Integration of Funded Faculty Research, Capstone
Experiences and Industry Requirements
Aurenice M. Oliveira, Trever J. Hassell, and Wayne W. Weaver
Michigan Technological University − oliveira@mtu.edu, tjhassel@mtu.edu, wwweaver@mtu.edu
Abstract — This paper presents a senior design strategy
integrating funded faculty research and industry requirements.
Students participating in this type of senior design are directly
involved with all the aspects of a complete system development
cycle focusing on user needs and requirements. All the aspects of
the project represents higher quality and larger scale than
typical senior design projects, and in this way better resemble
industry projects. The case study presented herein is a practical
industrial project sponsored by a faculty member
the
construction of a research quality electric machine dynamometer
and test-bed.
Keywords—capstone; industry requirements; ABET; faculty
research; test-bed.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Capstone or senior design projects are challenging and
important components in Engineering and Engineering
Technology undergraduate education and usually teach
students valuable skills in design, prototype construction,
testing, teamwork, and project management related skills [1],
[2], [3], [4], [5]. However, a high percentage of the capstone
projects deliverables do not result in an operable system that
follows industry standards and guidelines, or cover a complete
product or system development lifecycle with focus on
sponsor and user needs [4]. A complete engineering project
lifecycle includes planning and analysis, build and test,
implementation and maintenance phases, among others.
Usually, capstone engineering and technology projects are
product-oriented, focusing only on the build and test phases of
development [4]. This approach serves as an additional
element in the gap between engineering curriculum and what
skill sets employers expect new engineering graduates to have.
As pointed out in [6], employers have indicated that new
engineering graduates have technical competences but several
lack professional skills necessary to manage a real engineering
project lifecycle, work with others collaboratively, write and
present proposals, among others. In [2]-[3], based on a
comprehensive national study, the authors list the 22 primary
topics covered in engineering and technology capstone
projects. The topics range from written/oral communication to
CAD design and layout, but it doesn’t include any topic
related to user needs or user testing. As a consequence, the
focus is on the product end of the system development
lifecycle neglecting the user-centered analysis, design, test,
and implementation phases of the development lifecycle [4].
978-1-4673-5261-1/13/$31.00 ©2013 IEEE
In this paper, the authors discuss a hands-on senior project
consisting of collaboration among faculty, undergraduate and
graduate students of the Electrical Engineering Technology
(EET) program in the School of Technology and the Electrical
and Computer Engineering (ECE) department in the College
of Engineering at Michigan Technological University. The
project gives the students the opportunity to be directly
involved with all the aspects of a complete system
development cycle focusing on user needs and requirements.
In the EET program at the Michigan Technological University,
students are required to complete a two-semester senior design
project, which are typically industry-sponsored allowing
students to work on real-world projects. More recently,
however, some of the capstone projects were sponsored by
faculty members instead of industry partners. This initiative
serves to support some funded faculty research projects, and
allows undergraduate students participating in the project to
interact with graduate students, faculty members of the college
of engineering and school of technology, and customers.
Design, construction, system integration, software, and testing
all involved other researchers instead of just the capstone team,
which in turn, created new project management challenges
such as team work, communication, documentation,
scheduling, among others; resembling a larger scale project in
industry.
The case study presented here is a practical industrial
project sponsored by a faculty member the construction of a
research quality electric machine dynamometer and test-bed.
The project followed practical industry project standards and
all the aspects of the project presents higher quality and larger
scale than typical senior design projects, and in this way better
resemble projects in industry. The test-bed will be used for
externally funded research projects in several areas such as
electric drives systems, electric propulsion systems, power
electronics, and ac microgrids, among others. The test-bed
was designed and built with the forethought to enable a wide
variety of electric machine configurations and applications, as
it provides a platform for testing of innumerous projects. In
addition, the test-bed will be used for undergraduate and
graduate education.
This project allows students participation in the research of
possible solutions and the selection of the one that best meets
the sponsor criteria and user needs, then they design, construct,
and present a finished product. In addition to the application
of knowledge learned in previous courses, students develop
technical and soft skills such as: how to research and comply
with current Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) standards for test-beds, learn how to use AutoCAD
for test-bed layout and electrical schematics, practice
industrial type circuit construction, components selection and
acquisition, learn and use industrial communication protocols
as well as team and time management. The students also
further develop critical thinking and accountability.
