J. Res. ANGRAU
Vol. XLI No.3 pp 1-144, July-Sep., 2013
1
The Journal of Research ANGRAU
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CONTENTS
PART I : PLANT SCIENCE
Effect of polypropylene packaging on shelf life and quality of custard apple
Annona squamosa L. cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oC
A. Venkatram, A. Bhagwan and M. Pratap
1
Seasonal Incidence of Iinseed insect pests and their natural enemies
Harshwardhan Gupta and B. P. Katlam
7
Components of genetic variation for macrophomina phaseolona resistance in maize
K.Murali Krishna, G.K Chikkappa and G. Manjulatha
12
Summer season survey for incidence of Maruca vitrata (g.) (pyralidae: lepidoptera) and its
natural enemies on greengram and other alternative hosts in main pulse growing tracts of
Khammam District, Andhra pradesh
Ch. Sandhya Rani , G. Ramachandra Rao, MSV Chalam, Patibanda Anil Kumar and V Srinivasa Rao 16
Nature of Gene action in new cms and restorer lines of rice (oryza sativa l.)
Zakir Hussain and Narendra Kulkarni
21
Evaluation of changes in soil quality under different land use environs of chanvelly village,
Rangareddy District of Andhra Pradesh- a case study
M. Ram Prasad and V.Govardhan
25
Genetic variability, correlation and path coefficient analysis for yield and yield components
in mungbean Vigna radiata l. Wilczek
M. Jyothsna and and CH. Anuradha
31
Effect of post harvest application of antioxidants on shelf life and quality of custard apple
annona squamosa L. cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oC
A. Venkatram, A. Bhagwan and M. Pratap
40
Production potential and economic viability of food – forage based cropping systems in
Southern Telangana Region of Andhra Pradesh
V.Chandrika, R. Balaji Naik, K.B. Suneetha Devi and M. Shanti
47
PART II : SOCIAL SCIENCE
Attitude of farmers and extension officers towards Agricultural Technology Management Agency
(ATMA) & suggestions for effective functioning
M. Rama Devy, M. Surya Mani and N. Shandhya Shenoy
53
Knowledge and extent of adoption of improved practices of chickpea through KVK interventions
P.Ganesh Kumar, M.K. Jyosthna and P.Lakshmi Reddy
58
A study on purpose of using ICT tools among farming community
K. P. Raghuprasad, S.C. Devaraja and Y.M Gopala
64
Problems faced by women entrepreneurs and suggestions for production & marketing of Products
G.Padmini Devi, P. Rameshkumar Reddy and Ch. Venugopal Reddy
70
A study on growth, performance and impact of Kisan Credit Cards on farmer’s income in
Rajasthan – An Economic Approach
S. S. Meena and Dr. G. P. Reddy
75
3
PART III : HOME SCIENCE
Utility of herbal products in antimicrobial finishing of cotton fabrics
D.Anitha, S.Dhana Laxmi and D.Mahesh
82
Impact of personal variables on work related musculoskeletal symptoms among women
working in packing units of pharmaceutical industry
V. Prasuna, T. Neeraja, P. Radha Rani and A. Sharada devi
88
PART IV : RESEARCH NOTE
Cooling effect of body on milk production and feed consumption in the cross bred cows
Suresh Rathod, M.Kishan Kumar and Ch.Sreedhar
94
PART V : RESEARCH NOTE
Farmers’ suggestions for better participatory management of tank irrigation system
Kadiri Mohan1 and P.Rameshkumar Reddy
97
Character association and path coefficient analysis for seed yield in quality protein
maize (zea mays L.)
K. Vijay Kumar, M. R. Sudarshan, Kuldeep Singh Dangi and S. Madhusudan Reddy
100
Effect of gamma radiation on germination parameters in promising rice cultivars
during long term storage
L.Vidya Kumari, M. Sreedhar, S.Vanisree and K. Keshavulu
105
Influence of Nutritional Information on food labels on consumer buying
Swetha Kodali, Neeraja Telaprolu and P. Radha Rani
110
Variability in yield and its component traits in quality protein maize genotypes (zea mays l.)
K. Vijay Kumar, M. R. Sudarshan, Kuldeep Singh Dangi and S. Madhusudan Reddy
113
Correlation and path analysis in greengram (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek)
Srikanth Thippani, K. B. Eswari and M. V. Brahmeswar Rao
120
Influence of row spacing and phosphorus levels on seed production of dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata)
B. Venkanna, B. Joseph, K.B. Suneetha Devi and A. Siva Shankar
124
Scale construction for measuring the attitude towards pursuing self employment in agriculture
Kadiri Mohan1 and P.Ramesh Kumar Reddy
127
Response of safflower (carthamus tinctorius l.) genotypes to plant density on yield
components, yield and economics under rainfed conditions
P. Satish, C. Sudhakar and C. Sudharani
130
Sensory properties of guar-gum incorporated tomato sauce
E. Sharath and K. Uma Maheswari
132
4
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 1-6, 2013
EFFECT OF POLYPROPYLENE PACKAGING ON SHELF LIFE AND
QUALITY OF CUSTARD APPLE Annona squamosa L. cv.
BALANAGAR FRUITS STORED AT 15±1oC
A. VENKATRAM, A. BHAGWAN and M. PRATAP
Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy, Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Medak (District) – 502 110
Date of Receipt : 05-06-2013
Date of Acceptance : 24.08.13
ABSTRACT
A study was conducted at fruit research station, Sangareddy, Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Medak
(district) during 2009-11 to know the effect of polypropylene package (fruits packed in polypropylene bags with 3%
O2 + 5% CO2 or 3% O2 + 10% CO2 or 5% O2 + 5% CO2 or 5% O2 + 10% CO2 or air) on shelf life and quality of custard
apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 175±1oC. The study established the fact that various physico-chemical parameters
viz., days taken for ripening, shelf life, total soluble solids, acidity, brix-acid ratio, sugars (reducing, total and nonreducing) and ascorbic acid of the fruit studied at an interval of 2 days during storage were significantly improved by
polypropylene bag flushed with different concentration of O 2 + CO 2 gasses (modified atmosphere package).
Comparatively higher shelf life of fruits i.e. 12.28 days with fruits packed in polypropylene bags flushed with air.
Custard apple Annona squamosa L. belongs
to family annonaceae is an arid zone fruit grown in
India. Out of 100 species of Annona only custard
apple, cherimoya, soursop, bullock’s heart and
atemoya are of major commercial importance. Of
these, custard apple (synonyms: Sithaphal, Sharifa,
Sugar apple, Sweetsop) is the most popular and
widely used dessert fruit having the maximum
production efficiency. The plants are hardy, drought
resistant and can thrive well on marginal and
neglected soils with minimum inputs (Rajput, 1985).
Custard apple is the delicious table fruit and is valued
mainly for its sweet, mild flavored pulp. The fruit is
botanically referred as syncarpium and aggregate of
fruitlets, each pocessing edible fleshy mass of soft,
juicy and granular textured pulp. It is a climacteric
fruit, ripening starts soon after detached from the tree
(Wills et al., 2001). It is highly perishable fruit with
short shelf life of 1-2 days after ripening. The lack of
information on the post harvest handling of this highly
perishable fruit has resulted in huge losses.
Extension of storage life in custard apple even for a
day or two will go a long way in increasing the shelf
life, making it much easier to handle the fruit. Vishnu
Prasanna et al. (2000) reported that the safe range
of storage temperature of custard apple was found
to be 15-20 oC, with maximum shelf life at 15 oC.
life and conserve the quality of packed produce
(Deepak Raj Rai et al., 2002). Active MA can be done
by pulling a slight vacuum and replacing the package
atmosphere with the desirable gas mixture (Kader et
al., 1986). Low O2 and or high CO2 gas mixtures in
the package atmosphere has been shown to reduce
the ethylene production rates, retard softening of
tissue and slow down various compositional changes
associated with ripening resulting in reduced
respiration there by delay the fruit ripening process
of many tropical and subtropical fruits (Ranganna et
al., 2009). Hence, the present investigation was
carried out to study the effect of polypropylene
packaging for enhancing shelf life and quality of
custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oC.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was carried out during the
year 2009-11 at Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy,
Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Medak district.
Custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits were harvested
when fruit is in light green colour, yellowish white
colour between the carpels and initiation of cracking
of the skin between the carpels. Matured fruits of
uniform size, firm, free from disease and injuries were
directly picked from orchard and brought to the
laboratory. The fruits were cleaned with running tap
water to remove the adherent dirt material and then
allowed to dry in shade. The fruits were surface
disinfected with 0.1% (w/v) carbendazim solution for
2 minutes. The fruits were t hen packed in
Modified atmosphere package (MAP) is intended to
create an appropriate gaseous atmosphere around a
commodity packed in film packages to enhance shelf
email: venkatramambotu@gmail.com
5
VENKATRAM et al
polypropylene bags (PPB) with the following amount
of CO2 and O2 gases flushed with MAP machine: T1PPB with 3% O2 + 5% CO2, T2- PPB with 3% O2 +
10% CO2, T3- PPB with 5% O2 + 5% CO2, T4- PPB
with 5% O2 + 10% CO2, T5- PPB with Air, T6- Control
(no packing). The packed fruits were then stored at
15±1oC temperature in horizontal racks. The physicochemical parameters like days taken for ripening,
shelf life, TSS, acidity, brix-acid ratio, sugars
(reducing and total) and ascorbic acid were estimated
at an interval of 2 days during storage.
the days taken for ripening of custard apple fruits
(Kamble and Chavan, 2005). Similar results on using
modified atmosphere package as also reported by
Yonemoto et al. (2002) in cherimoya and BolivarFernandez et al. (2009) in custard apple fruits.
Shelf life (days)
The shelf life (Table 1) of custard apple fruits
differed significantly among different treatments with
maximum shelf life of 12.28 days (44.47% increase
over control) recorded in fruits packed in PPB with
air, which was on par with PPB flushed with 3% O2 +
5% CO2 and minimum in control (8.50 days). The
extended shelf life of fruits is due to reduction in
ethylene production attributed to modified atmosphere
created by accumulation of CO2 and depletion of O2
and maintenance of high humidity inside the
polypropylene bags (Magdaline et al., 2001). These
results are in conformation with the findings of Vishnu
Prasanna et al. (2000) in custard apple.
The stage wherein more than 50% of the
stored fruits became ripen was considered as end of
days taken for ripening. The stage wherein more than
50% of the stored fruits became unfit for consumption
was considered as end of shelf life and expressed
as mean number of days. The total soluble solids
(TSS, oBrix) and titrable acidity (%) were determined
by using ERMA hand refractometer and titration
method, respectively (Ranganna, 1986). Brix-Acid
ratio was calculated by dividing the TSS value by
the acid value. The sugars (reducing and total %)
present in the custard apple pulp were determined
by the method of Lane and Eyon. The non-reducing
sugars (%) were determined by subtracting reducing
sugars from total sugars. Ascorbic acid content (mg/
100 g of pulp) was determined by 2, 6-dichlorophenol
indophenol titration method (Ranganna, 1986). The
experiment was conducted in completely randomized
design with factorial concept and each treatment
replicated thrice.
TSS (oBrix)
Significant differences were observed in TSS
(Table 2) for the stored fruits. At initial stage of
storage TSS was minimal (18.50 oBrix), which
increased gradually with advancement in storage.
Highest TSS content was documented at 12 days
after storage (23.61oBrix). In packaging treatments,
the annona fruits packed in PPB flushed with different
concentration of O2 and CO2 extended their influence
in recording lower TSS than the control. The
interaction effect between the treatments and storage
period were also significant, which showed a steep
increase in the TSS with progressive ripening of the
fruits, as a fact the soluble solids rise concomitantly
with the respiratory increase in annonaceous fruits
and reach a maximum after the onset of second
respiratory rise (Martinez et al., 1993). Similar result
also observed by Alique (1995) in cherimoya and
Chunprasert et al. (2006) ‘Neang’ sugar apple fruits.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Days taken for ripening
Days taken for ripening (Table 1) among
different treatments differed significantly, days taken
for ripening were maximum (10.43 days) with fruits
packed in PPB flushed with 5% O2 + 10% CO2 or 5%
O2 + 5% CO2 or 3% O2 + 10% CO2 and minimum in
control (7.60 days). The days taken for ripening of
fruits packed in PPB with 3% O2 + 5% CO2 were at
par with PPB with air. Lowering of storage
temperature from ambient (27ÚC) to 15 oC and
treatment of fruits to fungicide or waxol and modified
atmosphere package is may be due to reduction in
ethylene synthesis thereby lowered the rate of
deteriorative physiological, biological and biochemical
activities in ripening thereby resulted in extending
Titrable acidity (%)
The titrable acidity of stored custard apple
fruits subjected to different treatments is presented
in table 2. At initial stage of storage, acidity was
minimal (0.16%), which increased gradually with
advancement in storage. Highest acidity content was
documented at 12 days after storage (0.44%). With
regard to packaging treatments, the annona fruits
6
EFFECT OF POLYPROPYLENE PACKAGING ON SHELF LIFE
packed in PPB flushed with different concentration
of O 2 and CO 2 extended their improvement in
recording higher acidity than the control. The
interaction effect between the treatments and storage
period were not significant. The increase in acidity
can be ascribed to the production of organic acids
during ripening as reported by Gutierrez et al. (1994).
These results are in conformation with the findings
of Paull et al. (1983) in cherimoya fruits.
sugars content of the fruit was highest at 12 days
after storage (18.43%). With regard to packaging
treatments, the annona fruits packed in PPB flushed
with different concentration of O2 and CO2 exhibited
their effect in recording lower total sugars than the
control. At initial stage of storage, non-reducing
sugars was minimal (1.25%), which increased
gradually with advancement in storage. Highest nonreducing sugars was documented at 12 days after
storage (1.60%). With regard to packaging treatments,
the annona fruits packed in PPB flushed with different
concentration of O 2 and CO 2 extended their
improvement in recording lower non-reducing sugars
than the control.
Brix-acid ratio
Significant differences were observed in brixacid ratio (Table 2) for the stored fruits. At initial stage
of storage brix-acid ratio was maximal (115.60), which
decreased gradually with advancement in storage.
Lowest brix-acid ratio was documented at 10 days
after storage (53.55). With regard to packaging
treatments, the annona fruits packed in PPB flushed
with different concentration of O2 and CO2 extended
their improvement in recording lower brix-acid ratio
than the control. The interaction effects between the
treatments and storage period were also significant,
which showed a steep increase in the brix-acid ratio
with progressive ripening of the fruits. Though both
TSS and acidity had shown initial increase followed
by decrease, but an increase in acidity is very less,
therefore, the brix-acid ratio increased initially and
decreased later indicating that the magnitude of
increase or decrease in TSS is more as compared to
acidity during storage. The fruits packed in PPB
flushed with different concentration of O2 and CO2
recorded lower brix-acid ratio and it may be due to
lower TSS and higher acidity (Kramchote et al., 2008).
The sugars increased gradually with
advancement in storage due to the starch declined
drastically and there was also a coincidence in the
increase of sugars and the decline of starch content,
indicating a hydrolysis of starch into its constituent
sugars during fruit ripening and the onset of ethylene
emission coincided with an increase in the respiration
(Martinez et al., 1993). Lowest sugars was
documented in annona fruits packed in PPB flushed
with different concentration of O2 and CO2 is may be
due to slow ripening process in the modified
atmosphere packaging which leads to slow build up
of the sugars as reported by Johnson and Ertorn
(1983). These results are in conformation with the
findings of Alique (1995) and Sanchez et al. (1998)
in cherimoya fruits.
Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g)
Significant differences were observed in
ascorbic acid (Table 3) for the stored fruits. At initial
stage of storage, ascorbic acid content was minimal
(41.30 mg/100 g) and maximum at 6 days after storage
(49.39 mg/100 g). The ascorbic acid of annona
increased from 0 to 6th day and then declined by 31.48
mg/100g on 12 days after storage. With regard to
packaging treatments, the annona fruits packed in
PPB flushed with different concentration of O2 and
CO2 extended their improvement in recording high
ascorbic acid content than the control. The interaction
effect between the treatments and storage period were
non-significant. Increase in ascorbic acid content of
custard apple fruit reached a maximum at the
climacteric, after which the amount decreased. The
decline in ascorbic acid in later stage may be
attributed to conversion of ascorbic acid into
dehydroascorbic acid. Similar result also observed
by Paull (1983) in soursop fruits.
Sugars (%)
Significant differences were observed in
sugars (reducing, total and non-reducing) (Table 3)
for the stored fruits for days, treatments and their
interactions. At initial stage of storage re duci ng
sugars was minimal (11.90%), which increased
gradually with advancement in storage. Highest
percent of reducing sugars was documented at 12
days after storage (16.83%). With regard to packaging
treatments, the annona fruits packed in PPB flushed
with different concentration of O2 and CO2 extended
their improvement in recording lower reducing sugars
than the control. At initial stage of storage, total
sugars was minimal (13.15%), which increased
gradually with advancement in storage and total
7
VENKATRAM et al
Table 1. Effect of polypropylene package on days taken for ripening and shelf life (days) of custard
apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1 oC
Treatments
PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2
PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2
PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2
PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2
PPB with air
Control
CD at 5%
Delayed ripening
over control (%)
18.42
37.23
37.23
37.23
15.13
-
Days taken
for ripening
b
9.00
a
10.43
a
10.43
a
10.43
b
8.75
c
7.60
0.37
Shelf life
(days)
a
12.00
c
11.33
c
11.33
c
11.33
a
12.28
d
8.50
Increased shelf life
over control (%)
41.17
33.29
33.29
33.29
44.47
-
0.58
Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly (p=0.05)
Table 2. Effect of polypropylene package on TSS (oBrix), titrable acidity (%), and brix-acid ratio of
custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oC
Treatments
PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2
PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2
PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2
PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2
PPB with air
Control
Mean
Treatments
PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2
PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2
PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2
PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2
PPB with air
Control
Mean
Treatments
PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2
PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2
PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2
PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2
PPB with air
Control
Mean
CD at 5 %
For days (D)
For treatments (T)
For D × T
0
2
18.50
18.50
18.50
18.50
18.50
18.50
g
18.50
18.70
18.65
18.65
18.65
18.85
19.20
f
18.78
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
f
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
f
0.16
115.6
115.6
115.6
115.6
115.6
115.6
b
115.6
116.8
116.5
116.5
116.5
117.8
120.0
a
117.3
TSS
0.154
0.220
0.378
Days after storage
Mean
4
6
8
10
12
o
TSS ( Brix)
c
18.75
19.40
20.20
20.30
23.30 19.87
c
18.65
19.10
19.70
20.30
23.10 19.70
18.65
19.20
19.60
20.35
23.20 19.72c
18.65
19.30
19.50
20.40
23.10 19.73c
19.40
20.80
21.70
22.95
24.20 20.90b
20.20
22.50
23.10
25.00
24.80 22.18a
e
d
c
b
a
19.05
20.05
20.63
21.55
23.61
Titrable acidity (%)
Mean
a
0.18
0.24
0.32
0.41
0.46
0.27
a
0.18
0.24
0.32
0.41
0.46
0.27
a
0.18
0.24
0.32
0.41
0.46
0.27
0.18
0.24
0.32
0.41
0.46
0.27a
0.18
0.24
0.32
0.41
0.46
0.27a
b
0.17
0.20
0.25
0.36
0.36
0.23
e
d
c
b
a
0.17
0.23
0.30
0.40
0.44
Brix-acid ratio
Mean
c
104.1
80.83
63.12
50.00
50.65 82.38
c
103.6
80.41
60.93
46.75
50.21 82.00
c
103.6
80.00
61.25
49.63
50.43 82.37
103.6
79.58
61.56
49.51
50.21 82.38c
107.7
86.66
67.81
55.97
52.60 86.31b
a
118.8
112.5
92.40
69.44
68.88 99.66
c
d
e
f
f
106.9
86.66
67.84
53.55
53.83
Titrable acidity
Brix-acid ratio
0.016
0.95
0.013
0.77
NS
2.32
Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly (p=0.05); NS- Non significant
8
EFFECT OF POLYPROPYLENE PACKAGING ON SHELF LIFE
Table 3. Effect of polypropylene package on reducing sugars (%), non-reducing sugars (%), total
sugars (%) and ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) of custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at
15±1oC
Days after storage
Treatments
0
2
4
6
8
10
Reducing sugars
PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2
11.90
11.90
12.10
12.10
13.20
14.40
PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2
11.90
11.90
12.10
12.10
13.20
14.30
PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2
11.90
11.90
12.10
12.10
13.20
14.40
PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2
11.90
11.90
12.10
12.10
13.20
14.40
PPB with air
11.90
11.90
12.30
12.50
14.00
15.80
Control
11.90
12.00
12.90
13.50
15.50
18.10
f
f
e
d
c
b
11.90
11.91 12.26
12.40
13.71
15.23
Mean
Treatments
Non-reducing sugars
PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.30
1.41
1.41
PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.30
1.41
1.41
PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.30
1.41
1.41
PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.30
1.41
1.41
PPB with air
1.25
1.25
1.35
1.43
1.48
1.53
Control
1.25
1.25
1.47
1.55
1.65
1.75
e
e
d
c
b
b
Mean
1.25
1.25
1.30
1.36
1.46
1.48
Treatments
Total sugars
PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2
13.15
13.15
13.35
13.40
14.61
15.81
PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2
13.15
13.15
13.35
13.40
14.61
15.71
PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2
13.15
13.15
13.35
13.40
14.61
15.81
PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2
13.15
13.15
13.35
13.40
14.61
15.81
PPB with air
13.15
13.15
13.65
13.93
15.48
17.33
Control
13.15
13.25
14.37
15.05
17.15
19.85
Mean
13.15f 13.16f 13.57e 13.76d 15.17c 16.72b
Treatments
Ascorbic acid
PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2
41.30
41.30
41.30
50.20
45.10
43.60
PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2
41.30
41.30
41.30
50.20
45.10
43.60
PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2
41.30
41.30
41.30
50.20
45.10
43.60
PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2
41.30
41.30
41.30
50.16
45.10
43.60
PPB with air
41.30
41.30
41.30
48.40
44.40
40.75
Control
41.30
41.30
41.5
47.20
42.25
38.55
c
c
c
a
b
c
41.30
41.30
41.33 49.39
44.50
42.28
Mean
CD at 5 %
Reducing sugars
Non-reducing sugars
Total sugars
For days (D)
0.118
0.042
0.071
For treatments (T)
0.096
0.034
0.058
For D T
0.289
0.104
0.175
Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly (p=0.05); NS- Non significant
9
Mean
12
16.20
16.10
16.20
16.20
17.20
19.10
a
16.83
1.57
1.57
1.57
1.57
1.62
1.71
a
1.60
17.77
17.67
17.77
17.77
18.82
20.81
18.43a
c
13.10
c
13.08
13.10c
13.10c
13.64b
a
15.48
Mean
c
1.34
c
1.34
1.34c
1.34c
b
1.40
a
1.51
Mean
14.40c
14.39c
c
14.40
c
14.40
b
15.06
a
16.22
Mean
a
32.50
42.17
a
32.50
42.17
a
32.50
42.17
a
32.50
42.17
30.22
41.07a
b
28.66
40.10
d
31.48
Ascorbic acid
1.650
1.350
NS
VENKATRAM et al
REFERENCES
Alique, R. 1995. Residual effects of short-term
treatments with high CO2 on the ripening of
cherimoya Annona cherimola Mill. fruit. J. Hort.
