes a slot for bolting securely to an optical table. Metric and English ball
driver wrench sets are available separately.
Please contact NewSpec for further details: sales@newspec.com.au
43
AOS News Volume 23 Number 3 2009
Index to Advertisers
AFW Technologies 18, Inside back cover
Coherent Scientific Back cover
10
Dioptika 30 - 31
Lambda Scientific Lastek Inside front cover, 4
14, 26
oeMarket 34
NewSpec Warsash Scientific 16, 22-23, 38
Corporate Member Address List
AFW Technologies Pty. Ltd.
First floor, No. 45, Star Crescent
Hallam, Victoria 3803
Tel: +613 9702 4402
Fax: +613 9702 4877
sales@afwtechnology.com.au,
http://www.afwtechnology.com.au
ARC COE for Quantum-Atom Optics
Building 38A, Science Road,Australian National University,
Canberra ACT 0200
Tel: (02) 6125 2811
Fax: (02) 6125 0741
Hans.bachor@anu.edu.au, http://www.acqao.org
Coherent Scientific Pty Ltd
116 Sir Donald Bradman Drive
Hilton, SA, 5033
Tel: (08) 8150 5200
Fax: (08) 8352 2020
sales@coherent.com.au, http://www.coherent.com.au
CUDOS
School of Physics,
University of Sydney, NSW, 2006
Tel: (02) 9351 5897
Fax: (02) 9351 7726
cwalsh@physics.usyd.edu.au, http://www.cudos.org
DiOptika
PO Box 4405, Elanora, QLD, 4221
Tel: +61 7 5522 5876,
Fax: +61 7 5522 4018
www.dioptika.com
Lambda Scientific Pty Ltd
6A Hender Aveue, PO Box 284, Magill, South Australia 5072
Tel.: +61 8 8333 0382
Fax: +61 8 8333 0380
sales@lambdasci.com, http://www.lambdasci.com
Laserex Technologies Pty Ltd
5A Corbett Court, Export Park SA 5950, Australia
Tel. +61 8 8234 3199
Fax.+61 8 8234 3699
sales@laserex.net, http://www.laserex.net
44
Lastek Pty Ltd
GPO Box 2212, Adelaide, SA, 5001
Tel: (08) 8443 8668
Fax: (08) 8443 8427
alex@lastek.com.au, http://www.lastek.com.au
NewSpec Pty Ltd
83 King William Rd, Unley, SA 5061
Freecall 1800 153 811
Tel: (08) 8273 3040
Fax: (08) 8273 3050
sales@newspec.com.au, http://www.newspec.com.au
oeMarket.com - Bitline System Pty Ltd
7 Hart St., Dundas Valley, NSW 2117
Tel: 61 2 9871 0878
Fax: 61 2 9871 0261
sales@oemarket.com, http://www.oemarket.com/
OptiScan Pty Ltd
PO Box 1066, Mt. Waverley MDC, VIC 3149
Tel: (03) 9538 3393
Fax: (03) 9562 7742
rogerw@optiscan.com.au, http://www.optiscan.com.au
Raymax Applications Pty Ltd
PO Box 958, Unit 1/303 Barrenjoey Road
Newport Beach, NSW, 2106
Tel: (02) 9979 7646
Fax: (02) 9979 8207
sales@raymax.com.au, http://www.raymax.com.au
Warsash Scientific Pty Ltd
PO Box 1685, Strawberry Hills, NSW, 2012
Tel: (02) 9319 0122
Fax: (02) 9318 2192
sales@warsash.com.au, http://www.warsash.com.au
WaveLab Scientific Pte Ltd
Blk 2, Bukit Batok St 24, #06-09 Skytech Building,
Singapore 659480
Tel: 65-65643659
Fax: 65-65649627
bob@wavelab-sci.com, http://www.wavelab-sci.com
Fibre Optic &
Photonic products
Polarization Maintaining Couplers
Polarization beam splitter/combiner
The device can combine two orthogonal polarization to
one output fibre or split incoming light into two orthogonal
states.
-Singlemode fiber or PM panda fiber
-High extinction ratio ER>25dB, low loss
-980, 1030, 1064, 1310 or 1550nm wavelength
-Supply with FC or FC/APC connector, narrow or wide key
Fibre coupled in-line polarizer
-980, 1064, 1310 and 1550nm wavelength range
-PM fiber input/output or SM–PM fiber or SM fiber
input/output
-Axis alignment slow axis or fast axis
-Supply with FC or FC/APC connector, narrow or wide key
-Slow axis or fast axis aligned to connector key
Special wavelength splitters and WDMs
-Splitters for 532, 633, 850, 1064nm wavelengths
-1x2 or 2x2 port configuration
-MM WDMs for 850/1310, 1310/1550nm
-Miltimode or singlemode fibre
-250um bare fiber, 900um cable or 3mm cable version
-For fibre sensors, optical communication systems
High Performance
Nd:YAG & Tuneable Lasers
With almost 40 years experience, Quantel brings you the best in
high-energy Nd:YAG lasers, dye lasers and optical parametric oscillators
Nanosecond Nd:YAG lasers
Wide range of energies and repetition rates available
Plug and play harmonic modules for easy wavelength change
Excellent beam profile and pointing stability
Compact and easy to use
Tuneable lasers
Dye lasers and solidstate OPOs for spectroscopy applications
Wavelength coverage from UV to mid-IR
Fully integrated with Quantel pump laser
Multipulse lasers
Dual-pulse lasers for fluid flow and combustion research
Precise control of inter-pulse timing
Wide range of energies and configurations
116 Sir Donald Bradman Drive,
Hilton SA 5033
Phone (08) 8150 5200
Fax (08) 8352 2020
Freecall 1800 202 030
sales@coherent.com.au
www.coherent.com.au
Coherent
S C I E N T I F I C