The assessment methodologies for this senior design
course uses indirect and direct measurements to assess the
applicable ABET a-k criteria [7]. The assessment results
indicate improvements in the student comprehension of key
concepts, and increased students’ confidence to start their
careers in the industry.
II.
RESEARCH PROJECT BACKGROUND
The goal of the capstone project that we present here as a
case study was to design and construct a dynamometer testbed with the capability to test electric machines of moderate
sizes. Dynamometer systems are used for testing and
verification procedures in several applications including
automotive, industrial, and manufacturing. Dynamometers
have the capability to simulate a wide range of loads a system
may experience, precise controllability, and unit testing prior
to the unit under test reaching the customer. Additional
motivation for having a dynamometer test-bed comes from the
increasing penetration of electric propulsion in modern
automobile [8] and Michigan Technological University
growth in hybrid vehicle education and research [9], [10].
Electric Vehicles (EV) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)
both use electric machines for either full or partial traction of
the vehicle. A dynamometer test-bed was developed with the
purpose of research into various electric propulsion drives
systems, including the flexibility to accommodate various
types of machines. Such a test-bed would be a great asset to
have in our power electronics research lab. In addition to the
EV or HEV applications, a dynamometer test-bed could also
be used to model a load in a small ac Microgrid. This load
could mimic the load cycle of hydraulic pump systems or a
heating, ventilation, and air condition (HVAC) system of a
small building.
A. Design Requirements
The faculty sponsoring this project had specific industry type
requirements that had to be followed by the team, including:
1. Testcell safety system following OSHA standards –
also, devices must have adequate guarding to protect
users from injury, use of cable tray to protect cables,
safety relays;
2. Efficient use of space – cell must be as compact as
possible to fit in the available room;
3. Wired communication with laptop for configuration;
4. Variable frequency drive (VFD) must communicate
via Modbus RTU receiving its commands from the
testcell PC;
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
VFD step-up transformer, since VFD operates at a
higher input and output voltage than the testcell
infrastructure voltage supply.
High accuracy torque/speed monitoring;
Testcell infrastructure controls must be PLC-based
and independent of the VFD and inverter controls;
PC-based controls: user interface controller station
with National Instruments LabVIEW GUI, dSPACE
embedded controllers, Allen-Bradley Micrologix
communication adaptor, and operator pushbuttons
station;
Inverter with opto-isolated (fiber-optic) gate drive and
fault signal output for electrical isolation and noise
immunity;
Signal isolation to isolate any control signal input
signal to the one that will be connected into the
dSPACE embedded controller;
Electro-magnetic interference (EMI) isolation;
Easy operation;
User manual.
III.
TESTCELL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
The electric machine test-bed is a collection of various
commercially available and custom made components. It is
designed to enable a wide variety of electric machine
configurations and applications, as it provides a platform for
testing of innumerous projects. The current configuration of
the test-bed features two identical 20 HP ABB induction
machines in a back-to-back testing configuration. The
“dynamometer” is controlled via an ABB (full 4-quadrant)
variable frequency drive. The “prime mover” machine is
driven from a custom IGBT inverter controlled via a dSPACE
embedded controller. Both shaft torque and speed can be
measured via a compact digital torque meter. The power
wiring of the test-bed is controlled by a Motor Controller and
Safety System Enclosure (MCSSE). The MCSSE includes a
standalone programmable logic controller (PLC) system
controlling the power flow throughout the system. The testbed machine mounting tables, shown in Fig. 2, were built in
modular fashion to accommodate various electrical machine
types and sizes.
Fig. 1. One Line Test-bed Circuit
characterization. All the students participated in Phases I and
II.
At the start of the project at the beginning of fall semester
in September of 2011, some previous work was already done
to: acquire donations for the electrical machines and VFD,
testcell electrical machine table was designed and constructed,
mounting hardware attached to the wall, various components
for use in the testcell purchased. The various components are
comprised of DC power supply, several inverters, and
electrical power meter with accessories.