Sci. 70 (4): 609-615.
Bolivar-Fernandez, N., Saucedo-Veloz, C., SolisPereira, S and Sauri-Duch, E. 2009. Ripening
of sugar apple fruits Annona squamosa L.
developed in Yucatan, Mexico. Agrociencia.
43: 133-141.
Chunprasert, A., Uthairatanakij, A and Wongs-Aree,
C. 2006. Extending shelf-life of tropical fruits
through ripening retardants. Acta Hort. 712 (2):
857-863.
Deepak Raj Rai, Harinder Singh Oberoi and Bangali
Babu 2002. Modified atmosphere packaging
and its effect on quality and shelf life of fruits
and vegetables-An over view. J. Fd. Sci.
Technol. 39 (3): 199-207.
Martinez, G., Serrano, M., Pretel, M.T., Riqueleme,
F and Romojaro, F.1993. Ethylene
biosynthesis and physico-chemical changes
during fruit ripening of cherimoya Annona
cherimola Mill. J. Hort. Sci. 68 (4): 477-483.
Paull, R.E., Deputy, J and Chen, N.Z. 1983. Changes
in organic acids, sugars and head space
volatiles during fruit ripening of soursop
Annona muricata L. J. Fd. Sci. Technol. 21
(3): 123-127.
Rajput, C.B.S. 1985. Custard apple, In: Fruits of IndiaTropical and subtropical, Ed. T.K. Bose, Naya
prakash publications, Calcutta, India, pp 479486.
Ranganna, S. 1986. Hand book of analysis and quality
control for fruits and vegetable products. Tata
Mc Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited,
New Delhi, India.
Ranganna, B., Munishamanna, K.B and Subramanya,
S. 2009. Development of modified atmosphere
packaging for guava fruits for long distance
transportation. Mysore J. Agri. Sci. 43 (4): 749753.
Sanchez, J.A., Zamorano, J.P., Hernandez, T and
Alique, R. 1998. Enzymatic activities related
to cherimoya fruit softening and sugar
metabolism during short-term controlledatmosphere treatments. A Fd. Res. Technol.
207 (3): 244-248.
Vishnu Prasanna, K.N., Sudhakar Rao, D.V and
Shantha Krishnamurthy 2000. Effect of
storage temperatrure on ripening and quality
of custard apple Annona squamosa L. fruits.
J. Hort. Sci. and Biotechnol. 75 (5): 546-550.
Wills, R.B.H., Warton, M.A., Mussa, D.M.D.N and
Chew, L.P. 2001. Ripening of climacteric fruits
initiated at low ethylene levels. Aust. J. Expt.
Agr. 41 (1): 89-92.
Yonemoto, Y., Higuchi, H and Kitano, Y. 2002. Effects
of storage temperature and wax coating on
ethylene production, respiration and shelf life
in cherimoya fruit. J. Jpn. Soc. Hort. Sci. 71:
643-650.
Gutierrez, M., Lahoz, J.M., Sola, M.M., Pascaul, L
and Vargas, A.M. 1994. Postharvest changes
in total soluble solids and tissue pH of
cherimoya fruit stored at chilling and nonchilling temperatures. J. Hort. Sci. 69: 459463.
Johnson, D.S and Ertron, U. 1983. Interaction of
temperature and oxygen levels on the
respiration rate and storage quality of Indared
apple. J. Hort. Sci. 58: 527-533.
Kader, A.A. 1986. Biochemical and physiological
basis for effects of controlled and modified
atmospheres on fruits and vegetables. Fd.
Technol. 40 (5): 99.
Kamble, P.B and Chavan, J.K. 2005. Effects of post
harvest treatments and storage temperature
on shelf life of custard apple fruits. J. Fd. Sci.
Technol. 42 (3): 253-255.
Kramchote, S., Jirapong, C and Wong-Agree, C.
2008. Effect of 1-MCP and controlled
atmosphere storage on fruit quality and volatile
emission of ‘Nam Dak Mai’ mango. Acta Hort.
804: 485-491.
Magdaline, E.E., Sreenarayanana, V.V and Parvath,
R. 2001. Physico-chemical response of sapota
packed under modified atmosphere. Madras
Agri. Journal. 88 (4-6): 271-273.
10
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 7-11, 2013
SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF LINSEED INSECT PESTS AND
THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES
HARSHWARDHAN GUPTA and B. P. KATLAM
Department of Entomology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur 492012
Date of Receipt : 25-05-2013
Date of Acceptance : 15-07-2013
ABSTRACT
Linseed bud fly, Dasyneura lini Barnes and thrips were recorded as major pests in Neelum and Kiran
varieties. Three natural enemies viz., two species of lady bird beetle C. septumpunctata and M. sexmaculata and
predatory spider, Lynx sp.were noticed as potential predators of these pests. Bud fly infestation was positively
correlated with minimum temperature, rainfall and evening relative humidity.
Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) is an oilseed
crop of rabi season and attacked by number of insect
pests at various phases of its growth and among
them bud fly, Dasyneura lini (Barnes) is the one that
cause enormous yield losses (particularly in Central
India and Northern India and damaged up to 50-80
percent) followed by Plusia orichalsia (Fabr.)
Caliothrips indicus (Barnall) and Spodoptera exigua
(Hub.) (Mukherji et al.1999, Malik et al., 2000).
correlation with temperature, humidity and rainfall
recorded at standard weekly intervals
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The linseed bud fly appeared in the 2 nd
standard week in Neelum and 3rd week in Kiran variety
with per cent bud damage of 1.4 and 2.26,
respectively. The maximum cumulative damage by
bud fly was recorded in 10th standard week with bud
damage of 34.16 % in Neelum and 22.09% in Kiran.
whereas fresh bud damage was noticed maximum
during last week of Feb. and 1st week of March with
bud damage of 7.06 and 5.93 per cent. The bud fly
incidence was found continued till 10th standard week
in both the varieties.
The present study was aimed to point out
Seasonal incidence of different insect pests of linseed
and their natural enemies at Raipur region of
Chhattisgarh.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried with two susceptible
varieties, Neelum and Kiran during the year 2011-12
at IGKV, Raipur. Crop was sown on last week of
November 2011 with plot size of 5 row X 3 meter
length & replicated three times.
Thrips were recorded during the vegetative
to maturity stage of the crop on the leaves as well as
inside the flowers. First appearance of thrips
population was recorded in 51st standard week with
average population of 2.0 and 3.87 thrips/plant in
variety Neelum and Kiran. Maximum thrips population
was recorded in 10th standard week in both the varieties
(54.06 and 81.1 thrips/plant ). These observations
are in confirmation with Sahu (1999) and Patel and
Thakur (2005).
The incidence of different insect pests of
linseed was observed at weekly interval on five
randomly selected plants at each plot. The incidence
of bud fly & other lepidopteron was estimated by
making count on the basis of number of damaged
bud per plants and total number of healthy buds (per
cent bud infestation was estimated) and the sucking
pests population was recorded by counting the
number of leaf hoppers & Thrips by shaking in white
sheet per plant. Similarly the natural enemies viz.,
lady bird beetle and Spider were estimated by taking
observation on number of predators on 5 selected
plants per plot. The mean insect pests and natural
enemies’ population were, subjected to simple
Jassid population was noticed from 0.46 to
2.8 in Neelum variety whereas in case of Kiran 0.96
to 1.86 number of jassid per plant was found. In
relation to the population of linseed caterpillar average
population was less than 1 insect per plant was
noticed which is not influenced for yield loss. Jassid
& linseed caterpillar was minor pest of linseed and
appeared on 51st meteorological week and its peak
population period was 7th to 9th standard week. For
email: harshwardhangupta12@gmail.com
11
Table 1. Seasonal incidence of major insect pests of linseed and their natural enemies
GUPTA & KATLAM
12
13
** Highly significant at 1% level of significance
* Significant at 5% level of significance
Table 2. Correlation coefficient between incidence of insect-pests, natural enemies and weather parameter
SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF LINSEED INSECT PESTS AND THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES
GUPTA & KATLAM
the incidence of linseed caterpillar similar time period
was confirmed by Sahu (1999) and Patel and Thakur
(2005) , Mamtarani (2007), Katlam et al. 2012. And
they also reported that all three pests were exhibited
with fluctuation of their population and it might be
due to climate change or affected by biotic and abiotic
factors.
significant correlation of maximum temperature
(r=0.886**) and minimum temperature (r= 0.840**) in
variety Neelum. On the other hand there was highly
significant correlation of Kiran (r= 0.792**) at minimum
temperat ure and (r= 0. 857**) at maximum
temperature. Similarly, there was significant
correlation of relative humidity of morning and no
eff ect of evening relative humidity. Similar
observations have also been reported by Sahu
(1999).
Two species of lady bird beetle Menochilus
sexmaculata and Coccinella septumpunctata were
recorded and ranged between 0.06 to 0.086 predators.
In present investigation the activity of predaceous
Spiders (Lynx sp.) was quite active during 51st to 9th
standard weeks on both the varieties. Its population
was exhibited ranged between 0.06 to 0.74 and 0.06
to 0.73 in Neelam and 0.06 to 0.74 in Kiran variety.
Apart from Thrips, Jassids, linseed caterpillar
and spider showed negative and non-significant
correlation with maximum and minimum temperature,
rainfall and relative humidity (Morning and Evening)
in both varieties. On the basis of result, it was clear
that environmental factor was least effective with the
population of these pests.
In the present study, both species of Lady
bird beetle were seen as preyed upon Caliothrips
indicus and played important role to suppress the
population of their pests. Similar predators were also
noticed by Patel and Thakur (2005) as well as
Mamtarani (2007) and(AICRP, 2010). Present result
is also similar to past finding by Daharia 2010-11
that spider might play an important role to manage
the small insect pest population.
Based on the present invest igation,
maximum temperature between 24.3 -35 (°C) and
minimum temperature between 7.3-19.2 °C and
evening relative humidity (between 24-51 per cent)
were found congenial for pest multiplication on
linseed. Similar findings have also been documented
by Patel and Thakur (2005).
The statistically analyzed data revealed that
bud-fly incidence had positively higher significant
correlation with minimum temperature was found in
Neelum (r= 0.840**) and Kiran (r= 0.857**). On the
other hand, and positively significant correlation with
bud-fly infestation in maximum temperature with
Neelum (0.865**) and Kiran (0.895**) and minimum
temperature Neelum (0.914**) and Kiran (0.890**)
and negative non significant correction in rainfall,
relative humidity morning and evening. Present study
agreed with the result of earlier finding reported by
Kumar et al. (2008).
The present study indicated that in the
agro-climatic condition of Raipur linseed suffered with
many insect pest species, out of which linseed bud
fly Dasyneura lini (Barnes) is major one which caused
severe damage to the floral buds and categorised
under key pest of linseed. Present investigations are
in confirmation with Sahu (1999), Patel and Thakur
(2005) Mamtarani (2007), Daharia(2011) and Katlam
et al. (2012) who also worked on linseed at Raipur on
the same varieties.
On the other hand, similar findings were
reported by Gupta (1995) and Prasad (2004) that D.
lini as only the major pest at Ranchi and Faizabad
(U.P.) by Kumar et al., 2008.
Depicted from Table 2 that in case of
Caliothrips indicus (Bangall) there was highly
REFERENCES
AICRP 2010-11. (Linseed). All India Coordinated
Research Project on Linseed Project
Coordinating Unit, Linseed, Kanpur.pp:159177
linseed bud fly, Dasyneura lini (Barnes) and
its management by newer insecticides, in
M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis submitted to IGKV, Raipur
(C.G.) p: 48
Daharia,S.K., 2011. Studies on the population
dynamics, screening of germplasm against
Gupta, R.L. 1995. Linseed gall fly, Dasyneura lini
Barnes and its control. Proceedings of the
14
SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF LINSEED INSECT PESTS AND THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES
Indian Science Congress Association. 42 (3):
294-381.
Mukharji, K.G., Dubey, O.P. and Upadhyaya, R.
1999. Insect pests of linseed, IPM system in
Katlam, B.P., Deole, S and Sonboir, H.L. 2012.
Population dynamics of major insect pests of
linseed. National Conference on Demonstrated
Opt ions for Improved Livelihood in
Disadvantaged Areas of India.pp:306-308
Agriculture Oilseed crops. 5: 250-263.
Patel, R. K and Thakur, B. S. 2005. Screening of
different cultivars of linseed against the bud
fly Dasyneura lini Barnes. J. Plant Prot. Env.
2(2): 99-101.
Kumar, M., Ali, S. and Mishra, M. K. 2008. Population
dynamics of linseed insect-pests and
management of Dasyneura lini Barnes. Annals
Plant prot. Sci. 16 (2): 289-293.
Prasad, D and Prasad, R. 2004. Succession and
incidence of major insect pests infesting
different genotypes of linseed. Annals. Plant
Malik, Y. P., Hussain, K., Singh, S.V. and Srivastava,
R.L. 2000. Development of management
module for bud fly, Dasyneura lini in linseed .
Indian. J. Ent. 62 (3): 260-269.
Prot. Sci. 12 (2): 279-282.
Sahu, K.R. 1999. Insect pest succession on linseed
and management of bud fly, Dasyneura lini
Barnes and thrips, Caliothrips indicus Bagnall.
Mamtarani. 2007. Management of linseed bud fly
(Dasyneura lini Barnes) using IPM techniques,
in M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis submitted to IGKV,
Raipur (C.G.). pp. 73-74.
M.Sc. (Ag) thesis submitted to IGKV, Raipur
(C.G.) p. 62.
15
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 12-15, 2013
COMPONENTS OF GENETIC VARIATION FOR
MACROPHOMINA PHASEOLONA RESISTANCE IN MAIZE
K.MURALI KRISHNA, G.K CHIKKAPPA and G. MANJULATHA
Maize Research Centre, ARI, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030
Date of Receipt :24-05-2013
Date of Acceptance : 26-07-2013
ABSTRACT
Among the diseases that are limiting the production of maize, post flowering stalk rot (PFSR) was recognized
as a problem especially in south India as early as 1970’s. Resistance to PFSR was studied in ten selected maize
parental lines comprising six resistant and four susceptible in a diallele fashion during rabi, 2009-10. Significant
genotypic differences were observed for PFSR. Additive (D) as well as dominance (H) components were found
important in the inheritance of this character with higher proportion to dominance component. All the resistant
parents had relatively more number of dominant genes while the susceptible parents had excess of recessive
genes. In light of these findings suitable breeding method has been suggested.
Post flowering stalk rots, popularly known
as charcoal rot is the most serious, destructive and
widespread disease in maize. Most of the
commercially grown cultivars have shown a high level
of disease incidence during grain filling stage. This
disease is prevalent in most of the maize growing
areas of India particularly where there is scarcity of
irrigation especially at post flowering stage of the crop
growth. Even though significant improvements in
management have been made, stalk rots continue
to be a serious problem (Kaiser, 1979; White, 1999).
In recent years, this disease has gained considerable
importance mainly because number of pathogens
which were associated with the disease known as
“post flowering stalk rot complex” and is responsible
for reduction in grain yield and decreases fodder
quality (Sangit Kumar and Meena Shekar, 2005). The
major pathogen responsible for the disease is
Macrophomina phaseolina.
PFSR which would enable breeders to formulate
sound basis for future breeding programmes. Since,
significant progress could not be made either to
develop stalk rot resistant hybrids/varieties or to
understand the nature of disease inheritance; the
present study was under taken to understand the
genetics of host plant resistance in maize to pathogen
M. phaseolina.
The extent of loss in grain yield ranged from
25-32.2 % and along with decrease in fodder quality
(Mukesh kumar et al, 1996). Increasing seriousness
of PFSR and resultant yield reduction emphasized
the need for identification of resistant sources and
underlying genetics of resistance. Since development
and use of resistant varieties / hybrids is the best
mean of obtaining practical control, genetic
information relating to resistance would provide more
relevant basis for making breeding decisions. Hence,
attempts were made to study the gene action for
The present study comprises of 10 parental
lines of which six lines viz., BML- 6, BML-7, BML10, BML-13, CM-119 and BPPTI -34 were charcoal
rot disease resistant and four lines viz., CM-131,
BPPTI-38, BPPTI-35 and BPPTI -44 were
susceptible.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Present investigation was carried out with
an objective to study the genetics of PFSR
resistance. The experiment was evaluated under
artificial epiphytotic conditions at Maize Research
Centre, A.R.I, Rajendranagar for post flowering stalk
rot resistance during rabi 2009-10. High disease
pressure was achieved through artificial inoculations
of Macrophomina phaseolina inoculam.
Experimental genetic material
During rabi 2008, these selected lines were
crossed in a diallel fashion and obtained 45 F1 straight
crosses. The ten parental lines were also artificially
inoculated with charcoal rot disease material and
confirmed their reaction to the disease.
email: kmurali73@yahoo.com
16
COMPONENTS OF GENETIC VARIATION FOR MACROPHOMINA PHASEOLONA RESISTANCE
Field plot technique
(1960). Irrigation was withheld for 8 days to create
temporarily a congenial atmosphere of water stress
for early establishment of infection. Classification for
the reaction to the pathogen was taken on an
individual plant basis by splitting the stalk
longitudinally and recorded disease score in 1 to 9
scale as suggested by Payak and Sharma (1983).
The parents and 45 crosses were sown at
Maize Research Centre, A.R.I, Rajendranagar on 2012-2009 in a complete randomized block design with
two replications.
Agronomic practices were followed as per
the recommended package of practice. Charcoal rot
disease causing pathogen viz., Macrophomina
phaseolina was artificially inoculated following tooth
pick method as described by Young (1943). The
inoculations were done to all individual plants at the
time of flowering with insertion of the tooth pick in
the second internode as recommended by Koehler
Post-flowering stalk rot (PFSR) disease score
Disease score was recorded after splitting of the
stalks longitudinally in all inoculated plants by using
1-9 index scale (1=immune reaction; 9=susceptible
reaction; <5=resistant reaction) suggested by Payak
and Sharma (1983).
Charcoal rot disease scale from 1.00 to 9.0
S. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Disease reaction
25% of the inoculated internode discoloured
26-50% of the inoculated internode discoloured
51-75% of the inoculated internode discoloured
76-100% of the inoculated internode discoloured
Discoloration of lees than 50% of adjacent internodes
Discoloration of more than 50% of adjacent internodes
Discoloration of more than three internodes
Discoloration of more than four internodes
Discoloration of more than five internodes and plants prematurely
killed
R=Resistant
Scale
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Reaction
R
R
R
R
R
S
S
S
S
S=Susceptible
h2 = dominance effects, as algebraic sum over all
the loci in heterozygous phase in all the crosses
Statistical analysis
The data were analysed for genetic components and
their Parameters following Hayman (1954a and
1954b). It is a graphical approach which involves VrWr graph and provides information about six
components
H2/4H1 = proportion of genes with positive and
negative effects
KD/Kr = indicative of excess of dominance
D= additive genetic variance
h2/H2 = number of gene groups which controls the
character
H1= dominance variance
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
H2= H1[1-(u-v)2] where u and v are proportions of
positive and negative genes, respectivly, in the
parents.
An estimate of additive and non additive
components were significant for PFSR disease score
(Table.1). Therefore, both additive and non additive
gene action were equally important in the inheritance
of PFSR disease. Under such circumstances
breeding for a homozygous line by simple pedigree
method will exploit only additive genetic variance.
Hence, inter crossing selects in early segregating
E = expected environmental component of variance.
F = mean of Fr over the array, where Fr is the
covariance of additive and dominant effects in a single
array.
17
MURALI et al
generations would be the most desirable procedure
for exploiting simultaneously additive and non additive
gene effects. Similar results were reported by N.
Kulkarni and V.K. Shinde ( 1987) in breeding lines
for resistance to different sources of striga.
The magnitude of dominance (H1 and H2) was of higher
proportion indicating that the primary gene action was
non additive. This was also confirmed by degree of
dominance which was 1.45. The estimate of F was
positive and significant indicating the predominance
of dominant alleles. The KD/Kr ratio, which was more
than one was also indicative of excess of dominance.
VrWr graph indicated over dominance for the disease
score since regression line intercepts Y axis below
the centre of origin (Fig.1). The ratio of h2/H2 was
1.66 which indicates that at least one to two gene
pairs are controlling the disease out of all the genes
controlling the disease score. The estimate of average
negative vs positive alleles (h2/4H1) was estimated
to be 0.21 and this reveals equal distribution of
positive and negative alleles. All the resistant parents
viz., BML-6, BML-7, BML-10, BML-13, CM-119 and
BPPTI-34 with preponderance of dominant alleles
showed a low array variance and covariance located
at the beginning of the regression line. They recorded
low per se for the disease and turned out to be good
combiners with significant negative gca effects
indicating resistance to post flowering stalk rot
disease. These parents can be used as potential
donars in breeding programmes aimed at developing
Table 1. Estimates of genetic components and other parameters for PFSR disease at Rajendranagar.
D (Additive Effect)
PFSR Disease score
1.23*
H 1(Dominance Effect)
2.61*
H2
2.22*
2
0.56*
h
E (Environ. Comp.)
0.37
F (Mean Fr over arrays)
2.83*
Mean Degree of Dominance
1.45
H2 /4H1
0.21
KD/Kr
8.54
h2/H2
1.66
Fig 1. Vr vs Wr graph for PFSR disease at rajendrangar
18
COMPONENTS OF GENETIC VARIATION FOR MACROPHOMINA PHASEOLONA RESISTANCE
PFSR varieties/ hybrids as they contributed maximum
favorable genes for resistance. On contrary CM-131,
BPPTI -38, BPPTI -35 and BPPTI -44 showed a large
array variance and co variance and were far away
from centre of origin with excess of recessive genes
indicating susceptibility. Under such circumstances,
it is suggested to produce composities and intermating among selected lines to pool the genes for
resistance.This information would be of use to the
breeders in formulating suitable breeding techniques
in the development of PFSR resistant hybrids.