Fig. 2. Testcell – start of the project
Table I. Project Major Tasks
Phase
I:
II:
III:
Task
Cell Architecture Design
Testcell Safety Research
MCSSE Design
MCSSE Parts Selection and Procurement
MCSSE Construction
Isolation Transformer
Cabling and Connectors
Embedded Controller/PC Station
Initial Micrologix Program
Expanded Micrologix Program w/ added
f
Testcell
Power/Control Wiring
ABB VFD Drive Configuration
ABB VFD LabVIEW Program
Motor Coupling/Torque Sensor Specifications
Testcell User Manual
Signal Isolation and Interface Board
Signal Gain Tuning
Electric Machine Parameter Estimation
System Performance Characterization
The capstone projects in the Electrical Engineering
Technology (EET) Program at the Michigan Technological
University are comprised of two academic semesters.
However, this particular project, since also involved a
graduate student, was completed in three phases: Phase I,
during the fall semester of 2011, Phase II, during the spring of
2012, and Phase III, during the summer of 2012. In Table I we
highlight the project major tasks in each phase. The graduate
student participated on the team both as a technical advisor
and as a project engineer. With this dual role he contributed
both to the completion on the EET senior design project and a
successful commissioning of the testcell system. The fact that
not all students were involved in the last phase of the project
didn’t impose any problem for the overall students’
experiences. Phases I and II consisted of all the construction,
system integration, and documentation for the test cell. Phase
III was for additional parameter estimation and performance
Fig. 3. Testcell infrastructure: subpanel
During Phase I of the project, the team researched and
designed an architecture approach, ordered, and constructed
the Motor Controller and Safety System Enclosure (MCSSE).
The first task completed was the design of the test power
architecture shown in Fig. 1. The testcell at the start of the
project is shown in Fig. 2, and the infrastructure enclosure
MCSSE and subpanel is shown in Fig. 3. The completion of
these tasks included knowledge of the operation of the
individual components and specific placement of the
contactors to control electrical energy flow. The team
researched and selected the components to be used in the
MCSSE, which included the Allen-Bradley Micrologix
controller, contactors, fuses/fuseholders, safety relay, terminal
blocks, enclosure fan, DIN rail mounts, DC power supply, and
wire way. The team also was responsible for the enclosure
layout scheme and placement of the components on the back
panel. The wiring schematic used to construct the MCSSE
and testcell cabling was developed and guided the team with
good practices in assembling the sub-plate and enclosure.
Along with the enclosure and subpanel, the team ordered the
materials necessary for the complete testcell power cable
routing. Several other components were also researched and
ordered, including the isolation transformer, operation station
computer, dSPACE embedded controller, PLC, safety relays,
and high voltage shielded power cables and connectors.
During Phase II of the project (spring 2012), the team
continued to research and order several components needed to
complete the testcell. This would include the motor flexible
coupling, torque sensor, motor coupling guard, embedded
controller, and control signal isolation modules. The conduit
used for the ESPB enclosures/operations was bent, and the
wiring of the high voltage and communication cables was
completed. The team also installed the analog control signal
wiring between the work bench and controller station. Also
during phase II the team programmed the initial Micrologix
program that allowed running the testcell system. The
graduate student worked very closely with the EET team
member who was responsible for the VFD communication
LabVIEW program. They specifically set up the drive with the
appropriate parameters to allow communication between
controller station and VFD. The team also completed the
power and signal routing, and complete the safety items
necessary for operation of the dynamometer. Table II
summarize the main objectives and deliverable of the EET
students.
“Enabled”, “Powered”, “ON” and “Fault”. These states dictate
what, if any, combination of contactors and indicating lights
are on.
During the summer semester of 2012, Phase III of the
project, the final items were completed to have a fully
functional system. These final items included control signal
gain tuning, electrical machine parameter estimation, baseline
system data collection, and testcell performance testing. The
completed testcell system is shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. The
test-bed is primarily comprised of off the shelf commercial
products. The components are integrated together to form a
functional electric machine dynamometer test-bed. The oneline system is classified into two distinct portions; the “prime
mover” and dynamometer. In Fig. 5, the top branch of the
circuit, prime mover, consists of the A (DC power supply) and
B (DC-AC Inverter). The lower branch of the one-line diagram
is classified as the dynamometer and consists of E (isolation
transformer), F (variable frequency drive), and the second
induction machine, Motor 2.