REFERENCES
Payak, M.M., and Sharma, R.C. 1983. Disease rating
scales in maize in India. In techniques of
scoring for resistance to important diseases
of maize. ICAR, New Delhi pp. 1-4.
Hayman, B.I.1954a. The theory and analysis of diallel
crosses.Genetics.39;789-809
Hayman, B.I.1954b. The analysis of variance of diallel
tables.Biometrics. 10; 235-244
Sangit Kumar and Meena Shekar, 2005. Post
flowering stalk rots of maize and their
management in Stresses on maize in tropics
edited by P.H.Zaidi and N.N singh,, Directorate
of Maize, Maize Research, Pusa Campus,
New Delhi, India.
Kaiser, S.A.K.M and Mukherjee, N. 1979. Stalk rot
complex of maize in West Bengal and their
management. Indian J. Mycol. Res. 17(2):7783.
Koehler, B. 1960. Corn stalk rot in Illions. Ill Agric
Exp Stn Bull. 658. pp 90.
White D.J. 1999. Fungal stalk rots. Compendium of
corn diseases. 3rd Edition. D.G. White ed. APS
Press, St. Paul, M.N.
Kulkarni, N and Shinde, V.K 1987. Components of
Genetic variation for Low Stimulant Production
and Field resistance of Sorghum to Striga. J.
Maharastra Agric. Univ. 12(1) 39-41.
Young, H.C. 1943. The toothpick method of
inoculating corn for ear and stalk rot.
Phytopathology. 33:16.
Mukesh-Kumar Lal, H .C and Jha, M.M. 1996.
Assessment of yield loss due to post-flowering
stalk rot in maize. Journal of Applied Biology.
8(1): 90-92.
19
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 16-20, 2013
SUMMER SEASON SURVEY FOR INCIDENCE OF MARUCA VITRATA (G.)
(Pyralidae: Lepidoptera) AND ITS NATURAL ENEMIES ON GREENGRAM AND
OTHER ALTERNATIVE HOSTS IN MAIN PULSE GROWING TRACTS OF
KHAMMAM DISTRICT 20
CH. SANDHYA RANI , G RAMACHANDRA RAO, MSV CHALAM,
ANIL KUMAR PATIBANDA and V SRINIVASA RAO
Agricultural Research Station, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,
Madhira, Khammam District- 507 203
Date of Receipt : 15-02-2013
ABSTRACT
Date of Acceptance : 24-08-2013
The survey, conducted for two consecutive years (2009-10 and 2010-11) in the twelve major greengram
growing mandals of Khammam district during summer, at different growth stages of pulses from randomly selected
five farmer’s fields revealed that theM. vitrata larval incidence ranged from 05–15 larvae per twenty five plants in
bud initiation, flowering and podding stages. The flower infestation ranged from 11.5-29% whereas pod damage
ranged from 18–27.5%. Among the surveyed mandals, Thirumalayapalem (27.5%), Khammam Urban (24%) and
Penubally (23%) recorded the highest pod damage, whereas Madhira (18%) & Bonakal(19.5%)recorded the lowest
pod damage. Among the coccinellids, Chilomenussexmaculata species only observed in Pulses ecosystem.Among
spiders, ground spiders viz., Urocteid species, Sparassus pseudolamarckii, Lycosids, Arctosamulani (Dyal);
Hippasaspp., Salticiusspp.in blackgram & greengram ecosystems. Other spiders,Argiopesp.,Oxyopessp.,
Thomisussp., Chrysillasp.,Tetragnathasp., Neosconatheisi, Telemoniadimidata,Curbasp.Peucetiaviridana,A.
diadematusA. anasuja (Thorell) were noticed in pulses ecosystems. Predation or parasitism was not observed in
the field conditions. Physalis minima, Abutilon sp. and Tephrosia sp. (Weeds), greengram, blackgram, cowpea,
pigeonpea & Groundnut (Legumes), daincha and sunhemp (green-manuring crops) were found as alternative
hosts for Maruca vitrata. Identification of Physalis minima and Abutilon sp., non-Leguminous plants as alternative
hosts for Maruca in A.P is the first report.
INTRODUCTION
majority of which belonging to Papilionaceae and is
a major pest of cowpea, pigeonpea, mungbean,
snapbean, common bean, soya bean, lima bean, faba
bean, hyacinth bean & adzukibean. It infests
pigeonpea, cowpea, mungbean, urd bean & field bean
in southern zone of A.P (Sharmaet al.,2000). In
recent decades, it infested groundnut also (Babu et
al., 2006). Because of its extensive host range &
destructiveness, it became a persistent pest in pulses
in A.P particularly on greengram, as it is cultivated
throughout t he year in dif ferent seasons /
situations.In view of the scope for increase in summer
greengram area, it is necessary to conduct the
surveys on the Maruca occurrence, its natural enemy
fauna and alternative hosts in summer season for
preparing forewarning systems & management
tactics against Maruca.
Pulses are well known as cheap & excellent
source of dietary proteins of Indian sub-continent,
feed and fodder for animals and also soil fertility
restorers. Among the pulses, mung bean or greengram
(Vigna radiata L.) is the important pulse crop of India
and it occupies an area of about 3 m.ha with a
production of 0.25 m.t and 425 kg ha-1 productivity
(NAIP report submitted by CRIDA, 2012). Andhra
Pradesh is the 4th major state of India contributing
about 15.5% of the national production of greengram
with 351kg/ha average productivity. Khammam is
the important district occupying the 3 rd place in
productivity, but 5th place in area & production of green
gram. During summer, it is grown as a sole crop with
adequate irrigation facilities. With the introduction
of Bt cotton, most of the farmers are preferring
greengram after completion of Bt cotton crop
(February - April) by virtue of its short duration &
drought tolerance in summer.Among the pod borers,
legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata (G.) is the
devastating pest of pulses. It is widely distributed in
Asia, Africa, Australia & America. It feeds on plant
species belonging to 20 genera & 6 families, the
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The survey was conducted in 12 mandals,
to record the natural enemies viz., number of
coccinellids, spiders, preying mantids on twenty five
randomly selected Maruca infested plants at weekly
interval in randomly selected five farmer’s fields of
email: choragudisrani@gmail.com
20
SUMMER SEASON SURVEY FOR INCIDENCE OF MARUCA VITRATA
Khammam district and also to record alternative hosts
for Maruca at Agricultural Research Station (A.R.S)
Farm & farmers’ fields. Observations were made by
conducting destructive sampling on larval incidence,
flower infestation and pod damage from the pulse
crops(Greengram, blackgram, cowpea, pigeonpea
(redgram) and green-manuring crops (namely daincha
and sunhemp) grown in surroundings. For natural
enemy population, by visual sampling, counted the
number of natural enemies on twenty- five randomly
selected Maruca infested plants. Visual sampling was
done from weed plants available nearby/within the
greengram fields in the A.R.S., Farm and farmers’
fields at flowering stage. To record other natural
enemies, Maruca larvae were collected from different
farmers’ fields and kept in separate jars for monitoring
the presence of larval parasitoids.
Survey for Natural Enemies
In summer during surveys, except spiders
and coccinellids, no other predators or parasitoids or
entomopathogens were recorded from the Maruca
infested plants in pulses ecosystem.The data on
number of coccinellids and spiders per twenty- five
Maruca infested plants was recorded on randomly
selected Maruca infested plants from the farmer’s
fields ranged from 3.0 - 14.0 and 1.5 - 4.0 in 2009-10
and 4.0-10.0 and 1.0–3.0 in 2010-11 respectively.
Few Coccinellids & Spiders were recorded in Maruca
infested plants. The hidden behaviour of Maruca in
webs (formed by leaves / bud / flowers & pods) might
be the reason for lesser exposure to the natural
enemies. One larva is enough to cause damage to
one cluster by webbing 4-6 pods. Pod damage ranged
from 18 – 27.5%.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Among the natural enemies, number of
coccinellids and spiders from randomly selected
Maruca infested pulse crops from the farmer’s fields
ranged from 4.5-12.0 and 1.75 - 3.25 respectively.
Among the coccinellids, Chilomenus sexmaculata is
the only species observed in Pulses ecosystem.
Among spiders, especially ground spiders viz.,
Urocteid species, Sparassus pseudolamarckii,
Lycosids, Arctosamulani (Dyal); Hippasa spp.,
Salticius spp. were noticed in blackgram &
greengram ecosystems. Other spiders included
Argiope sp., Oxyopes sp., Thomisussp., Chrysillasp.,
Tetragnatha sp., Neoscona theisi, Telemoniadimidata
Curba sp. Peucetiaviridana, A. diadematus A.
anasuja (Thorell).These findings are in conformity with
the findings of Sudha (2008), who conducted a field
survey for natural enemies of M. testulalis and
reported that spiders viz., Oxyopes shweta, Thomisus
katrajghatus, Thomisus sp., Antilochus coquebertii,
Salticus sp. and Hippasa were the predominant
predators. Predation or parasitism was not observed
under both the field conditions in A.R.S Farm as well
as in the farmers’ fields. Durga Rao (2010)
investigated the field efficacy of Trichogramma egg
parasitoid on Maruca in rice fallow blackgram and
reported that at seven days after sixth release of
Trichogramma chilonis that there was only numerical
difference, however, statistically there was nonsignificant difference between treated plot & control
plot. As was survey conducted in the farmers’ fields,
Survey for M. vitrata incidence
During summer, the survey was made in five
randomly selected farmers’ fields at different growth
stages in twelve major greengram growing mandals
in 2009-10 & 2010-11 based on the greengram
cropped area. The summer survey report revealed
that the M. vitrata larval incidence ranged from 5 –
20 larvae per twenty- five plants in different growth
stages, i.e. bud initiation, flowering and podding
stages. The flower infestation ranged from 10-30%
& 10-28%, whereas pod damage ranged from 16–30
& 15–25 per cent in 2009-10 & 2010-11 respectively.
Maruca vitrata infestation was noticed in all surveyed
mandals. Maruca vitrata infestation starts from bud
initiation stage in hidden nature.
Generally farmers are going for greengram
cultivation in isolated areas with irrigation facilities
during summer season. The Economic Threshold
level for Maruca is one percent infestation at bud
initiation stage /one larva per plant. Larval incidence
recorded is lower in summer. Farmers are identifying
the Maruca damage late due to its hidden nature and
adapting to sprays after its damage. This might be
the reason for Maruca population prevailing even
under sprayed conditions and low productivity of
greengram. Hence, it is necessary to forewarn about
the Maruca management in greengram, a noncommercial, very short duration food crop.
21
Block
Table 1.Mandal (Block) wise greengram area survey onNatural Enemies on M. vitrata infested pulses (Summer, 2009-10 & 2010-11) in Khammam
District
SANDHYA et al
22
SUMMER SEASON SURVEY FOR INCIDENCE OF MARUCA VITRATA
insecticide sprays influence the Maruca& natural
enemy population. Very few natural enemies were
encountered in survey during summer, an off-season
and Maruca vitrata’s hidden nature also might be one
of the reasons for escaping from natural enemies
under field conditions.
Conclusion
The two summer seasons survey pooled data showed
that the pod damage ranged from 18.0 – 27.5 per
cent (Table 1). Maruca vitrata infestation was noticed
in all most all pulse crops in the surveyed mandals.
Among the 12 surveyed mandals, Thirumalayapalem
(27.5%), Khammam Urban (24.0%) and Penuballi
(23.0%) recorded highest pod damage, whereas
Madhira (18.0%) & Bonakal (19.5%)recorded the
lowest pod damage by M. vitrata.
Survey for Alternative Hosts of M. vitrata
During the summer season survey, it was
found that blackgram, pigeonpea (redgram) (Kharif&
Rabi), cowpea, daincha and sunhemp were the
cultivated hosts and beans were found as alternative
hosts. These observations are in agreement with the
reports of Ingram (1998) who reported that Sesbania
(Daincha) was one of the alternative host for Maruca.
Huang (2004) surveyed Sesbania plants and reported
that among the twenty- one species of insect pests
attacked Sesbania, the bean pod borer, Maruca was
recognized as the major serious pest. Sharma et al.
(2000), Chandrayudu et al. (2006) and Kamakshi et
al. (2008) reported that dolichos bean was the most
preferred host for Maruca.
Among t he coccinellids, Chilomenus
sexmaculata is the only species observed in Pulses
ecosystem. Among spiders, especially ground
spiders viz. , Urocteid species, Sparassus
pseudolamarckii, Lycosids, Arctosamulani (Dyal);
Hippasa spp., Salticius spp. were noticed in
blackgram & greengram ecosystems. Other spiders
namely, Argiope sp., Oxyopes sp., Thomisus sp.,
Chrysilla sp., Tetragnatha sp., Neoscona theisi,
Telemoniadimidata, Curba sp. Peucetiaviridana, A.
diadematus A. anasuja (Thorell).
Greengram, blackgram, cowpea,
pigeonpea (redgram) and green-manuring crops
namely daincha and sunhemp were the cultivated
hosts and three weeds namely,Physalis minima,
Abutilon sp. and Tephrosia sp. (Papilionaceae) were
found as alternative hosts. Physalis minima and
Abutilon sp., the non-papilionaceous weeds identified
as alternative hosts for Maruca and first time reported
in A.P.
Among t he various weeds in pulses
ecosystem, three weeds namely, Physalis minima
(Solanaceae), Abutilon sp. (Malvaceae), and
Tephrosia sp. (Papilionaceae) were found as
alternative hosts, as they are hosting early instar
larvae at flowering stage. Arodokoun et al. (2003)
reported that Lonchocarpus spp. and Tephrosia
platycarpa serve as essential relay hosts for Maruca.
REFERENCES
Chandrayudu, E., Srinivasan, S and Rao, N.V.
Arodokoun, D.Y., Tamo, M., Cloutier, C and Adeoti,
2006.Evaluation of certain new insecticides
R. 2003. Importance of alternative host plants
against spotted pod borer, Maruca vitrata
for the annual cycle of the legume pod borer,
(Geyer) in cowpea. Indian Journal of Plant
Maruca vitrata (Fabricius) ( L e p i d o p t e r a ,
Protection. 34 (1): 118-119.
Pyralidae ) in Southern & Central Benin. Insect
Durgarao, G. 2010. Seasonal incidence and pest
Science and its Application. 23 (2): 103-113.
management strategies against spotted pod
Babu, B.R., Rajasekhar, P and RamachandraRao,
borer, Marucavitrata (Geyer) in rice fallow
G. 2006.Ecology and management of
Blackgram. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis. submitted t o
Marucavitrata(Geyer) on groundnut.Journal of
Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University,
Economic Entomological Research. 30 (4):
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
329-332.
23
SANDHYA et al
Huang, C.C. 2004. Seasonality of insect pests on
field bean genotypes. Annals of Plant
Protection Science. 16 (2): 302-305.
Sesbania cannabina fields located in
Taiwan. Plant Protection Bulletin, Taipei. 46
National Agricultural Innovation Project report,
(1): 81-91.
2012.Submitted by Central Research Institute
for Dry land Agriculture.
Ingram, B.F. 1998. Possible alternative host plants
for some major pod sucking bug pests of
Sharma KK, Yadav HS and Amarchandra 2000.A
pulse crops in the south Burnett region of
note on seasonal activity of pod borer complex
Queensland. General and Applied Entomology.
on dolichos bean.JNKVV Research Journal
33(1/2) 74-77
28: 101-108.
Kamakshi, N., Srinivasan, S and Muralikrishna, T.
2008. Influence of biochemical constituents
Sudha V 2008.Predatory Arthropod diversity in
Pulses Ecosystem.M. Sc (Ag). Thesis
on incidence of Pod borer complex in selected
submitted to Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbattore.
24
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 21-24, 2013
NATURE OF GENE ACTION IN NEW CMS AND RESTORER LINES OF RICE
(Oryza sativa L.)
ZAKIR HUSSAIN and NARENDRA KULKARNI
R&D FARM, RJ BIOTECH LIMITED, AUSHAPUR, RANGAREDDY DISTRICT- 501 301
Date of Receipt : 31-07-2013
Date of Acceptance : 28-09-2013
ABSTRACT
Four newly developed male sterile lines were crossed with eleven restorers in line x Tester mating
design and genetic information was derived. The genotypic differences among the 44 hybrids were significant
for all the characters. Female x Male interaction was also significant indicating the role of non-additive gene
action for all the characters. Among the CMS lines MS-4 was good combiner for early flowering and MS-1for
more productive tillers while MS-2 was for panicle length. For grain yield MS-3, MS-4 were good combiners.
Among the restorers R-8, R-9, R-11, and R-12 contributed favorable genes for grain yield and productive
tillers except R-8. Fifteen hybrids possessed significant SCA effects for grain yield. The hybrids MS-3/R-8,
MS-2/R-8, MS-2/R-11 and MS2/R-12 were best specific cross combination for grain yield.
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION
Declining trend of land and water and
plateuing in the yield of high yielding varieties made
it difficult to increase the rice production.Successful
invention and utilization of hybrid rice technology in
China has generated interest in Indian rice breeders.
Many hybrids have been released for general
cultivation. Most of these hybrids have IR 58025A
as female parent. Hybridson this female line have
light scent, poor quality and hence development of
alternate lines were suggested (Paroda, 1998).
Therefore, four new CMS lines were developed by
back cross method and were crossed with new
restorers to understand nature of gene action for their
future use in rice breeding.
Analysis of variance (Table-1) indicated
existence of significant variation among the hybrids
for yield and yield contributing characters. Further
partitioning of genotypes into female and males
exhibited variation among themselves. The
contribution by females was of higher magnitude for
days to flowering and plant height and for other
characters by males. The female x male interaction
was significant for all characters indicating the role
of non-additive gene action in governing these
characters. This was further confirmed by ratio of
GCA to SCA variance which is less than unity,
emphasizing predominant role of non-additive gene
action. Anand et al (1999) and Selvamani and
Rangaswami (1999) also observed non-additivity for
grain yield.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The material comprised of four new CMS
lines developed by back cross method and 11
restorers by pedigree method at RJ Biotech Limited
R&D farm. They were crossed in Line x Tester mating
design during kharif 2011. Resultant 44 hybrids were
grown in Randomised block design with two repeats
in 2011-2012 rabi season. All the package of
practices recommended for hybrid rice cultivation
were followed. Data was collected on day to 50 %
flowering, plant height(cm), number of productive
tillers, panicle length(cm) and grain yield on ten
randomly selected plants in each replication. The data
was analyzed following kempthorne(1957).
With respect to days to flowering the parental
lines MS-4, R-7, R-9 and R-12 exhibited negative SCA
effects (Table2) and are considered best combiners
as they contribute favorable genes for earliness and
will be useful in breeding for earliness which requires
less water and that too for short period. Dwarf stature
of hybrids is an important character in order to
withstand lodging. The parental lines R-4, R-7, R-9,
and R-16 possessed low per se values and turned
out to be good combiners for dwarfness.
MS-1, R-9, R-11, R-12, R-14, and R-21 had
more number of productive tillers and were best
email: nm_kulkarni@hotmail.com
25
HUSSAIN and KULKARNI
Table 1. ANOVA for Line x Tester
Source
DF
Replications
Crosses
Females
Males
Femalex Male
Error
2
 GCA (Females)
2GCA (Males)
1
43
3
10
30
43
2
 GCA
2
 SCA
2GCA/
2
 SCA
2.126
95.46**
252.89*
139.336*
65.09**
0.71
8.54
Plant
Height
(cm)
11.134
95**
389.10**
196.98**
51.10**
6.11
15.36
No. of
productive
Tillers/Hill
0.011
18.051**
3.15
153.61**
20.65**
1.66
-0.79
Panic
Length
(cm)
0.098
3.532**
4.68*
6.94**
2.28*
0.96
0.11
0.0004
0.01884**
0.003
0.0490**
0.0103**
0.00024
-0.00033
9.28
4.06
32.19
0.13
18.23
11.63
22.50
0.52
16.62
9.40
10.32
0.87
0.58
0.49
0.66
0.74
0.0048
0.0011
0.0101
0.101
Days to
Flowering
Grain
Yield
**,*= Significant at 1 & 5 percent
Table 2. General combining ability effects for grain yield And its components
Days to
Flowering
Plant
Height(cm)
No. of
Tillers/Hill
Panicle
Length(cm)
Grain Yield
MS-1
2.568**
-0.011
0.534*
-0.023
-0.176*
MS-2
2.387**
0.329
-1.506**
0.658**
-0.0002
MS-3
-0.249
-0.148
0.125
-0.296
0.0071*
MS-4
-4.702**
-0.169
0.398
-0.337
0.0102**
SE ±
0.179
0.52
0.270
0.209
0.0007
R-2
1.887**
-1.045
-2.231**
0.136
-0.013*
R-4
0.137
-10.045**
-4.431**
-1.989**
-0.116**
R-5
-0.363
0.454
-1.056*
0.886*
-0.068**
R-7
-8.113**
-2.920**
-0.056
-0.239
-0.009
R-8
1.137**
4.329**
-1.181*
1.386**
0.1046**
R-9
-5.163**
-5.045**
2.068**
-0.114
0.0757**
R-11
7.137**
3.579**
3.194**
0.261
0.088**
R-12
-1.113**
5.579**
1.563**
0.386
0.0795**
R-14
-0.113
3.454**
1.443*
0.386
-0.0517**
R-16
0.637*
-3.295**
-1.306**
-1.239**
-0.0967**
R-21
4.387**
4.454**
2.700**
0.136
0.0071
SE ±
0.297
0.873
0.455
0.347
0.0019
Females
Males
**,* = Significant at 1 & 5 percent
26
NATURE OF GENE ACTION IN NEW CMS AND RESTORER LINES OF RICE
Table 3. Specific combining ability effects of desirable crosses for yield and its attributes
S.No
Cross
Days to
flowering
Plant
Height
(cm)
No. of
Productive
tillers
Panicle
Length
(cm)
Grain
Yield/ha
1
MS 1/R-2
0.06
2.04
1.34
1.27
0.053**
2
MS 1/R-4
1.68**
9.04**0
0.84
-1.89**
0.027**
3
MS 1/R8
2.68**
-4.33*
-0.41
0.52
0.032*
4
MS 1/R-11
0.68
-0.08
0.21
0.65
0.61**
5
MS 1/R 16
-5.81**
-1.70
-1.28
-1.35
0.036**
6
MS 2/R-4
-13.13**
-0.27
1.43
-1.28
0.008
7
MS 2/R-7
5.11**
4.10*
2.56**
1.96**
-0.074**
8
MS 2/R-11
0.86
3.60*
0.81
-0.660
0.122**
9
MS 2/R-12
-6.88**
-1.39
0.93
-0.66
0.108**
10
MS 2/R-14
-3.88**
-9.27**
2.56**
0.34
0.024
11
MS 3/R-4
-1.5
-14.99**
-0.75
0.17
-0.036**
12
MS 3A/R-8
-2.5**
1.62
-.500.29
0.290
0.136**
13
MS 3A/R-9
-1.75**
6.12**
-0.75
0.79
0.060**
14
MS 3A/R-16
-2.0**
2.25
10.62**
0.40
-0.028**
18
MS 3A/R-21
-0.75
4.00*
0.12
0.05
0.058**
19
MS 4A/R-2
-6.79**
-5.27**
-2.02*
0.08
0.08**
20
MS 4A/R-9
-6.29**
-2.14
0.98
-0.16
-0.024*
21
MS 4A/R-11
-3.04
-4.89**
-0.65
0.46
-0.061**
22
MS 4A/R-16
2.45
5.48**
-0.15
0.46
0.034**
23
MS 4A/R-21
-1.29
-4.27*
2.85**
0.08
0.034**
S.E.±
0.59
1.74
0.91
0.69
0.011
*,**=Significant at 5 & 1 percent
combiners in contributing favorable genes for this
character. These lines can be used in improving
productive tillers. For panicle length MS-2, R-8, were
best general combiners with higher mean values.