The current test-bed configuration includes two 20 HP
ABB induction machines in a back-to-back testing
configuration. The dynamometer is controlled by a four
quadrant ABB Variable Frequency Drive (VFD). In addition,
a DC power supply and a couple of voltage source inverters
(VSI) were available for use in this project. All of these
components served as the essential components in the testcell
system; however system integration including some form of
safety system was needed to safely control the behavior of the
testcell. The testcell architecture was designed for two
machines “back to back” testing. A one-line schematic is
shown in Fig. 1. The two identical induction machines are
mechanically coupled together via flexible motor couplings
and torque sensor. There is only one source of electrical
energy for the motors, a 208 Vac 50 Amp 3 phase receptacle,
which is supplied from a power panel in the test-bed room.
This source would supply two “loads”; the magna DC power
supply/inverter and an ABB frequency drive. The Magma DC
power supply powers the APS inverter, which in-turns
supplies power the “Prime Mover” electrical machine, M1.
Because the frequency drive operates at a different voltage
than the main source power a transformer is needed. The
frequency drive would then supply the “Absorber” electrical
machine, M2. The high level control scheme of the testcell
safety system puts the system in one of five states; “Ready”,
Fig. 4. MSSCE Panel Layout
Fig. 5. Test Cell System and Component Integration Overview
TABLE II. TEAM OBJECTIVES AND DELIVERABLES
Phase I – Fall 2011
Project proposal
OSHA Report
Components: Researched, selected,
ordered
AutoCAD
Functional System
Report/Presentation
IV.
Phase II – Spring 2012
Incorporate PLC control
start/shut down procedure
Fault detection
Sensor Integration
of
Communication (ModBus)
integration
User documentation
Final Report/Presentation
BENEFITS
The team members received numerous benefits from
involvement with this type of capstone project that they would
not get in a traditional senior design project. The first major
benefit was working on a real collaborative multi-disciplinary
project among faculty, undergraduate and graduate students of
the EET program in the School of Technology and the ECE
department in the College of Engineering. Another very
important benefit team members received is determining real
system design requirements. Although not unique to this
senior design project, but very important, is that students
obtain skills in both technical report writing and oral
presentation. Each semester the team was required to write
progress reports and to give presentations. These reports
consisted of many aspects of the team’s progress as well as
procedures the team followed regarding safety. What is
different in the reports and presentations from the traditional
class room report and presentation setting, is the audience.
The audience consisted of professionals from industry as well
as faculty members and fellow students. The team was given
feedback from these individuals and was expected to change
or explain any issue that was presented. This demonstrated to
the students the level of expectation for formal report writing
and presentation skills, and gave them prior experience to the
expectation level they will encounter in industry. Students
were also exposed to industry tool such as CAD design and
layout, dSPACE embedded controller, National Instruments
LabVIEW VFD control, PLC programming, Allen-Bradley
Micrologix Program, communication (ModBus) integration,
sensor integration, fault detection, OSHA safety standards.
Graduates will be able to use the technical knowledge from
the use of the development tools they were exposed to during
all phases of the project as well as some experience to
complex system level problem solving.
Potential industry employers and faculty sponsors also
benefit from this collaboration. Potential employers will
benefit from hiring graduates exposed to project following
industry type requirements. The faculty sponsoring this project
will use the test-bed as a research platform for externally
funded research projects in several areas such as electric
drives systems, electric vehicle propulsion systems, power
electronics, ac MicroGrid, among others. The test-bed was
designed and built with the forethought to enable a wide
variety of electric machine configurations and applications, as
it provides a platform for testing of innumerous projects. In
addition, the test-bed will be used for undergraduate and
graduate education; the test-bed is currently being used for
two specific laboratory classes: Introduction to Power
Electronics and Introduction to Motor Drives.
V.