Sharma et al (1996) indicated additive gene action
for this character. Hence, these lines can be used
as donors for improving panicle length.
Based on GCA effects among females MS3, MS-4 and among males R-8, R-9, R-11 and R-12
were good combiners for grain yield. They were also
good general combiners for some yield contributing
characters. Therefore, it is suggested that population
involving these parents in multiple crossing
programme may lead in isolating high yielding pure
lines. The good combining restorers viz. R-8, R-9,
27
HUSSAIN and KULKARNI
R-11 and R-12 may be inter-crossed to improve
restorers by selection from segregating generations.
MS-3 and MS-4 are new CMS lines with good
agronomic background without scent which is a
desirable character and good combiners to replace
IR58025A as Paroda(1998) emphasized need to
replace for some of its short comings.
The higher yield in these crosses isattributed tononadditive gene action and can profitably used for
commercialization of these hybrids. The cross M-3/
R-8 and MS-3/R-9 have both the parent as good
combiners and gene action is additive x additive
interaction which is fixable in nature. Such crosses
are expected to throw useful transgressive sergeants
in later generations through pedigree method of
selection. Among other crosses MS-1/R-2 and MS1/R-16 have both parents as poor combiners. High
yield in these crosses is attributed to interaction
between positive alleles from one parent and negative
alleles from other parent. Yaung (1987) also indicated
that majority of crosses from high SCA effects for
grain yield were attributed to dominance and epistatic
effects. Considering hybrid rice as viable technology
to enhance the yield levels, these high yielding
hybrids can be made use for heterosis breeding.
Further testing of MS-3, and MS-4 which are new
CMS lines and good combiners for grain yield with
good agronomic back ground will be worthwhile in
hybrid rice programmes.
Study of SCA effects has been useful to
identify best specific crosses for different characters.
The cross combinations MS-2/R-4, MS-2-R-12, MS4/R-2 were best specific crosses for early flowering
and MS-3/R-4, MS-2/R-14, MS-4/R-2 for plant height
(table – 3). In respect of productive tillers MS-3/R16, MS-4/R-21, MS-2/R-7andMS-2/R-14 had higher
per se with significant SCA effects.All these crosses
are derived from low x low or good x low combining
parents. Among the 44 crosses only one cross viz.
MS-2/R-7 has recorded significant SCA effect for
panicle length. Eleven crosses had significant SCA
effects for grain yield. The crosses MS-2/R-11, MS2/R-12, MS-4/R-2 and MS-1/R-11 were best specific
crosses involving only one parent as good combiner.
REFERENCES
research group meeting held at PAU on 16-498.
Anand, G., Amruthadevarathanam and Edwin
Rogbell, J. 1999.Combining ability and
heterosis for cold tolerance in rice. Oryza 36(2):
114-117.
Selvani, A and Rangaswamy P 1999. Combing ability
analysis in rice Oryza 36(2): 151-153.
Ganeshan, K., Wilfred Manuel W, Vivekanandan and
Armugam PM 1997.Combing ability heterosis
and inbreeding depression for quantitative traits
in rice. Oryza 34:13-18.
Sharma, R.K., Koranne K.D, and Dube, S D
1996.Combining ability analysis for yield and
yield components in rice. Oryza 33: 18-20.
Yaung, J .B 1987. Heterosis and combing ability over
environments in relation to hybrid rice breeding
Ph.D. Thesis submitted to University of the
Philippines, Los Banos, Philippines.
Kempthorne, D.1957. An introduction to genetic
stat istics. John Wiley and sons. I nc.,
Newyork.
Paroda 1998. Rice research and development status
and future direction XXXIII. All India rice
28
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 25-30, 2013
EVALUATION OF CHANGES IN SOIL QUALITY UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USE
ENVIRONS OF CHANVELLY VILLAGE, RANGAREDDY DISTRICT OF ANDHRA
PRADESH- A CASE STUDY
M. RAM PRASAD and V.GOVARDHAN
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar,
Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad-500030
Date of Receipt : 04-01-2013
Date of Acceptance : 07-10-2013
ABSTRACT
A study was conducted to assess the effect of changing land use on soil quality over time in Chanvelly
village of Rangareddy district of Andhra Pradesh. A comparision between different physiographic units and different
land use conditions was also made. Changes in soil quality were evaluated based on the changes in relative soil
quality index (RSQI). Soil quality in uplands was increased by 5 units, midlands was increased by 10 units, where as
lowland was increased by 9 units over a period of 28 years. The soil quality in terms of CEC, organic carbon, N, P,
K increased slightly in uplands, where as in midlands and lowlands these quality indicators increased moderately.
Soil quality in uplands was increased by 5 units, midlands was increased by 10 units, where as lowland was
increased by 9 units over a period of 28 years. The soil quality classes changed from IV to III in upland area and III
to II in midland and lowland area. This indicates that the intensive cropping, cropping systems and suitable
management practices played a significant role in improving the soil quality.
The term “soil quality” is gaining popularity
in the agricultural sector, especially as farmers are
striving hard to sustain the crop production and
maintain soil health (Smith et al 1994). Owing to
improper land use and management, soil erosion,
alkalinity, nutrient depletion, pollution and other
natural resource problems, it is urgent to improve
soil quality by maintaining sustainable agricultural
land use and management practices (Rozanov 1990).
This task is seen as one of the important projects for
modern soil science (Lal 1993, Wang and Gong 1996).
nitrogen, phosphate and potash respectively, were
lost annually where as gains were only 67.4, 17.8,
and 49.8 thousand tonnes (Sharma 1998) with clear
deficit of about 175.4, 43.9 and 119.5 thousand tonnes
of N, P, and K respectively. Such situations demand
for adoption of specific land use and management
practices which may bring about positive change in
soil quality together with better nutrient supply for
the crop growth. The objective of this study was to
evaluate the soil quality changes over time at farm
situations taking into account all soil and crop
management factors together.
The agricultural soils in the world particularly in the
tropics and sub humid regions are major carbon sinks
and with suitable management practices and cropping
systems their carbon sequestration potential can be
harnessed (Bhattacharyya et al. 2007b, Wani et
al.2003).It is argued that increase in soil organic
carbon pool favorably influences the soil quality
(Johnston, 1986; Wani et al.2003; Emerson 1995;
Pathak et al. 2005).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Survey was conducted on farmer’s fields in
Chanvelly village (located between 17o. 05' and 17o.
16' North latitude and 79o. 05' and 77o. 06' East
longitudes) in Ranga Reddy district of Andhra
Pradesh. Soil and land resources of Chanvelly village
are diversified in nature and characteristics in
supplying nutrients and providing necessary
anchorage for the crop growth and development. This
study area forms a part of Deccan plateau. The
changes in land use pattern in Chanvelly village over
time scale (Table 1) illustrated that large area was
under forest, barren and uncultivable, pasture and
other grazing; cultivable waste lands, fallow lands,
current fallow lands during 1980-81. But successively
over decades, the cultivation intensity changed the
The soils around the Hyderabad are mostly
medium in texture and alkaline in nature. As the
change in land use over a period of time and
intensifying cropping in these areas resulting in lot
of changes in organic matter and nutrients of the
soils. There is a big gap between nutrient lost from
the soil and the nutrient addition. It was estimated
that about 242.8, 61.7 and 169.3 thousand tonnes of
email: mullapudiramprasad@yahoo.co.in
29
PRASAD and GOVARDHAN
land use pattern. Essentially a quantitative change
has been taken place in various categories of land
use and as a result net sown area and total cropped
area increased. Further, conventional cropping
systems were replaced by many commercial crops
and the new cropping systems and got stabilized.
characterized in to uplands, midlands and lowlands.
In the study areas farmers were growing jowar, bajra,
groundnut under rain fed condition in early days
1980’s. Presently farmers are mainly practicing four
cropping systems under well irrigated conditions i.e.
cotton-red gram in upland areas, green chiliescabbage-tomato, carrot-cabbage-tomato in midland
areas, and rice-rice-black gram in low land areas
(Table. 2).
The general slope of the land is from north to south.
Based on variation in relief factor, lands were
Table 1. Land use pattern in Chanvelly village over time scale
S.No
Classification/year
1980-81
(ha )
2000-01
(ha)
2008-09
(ha )
1
Geographical area
872
872
872
2
Reporting area
860
860
860
i) Forests
140.04
80.15
20.28
ii) Area under non-agricultural use
12.24
15.67
24.08
iii) Barren and uncultivable lands
72.2
24.58
8.24
iv) pasture and other grazing lands
20.04
8.16
4.32
v) land under misslenious tress
8.24
3.36
1.44
vi) Cultivable waste lands
21.16
6.48
0.64
vii) Fallow lands
70.72
42.69
5.04
viii) Current fallows
72.12
34.66
4.72
ix) Net sown area
443.24
644.25
791.24
x) Total cropped area
552
702
804
xi) Cropping intensity
44.44
77.88
93.28
109.448
286.12
355.62
3
Net irrigated area
Source: Cadastral map (1: 1000) of Chanvelly village – 1980-81 & 2008-09 Agricultural source books, Dept.
of. Agriculture, Chavella mandal.
Table 2. Diversification in land use pattern over last 28 years in Chanvelly village
1
Major cropping systems
2
Major source of irrigation
3
use of machinery
3
use of machinery
Jowar
Jowar-jowar
Cotton-red gram
Green chilies- cabbage-tomato
Jowar-bajra
Rice-rice-black gram
Jowar-ground nut
Carrot-cabbage-tomato
Rain fall
little
(mostly bullock drown
implements)
Bore wells and canals
intensive
(complete mechanization with
high equipped implements)
In the present study soil samples were collected from
each cropping system based on soil physiography.
Samples were analyzed as per the standard
procedures for quality assessment. These quality
parameters were matched with earlier data for possible
change in soil quality.
30
EVALUATION OF CHANGES IN SOIL QUALITY UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USE ENVIRONS
Soil Quality Evaluation
properties such as, texture, soil and rooting depth,
bulk density, inf iltration, wat er retent ion
characteristics, soil organic matter, electrical
conductivity, available N. P and K, microbial bio-mass
and soil respiration.
There are different approaches that can be
used to quantify soil quality. Doran and Parkin (1996)
proposed a minimum data set called indicators for
characterizing and monitoring soil quality. The
minimum data set includes soil attributes and
Table 3. Soil quality indicators and their weights and classes for the evaluation of soil quality
Indicators
Weights
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Soil depth (cm)
13
>100
80-100
50-80
<50
Texture
11
Loam
Clay or Sandy loam
Clay or Sand
Grit
13
0-5
5-10
10-20
>20
Slope (%)
-1
Organic matter (g kg )
13
>30
20-30
10 to 20
<10
-1
12
>400
300-400
200-300
<200
-1
12
>15
10 to 15
5 to 10
<5
Avail K ( kg ha )
11
>250
200-250
100-200
<100
CEC (c mol (p+)/kg )
10
>15
10 to 15
5 to 10
<5
pH
5
5.5-7.0
5.0-5.5
4.5 - 5.0
<4.5
100
4
3
2
1
Avail N ( kg ha )
Avail P ( kg ha )
-1
Marks
Soil quality evaluation was done as
described by Pierce and Larson (1993). In this study,
9 soil quality indicators were used. These include
soil depth, texture, slope, organic matter, available
N, available P, available K, Cation Exchange
Capacity (CEC) and soil pH. Soil depth and soil
texture reflect the suitability of soil physical
conditions for plant growth. Slope and texture are
related to resistance to erosion. Organic matter, CEC
and pH influence the habitat for soil organisms. Soil
texture, slope, depth and organic matter relate to
plant available water. These factors have therefore
been adopted to reflect the various aspects of soil
quality in relation to plant growth.
conditions, cropping pattern and agro-climatic
conditions of Ranga Reddy district. The sum of all
weights is normalized to 100% (Smith et al. 1994).
Subdivision of the indicators: Each of the indicators
was divided in to four classes (I, II, III, and IV).
Class I, is the most suitable for plant growth,
Class II, is suitable for plant growth with slight
limitations,
Class III, with more serious limitations than class II,
and
Class IV, has severe limitations to plant growth.
Marks of 4, 3, 2 and 1 were given to class I, II, III
and IV, respectively. The range for each class is
shown in Table 3.
Changes in indicators values reflect the
combined effects of land use. If the changes in soil
quality indicators are positive and higher, then it is
of better quality and soil can be regarded as
aggregated in quality.
Quantitative Evaluation of Changes in Soil
Quality: By introducing the concept (Karlen and Stott
1994) of Relative soil quality index (RSQI), the 9
indicators were combined into an RSQI.
Weights of the indicators: The contribution of each
indicator towards soil quality is usually different and
can be indicated by a weighing coefficient. There
are many ways to assign the weights for each
indicator. In this study, the weight for each indicator
(Table 3) was assigned on the basis of existing soil
RSQI = (SQI/SQIm) x 100
Where,
SQI = Soil quality index
SQIm = Maximum values of SQI.
31
PRASAD and GOVARDHAN
The maximum values of SQI for soil are 400
and the minimum value is 100 (Wang and Gong 1996).
weightings, and classes. Similarly, the (“RSQI) was
grouped in to six classes differentiated as follows:
SQI is calculated from the equation:
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
SQI = “ W­i Ii
The soil quality changes were evaluated quantitatively
Where,
for three physiographic units over a period 28 years.
Wi = Weights of indicators
In early days in these soils, jowar, bajra and ground
Ii = the marks of the indicators classes
nut were grown and due to change in food habits,
irrigation facilities and market potentials, presently
SQI of every indicator was calculated
separately by multiplying weight of indicators and
marks allotted to each class (Table.3).
rice, cotton, chilies, carrot, cabbage, tomato, red
gram and black gram are being cultivated. The data
For example, if the texture of the soil is
sandy loam, it belongs to class II. As the weight for
texture is 11, and the marks for class II is 3, then
the
on selected soil indicators of study area are
SQI (texture) = 11 X 3 = 33
potash in a span of 28 years. These parameters were
presented in table 4. Results of soil analysis data
clearly indicate a moderate increase in pH, organic
carbon, CEC, available nitrogen, phosphorous and
In this way, SQI for every indicator was
calculated. Summing up of all nine indicators
produced the SQI value for a soil under study.
used for calculation of soil quality changes.
An optimum soil in any region will have a
normalized RSQI of 100, but real soils will have lower
values which directly indicate their distance from the
optimal soil. According to the RSQI values, soils were
classified in to 5 classes from best to worst,
represented as follows by I, II, III, IV and V
respectively.
quality over a period of time due to intensive cropping
Soil quality evaluations using survey data
of 1980-81 and 2008-09 showed improvement in soil
(Table 5). Based on the changes in relative soil quality
index (RSQI), soil quality changes were evaluated.
Soil quality in uplands was increased by 5 units,
midlands was increased by 10 units, where as lowland
was increased by 9 units over a period of 28 years.
Due to high diversification in land use and intensive
Classes
I
RSQI Value
90-100
II
80-90
III in upland area and III to II in midland and lowland
III
IV
70-80
60-70
area. This indicates that the intensive cropping,
V
<60
played a significant role in improving the soil quality.
cropping the soil quality classes changed from IV to
cropping systems and suitable management practices
The soil quality in terms of fertility status,
By computing RSQI values, soil quality in
different regions can be compared even if they are
evaluated with different evaluation systems,
Change classes
∆
?RSQI
Great increase
> 10
organic carbon increased up to 60%. The combination
of a soil change database has proved an effective
method for evaluating changes in soil quality at small
scales. The method can also be helpful for studying
Moderate increase
10 to 5
soil changes, soil degradation and evaluation of soil
Slight increase
5 to 10
quality changes and sustainability at regional levels
slight decrease
Moderate
decrease
0 to -5
if we consider some more indicators like subsoil
-5 to -10
Great decrease
< -10
attributes, soil respiration, microbial biomass, etc and
other soil functions.
32
EVALUATION OF CHANGES IN SOIL QUALITY UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USE ENVIRONS
Table 4. Soil properties of different physiographic units of study area
soil parameter
Upland
Low land
1980
2009
1980
2009
1980
2009
50-80
50-80
>100
Sandy loam
80-100
Sandy clay
loam
>100
Sandy loam
80-100
Sandy clay
loam
Clay
Clay
5-10
5-10
0-5
0-5
0-5
0-5
60
67
62
70
73
80
Soil depth (cm)
Texture
Mid land
Slope (%)
-1
Organic matter (g kg )
-1
Avail N ( kg ha )
151
150
159
213
161
297
Avail P ( kg ha-1)
10.6
18.7
13.7
22.2
14.1
28.4
Avail K ( kg ha )
196
203
202
285
206
369
CEC (c mol (p+)/kg )
11.1
16.1
11.8
20.8
12.6
24.6
7
7.3
7.2
7.8
7.3
8.2
-1
pH
Table 5. General soil quality changes over a period of time
Parameters
Upland
Mid land
Low land
1980
2009
1980
2009
1980
2009
SQI
270
290
307
347
320
355
RSQI
67
72
77
87
80
89
Class
∆ RSQI
IV
III
5
III
II
10
III
II
9
Remarks
Slight increase
Moderate increase
Moderate increase
REFERENCES
Bhattacharyya, T., Chandran, P., Ray, S.K., Pal,
D.K., Venugopalan, M.V., Mandal, C., Wani.
S.P., Manna, M.C and Remesh, V. 2007.
Carbon sequestration in red and black soils.
III. Identifying systems through carbon stock
and bulk density of soils. Agropedology 17 :
26-34.
Karlen, D.L and Stott. 1994. A frame work for
evaluating physical and chemical indicators
of soil quality. In: Defining soil quality for
sustainable environment (Doran, J.W.,
Coleman, D.C and Stewart, B.A. Eds). pp. 3751. SSSA Special publication No. 35. Soil
Science Society of America, American
Sociiety of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Doran, J.W and Parkin, T.B. 1996. Quantitative
indicators of soil quality: A minimum data set.
In: methods for assessment of soil quality
(J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones, Eds). SSSA
special publication No. 49, Soil Science
Society of America, Madison, WI.
Lal, R. 1993. Tillage effects on soil degradation, soil
resilience, soil quality, and sustainability. Soil
and Tillage Research 27: 1-8.
Pathak, P., Sahrawat, K.L., Rego, T.J and Wani,
S.P. 2005. Measurable biophysical indicators
for impact assessment: changes in soil quality.
In Natural Resource Management in
Agriculture: Methods for Assessing Economic
and Environmental Impacts ( B. Shiferaw and
S.M. Swinton, Eds.), Wallingford, UK: CAB
International. pp. 75-96.
Emerson, W.W. 1995. Water retention, organic carbon
and soil texture. Australian Journal of Soil
Research 3: 241-251.
Johnston, A. E. 1986. Soil organic matter: effects
on soils and crops. Soil Use and Management
2: 97-105.
33
PRASAD and GOVARDHAN
Pierce, F.J and Larson, W.E. 1993. Developing
criteria to evaluate sust ainable land
management. In: Proceedings of The 8 th
International Soil Management Workshop:
Utilisation of Soil Survey Information For
Sustainable Land Use (J.M. Kimble, Ed). pp.
7-14. USDA Soil Conservation Service,
National Soil Survey Centre, Lincon, NE.
Smith, J.L., Halvaorson, J.J and Papendick, R.I.
1994. Using multiple-variable indicator kriging
for evaluating soil quality. Soil Science Society
of America Journal 57: 743-743.
Wang, X and Gong, Z. 1996. Assessment
andanalysis of soil quality changes after
eleven years of reclamation in subtropical
China. Geoderma 81: 339-335.
Rozanov, B.G. 1990. Human impacts on the
evolution of soils under various ecological
conditions of world. In: Transactions of 14th
ICSS, Plenary lecture. International society of
soil science, Kyoto, Japan pp. 53-62.
Wani, S.P., Pathak, P., Janagawad, L.S., Eswaran,
H and Singh, P. 2003. Improved management
of Vertisols in the semi-arid tropics for
increased productivity and soil carbon
sequestration. Soil Use and Management 19:
217-222.
Sharma, U.C. 1998. Fertilizer consumption in India.
Fertilizer News 43(8): 27-35.
34
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 31-39, 2013
GENETIC VARIABILITY, CORRELATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS
FOR YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS IN MUNGBEAN Vigna radiata L. Wilczek
M. JYOTHSNA NAND and CH. ANURADHA
Institute of Biotechnology, College of Agriculture,
Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500030
Date of Receipt :19-06-2013
Date of Acceptance : 31-08-2013
ABSTRACT
Genetic variability, heritability along with genetic advance of traits, trait correlation, path analysis on yield
are essential for crop improvement. The genetic diversity studies were carried out during rabi 2012-2013 at
experimental field of college farm in Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU), with 50 genotypes to
elicit the information. The genotypic coefficients of variation for all the characters studied were lesser than the
phenotypic coefficients of variation indicating the modifying effects of the environment in association with the
characters at genotypic level. High PCV and GCV estimates were observed for number of pods per plant, seed yield
per plant. High heritability along with high genetic advance as per cent of mean was observed for number of pods
per plant, number of seeds per pod, seed yield per plant indicating the role of additive genes in governing the
inheritance of these traits and could be improved through selection.The correlation studies indicated that days to
initial flowering, days to 50% flowering, no. of branches per plant, no. of pods per plant, no. of seeds per plant, days
to full maturity, 100 seed weight (g), pod length (cm) and 50% podding are positively and non significantly correlated
with seed yield and simultaneous improvement of these characters along with seed yield is possible. The path
analysis for seed yield revealed that number of seeds per pod, pod length, 50% podding and 100-seed weight has
high positive direct effects and they would directly increase seed yield.
Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) is an
important grain legume in Asia. It is one of the thirteen
food legumes grown in India and third most important
pulse crop of India after chickpea and pigeonpea. It
is rich in essential amino acids specially lysine,
which is deficient in most of the cereal grains. In
India, mungbean is grown on an area of 34.4 lakh ha,
with a production of 14 lakh tons with a productivity
of 406.98 kg/ha ( 2011). In Andhra Pradesh, mung
bean is grown on an area of 4.40 lakh ha, with a
production of 2.17 lakh tons and productivity of 493.18
kg/ha (2011).
model based on yield and its components in the field
Genetic variability parameter is important in
crop improvement. Heritability, which measures
phenotypic variance and is attributable to genetic
causes, is another important consideration for a
successful breeding program. Genetic variability,
heritability along with genetic advance of traits, their
association and direct and indirect effects on yield
are essential for crop improvement. Correlation
coefficient analysis is a handy technique, which
elaborates the degree and extent of relationship
among important plant characters and it provides
basic criteria for selection and leads to directional
influence the yield, by altering plant population
experiments. Yet, the information it supplies about
the nature of association is often incomplete. Path
coefficient analysis, on the other hand, is an efficient
statistical technique specially designed to quantify
the interrelationship of different components and their
direct and indirect effects on seed yield. Information
regarding inheritance of grain yield and its closely
related components is essential to efficiently exploit
the available genetic diversity in mungbean for seed
yield (Khattak et al., 2004). The seed quality
parameters viz., germination, vigour and size
density, spatial arrangements and crop duration. The
genetic study on seedling vigour is specially
promising, since the heritability for these characters
is often high.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fifty germplasm lines collected from different
sources were planted and evaluated during Rabi
2012-2013, in a Randomized Block Design with two
replications at ANGRAU. Each genotype was
represented by row length of 4m in each replication
email: jyothsna.cabm@gmail.com
35
JYOTHSNA and ANURADHA
with a uniform spacing of 30 cm between rows and
Heritability estimates give the best picture of
15 cm between plants. The crop was provided with
the extent of advance to be expected by selection.
fertilizer to supply 20 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 per hectare.
High heritability is observed in days to initial flowering,
number of branches per plant, number of pods per
All the other recommended packages of
plant, number of seeds per pod, days to full maturity,
practices were adopted in respect of plant protection,
seed yield per plant, percentage of disease incidence.
cultural practices and protective irrigations were given
Moderate heritability was observed in days to 50%
as and when needed. Data on five randomly tagged
flowering, 100 seed weight, pod length and 50%
plants of each genotype per replication were recorded
podding. Similar results reported by Natarajan et al.
on number of primary branches per plant, number of
(1988), Sexena and Singh (2002). For reliable
pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, days to full
selection high heritability of a character needs to be
maturity, 100 seed weight(gm), seed yield per plant
accompanied by high genetic advance (Johnson et
(gm), pod length, 50% podding and percentage of
al. 1955) because such characters are mostly
disease incidence. The data on days to initial
controlled by additive gene action. The genetic
flowering, days to 50% flowering and days to maturity
advance as per cent of mean was high for number of
was recorded on plot basis. Coefficients of variations
pods per plant (59.73), number of seeds per pod
(Burton, 1952), heritability in broad sense and genetic
(23.30), seed yield per plant (24.43). Lowest genetic
advance (Johnson et al.,1955) were estimated.
advance as per cent of mean is observed for days to
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
initial flowering (3.96), days to 50% flowering (4.41),
Phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of
days to full maturity (3.82), 100 seed weight (7.74),
variation (PCV and GCV), heritability and genetic
pod length (8.48), 50% podding (5.41). Similar results
advance over mean, Phenotypic and genotypic
were observed by Manivannan (1996), Pandiyan et
correlation coefficients and Path coefficient analysis
al. (2006).
for the 11 characters were studied in the selected
High heritability along with high genetic
genotypes are presented in Table 1, 2 and 3
advance as per cent of mean was observed for
respectively.
number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod,
The genotypes showed significant
seed yield per plant. The association of high
differences in respect of all the characters studied.In
heritability with genetic advance for these traits was
the present study high PCV and GCV estimates were
indicative of additive effects. High heritability with
observed for number of pods per plant (38.06, 33.22),
moderate genetic advance was observed for number
seed yield per plant (34.31, 20.17) and Percentage
of branches per plant. High heritability with low
of disease incidence ((162.23, 175.93). Lowest PCV
genetic advance was observed for days to initial
and GCV estimates were recorded for days to initial
flowering, days to full maturity which indicates non
flowering(6.08, 3.42), days to 50% flowering (7.44,
additive gene action. From this aspect it could be
3.99), days to maturity (5.75, 3.26) and 50% podding
inferred that simple selection will be effective for these
(9.21, 4.92). Lowest GCV estimate is also observed
characters. From the present study it is evident that
in 100 seed weight (7.06) and pod length (8.42).
the genotypes had wide range of variability for
Moderate values were recorded for the remaining
different traits coupled with high heritabilty and high
traits. Similar results were found with Manivannan
genetic advance for important yield traits, hence
(2000), Razia Sultana et al. (2001), Varma and Garg
selection is effective for these traits. Early vigour
(2003), Bupesh Kumar and Mishra (2004), Priyanka
may be used as one of the selection criterion in
Bhareti et al. (2011).
breeding programmes for yield improvement.
36
GENETIC VARIABILITY, CORRELATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS FOR YIELD
Table 1. Variability, Heritability and Genetic advance over mean of yield and yield components in
Green gram
S.No.
Characters
PCV
GCV
Heritability(%)
GA (%)
1
Days to initial flowering
6.08
3.42
31.6
3.96
2
Days to 50% flowering
7.44
3.99
28.8
4.41
3
No. of branches per plant
19.11
10.57
30.6
12.05
4
No. of pods per plant.
38.06
33.22
76.1
59.73
5
No. of seeds per pod
20.11
15.08
56.2
23.3
6
Days to full maturity.
5.75
3.26
32.2
3.82
7
Hundred seed weight (g).
13.27
7.06
28.3
7.74
8
Seed yield per plant (g).
34.31
20.17
34.5
24.43
9
Pod Length
17.22
8.42
23.9
8.48
10
50% podding
9.21
4.92
28.5
5.41
11
Percentage of disease incidence
175.9
162.2
85
308.17
PCV: Phenotypic coefficient of variation.
GCV: Genotypic coefficient of variation.
GA (%): Genetic advance as % of mean
Correlation between seed yield and its
components
relationship. This in turn might affect the true
association of component characters, both in
magnitude and direction and tend to decrease the
association of yield and yield components. Hence, it
is necessary to divide the phenotypic correlations of
component characters into direct and indirect effects
(Biradar et al., 2007) and are presented in Table 3.
Seed yield was positively and non significantly
correlated with days to initial flowering, days to 50%
flowering, no. of branches per plant, no. of pods per
plant, no. of seeds per plant, days to full maturity,
100 seed weight (g), Pod length (cm), 50% podding
and negatively correlated with per cent disease
incidence, results are presented in Table 2. Similar
findings were reported by Mishra and Pradhan (2006)
and Patel et al. (2006) for days to flowering and pod
length, and Reddy et al. (2011) for days to full
maturity and 100 seed weight. Anil Sirohi and
Lokendra Kumar (2006) for number of branches per
plant Sreelakshmi and Reddysekar (2011) for number
of pods per plant, for number of seeds per pod.
Direct effects
Seed yield per plant was considered as the
dependent variable for path analysis. At genotypic
level maximum positive direct effect was recorded
for days to full maturity followed by number of seeds
per pod, pod length, 50% podding, days to 50%
flowering recorded low positive direct effect. The high
negative direct effect was recorded on disease
incidence followed by days to initial flowering, 100
seed weight and the low negative direct effects were
recorded on number of branches per plant and number
of pods per plant.
Path analysis
The correlation values decide only the nature
and degree of association existing between pairs of
parameters. A parameter viz., like seed yield is
dependent on several mutually associated
component characters and change in any one of the
components is likely to affect the cause and effective
At phenotypic level highest positive direct was
recorded for 100 seed weight followed by pod length,
number of seeds per pod, 50% podding and the lowest
positive direct is recorded on days to initial flowering,
37
*significant at 5% level
** significant at 1% level
P = Phenotypic level
G = Genotypic level
Table 2. Genotypic and phenotypic correlation coefficients in Mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek)1
JYOTHSNA and ANURADHA
38
GENETIC VARIABILITY, CORRELATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS FOR YIELD
number of branches per plant, disease incidence. The
maximum negative direct effect was recorded on days
to 50% flowering, number of pods per plant, days to
full maturity. Similar results were found by Patel et
al. (2007) which indicated that positive high direct
effects of days to maturity; Mishra and Pradan (2006)
indicated maximum positive direct effect on seed
yield per plant was exhibited by 100-seed weight.
Gopikrishnan et al.(2002) and Karmakar and
Sinhamahapatra (2006) stated that negative direct
effect on seed yield per plant was exhibited by 100seed weight, number of pods per plant.
Similar findings of positive indirect effects
were found by other workers for days to full maturity
(Bhadru, 2010), number of pods per plant ,100 seed
weight and days to 50% flowering (Kumar et al.,
1995), pod length and number of seeds per pod
(Sodavadiya et al., 2009).
Similar findings of negative indirect
effects were found by other workers for number of
pods per plant (Veerabadiran and Jehangir, 1995), pod
length (Bhadru, 2010), number of seeds per pod and
100 seed weight (Kingshlin and Subbaraman, 1997)
and (Chandirakala and Raveendran, 1998).
Days to initial flowering
Number of branches per plant
At genotypic level positive indirect effect of days to
initial flowering was recorded for number of branches
per plant, per cent disease incidence, days to full
maturity, number of pods per plant. Negative indirect
effect was recorded for number of seeds per pod,
100 seed weight, pod length, 50% podding and days
to 50% flowering.
Low and negligible indirect effects were
recorded for number of branches per plant on seed
yield. It had positive indirect effect for days to initial
flowering, number of pods per plant, pod length at
genotypic level, Negative indirect effects were
recorded for 50% podding, number of seeds per pod,
per cent disease incidence, 100 seed weight, days
to 50% flowering, days to full maturity, number of
branches per plant.
At phenotypic level positive indirect effect was
recorded through days to 50% flowering, 50% podding,
pod length, 100 seed weight. Negative indirect effect
was recorded through days to full maturity, number
of pods per plant, number of branches per plant,
number of pods per plant, per cent disease incidence.
Similar findings of positive indirect effects at
genotypic level were found by Pundir et al. (1992),
Haritha and Reddy Sekhar (2002) and Sreedevi and
Reddy Sekhar (2004) indicated the same trend of
negative indirect effects at phenotypic level.
At phenotypic level positive indirect effect
was recorded for days to 50% flowering, 100 seed
weight, 50% podding, days to initial flowering, pod
length, number of seeds per pod, negative indirect
effect was recorded through per cent disease
incidence, days to full maturity, number of pods per
plant.
Haritha and Reddy Sekhar (2002) reported
the positive indirect effect of number of pods per plant,
which Pundir et al. (1992) reported on number of
seeds per pod.These findings are similar to the
results.
Days to 50% flowering
A low positive indirect effect of days to 50%
flowering was recorded for number of pods per plant,
pod length, number of branches per plant, days to
full maturity, days to initial flowering, 50% podding
and negative indirect effect was exerted for number
of seeds per pod, 100 seed weight and per cent
disease incidence at genotypic level.
Number of pods per plant
Low positive indirect effect was recorded
for number of branches per plant, per cent disease
incidence, days to initial flowering. Negative indirect
effects were recorded through 100 seed weight , 50%
podding, days to 50% flowering, number of seeds
per pod, days to full maturity, number of pods per
plant at genotypic level.
At phenotypic level all traits exhibited
negative indirect effects except per cent disease
incidence exhibited low positive indirect effect and
the data was recorded by pod length, 100 seed
weight, days to initial flowering, number of seeds per
pod, days to full maturity, number of branches per
plant, number of pods per plant and 50% podding.
At phenotypic level low positive indirect
effects were recorded for number of branches per
plant, days to initial flowering and per cent disease
39
G = Genotypic level
P = Phenotypic level
Table 3.Estimates of direct and indirect effects of yield components on yield in Mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.)Wilczek)
JYOTHSNA and ANURADHA
40
GENETIC VARIABILITY, CORRELATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS FOR YIELD
incidence. Negative indirect effects were recorded
for pod length, days to 50% flowering, 100 seed
weight, 50% podding, days to full maturity, number
of seeds per pod and number of pods per plant.
workers for number of pods per plant (Aher et al.,
1998a), pod length (Bhadru, 2010) and number of
seeds per pod (Haritha and Reddy sekhar, 2002).
100 seed weight
Kingshlin and Subbaraman (1999b) reported
positive indirect effects of days to 50% flowering and
days to full maturity, Venkateswarlu (2001) for
number of seeds per pod and 100 seed weight and
Chandirakala and Raveendran (1998) reported
negative indirect effect for number of seeds per pod,
these findings are similar to the present results.
Positive indirect effect was observed for
days to 50% flowering and per cent disease incidence
and negative indirect effect was recorded for 50%
podding, number of branches per plant, number of
pods per plant, days to initial flowering, number of
seeds per pod, days to maturity and pod length at
genotypic level.
Number of seeds per pod
At phenotypic level positive indirect effect
was observed for pod length, number of seeds per
pod, number of pods per plant, days to full maturity,
number of branches per plant, 50% podding, days
to 50% flowering and days to initial flowering and
negative indirect effect was recorded for per cent
disease incidence. Sreedevi and Reddy sekhar
(2004) reported similar findings for days to flowering.
Pundir et al. (1992) and Veerabadhiran and Jehangir
(1995) reported positive indirect effects of 100 seed
weight via number of pods per plant, and number of
seeds per pod.
Recorded Positive indirect effect was
recorded for number of pods per plant, 100 seed
weight, days to full maturity, number of branches per
plant, pod length, per cent disease incidence and
days to initial flowering. Negative indirect effect was
recorded for days to 50% flowering, and 50% podding
at genotypic level.
At phenotypic level all traits exhibited positive
indirect effects except pod length and days to initial
flowering which exhibited negative indirect effect, the
traits which are positive indirect effects are number
of pods per plant , 100 seed weight, days to full
maturity, days to 50% flowering, 50% podding, per
cent disease incidence and number of branches per
plant. Similar results were reported for days to
flowering (Kingshlin and Subharama, 1999a), for
number of pods per plant (Chandrikala and
Raveendran, 1998), for days to full maturity (Aher et
al., 1998a).
Pod length (cm)
Positive indirect effect for 50% podding, 100
seed weight, days to initial flowering, number of pods
per plant, days to 50% flowering, days to full maturity,
number of seeds per pod and negative indirect effect
for number of branches per plant and per cent disease
incidence at genotypic level.
At phenotypic level 100 seed weight, 50%
podding , number of pods per plant, days to full
maturity , days to 50% flowering, number of branches
per plant and days to initial flowering showed positive
indirect effect and negative indirect effect through
number of seeds per pod and per cent disease
incidence. The results of number of pods per plant
and 100 seed weight are similar with findings of Kumar
et al. (1995).
Days to maturity
Days to maturity recorded positive indirect
effect of number of pods per plant, 100 seed weight,
days to 50 % flowering, number of branches per plant,
number of seeds per pod, per cent disease incidence,
pod length, and 50% podding. Negative indirect effect
was recorded for days to initial flowering at genotypic
level.
At phenotypic level recorded positive indirect
effect was recorded for number of branches per plant
and days to initial flowering . Negative indirect effect
was recorded through 50% podding, pod length, per
cent disease incidence, days to 50 % flowering, 100
seed weight and number of seeds per pod. These
results are in accordance with findings of earlier
50% podding
At genotypic level positive indirect effects
were recorded for pod length , days to 50% flowering
days to initial flowering, number of pods per plant,
100 seed weight, days to full maturity, number of
branches per plant and negative indirect effect for
41
JYOTHSNA and ANURADHA
number of seeds per pod and per cent disease
incidence.
to 50% flowering , days to initial flowering , 100 seed
weight and number of pods per plant and negative
indirect effect through number of seeds per pod,
number of branches per plant and days to full
maturity.
At phenotypic level positive indirect effects
were recorded for days to 50% flowering, number of
pods per plant, pod length, 100 seed weight, days to
initial flowering , number of seeds per pod ,number
of branches per plant and days to full maturity and
negative indirect effect for per cent disease
incidence. Mohapatra et al., (1987) reported the
positive indirect effects number of branches per plant
and pod length which are similar to the results.
At phenotypic level positive indirect effects
were recorded through days to full maturity, number
of seeds per pod and negative indirect effect through
number of branches per plant, 100 seed weight,
number of pods per plant, days to initial flowering,
days to 50% flowering , pod length and 50% podding
(-0.009). Similar findings were found by Hussain et
al., (2004) regarding indirect effects of number of
branches per plant, number of pods per plant and
pod length.
Per cent disease incidence
At genotypic level positive indirect effects
were recorded through 50% podding, pod length, days
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43
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 40-46, 2013
EFFECT OF POST HARVEST APPLICATION OF ANTIOXIDANTS ON SHELF LIFE
AND QUALITY OF CUSTARD APPLE Annona squamosa L. cv. BALANAGAR
FRUITS STORED AT 15±1oC
A. VENKATRAM, A. BHAGWAN and M. PRATAP
Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy, Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Medak (District) – 502 110
Date of Receipt : 05-06-2013
Date of Acceptance : 24-08-2013
ABSTRACT
The effect of different concentrations of antioxidants (500, 1000 ppm of sodium benzoate, SB and ascorbic
acid, AA and 50, 100 ppm of benzyl adenine, BA) on shelf life and quality of custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored
at 15 ±1ÚC, was conducted at Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy, Medak (district) during 2009-11. The days taken
for ripening, shelf life and quality parameters like TSS, acidity, brix-acid ratio, sugars (reducing, total and nonreducing) and ascorbic acid were estimated at an interval of 2 days during storage. Maximum days taken for ripening
was recorded in fruits treated with BA with both concentrations (50 and 100 ppm) and SB 500 ppm. Fruits treated with
BA 100 ppm or SB 500 ppm or AA 1000 ppm significantly increased the shelf life upto 11, 10.5 and 10 days,
respectively, whereas the control fruits recorded a shelf life of 8.5 days only. Quality parameters like TSS, brix-acid
ratio and sugars (reducing and total) was recorded the lowest and ascorbic acid recorded the highest in fruits treated
with BA 100 ppm. The treated fruits recorded significantly the highest acidity and the lowest non-reducing sugars
irrespective of antioxidants and their concentrations.
Custard apple Annona squamosa L. is an
arid zone fruit grown in India. It is also known as
Sithaphal, Sharifa, Sugar apple, Sweetsop. Custard
apple is the most popular and widely used dessert
fruit having the maximum production efficiency. The
plants are hardy, drought resistant and can thrive
well on marginal and neglected soils with minimum
inputs (Rajput, 1985). It is a delicious table fruit and
is valued mainly for its sweet, mild flavored pulp.
The fruit is botanically referred as syncarpium and
aggregate of fruitlets. It is a climacteric fruit, starts
ripening soon after detached from the tree (Wills et
al., 2001). It is highly perishable fruit with short shelf
life of 1-2 days after ripening. The steady increase in
area and production of custard apple in India has
enhanced the fruit flow into the markets, which most
of the time leads to glut in the markets (Jalikop,
2006). The lack of information on the post harvest
handling of this highly perishable fruit has resulted in
huge losses. Extension of storage life in custard apple
even for a day or two will go a long way in increasing
the shelf life and thus making it much easier to handle
the fruit.
apple fruits could also be extended up to 7 days when
Several reports are available to increase the
shelf life of custard apple. The shelf life of custard
storage life and quality of custard apple cv. Balanagar
treated with waxol or waxol + KMnO4 or waxol + NAA
30 ppm and packed in individual wrapping 75 gauge
polyfilm at ambient storage conditions as against 4
days in untreated and unpacked fruits (Masalkar and
Garande, 2005). Application of edible coating material
like sago, arrowroot and waxol 10% to custard apple
fruits resulted in increase in shelf life by 5-8 days
when compared to untreated fruits (Jholgiker and
Reddy, 2007).
Antioxidants are the molecules that are
capable of showing or preventing the oxidation of
other molecules. These are reducing agents which
prevent oxidation reaction by scavenging reactive
oxygen species before they can damage the cells.
Several reports are available on post harvest
application of antioxidants increased the storage
period of many fruits like mango (Ahmed, 1998) and
banana (Padmavathi, 1999). However, such
information on custard apple is scanty. Hence, the
present investigation was carried out to study the
post harvest application of antioxidants for enhancing
fruits stored at 15±1ÚC.
email: venkatramambotu@gmail.com
44
VENKATRAM et al
MATERIALS AND METHODS
experiment was conducted in completely randomized
design with factorial concept and each treatment
replicated thrice.
The experiment was carried out during 200911 at Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy, Dr. Y.S.R.
Horticultural University, Medak district. Custard apple
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
‘Balanagar’ fruits were harvested at the light green
fruit colour, yellowish white colour between the carpels
Days taken for ripening
and initiation of cracking of the skin between the
carpels. Matured fruits of uniform size, firm, free from
The days taken for ripening (Table 1) is
significantly maximum of 9 days (22.78% delayed
disease and injuries were directly picked from orchard
and brought to the laboratory. The fruits were cleaned
ripening over control) in fruits treated with BA with
both concentrations (50 and 100 ppm) or SB 500 ppm
with running tap water to remove the adherent dirt
material and then allowed to dry in shade. The fruits
and minimum in control (7.33 days) fruits. The days
taken for ripening of fruits treated with AA 1000 ppm
were surface disinfected with 0.1% (w/v) bavistin
solution for 2 minutes. The fruits were then dipped in
were at par with SB 1000 ppm. The rate of ripening
was delayed with decrease in storage temperatures
the respective antioxidants solutions for 10 minutes.