ABET CAPSTONE REQUIRMENT AND ASSESSMENT
Capstone senior design experiences are both a graduation
requirement for engineering and technology majors and a
requirement for ABET accreditation of these programs. The
capstone or senior design experience is typically the last
bridge for students between their undergraduate engineering
curriculum and the engineering profession. The ABET-ETAC
Criteria−5 [7] states “The Integration of Content Baccalaureate degree programs must provide a capstone or
integrating experience that develops student competencies in
applying both technical and non-technical skills in solving
problems.” The integration of capstone experience and
externally funded faculty research projects is an effective way
to actively engage students in challenging engineering design
problems. In addition, the senior capstone experiences are a
primary source of documentation of the achievement of the
ABET Criteria 3 – Program Outcomes [11]. Criteria 3 requires
that engineering technology programs must demonstrate
outcomes (a-k), and includes: (a) an ability to select and apply
the knowledge, techniques, skills, and modern tools of the
discipline to broadly-defined engineering technology
activities; (d) an ability to design systems, components, or
processes for broadly-defined engineering technology
problems appropriate to program educational objectives; (e)
an ability to function effectively as a member or leader on a
technical team; (g) an ability to communicate effectively. The
project example that we discussed in this paper successfully
satisfies all these requirements, as previously discussed in this
paper. Project participants have the opportunity to determine
real system design requirements, work with graduate students
and faculty members, to obtain both professional report
writing and presentation skills, and to be exposed to industry
leading development tools and hardware. Moreover, a broad
range of educational and professional benefits results for
students participating in projects that integrates capstone
experience and externally funded faculty research, which
focuses on a real world problem.
The assessment methodologies for this senior design
course used indirect and direct measurements to assess the
applicable ABET a-k criteria. The success indicators were
based in direct and indirect quantitative measures such as
written reports, oral presentations, student surveys (midterm
and end of semester ), and instructor/students meetings. The
assessment results indicated improvements in the student
comprehension of key concepts, and increase in students’
confidence to start their career in the industry. In Table III,
we summarize the key skills acquired and applied by the
students based on the EET curriculum and specifically project
related. In Table IV (on page 6), we show the summary of
student achievement of the student learning outcomes (SLO)
for this capstone and quality of instruction as required by
ABET for the capstone group of fall 2011/spring 2012. The
results show the correlations between the project objectives
and capstone requirements. All the SLO had acceptable results
with exception of SLO 2 (organize research and data for
synthesis), which is attributed to the lack of experience of the
undergraduate students in working on research level projects.
We intend to emphasize this objective during the next
capstone cycle. The direct measurements included technical
reports and technical presentations open to faculty, students,
and Industrial Advisory Board members. The technical reports
and the presentations have standardized scoring rubrics (which
will be presented during the FIE meeting presentation). The
students also developed a user documentation manual for the
test-bed. The capstone team technical presentation scored
slightly higher among three industry sponsored capstone
projects presented at the same time. The overall quality of the
project received positive comments for all the members. The
test-bed has been used for classes and serving as project
demonstration for visitors from industry, prospective students,
among others.
TABLE III. CURRICULUM AND PROJECT RELATED SKILLS
EET Curriculum
Wire Specifications
Electrical Machine Operation
VI.
Project Related
General Safety Practices for testbeds
AutoCAD
ModBus
Component Selection Process
Industrial Type Circuit Construction
PLC Hardware and wiring
FINAL REMARKS
The integration of funded faculty research and industry
requirements in a capstone project can provide distinctive
benefits to undergraduate students, graduate students, and
faculty involved in the project. All the aspects of the project
consisted of higher quality and larger scale than typical senior
design projects, and in this way better resembled projects in
industry and better prepared students to enter the workforce.
In particular, students participating in this type of project
developed useful project skills, and had the opportunity to be
directly involved with all the aspects of a complete system
development cycle focusing on user needs and requirements,
in addition to follow practical industrial project standards. For
the cases that we investigated there is no significant difference
in the students’ perceptions whether their capstone project is
sponsored by faculty or industry as long as the project gives
the students the opportunity to develop a broad range of skills.
However, students’ participating in these types of faculty
sponsored projects have the potential for more employment
opportunities due to the projects similarities with industry
projects. Most of the industry sponsored projects in our
program have a relatively small budget as compared to our
case study, which can limit the complexity of the industry
sponsored projects.
REFERENCES
[1] M. P. Brackin and J. D. Gilbson, "Capstone Design
Projects with Industry: Emphasizing Teaming and
Management Tools," in ASEE Annual Meeting, 2005.
[2] S. Howe and J. Wilbarger, "2005 National Survey of
Engineering Capstone Design Courses," in ASEE
Annual Meeting, 2006.
[3] S. Howe and J. Wilbarger, "Current Practices in
Engineering Capstone Education: Further Results
from a 2005 Nationwide Survey," in IEEE/ASEE
Frontiers in Education, 2006, pp. T1E5-T1E10.