The treatments include: sodium benzoate (SB) 500
ppm, SB 1000 ppm, ascorbic acid (AA) 500 ppm,
AA 1000 ppm, benzyl adenine (BA) 50 ppm, BA 100
ppm and control (without dipping of fruits). After the
treatment the moisture on the surface of the fruits
were dried and the fruits were stored at a temperature
of 15±1oC in horizontal racks. The experiment was
conducted in completely randomized design with
factorial concept and each treatment replicated
thrice. The days taken for ripening, shelf life, TSS,
acidity, brix-acid ratio, sugars (reducing, non-reducing
and total) and ascorbic acid were estimated at an
interval of 2 days during storage.
with fruits ripening on day 4, 6 and 9 of storage 25,
20 and 15oC, respectively as reported by Vishnu
Prasanna et al. (2000). Wills et al. (1984) and Batten
(1990) also reported similar ripening periods of 4-5,
5-6 and 8-9 days in atemoya fruits at 24-25, 19-20
and 15-16oC, respectively. Bhagwan (1994) also
reported that banana cv. Robusta treated with SB
500 ppm and 4% waxol exhibited delayed ripening.
Slower ripening rate was recorded by treating sapota
cv. Kirt hibarthi fruit s with ascorbic acid,
hydroxyquinone, menadione and aminoethoxy
vinylglycine (Rao and Chundawat, 1982).
Shelf life (days)
The shelf life (Table 1) differed significantly
among different antioxidants treated fruits with
maximum shelf life of 11 days (29.41% increase over
cont rol) in fruits treated with BA with both
concentrations (50 and 100 ppm) and minimum in
control (8.5 days) fruits. The fruits treated with
antioxidants recorded higher shelf life irrespective of
their concentrations. Improved shelf life by BA is due
to its strong antioxidant as well as free radical
scavenger action, which might have delayed the
ripening of fruits by reducing and delaying the ethylene
production and may be due to inhibition of alternative
respiration and also protection from senescence as
a cytokinin (Ravikiran Reddy, 2007). Similar results
of increased shelf life earlier reported in custard apple
(Bhadra and Sen, 1997), mango (Ahmed, 1998) and
guava (Jayachandran et al., 2007) with use of
antioxidants.
The stage wherein more than 50% of the
stored fruits became ripen was considered as end of
days taken for ripening. The stage wherein more than
50% of the stored fruits became unfit for consumption
was considered as end of shelf life and expressed
as mean number of days. The total soluble solids
(TSS, oBrix) and titrable acidity (%) were determined
by using ERMA hand refractometer and titration
method, respectively (Ranganna, 1986). Brix-Acid
ratio was calculated by dividing the TSS value by
the acid value. The sugars (reducing and total %)
present in the custard apple pulp were determined
by the method of Lane and Eyon. The non-reducing
sugars (%) were determined by subtracting reducing
sugars from total sugars. Ascorbic acid content (mg/
100 g of pulp) was determined by 2, 6-dichlorophenol
indophenol titration method (Ranganna, 1986). The
45
VENKATRAM et al
TSS (oBrix)
acidity can be ascribed to the production of organic
acids as reported by Gutierrez et al. (1994) during
ripening of soursop and cherimoya fruits. Acidity
content in edible ripe stage in custard apple varied
0-2.5 % based on the varieties (Rajput, 1985).
Significantly the highest TSS (Table 2) was
recorded in control (22.81oBrix)) and the lowest in
fruits treated with BA 100 ppm (21oBrix). The fruits
treated with SB and AA recorded lower TSS
irrespective of their concentrations. The TSS
Brix-acid ratio
th
increased from 0 to 10 day and then declined to
23.97oBrix on 12th day and increase was more
Significantly the highest brix-acid ratio (Table
2) was recorded in control (95.25) and the lowest in
fruits treated with BA 100 ppm (72.82). The lower
brix-acid ratio recorded with higher concentration of
antioxidants than lower concentration except AA is
may be due to low TSS in treated fruits. The brixacid ratio decreased from 0 to 10th day and then
slightly increased up to 12th day and decrease was
more pronounced from 8th to 10th day of storage. On
all the days of storage, there was significant decrease
in brix-acid ratio with any treatment from 0 to 10th
pronounced from 6th to 8th day of storage. On all the
days of storage, there was increase in TSS with any
treatments from 0 to 10th day and then declined up to
12th day of storage and the fruits treated with SB and
AA recorded significantly lower TSS irrespective of
their concentration. The TSS of climacteric fruits
increase with progressive of ripening (Kumbhar and
Desai, 1986). The increase in TSS was gradual in
custard apple fruits stored at 15oC and 20oC(Vishnu
Prasanna et al., 2000). Soluble solids rise
concomitantly with the respiratory increase in
annonaceous fruits and reach a maximum after the
onset of second respiratory rise (Martinez et al.,
1993). The TSS of custard apple fruits slowly
increased during storage is due to slowly increased
ripening at low temperatures (Bolivar-Fernandez et
al., 2009). This could be due to delay in ripening and
decreased rate of starch hydrolysis and the TSS
mostly made of sugars, increased from 10-16ºBrix
during 3 days of ripening in soursop fruits (Paull, 1982).
Gutierrez et al. (1994) also found storage at 1oC for
27 days resulted in an increase in TSS by only 2ºBrix.
day and then increased up to 12th day and higher
brix-acid ratio recorded with higher concentration of
antioxidants than lower concentration.
Sugars (%)
Significantly the highest reducing sugars
(Table 3) were recorded in control (15.99%) and the
lowest in fruits treated with BA 100 ppm (13.41%).
The fruits treated with antioxidants recorded
significantly lower reducing sugars irrespective of their
concentrations. The reducing sugars increased from
0 to 10th day and then declined by 16.81% on 12th
day and increase was more pronounced from 8th to
10th day of storage. The interaction effect between
treatments and storage period was not significant.
Titrable acidity (%)
Significantly the lowest acidity (Table 2) was
recorded in control (0.25%) and the highest (0.29%)
in fruits treated with antioxidants irrespective of
concentrations and antioxidants. The acidity
increased from 0 to 10th day and then declined to
0.39 % on 12 th day and increase was more
pronounced from 6th to 10th day of storage. The
interaction effect on acidity of fruits between
treatments and storage period was not significant.
Initial increase in acidity may be due to formation of
organic acids and subsequent decrease in acidity
may be due to utilization of organic acids in respiration
Significantly the highest total sugars (Table
3) were recorded in control (17.60%) and the lowest
in fruits treated with BA 100 ppm (14.80%). The fruits
treated with antioxidants recorded significantly lower
total sugars irrespective of their concentration. The
total sugars increased from 0 to 10th day and then
declined by 18.30% on 12th day and increase was
more pronounced from 6th to 8th day of storage. On all
the days of storage, there was significant increase
in total sugars with any treatment from 0 to 10th day
and then declined up to 12th day and antioxidants
treated fruits showed lower total sugars irrespective
of their concentrations except AA on 6th day.
and conversion of acids to sugars. The increase in
46
EFFECT OF POST HARVEST APPLICATION OF ANTIOXIDANTS ON SHELF LIFE
Significantly the highest non-reducing sugars
(Table 3) were recorded in control (1.57%) and the
lowest (1.35%) in fruits treated with antioxidants
irrespective of their concentrations. The non-reducing
sugars of fruits increased from 0 to 12th day and
increase was more pronounced from 6th to 8th day of
storage. The interaction effect on non-reducing sugar
between treatments and storage period was not
significant.
BA 100 ppm (42.92 mg/100 g) and the lowest in
control (37.25 mg/100 g) fruits. The higher ascorbic
acid content was recorded with fruits treated with
higher concentration of antioxidants than lower
concentration except SB. The ascorbic acid content
increased from 0 to 6th day and then declined by 22.80
mg/100g on 12 th day and decrease was more
pronounced from 6th to 8th day of storage. On all the
days of storage, there was increase in ascorbic acid
content with any treatment from 0 to 6th day and then
declined up to 12th day of storage and the highest in
fruits treated with BA 100 ppm and the lowest in
control. The decrease in ascorbic acid in later stage
of storage may be due to higher rates of respiration,
conversion of ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid
and oxidation. Broghton and Tan (1979) also reported
an increase in ascorbic acid content of custard apple
as the fruit ripened, reaching a maximum at the
climacteric, after which the amount decreased. Paull
(1982) also observed an increase in ascorbic acid
during the ripening of soursop fruit. As the number of
days required reaching the ripe stage increased with
decrease in storage temperature, the ascorbic acid
content was decreased in the ripe fruits (Vishnu
Prasanna et al., 2000).
The sugars (reducing and total) increased in
cherimoya after 5th day of storage onwards is due to
the starch declined drastically and there was also a
coincidence in the increase of sugars and the decline
of starch content, indicating a hydrolysis of starch
into its constituent sugars during fruit ripening
(Martinez et al., 1993). This might de due to the onset
of ethylene emission coincided with an increase in
the respiration, beginning of starch degradation and
rapid decline in firmness (Martinez et al., 1993). The
decrease in sugar content in later stages of storage
may be attributed to their utilization in respiration.
Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g)
Significantly the highest ascorbic acid
content (Table 3) was recorded in fruits treated with
Table 1. Effect of post harvest application of antioxidants on days taken for ripening and shelf life
(days) of custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1ÚC
Treatments
Days taken
Delayed ripening
Shelf life
Increased shelf life
for ripening
over control (%)
(days)
over control (%)
b
22.78
10.50
c
15.96
10.40
SB 500 ppm
9.00
SB 1000 ppm
8.50
b
22.35
17.64
9.14
10.00
c
c
15.96
10.00
c
17.64
a
29.41
a
29.41
8.00
AA 1000 ppm
8.50
BA 100 ppm
23.52
d
AA 500 ppm
BA 50 ppm
b
b
9.00
b
9.00
22.78
22.78
a
Control
7.33
CD at 5%
0.48
-
11.00
11.00
d
8.50
0.35
Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly
47
-
VENKATRAM et al
Table 2. Effect of post harvest application of antioxidants on TSS (ÚBrix), titrable acidity (%) and brixacid ratio of custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oC
Days after storage
Treatments
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Mean
TSS (°Brix)
c
SB 500 ppm
18.50
19.50
20.40
21.30
23.40
23.90
23.60
21.51
SB 1000 ppm
18.50
19.60
20.30
21.40
23.30
23.80
23.50
21.48
c
AA 500 ppm
18.50
20.80
21.40
22.60
24.40
24.90
24.60
22.45
b
AA 1000 ppm
18.50
20.60
21.60
22.40
24.60
25.10
24.80
22.51
b
BA 50 ppm
18.50
19.00
19.70
20.80
22.70
23.20
23.10
21.27e
BA 100 ppm
18.50
20.80
19.80
20.70
22.80
23.30
23.00
21.00
d
Control
18.50
20.90
21.90
22.80
24.90
25.50
25.20
22.81
a
Mean
18.50
g
20.17
f
20.73
Treatments
e
21.71
d
23.73
c
a
b
24.24
23.97
Titrable acidity (%)
Mean
SB 500 ppm
0.15
0.21
0.24
0.25
0.33
0.45
0.40
0.29
a
SB 1000 ppm
0.15
0.21
0.24
0.25
0.33
0.45
0.40
0.29
a
AA 500 ppm
0.15
0.21
0.24
0.25
0.33
0.45
0.40
0.29
a
AA 1000 ppm
0.15
0.21
0.24
0.25
0.33
0.45
0.40
0.29a
BA 50 ppm
0.15
0.21
0.24
0.25
0.33
0.45
0.40
0.29
BA 100 ppm
0.15
0.21
0.24
0.25
0.33
0.45
0.40
0.29a
Control
0.15
0.17
0.20
0.24
0.28
0.38
0.35
0.25
Mean
0.15
g
0.20
f
0.23
e
0.25
d
0.32
Treatments
c
a
0.44
a
b
b
0.39
Brix-acid ratio
Mean
SB 500 ppm
119.35
89.62
80.40
81.25
68.16
51.55
57.75
78.68
d
SB 1000 ppm
119.35
98.11
80.81
80.85
71.79
51.77
57.75
76.00
e
AA 500 ppm
119.35
98.11
87.34
88.28
73.27
55.33
61.50
79.76
AA 1000 ppm
119.35
91.98
83.26
83.20
70.27
53.11
59.00
82.95b
BA 50 ppm
119.35
92.45
82.85
83.53
69.96
52.88
58.75
74.30f
BA 100 ppm
119.35
97.16
88.16
87.50
73.87
55.77
62.00
72.82g
Control
119.35
121.51
107.35
93.82
88.92
67.10
72.00
95.25
Mean
119.35
c
85.49
d
73.75
h
61.19
a
98.42
b
87.16
e
55.36
c
f
CD at 5%
TSS
Titrable acidity
Brix-acid ratio
For days (D)
0.18
0.005
0.86
For treatments (T)
0.17
0.005
0.80
For D × T
0.47
NS
2.26
Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly; NS- Non Significant
48
a
EFFECT OF POST HARVEST APPLICATION OF ANTIOXIDANTS ON SHELF LIFE
Table 3. Effect of post harvest application of antioxidants on sugars (reducing, total and non-reducing,
%) and ascorbic acid (mg/ 100g) of custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oC
Treatments
0
2
SB 500 ppm
SB 1000 ppm
AA 500 ppm
AA 1000 ppm
BA 50 ppm
BA 100 ppm
Control
Mean
Treatments
SB 500 ppm
SB 1000 ppm
AA 500 ppm
AA 1000 ppm
BA 50 ppm
BA 100 ppm
Control
Mean
Treatments
SB 500 ppm
SB 1000 ppm
AA 500 ppm
AA 1000 ppm
BA 50 ppm
BA 100 ppm
Control
Mean
Treatments
SB 500 ppm
SB 1000 ppm
AA 500 ppm
AA 1000 ppm
BA 50 ppm
BA 100 ppm
Control
Mean
CD at 5%
For days (D)
For treatments (T)
For D × T
11.90
11.90
11.90
11.90
11.90
11.90
11.90
f
11.90
12.90
12.90
13.15
13.15
11.90
11.90
13.83
e
12.81
Days after storage
4
6
8
Reducing sugars (%)
12.60
13.78
15.75
12.60
13.81
15.70
13.16
15.15
16.50
13.25
14.78
16.50
12.00
12.82
14.20
12.00
12.82
14.20
14.25
15.25
18.18
e
d
c
12.83
14.06
15.86
10
12
Mean
16.66
16.66
17.85
17.85
15.62
15.62
20.00
a
17.18
16.55
16.75
17.30
17.30
15.65
15.55
18.61
b
16.81
14.30c
c
14.32
b
14.99
b
14.96
d
13.43
d
13.41
a
15.99
Non-reducing (%)
Mean
b
12.5
1.25
1.32
1.32
1.45
1.50
1.45
1.35
b
1.25
1.25
1.32
1.32
1.45
1.50
1.45
1.35
b
1.25
1.25
1.32
1.32
1.46
1.50
1.45
1.35
b
1.25
1.25
1.32
1.32
1.46
1.50
1.45
1.35
b
1.25
1.25
1.32
1.32
1.47
1.50
1.45
1.36
b
1.25
1.25
1.32
1.32
1.47
1.50
1.45
1.36
a
1.25
1.47
1.60
1.60
1.70
1.75
1.65
1.57
e
d
c
c
b
a
a
1.25
1.28
1.36
1.36
1.49
1.53
1.53
Total sugars (%)
Mean
c
13.15
14.15
13.92
15.10
17.20
18.16
18.00
15.66
c
13.15
14.15
13.92
15.20
17.15
18.16
18.20
15.70
b
13.15
14.40
14.57
16.47
17.97
19.35
18.75
16.37
b
13.15
14.40
14.57
16.10
17.97
19.35
18.75
16.32
d
13.15
13.25
13.32
14.14
15.66
17.12
17.10
14.81
d
13.15
13.18
13.32
14.14
15.66
17.12
17.06
14.80
a
13.15
15.55
15.85
16.85
19.88
21.75
20.26
17.60
f
e
e
d
c
a
b
13.15
14.15
14.21
15.42
17.35
18.71
18.30
Ascorbic Acid (mg/100 g)
Mean
c
41.30
45.20
50.50
51.20
38.50
30.80
22.60
40.07
c
41.30
43.60
50.50
53.30
39.40
29.20
23.50
40.11
e
41.30
42.50
48.20
50.50
37.80
28.50
20.50
38.47
41.30
44.40
47.80
49.43
38.50
30.50
21.30
39.03d
41.30
48.30
51.50
54.30
40.40
32.30
25.20
41.90b
41.30
49.20
52.30
56.50
41.30
33.40
26.50
42.92a
41.30
41.50
49.50
49.50
35.50
26.50
20.00
37.25f
d
c
b
a
e
f
g
41.30
44.95
49.61
52.10
38.77
30.17
22.80
Reducing sugars
Non-reducing sugars
Total sugars
Ascorbic acid
0.49
0.09
0.09
0.40
0.46
0.08
0.08
0.37
NS
NS
0.24
1.06
Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly; NS- Non Significant
49
VENKATRAM et al
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50
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 47-52, 2013
PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF FOOD – FORAGE
BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS IN SOUTHERN TELANGANA
REGION OF ANDHRA PRADESH
V.CHANDRIKA, R. BALAJI NAIK, K.B. SUNEETHA DEVI and M. SHANTI
Livestock Research Institute, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030
Date of Receipt : 02-04-2013
Date of Acceptance : 12-07-2013
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the forage production potential of various intensive cropping
systems including speciality corn types for both food and forage. NB hybrid + cowpea – Lucerne was found most
efficient cropping system in terms of green and dry fodder yields and for year round forage production. But under peri
urban situations, Maize + cowpea – Maize - Maize + cowpea systems were found to be more efficient in terms of net
returns(Rs.1,19,200/yr), FEY(278 t/ha/yr) and MUE(326.5 Rs/ha/day).
In peri-urban areas, the availability of land
for agriculture is restricted due to urbanization and
increased demand of land for housing. Crop
intensification either in space or in time or both is
the feasible option left to the farmers for enhancing
the production. Food – forage based systems provide
a support to small and marginal farmers by adjusting
a substantial part of their land exclusively for forage
production in grain crop based rotations (Sunil kumar
and Faruqui, 2009). Efficient crop sequence in
intensive agriculture promotes productivity per unit
area per unit time and provides more economic
benefits to the farmers. In rice based cropped area
of A.P, pillipesara and sun hemp are grown as fodder
crops on residual moisture after rice harvest (Hazra,
1998). In this agro climatic region of Andhra Pradesh,
high yielding quality forage crops can be introduced
in the existing cropping systems to meet the forage
demand. Short duration forage crops like cowpea,
guar and sorghum offers scope to grow in kharif
season followed by food based rabi crops.
Maize is an ideal forage crop, possessing
quick growing and high yielding ability during summer
season and can be fed to the cattle at any stage of
growth, as there is no problem of hydrocyanic acid
or oxalic acid poisoning to cattle. Raising of baby
corn and sweet corn both for food and forage can be
encouraged in peri-urban areas for their demand
through out the year. NB hybrid + cowpea – berseem
and maize – berseem- cowpea are the profitable
intensive forage based cropping systems to Andhra
Pradesh (Suneetha Devi et al., 2004).
Hence, to evaluate intensive forage based
cropping systems involving speciality corn types in
peri-urban areas, in Southern Telangana region of
Andhra Pradesh, this study was under taken.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted for three
years (2007 to 2009) at LRI, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad. The soil was sandy loam, low in organic
carbon (0.32%), available nitrogen (87.7 Kg ha -1),
high in available phosphorus (68.8 kg ha -1) and
medium in available potassium (230.2 kg ha -1). A
total rainfall of 588.8mm, 1167.9mm and 663.2mm
was received in 48, 51 and 38 rainy days during the
three years of study, respectively. The treatments
consisted of ten crop sequences viz., C1- NB hybrid
+ cowpea- Lucerne, (round the year forage crop
rotation of the region) C2- Baby corn + cowpea- baby
corn- Baby corn +cowpea, C3- Baby corn + cowpea
– Lucerne (best food crop rotations of the region),
C4- Baby corn + cowpea-Oats - Baby corn + cowpea,
C5- Baby corn+ cowpea- Oats –Fodder maize+
cowpea(inclusion of rabi crop in the rotation), C6Green cob + cowpea- green cob - Green cob +
cowpea, C7- Green cob + cowpea – Lucerne, C8Green cob + cowpea- Oats – Green cob + cowpea,
C9- Green cob + cowpea- Oats – Fodder maize +
cowpea, C10- Maize(G) + cowpea- Lucerne(F)–
Lucerne(s)(best remunerative rotation of the zone).
The experiment was laid out in RBD with three
replications and the site of the experimental field was
same through out the experimentation. The varieties
email: balajiangrau@gmail.com
51
Table-1. Season - wise Green Fodder Yield (q/ha) of entire sequence grown for baby corn and sweet corn
CHANDRIKA et al
52
PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF FOOD – FORAGE BASED CROPPING
Table 2. Important yield parameters of food – forage based cropping systems (Mean of 3 years)
Cropping systems
Cob yield
(q/ha)
Dry Fodder
Yield (q/ha)
C1- NB hybrid + cowpeaLucerne
0.0
366
C2-Baby corn + cowpea- baby
corn- Baby corn +cowpea
151
C3-Baby corn
Lucerne
60
+
cowpea
Crude protein
yield (q/ha)
Seed yield
of lucerne
(q/ha)
---
16.71
–
91
--4.05
140
2.05
7.64
C4-Baby corn + cowpea-Oats Baby corn + cowpea
96
C5-Baby corn+ cowpea- Oats –
Fodder maize+ cowpea
52
C6-Green cob + cowpea- green
cob - Green cob + cowpea
148
C7-Green cob
Lucerne
46
+
cowpea
-
135
--5.13
151
--5.66
114
--5.17
139
1.88
7.84
C8-Green cob + cowpea- Oats
– Green cob + cowpea
89
C9- Green cob + cowpea- Oats –
Fodder maize + cowpea
41
C10-Maize(G) + cowpeaLucerne(F) – Lucerne(s)
35
142
--5.46
152
--5.26
135
1.98
6.81
of different crops used were NB hybrid- APBN-1, baby
corn – G-5406, green cob- Madhuri, fodder maizeAfrican tall, cowpea – COFC-8, Lucerne- Anand-2,
Oat – OS-6 and grain maize- DHM-111.
appropriate harvesting schedules of the crops.
Economics and NB hybrid forage equivalent yield
were computed at prevailing market prices.
Production efficiency was worked out by dividing the
total production of a sequence by total duration of
the crops in that sequence (Tomar and Tiwari, 1990).
The data was pooled over three years and given as
mean pooled data. Sustainability yield index was
computed for the sequences on the basis of NB hybrid
equivalent yield with the following formula:
Sowing of kharif, rabi and summer crops was
done during the I FN of July, I FN of November and I
FN of March, respectively. Crops were raised under
irrigated conditions with recommended package of
practices of the region. Stem cuttings of NB hybrid
‘APBN-1’ were planted in July at a spacing of 90 x
60 cm and the crop was maintained as perennial
stand. Cowpea during kharif and Lucerne during rabi
were planted as intercrop in between two wider rows
of NB hybrid. Cowpea was sown as an intercrop in
maize during kharif and summer seasons under
additive series. All the forage crops were harvested
at 50% flowering stage. Baby corn and green cobs
were harvested at soft dough stage as cobs. Lucerne
sown during rabi was harvested for green fodder up
to two cuts and thereafter, left for seed purpose. In
NB hybrid, after first cut, interval for subsequent cuts
was 45 days. Data on growth and yield was taken at
Sustainability yield index (SYI) =
Mean yield- Standard deviation
Maximum yield
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Crop productivity
Production potential of component crops of
all the cropping sequences showed variation over three
years. Higher green fodder yield was recorded with
C1 (NB hybrid+ cowpea – Lucerne) in all the three
years of experimentation (Table-1). It may be due to
53
Market Rate (Rs.): 1) Maize baby corn (with husk): 10/- per Kg
3) All fodder: 650/- per ton
2) Maize green cob: 06/- per Kg
4) Lucerne seed: 150/- per Kg
Table-3: Forage equivalent yield, economics and system productivity of food – forage based cropping systems (mean of 3 years)
CHANDRIKA et al
54
PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF FOOD – FORAGE BASED CROPPING
the high production potential of NB hybrid as reported
earlier by Patel et al. (2003). Green fodder yield of
NB hybrid was low during rabi season over other
seasons. This clearly indicates the winter dormancy
character in NB hybrid and the number of cuttings
were subsequently, reduced. Islam and Thakuria
(2002) also reported winter dormancy in NB hybrid
during rabi season and therefore inclusion of legume
as inter crop in the existing NB hybrid will supplement
green fodder yield and compensate the yield loss
due to less number of cuttings of NB hybrid. Lucerne
as intercrop supplemented green fodder yield of NB
hybrid during rabi season in C1 cropping sequence.
Cropping systems viz., C5, C9, C4 and C8 ranked as
next best cropping systems in terms of GFY. In these
cropping systems, Oats, which has high green fodder
production potential was included as winter cereal
crop during rabi season (Shashikala et al., 2009).
However, the green fodder yield was very low with
C3, C10 and C7 where Lucerne was included in the
system during rabi season as the green fodder
potential of Lucerne is low when compared to either
NB hybrid or Oats. In these three systems Lucerne
seed could also be harvested, besides green fodder
(Table-2). In general, during kharif season green
fodder yields were low with the cropping systems
where speciality maize types were grown. C2 and C6
systems recorded about 529 and 626 q/ha (Table-1)
of green fodder, respectively. In these two systems,
speciality maize types were included in all the three
seasons. Though the green fodder yield was
comparatively low, green cobs could be obtained
besides green fodder, which will be more
remunerative in peri urban situations.
protein content of NB hybrid was low, due to the higher
dry fodder yield, CPY was found to be higher. The
cropping systems involving Lucerne – a legume (C3,
C7 and C10) recorded higher CPY (7.64, 7.84 and 6.81
q/ha, respectively) due to higher CP contents even
though the dry fodder yields are low.
System productivity
Pooled data indicated variation in system
productivity in terms of Forage Equivalent Yield of
food – forage and forage based cropping systems
(Table-3). Among all the tested systems, Baby corn
+ cowpea – baby corn - Baby corn + cowpea
produced highest FEY (277.7t/ha/yr) and it was 25.3%
higher over C4 (221.6t/ha/yr), where oats was included
in the system during rabi season instead of baby corn.
Similarly, it is significantly higher than other
systems.C6 recorded a FEY of 196.1 t /ha / yr and it
was comparable with C9 where, maize (either baby
corn or sweet corn) was a component crop of the
system. Inclusion of Oats as rabi crop was found
better in terms of FEY over Lucerne (C3, C7 and C10).
Higher FEY of maize might be due to the monetary
benefit through cob yield besides green fodder yield.
The lower FEY was obtained with C10 and it might be
due to the lower green fodder yield of Lucerne.
Though, there was an additional advantage of seed
yield of Lucerne in this sequence, the seed yield of
Lucerne was meager so that it could not compensate
with the monetary benefit of cob yield of maize. Sunil
Kumar and Faruqui, (2009) also reported higher FEY
of the cropping systems where maize was included.
Similar trend was observed with system productivity
also. C2 sequence being on par with C4 recorded
significantly higher system productivity (0.76t/ha/day)
than others followed by C4 (0.61t/ha/day) and it might
be due to the higher net returns of those systems
(Table-3). Higher system productivity was observed
with maize based food forage cropping systems over
others and this may be due to the higher monetary
benefit from maize. Suneetha Devi et al., (2004) also
reported higher system productivity of maize –
Lucerne (F)- Lucerne(s) cropping system. Higher
sustainability yield index (SYI) was recorded(0.82)
with Baby corn + cowpea – baby corn - Baby corn +
cowpea system indicating its stability over three years
followed by Baby corn + cowpea-Oats -Baby corn +
cowpea(0.62).
Cob yield of maize was higher with C2 and
C6 sequences (Table-2), where in maize was included
in all the three seasons of the cropping system. This
may be due to another fact that about 4 to 5 pickings
were obtained from baby corn. This was followed by
C4 (96 q/ha), where baby corn was raised during kharif
and summer seasons. The highest dry fodder yield
(366q/ha) was obtained with C1 (Table-2) and this may
be due to the high green fodder production potential
of NB hybrid and higher dry matter content. C9 &C5
were the next best sequences with regard to dry fodder
yield (152 and 151 q/ha, respectively).
Higher crude protein yield (Table-2) was
obtained with C1 (16.71 q/ha). Though the crude
55
CHANDRIKA et al
Economics
efficiency (Table-3) was highest with C2 (326.5 Rs/
ha/day), on par with C4 (264.6Rs/ha/day), C1 (256.4
Rs/ha/day) and significantly higher than other
sequences. Lowest MUE (85.5 Rs/ha/day) was
recorded with Maize (grain) + cowpea – Lucerne (F) Lucerne(s). Similar results were also reported earlier
by Sunil Kumar and Faruqui (2009).
Economics of various food forage based
cropping systems showed variation in terms of
monetary benefit (Table-3). Baby corn + cowpea –
baby corn - Baby corn + cowpea showed maximum
net returns (Rs. 119200 / ha/yr) and the next best
cropping system was C4, where oats was included
as a rabi crop, which is also having higher production
potential of green forage. Lowest net returns were
obtained with C10 [Maize(G) + cowpea – Lucerne(F)Lucerne(s)] as the green fodder potential of Lucerne
is low and the seed yield of Lucerne is very meager
to compensate over maize. C1 system also recorded
93,600 Rs/ha/yr indicating the superiority of NB hybrid
production potential over other crops. Where as
Benefit-cost ratio was highest with C1(5.54) followed
by C3 (3.28) and C4(3.11). It might be due to the lower
cost of cultivation involved for NB hybrid due to its
perennial nature. Though the net returns of C2 were
highest, B-C ratio was 2.94 only and it might be due
to the higher cost of production involved in pickings
of baby corn through out the year. Patel et al., (2003)
also reported higher net returns with Hybrid Napier +
cowpea – Lucerne system. The monetary return use
Thus it can be concluded that in this agro –
climatic zone, NB hybrid + cowpea – Lucerne was
found most efficient cropping system in terms of green
and dry fodder yields and for year round forage
production. This system may be best suitable to a
dairy entrepreneur in non urban areas where green
fodder supply may be ensured through out the year
to maintain a definite no. of milch animals. Since,
the animals are the end users of forages their excretes
adds to sustainable maintenance of soil fertility and
health. But under peri urban situations, Maize +
cowpea – Maize - Maize + cowpea systems were
found to be more efficient in terms of net returns,
FEY and MUE. Integration of forages in food based
production systems may prove sustainable and
economically viable, which not only provide food but
also supports live stock by supplying green fodder.
Suneetha Devi, K. B., Madhusudhan Reddy, D and
Sultan, M.A. 2004. Comparison of food and
fodder – based cropping systems for sustained
productivity under irrigated condition. Forage
Res., 30(1): 49-53.
REFERENCES
Hazra, C.R., 1998. Proceedings of National Seminar
on strategy for maximization of forage
Production by 2000 A.D., pp: 40-56.
Islam, M and Thakuria, K., 2002. Seasonal variation
in green fodder production of important
perennial grasses and legumes intercropping
system. Journal of Agricultural Sciences,
Society of North East India., 15(2): 192-195.
Sunil Kumar and Faruqui, S.A. 2009. Production
potential and economic viability of food forage
based cropping system under irrigated
conditions. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 54(1):
36-41.
Pat el, M. R., Sadhu, A. C., Patel, P.C and
Yadavendra, J.P. 2003. Productivity and
economics of forage based cropping systems
under irrigated conditions of middle Gujarat,
Forage Res., 29 (3): 112-113.
Tomar, S. S and Tiwari, A.S., 1990. Production
potential and economics of different crop
sequences. Indian Journal of Agronomy., 35(1
and 2) : 30-35.
Shashikala, T., Chiranjeevi, Ch., Shanti, M and Balaji
Naik, R. 2009. Oats- A potential rabi cereal
crop for Andhra Pradesh. National Symposium
on Forage Crops, 16-17 Feb, 2009 held at
Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.
56
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 53-57, 2013
ATTITUDE OF FARMERS AND EXTENSION OFFICERS TOWARDS
AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT AGENCY (ATMA) &
SUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE FUNCTIONING
M. RAMA DEVY, M . SURYA MANI and N. SHANDHYA SHENOY
DAATT Center, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,Guntur-522034.
Date of Receipt : 27-12-2012
Date of Acceptance : 24-07-2013
ABSTRACT
Extension reforms were implemented all over India with a view to deliver broad based extension services.
A study was conducted in Andhra Pradesh with a sample size of 240 farmers from four districts namely Adilabad,
Kurnool, Chittoor and Prakasam and 80 extension functionaries in the year 2010. Ex Post Facto research design
was adopted for the study. Data was collected using structured interview schedule and analysed using appropriate
statistical tests i.e. frequency, percentage , mean and standard deviation. Majority of the farmers and extension
functionaries were having favorable attitude towards extension reforms The suggestions given by them for the
effective implementation were providing timely and advance information about the programmes followed by regular
conducting of meetings, approval of action plans at the district level itself, convergence in preparation of action plans
and timely release of funds. The suggestions given by the extension officers were early approvalof action plans and
release of funds, separate staff i.e. Project Director (PD) and supporting staff for ATMA and encouragement for
organisation of district level CIGs.
A holistic approach to agricultural extension
today goes beyond technology transfer for major crop
and livestock production systems. It includes goals
for human capital development, in terms of enhancing
the management,technical skills of farm households
relating to production and post harvest handling of
high-value crops, livestock and fisheries, sustainable
natural resource management, family health and
nutrition, leadership and organizational skills, in
addition to social capital development, that is,
organizing producer groups (Swanson 2006). As
already discussed, agricultural extension facilitates
problem solving, creates links to markets and other
players in the agricultural value chain, and provides
access to information, skills, and technologies.
Reforms in agricultural extension system envisages
an extension system more broad based and holistic
in content and scope beyond transfer of technology.
success of ATMA pilot project it was scaled up
across the country.
Though ATMA represents an institutional
reform which was implemented in project mode the
success depends on the implementation process
only.
ATMA implemented throughout the state of
Andhra Pradesh since a decade has taken several
initiatives to promote a positive change in the farming
community and has now become the keyword for
extension in the country. It was launched to
consolidate the earlier investments and address
specific system constraints, weaknesses and gaps
that remained un-addressed by previous research and
extension projects. Innovations in Technology
Dissemination (ITD) component, in particular was
expected to test new innovations in technology
dissemination with restructured institutional and
developmental arrangements resulting in delineation
of future direction of the extension system and, at
the same time, bridge serious Research-extensionfarmer (R-E-F) linkage problems that currently
constrain the flow of appropriate technology to
farmers. The present study was taken up to throw
light on ground reality of implementation status of
processes with the objectives of finding out the
attitude of farmers and extension officers towards
In order to address the key constraints faced
by extension system in the country with respect to
reduced capacity of public extension services, its
lack of decentralized and demand driven focus, the
innovations in Technology Dissemination component
of the National Agricultural Technology Project
(NATP) ATMA was pilot tested in seven states in
the country namely Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal
Pradesh, Jarkhand, Orissa, Maharashtra and Punjab
through four projects in each state. Based on the
email: ramadevyk@gmail.com
57
RAMA et al
extension reforms and elucidate suggestions for
effective functioning of ATMA.
blocks. In consultation with officers of Department
of Agriculture 60 farmers from each district who were
the members of different bodies such as Farmer
Advisory Committee (FAC) ,Governing board,
Commodity Interest groups (CIGs),Farmer Interest
Groups (FIGs) and other groups through which ATMA
activities are being carried out were randomly
selected making a total of 240 farmers. Twenty
extension functionaries from each district were
selected making the sample size 80. Data was
collected using structured interview schedule and
analysed using appropriate statistical tests i.e.
frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation
and ranks were assigned based on the frequencies.
Categorisation was done based on mean and standard
deviation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in Andhra
Pradesh State during the year 2010. Among the 24
districts in AP four districts namely Adilabad,
Kurnool, Chittoor and Prakasam districts were
purposively selected in which the extension reforms
(ATMA) were pilot tested (1998-2005) and are being
in operation.
An Ex Post Facto research design
with random sampling procedure was adopted for the
present study. Four blocks from each district were
randomly selected thus making a total of sixteen
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results obtained after thorough analysis of the data were as follows
Attitude of farmers and extension functionaries towards extension reforms
Table1. Distribution of respondents according to their attitude towards extension reforms (n= 60 for
each district for farmers and 20 officers per district)
S.
No
Category of
farmers
Farmers
Chittoor
Adilabad
Kurnool
f
%
f
%
f
Prakasam
Total n=
240
%
f
%
f
%
Extn.
Functionaries
n=80
f
%
1
Highly
favourable
16
26.67
14
23.33
8
13.33
13
21.67
51
21.25
11
13.75
2
Favourable
39
65.00
37
61.67
45
75.00
44
73.33
165
68.75
60
75.00
3
Un
favourable
5
8.33
9
15.00
7
11.67
3
5.00
24
10.00
9
11.25
Mean
85.88
84.10
81.87
84.20
88.25
SD
6.61
7.03
5.21
5.59
11.52
The results indicated that more than half
(65.00%) of the ATMA respondents of Chittoor district
had favourable attitude followed by highly favourable
attitude towards extension reforms (26.67 %) and
unfavourable attitude (8.33%). In Adilabad district,
majority had favourable attitude (61.67 %) towards
extension reforms followed by highly favourable
(23.33 %) and un favourable attitude (15.00%).
Similarly in case of Kurnool district three fourths of
the respondents (75.00% ) had favourable attitude
followed by highly favourable (13.33%) and un
favourable attitude (11.67 %) towards extension
reforms. Where as, in Prakasam district nearly 73.33
per cent had favourable attitude followed by highly
favourable attitude (21.67 %) and a meager
percentage (5.00%) with un favourable attitude
towards extension reforms. Of the total sample of
ATMA respondents, majority (68.75 %) had
favourable attitude towards extension reforms
followed by highly favourable attitude (21.25 %) and
un favourable attitude (10.00%).
On the whole, the results indicated that
majority of respondents were having favourable
attitude towards extension reforms. The reasons for
this trend were the medium level of social
58
ATTITUDE OF FARMERS AND EXTENSION OFFICERS TOWARDS ATMA
participation, extension contact and risk orientation
of the farmers which created interest among the
respondents to utilize the innovative programmes of
the Government. The farmers were convinced with
the benefits of new institutional arrangements, broad
based extension services, multi agency extension
approaches and incentives to the farmers in the form
of rewards rendered through extension reforms. They
were highly dissat isfied with the way of
implementation of meetings, group approaches and
other aspects. They were not willing to pay 10%
contribution for sustainability of the programmes
under extension reforms. The results were in
confirmation with the findings of Ramamurthy (2000),
Kappala (2002), Lakshmana (2003), Obaiah (2004),
Nasib Singh and Singh RP (2008) and Srinivasulu
(2011)
be that the reforms had given opportunities for
demand driven FSBE extension activities, capacity
building and also handful of funds, though the burden
of work was increased. The stake holders had
favourable attitude towards new institutional
arrangements, broad basing of extension services
and research extension farmer linkages. They
expressed unfavourable attitude towards group
approaches as such formation of groups at village
level was time consuming .They expressed that
groups will become sustainable if they were formed
at district level. They also expressed favourable
attitude towards convergence and multi agency
extension approaches to some extent. The results
were in line with results of Nasib Singh and Singh
RP (2008).
Sug gestio ns gi ven by the farmers: T he
suggestions given by the farmers to overcome and
improve the process implementation of extension
reforms were presented in Table 5. (with frequencies,
percentages and ranks assigned based on their
magnitude).
The above table showed that three-fourths
(75.00%) of the extension functionaries the selected
districts had favourable attitude towards extension
reforms followed by highly favourable (13.75%) and
un favourable attitude (11.25%). The reason might
Table 2 Suggestions given by the ATMA farmers to improve functioning
S.
No
Suggestions
Frequency
n=240
Percentage
Rank
1.
Separate staff i.e. PD and supporting staff
for ATMA
210
87.5
V
2.
Conducting of ATMA meetings regularly
230
95.83
II
3.
Action plans to be prepared with the
convergence of farmers members also
220
91.67
IV
4.
Timely release of funds and approval of
action plans
210
87.5
V
5.
Approval of action plans to be doneat the
district level itself
224
93.34
III
6.
Promotion of mechanisation
200
83.34
VII
7.
Promotion of organic farming
180
75.00
IX
8.
Updating of FIAC
205
85.41
VI
9.
Provision of honorarium to members of
ATMA committees for attending meetings
175
72.91
X
10.
Organisation of more exposure visits
190
79.16
VIII
11.
Timely information about ATMA
programmes
235
97.91
I
It was evident from the Table 3 that majority
of the farmers suggested supply of timely information
about ATMA programmes (97.91%) as the first
suggestion followed by conducting of ATMA meetings
regularly (95.83%), approval of action plans to be
done at the district level itself (93.34%), action plans
59
RAMA et al
to be prepared with the convergence of farmers
members also (91.67%), timely release of funds and
approval of action plans, separate staff i.e.PD and
supporting staff for ATMA (87.5%),updating of
FIAC(85.41%), promot ion of mechanisation
(83.34%),organisation of more exposure
visits(79.16%),promotion of organic farming(75.00%)
and provision of honorarium to members of ATMA
committees for attending meetings (72.91%). Ranks
were assigned based on magnitude.
Table 3. Suggestions given by the extension functionaries to improve functioning
S. No
Suggestions
1.
Separate staff i.e. PD and supporting
staff for ATMA
2.
Percentage
Rank
76
95.00
II
District level CIGs may be encouraged
75
93.75
III
3.
Early approval of action plans and
release of funds
77
96.25
I
4.
Conducting of AMC and GB meetings
regularly
91.25
IV
5.
Provision for decentralisation of
decisions
65
81.25
VII
6.
Timely supply of guidelines for trainings
and exposure visits
68
85.00
VI
7.
District level trainings to block level
officers about extension reforms
70
87.50
V
8.
Supply of CDs on location specific
technologies
68
85.00
VI
9.
Provision of honorarium, TA,DA to
farmer members of ATMA committees
for attending meetings
63
78.75
VIII
Timely information about ATMA
programmes to be organised
56
70.00
IX
10.
Frequency
(n=80)
73
It is evident from the Table that majority of
the extension functionaries suggested early approval
of action plans and release of funds (96.25%) as the
first suggestion followed by separate staff i.e. PD
and supporting staff for ATMA (95.00%), district level
CIGs may be encouraged (93.75%), conducting of
AMC and GB meetings regularly (91.25%), district
level trainings to block level officers about extension
reforms (87.5%), timely supply of guidelines for
trainings and exposure visits (85.00%),supply of CDs
on location specific technologies (85.00%,), provision
for decentralisation of decisions (81.25%),provision
of honorarium, TA& DA to members of ATMA
committees for attending meetings (78.75%) and
timely information about ATMA programmes to be
organised (70.00%). Ranks were assigned based on
magnitude.
CONCLUSION
The results indicated that farmers and
extension functionaries were having favourable
attitude towards extension reforms followed by highly
favourable and unfavourable attitude. This shows
that they were having favourable attitude towards
the process involved and not satisfied with the
implementation status of institutional arrangements,
bottom up planning and flexible decision making and
implementation systems though the project was in
implementation since a decade. The policy makers
should take into consideration that the attitude of
60
ATTITUDE OF FARMERS AND EXTENSION OFFICERS TOWARDS ATMA
individuals plays major role for the success or failure
of the programme. Hence efforts must be directed
towards capacity building and creating awareness
about processes of reforms among stake holders
which will help to make them to move towards higher
continnum of attitude towards reforms. The
constraints enlisted and suggestions given by the
stakeholders in the present study will not only serve
as an indicator of prevailing condition but will help
the policy makers and administrators to modify the
present guidelines for successful implementation of
the programme.
REFERENCES
Ramamurthy, V.S. 2000. A study on Janmabhoomi
Programme in Chittoor district of Andhra
Pradesh.M.Sc(Ag.) Thesis submitted to
Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,
Hyderabad.
Tribal Area Zone of Andhra Pradesh,Ph.D.
Thesis submitted to Acharya N.G.Ranga
Agricultural University,Hyderabad.
Obaiah, M C 2004. A Study on Capacity building of
rice growing farmers of Farmers Field Schools
(FFS) in Krishna Godavari Zone of Andhra
Pradesh.Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Acharya
N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,Hyderabad.