[4] C. S. Helps, B., "Atypical Senior Capstone Projects: The
process is the produce," in ASEE Annual Meeting,
2009, pp. AC 2009-1802.
[5] R. E. Anderson, R. J. Anderson, G. Borriello, and B.
Kolko, "Designing Technology for ResourceConstrained Environments: Three Approaches to a
Multidisciplinary Capstone Sequence," in IEEE
Frontiers in Education, 2012.
[6] J. Selter, "Infusing Professional Skills Development into
Co-Op Students," in ASEE Annual Meeting, 2012, pp.
AC 2012-3287.
[7] ABET. ABET Criteria for Accrediting Engineering
Programs 2012-2013 (www.abet.org).
[8] C. Chan, A. Boyscayrol, and K. Chen, "Powering
Sustainable Mobility: Roadmaps of Electric, Hybrid,
and Fuel Cell Vehicles," Procedings of the IEEE, vol.
97, pp. 603-607, 2009.
[9] (2012). Hybrid Electric Vehicle Curriculum (HEV).
Available: http://www.mtu.edu/hybrid/
[10]
M. L. McIntyre and M. Young, "Plug-In Hybrid
Conversion: As a Capstone Project and Research
Test-bed," in IEEE International Electric Vehicle
Conference, 2012, pp. 1-4.
[11]
P. King, "Capstone Design and ABET Program
Outcomes in the US," in European Society for
Engineering Education, Aalborg, Denmark, 2008.
Table IV. Summary of Student Achievement of Course Objectives and Quality of Instruction
Student Learning Outcome
(SLO)
Assessment Instrument for This SLO
Standard
Results
3a, degree 2
3b, degree 2
3f, degree 2
3a, degree 2
3b, degree 2
3c, degree 2
3d, degree 2
3g, degree 3
3k, degree 3
Weekly meetings, project development phases;
70% of students
will score 70% or
better.
70% of students
will score 70% or
better.
80% of students
scored 70% or
better
67% of students
scored 70% or
better
3e, degree 3
3g, degree 3
3k, degree 3
3e, degree 3
3g, degree 3
3h, degree 3
3i, degree 3
Weekly meetings; University Expo Capstone
Conference, Final oral presentation.
70% of students
will score 70% or
better
70% of students
will score 70% or
better
70% of students
will score 70% or
better
87% of students
scored 70% or
better
80% of students
scored 70% or
better
100% of
students scored
70% or better
Project development phases, and scheduled
deliverables.
70% of students
will score 70% or
better
87% of students
scored 70% or
better
Project design, construction, testing following
OSHA requirements.
70% of students
will score 70% or
better
94% of students
scored 70% or
better
Project design, construction, testing, and
scheduled deliverables in line with sponsor
requirements and approved by sponsor.
70% of students
will score 70% or
better
100% of
students scored
70% or better
Project design and budget requirements approved
by sponsor.
70% of students
will score 70% or
better
100% of
students scored
70% or better
Relates to
Program
Outcome(s) a
1.
2.
Be able to research on
applied electrical
engineering technology.
Organize research and
data for synthesis.
3.
Prepare written reports.
4.
Prepare and present oral
reports.
5.
Work in teams.
6.
Coordinate and work to
meet scheduled
deadlines and facilities,
manage resources, etc.
Learn general safety
practices for test beds
3e, degree 3
3g, degree 3
3i, degree 3
3k, degree 3
3c, degree 3
3d, degree 3
3f, degree 3
3j, degree 3
Be able to make
industrial type of circuit
construction.
3a, degree 3
3b, degree 3
3c, degree 3
3f, degree 3
3c, degree 3
3d, degree 3
3k, degree 3
7.
8.
9. Learn how to make
component selection
and ordering.
a.
Weekly meetings, project phases
Weekly memos, Bi-month reports, End of
semester report, Final Report.
Weekly meetings, project development phases,
oral presentations, written reports/memos.
In the second column, “Relates to Program Outcome(s)…”, the degrees are a way of prioritizing course outcomes. Degree 3 implies that the course places significant emphasis on that
outcome, degree 2 implies moderate emphasis, degree 1 implies some but minimal emphasis.