Kappala, A. R. 2002.An analysis of sustainability of
agriculture in watershed environment in
Mahaboobnagar district of Andhra
Pradesh,Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Acharya
N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,Hyderabad.
Swanson,B.E. 2006. The changing role of agricultural
extension in a global economy. Journal of
International Agricultural and Extension
Education. 13(3):5-17.
Nasib Singh and Singh R.P. 2008. Attitude of
Extension personal towards ATMA model
Agricultural extension review-January-June :
pp21-23.
Sreenivasulu, Midde.2011. Empowerement of farmers
through Farmer Field Schools in Andhra
Pradesh ,Ph D thesis submitted to ANGRAU,
Hyderabad.
Lakshmana, Kella. 2003. Indigenous Technical
Knowledge in agriculture in High Altitude and
61
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 58-63, 2013
KNOWLEDGE AND EXTENT OF ADOPTION OF IMPROVED PRACTICES OF
CHICKPEA THROUGH KVK INTERVENTIONS
P.GANESH KUMAR, M.K. JYOSTHNA and P.LAKSHMI REDDY
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural Unviersity, Reddipalli , Anantapur-515701
Date of Receipt : 30-12-2012
Date of Acceptance : 24-08-2013
ABSTRACT
Front line demonstration (FLD) is the important intervention of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) to demonstrate
newly released crop production and protection technologies and their management practices in the farmers fields
under different agro-climatic regions and farming situations. KVK Reddipalli has conducted demonstrations, trainings
and method demonstrations etc in chickpea under rainfed vertisols in northern parts of the district where predominant
crop is chickpea. These demonstrations and extension activities have created awareness among farming community
on improved technologies with special focus on IPM practices. As the programme has completed four years, an
attempt was made to study the level of knowledge and extent of adoption of improved practices of chickpea farmers
in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh using ex-post facto research design. Sample size consists of 90 farmers
selected randomly from study area. The profile analysis of farmers indicated that majority of them are middle aged,
low extension contact and majority had high scientific orientation and economic orientation. Fifty three percent of
farmers possessed medium level of knowledge where as 53 per cent farmers had low adoption rate with regard to
improved technologies. More than half of respondents revealed lack of soil testing facilities at their nearest and non
availability of bio pesticides and fungicides was constraint to adopt IPM technologies.
Chickpea is the second largest pulse crop
produced in the world happens to play important role
in human nutrition as source of protein. Chickpea is
grown in arid and semi arid tracts of the country which
suits best for its production. India grows chickpea in
7.29 mha producing 5.77 million tonnes seed which
represents 30% and 38% of the national pulse
acreage and production respectively. With respect
to Andhra Pradesh, there has been a dramatic
increase in area, production and productivity levels
since1995-96 to till date. The productivity of A.P is
1141kg/ha and in Anantapur it is only 1222kg/ha. The
bulk of chickpea produced in India is being absorbed
locally and is still happening to continue as largest
importer of chickpea in the world (1.45lakh tonnes).
With the increase in imports it is the need of hour to
increase the productivity of chickpea with the
adoption of improved practices.
method of its transfer to the farmers in accordanceto
their need. Keeping this in view the present study
was undertaken to know the knowledge level and rate
of adoption of improved production technologies
recommended by KVK , Reddipalli, Anantapur by the
farmers with the following specific objectives.
1.
To study the personal and socio-economic
characteristics of the farmers.
2.
To know the knowledge level and extent of
adoption of recommended technologies of
chickpea
3.
To find out the constraints faced by the farmers
in adopting the recommended technologies.
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in purposively
selected villages of Anantapur district during 201112 where demonstrations, trainings, field days and
awareness programmes were conducted during 200708 to 2010-11 in order to know the knowledge and
adoption of recommended technologies. Ex-postfacto research diesign was adopted for this study.
Three villages were selected purposively for this
purpose. 30 farmers were selected from each village
thus making a total of 90 respondents. The data were
collected by personally interviewing the selected
respondents with the help of structured interview
In this regard ANGR Agricultural University,
Hyderabad has developed improved production
technologies as per requirement of farmers in Andhra
Pradesh. To improve productivity of chickpea in
Anantapur district KVK,Reddipalli Anantapur has
taken up demonstrations with improved cultivars and
trained farmers on improved practices and IPM
technologies. The transfer of improved technology
and their effective adoption is influenced by the
email: gkperneti@gmail.com
62
KNOWLEDGE AND EXTENT OF ADOPTION OF IMPROVED PRACTICES OF CHICKPEA
schedule. The statistical methods like percentage,
frequency, mean and standardeviation were employed
for analysing the data.
had high levelof scientific orientation followed by
medium (31.11) and low level(15.55%).
It was observed from table 2 incase of
recommended varieties it was known to cent per cent
farmers and cent percent farmers were adopted
recommended varieties. Regarding seed rate only
38.8 per cent farmers known about seed rate but due
to apprehension of seedling damage in the early
stages this was adopted by only 16.6 percent farmers.
This is due to fact farmers believe that high seed
rate may compensate damage caused due to
diseases in early stages. This can be over come by
result demonstrations in the farmers fields. Knowledge
about seed treatment was 40 per cent and its adoption
rate with right chemical is 22.22 per cent. Majority of
respondents are not aware of right chemicals for
seed treatment, might be due to thier low extension
contact. With regard to seed treatment with
trichoderma viridi was known to only 22.22 per cent
farmers and its adoption is 8.88 per cent. It was
evident from the table 2 recommended spacing is
known to 66.66 per cent farmers and adoption by 50
per cent farmers. Cent per cent had knowledge and
adoption of right time of sowing. Regarding
recommended dose of fertilisers it is known to 16.66
per cent and adoption rate is only 13.33 percent. This
is due to majority of respondents are applying
complex fertlisers/DAP knowingly or unknowingly.
It indicates more focus should be needed on
educating farmers on soil test based fertilisers
application. It was evident from table no.2 no one
has knowledge about urea application during flowering
stage. Respondents had apprehension of urea spray
may effect flower dropping, resulted in non adoption
of this technology. And no one has adopted gypsum
application to the chickpea. This might be due to
non availability of gypsum. Regarding sulphur
application it is known to 12.22 per cent but no one
was adopted. With regard to herbicides it is known to
only 8.88 per cent and adopted by only 3.33 per cent.
With regard to critical stage of irrigation it is known
to 38.88 per cent farmers and adopted by only 16.66
per cent farmers. This is due to non availabiity of
irrigation sources. With respect to pests and their
control knowledge and adoption is 83.33 per cent.
Regarding diseases and their control is only 13.33
percent. Very few respondents (20%) had knowledge
about IPM practices but their adoption is 5.55 per
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It was evident that majorit y of the
respondents belonged to middle age group (42.22 per
cent) followed by old age group (41.11 per cent) and
young age group(16.66 per cent). Large number of
respondents were educated up to middle
school(24.4)followed by primary education(22.22) and
functional literates (20 percent) and illiterates are 15.5
percent..It was further observed that the respondents
were normally distributed having agriculture as their
main occupation(95.5 %) while remaining having
subsidiary occupation(4.5 %). This might be due to
agriculture is the only enterprise in the village which
is source of livelihood.Incase of land holding majority
of the farmers were beloned to medium
category(60%) followed by big (24.44%) and small
farmers(15.55%). The annual income majority of the
respondents (60 %) fall under low level of income
having upto Rs.1 lakh per annum, while 22.22 per
cent respondents are medium level of income and
remaining only 11.11 per cent were high level of
income. Due to small holdings and rainfed farming
results in majority farmers categorised into low
income group. This result is in correlation with low
level of education and income level of the
respondents. In case of extension contact, it was
observed that majority of respondents had low (61.11
%) extension contact while 27.77 per cent had
medium and 11.11 per cent had low extension contact
(Darekar 2002). This might be due to unaware of
respondents about information sources for accessing
information about agriculture technologies. It was
observed that majority of respondents had low (64.44)
levelof social participation followed by medium
(24.44%) and high level (11.11) of social participation
. In case of economic orientation majority of farmers
(51.11) had highlevel of economic orientation while
25.22 per cent had medium level followed by low level
(23.33%) economic orientation. Though respondents
had low level of education majority had high and
medium level of economic orientation. This is due to
increased cost of cultivation and scarcity of labour
and increase in house hold expenditure in every year.
Pertaining to scientific orientation majority (53.33%)
63
GANESH et al
Table1. Distribution of respondents by the personal and socio- economic characteristics (N=90)
S .No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Category
Age
Young (upto 35 years)
Middle (36-50)
Old (51 and above)
Education
Illiterate
Functional literate
Primary
Middle school
High school
College education
Occupation
Agriculture
Agriculture is
subsidiary occupation
Land holding
Small farmers(upto
2ha)
Medium farmers
(2-4 ha)
Big farmers (above 4
ha)
Annual income
Low (upto 1 lakh)
Medium(1-2 lakhs)
High (above 2 lakhs)
Extension contact
Low
Medium
High
Social participation
Low
Medium
High
Economic orientation
Low
Medium
High
Scientific orientation
Low
Medium
High
Innovativeness
Low
Medium
High
64
No
P ercent
15
38
37
16.6
42.2
41.1
14
18
20
22
6
10
15.5
20
22.2
24.4
6.6
11.1
86
04
95.5
4.5
14
54
22
15.5
60
24.4
54
20
16
60
22.22
17.77
55
25
10
61.11
27.77
11.11
58
22
10
64.44
24.44
11.11
21
23
46
23.33
25.22
51.11
14
28
48
15.55
31.11
53.33
29
39
22
32.22
43.33
24.44
KNOWLEDGE AND EXTENT OF ADOPTION OF IMPROVED PRACTICES OF CHICKPEA
Table 2. Knowledge and adoption of improved production technologies of chickpea
N= 90
S .No .
R ecom m e nde d techn olo gy
1.
Varieti es reco mm e nd ed for A.P
a)JG -1 1
b)JA KI-92 1 8
Kab uli type s:
c)Ph ul e G 95 311
d)LBeg -7 e )a ll
See d ra te of 25 -3 0 k g /acre is reco m m e nd e d
ye s/No
Fo r bo ld se ed ed varieti es 4 0 kg/acre is
re co m men de d ye s/N o
2.
%
53.3
Ad o ption
F
90
%
10 0
35
38.8
15
16 .6
See d tre atm en t with cap tan /thi ram or
ca rb ed az im @ 2 .5 gr pe r kg is reco m m end e d
to p rot ect crop from w ilt an d dry roo t rot
Yes /n o
See d trea tm e nt with trich od erm a v iridi 8 g r p er
kg is re co mm e n ded to pro te ct cro p from w ilt
an d dry ro ot rot
tr ue / F als e
Spa cin g fo r chickp e a is 3 0* 10
O ptim u m time fo r s ow ing _ ____ __ _ __ __
Fe rtilize rs recom me nd ed
a ) 8-20-16 kg of N-P-k
b ) 8-20-50
c) 20 -20 — 0
d ) 14 -35 -1 4
Fo lia r spra y of 2% u rea or D A P a t f low erin g
stag e e nha nces yie ld by 25 %
R ecom m e nde d
d ose
of
gypsum
is
__ __ __ __ _ __ ____ __ _ _
R ecom m e nde d do se of sulp hur is
Tim e of ap plica tion o f su lphur is –b a sa l b efo re
so wing
Pre em erge n ce h erb icide re co m men de d of
Ben galg ra m i s p en dim eth alin
R ecom m e nde d
d o se
h e rb icid e
for
be ng alg ra m is
C ritical sta ge s of irrig at ion is p od de ve lop me nt
stag e is flow eri ng sta ge T r ue/F a lse
36
40
20
22.22
20
22 .2 2
8
8.88
60
66 .6 6
45
50
15
16 .6 6
12
13.33
0
0
0
0
9
10
0
0
11
5
12 .2 2
5.55
0
0
0
0
8
8.88
3
3.33
8
8.88
3
3.33
35
38 .8 8
15
16.66
Majo r p ests o f Ben ga lgra m and th eir control
Majo r diseases o f
b en g algram an d th e ir
co ntrol
IPM pra ctices o f be ng algram are
a ) D eep sum m er p lou gh ing destro ys
pu pa l stage s of pe sts
b ) C rop ro tation w ill red uce inte nsity of
pe st
c) G u ard crop in c hi ck pe a is
d ) P herom one tra ps w ill red uce pe st
bu ild up
e ) W ith th e h elp o f b ird p e rche s la rva e
w ill fe ed by b irds
f) N eem o il w ill red uce the gro wth of th e
la rva e a nd eg g la yi ng
g ) N PV is u se d for con tro l o f _ _ __ __ _R emed ial m e asure of che m ical sp ra yin g in
be ng alg ra m a re
75
20
83 .3 3
22 .2 2
75
12
83.33
13.33
18
20
5
5.55
Fo r m ed ium size see d
re co m men de d ye s/N o
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
11 .
12 .
13 .
14 .
15 .
16 .
17 .
30 -3 5
kg/acre
65
K now le dg e
F
48
is
GANESH et al
cent only. This is due to lack of knowledge and low
famrer to famrer extension contact and farmers opine
that complexity of IPM technologies to adopt in their
farms.
cent had low level of knowledge.
Extent of adoption: It was evident from Table 4
majority had medium adoption rate (75.5%) followed
by high (36.66%) adoption rate and only 4.5 per cent
had less adoption of improved technologies. This is
due to dissemination of technologies in medium range
and farmer to farmer extension is to be improved to
increase knowledge and adoption rate.
With regard to overall Knowledge of improved
practices of chickpea table 3 indicates that majority
(57.9.%) of respondents had medium level of
knowledge followed by high (25.5%) and16.66 per
Table 3. Distribution of respondents according to knowledge
S.No.
Category
1.
N=90
Number
Per cent
More knowledge
23
25.5
2.
Medium knowledge
52
57.9
3.
Less knowledge
15
16.6
Mean :9.05, SD: 3.171
Table 4. Distribution of respondents according to their adoption
S.No.
Category
1.
N=90
Number
Per cent
High adoption
18
20
2.
Medium adoption
68
75.5
3.
Low adoption
4
4.5
Mean :6.16, SD: 2.35
Table 5. Distribution of respondents according to the constraints faced by them
S.No.
Category
1.
Lack soil testing facilities
2.
3.
4.
N=90
Number
Per cent
48
53.33
Non availability of gypsum
9
10
Non availability of
recommended bio
pesticides and fungicides
Lack of followup action
18
20
27
30
It was evident from Table 5. That 53.33 per
cent farmers felt, lack of soil testing facilities at their
nearest and lack of follow up action about the
technologies were considered by the thirty per cent
respondents. Twenty per cent considered non
availability of bio pesticides and fungicides was
66
KNOWLEDGE AND EXTENT OF ADOPTION OF IMPROVED PRACTICES OF CHICKPEA
another constraint in adoption of IPM technologies.
All these constraints need to be addressed by
concerned authorities.
officers also need to be trained to dissemonate latest
know-how about chickpea technologies. So that their
knowledge could be incrreased and the adoption of
technologies would ultimately be enhanced. There
are many profile characterstics influencing the extent
of knowledge about chick pea technologies, which
also need manipulation towards higher productivity
of chickpea crop.
It may concluded that over all extent of
knowledge and adoption was in medium level. Hence
there is need of filling this extension gap by providing
need based training about technologies which are not
adopted by majority of farmers. And agriculture
REFERENCES
Ganesh Kumar, P. 2005. A study on rytumitra
Television programme for farm televiewers in
Chittooor district of Andhra Pradesh, M.Sc.
Thesis , ANGRAU, Hyderabad.
Deshmukh, P.R 2007. Knowledge and adoption of
Agricultural technologies in Marathwada,
Indian Research Journal of Extension
Education 7 (1), January 2007.
67
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 64-69, 2013
A STUDY ON PURPOSE OF USING ICT TOOLS AMONG FARMING COMMUNITY
K. P. Raghuprasad, S.C. Devaraja and Y.M. Gopala
Directorate of Extension, UAS, Hebbal, Bangalore – 560024
Date of Receipt : 03-01-2013
Date of Acceptance : 11-07-2013
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in Bangalore rural, Chikkaballapura and Kolar districts of Karnataka state during
2010-11 to know use of ICT tools among farming community. These districts were selected purposefully as these
districts are nearer to the hub of IT i.e. Bangalore. Many farmers of all the three districts are getting Multi Message
Services (MMS) and also they are using old and new ICT tools. Totally 120 farmers were selected from the 12
villages of three districts. Majority of the respondents obtained information occasionally from TV regarding inputs
availability (60.83%), production technologies (70.83%), marketing (73.33%), weather (57.50%), government
programmes and schemes (70.83%) and Integrated Pest Management (84.17%). A considerable percentage of the
respondents obtained information occasionally from mobile regarding input availability (37.50%), marketing (54.17%),
government programmes and schemes (70.83%) and IPM (40.00%). Majority of the farmers obtained information
regarding agriculture through television and mobile. Hence, there is a need to educate the farmers regarding
internet, conferencing and agricultural DVDs by means of providing facilities of these tools in rural areas.
INTRODUCTION
could meet the need of a large rural community. They
offer current and better-focused access to information
in a short time. Electronic mails (e-mails), internet,
radio and mobile phones are the most commonly used
new information and communication technologies and
have caused a cultural revolution in the way
individuals and organizations interact, in terms of
cost, time and distance.
The recent advances in the field of
electronics have revolutionized the ICT which
includes satellite communication, video cassette
recorders, personal computers, facsimile machine,
internet, desktop video production, digital audio, local
and long distance telephoning, point to point cable
services, cellular telephone, video conferencing,
video phones and fibre optics and switched
broadband networks. The information revolution has
many implications for revitalizing farming community.
The main benefits of ICT are increasing efficiency
by economizing on resource use in the operations of
firms, as well as in market transaction. Information
that would otherwise conveyed through face to face
contact, post, courier, print delivery, telegraph or
telephone might instead be communicated in digital;
electronic form via the Internet.
Access, efficiency and affordability of
agricultural information are the major barriers in the
battle to uplift agricultural productivity among farmers.
However this challenge can be alleviated through the
effective exploitation of innovative solutions that
int egrat e Information and Communicat ion
Technologies in the dissemination of agricultural
information (Muriithii et al., 2009). The interest in the
application of ICT tools in agriculture arises from the
perennial problems farmers face in accessing
agricultural information (Okello et al., 2009).
The term Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs) can be broadly interpreted as
technologies that facilitate communication and the
processing and transmission of information by
electronic means. This definition encompasses the
full range of ICTs from radio, and television to
telephones,mobile,computers and the internet
Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural
Cooperation (Anonymous, 2003). New ICTs are
becoming more accessible and users can obtain
information from various sources and one computer
Problems in ICT usage in rural areas are rural
people don’t know benefits of ICT, do not have skills
or expertise in using ICT, lack of time spent on ICT,
have no knowledge in using ICT, price of ICT is
expensive, lack of training on ICT usage, language
problem, lack of technology accommodation, afraid
to use ICT, lack of support from responsible
agencies, ICT is not friendly users, lack of ICT support
services, ICT is not safe, lack of updated agriculture
information on ICT, lack of chances to use ICT and
email: kraghuprasad@yahoo.co.in
68
A STUDY ON PURPOSE OF USING ICT TOOLS AMONG FARMING COMMUNITY
lack of agriculture information offered by ICT (Musa
Abu Hassan, 2009).
each village, constituting a total sample of 120 farmers
for the study.
The modernization of agriculture will be
greatly influenced by new gadgets like CD-ROM,
internet etc. specially by integrating information
systems in a single tool which can be used in the
same way as any other farm input. The information
communication technologies (ICT) are offering new
ways for extension personnel to reach wider audience.
However, introducing ICT in poor rural areas can be
a catalyst for change. However, some pre- requisites
are needed to make this introduction cost-effective
and sustainable, such as stable electric and software.
If these essential factors are not present, it may be
better to search for more appropriate and low-tech
solutions. With this background, the study was
undertaken to assess the use of ICT tools among
farming community and to know the constraints faced
by farmers in using the ICT t ools for f arm
communication.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Different aspects of information from ICT tools
regarding agriculture
A perusal of Table 1 presents the data
obtained regarding purpose of using ICT information
from ICT tools regarding agriculture.
1. Information regarding inputs
A great majority (99.67%) of the respondents
didn’t get information on inputs from radio and 0.83
per cent of farmers obtained occasionally. A
considerable percentage (60.83%) of the farmers
occasionally obtained information on inputs from TV
and 39.17 per cent of the respondents never obtained.
A great majority (98.33%) of respondents never
obtained information on inputs from internet but 1.67
per cent of respondents occasionally took information
on inputs from internet.
Research methodology
2. Information regarding production technologies
The study was conducted using “Ex-postfacto research design” in Bangalore rural,
Chikkaballapura and Kolar districts of Karnataka
during 2010-11. To know the purpose of using ICT
tools using in farm communication. These districts
were selected purposefully because as these districts
are nearer to the hub of IT i.e. Bangalore. Many
farmers of the three districts are getting Multi
Message Services (MMS) and also they are using
old and new ICT tools. Doddaballapurar, Chintamani
and Srinivasapura taulks were selected from
Bangalore rural, Chikkaballapura and Kolar districts
purposefully because these taluks were near to
respective KVKs. From each taluk four villages were
selected which are closer to respective KVKs. The
villages selected were Hadonahalli, Tapsahalli,
Gejjegaranahalli and Lakshmidevapura from
Doddaballapura taluk. Kurtahalli, Muniganahalli,
Kallahalli and Kachalli from Chintamani taluk and
Shettihalli, Chowdanalli, Dosandra and Vardanahalli
from Srinivasapura taluk. In each of the selected
villages, initially a list of 25 farmers was prepared as
the farmers are getting multi message services,
attended video conference programmes and using
one or more ICT tools in getting farm information.
From this list 10 farmers were selected randomly from
Majority (85.00%) of the respondents have
not obtained information on production technologies
from radio. Maximum (70.84%) of the respondents
occasionally obtained information on production
technologies from TV and 29.16 per cent of
respondents never obtained information on production
technologies from TV. More than half (58.33%) of
the respondents never got any information from
telephone regarding production technologies and
41.67 per cent were obtained occasionally. Majority
(80%) of the respondents occasionally obtained
information regarding production technologies from
mobile.
3. Information regarding credit
A great majority (99.17%) of the respondents
didn’t get information on credit from radio whereas,
64.17 per cent of the respondents occasionally
obtained information on credit from TV. Large number
(97.50%) of the respondents never obtained
information on credit from internet and 2.50 per cent
of respondents have occasionally obtained. More
than three-fourth (83.33%) of the respondents never
obtained information from telephone 16.67 per cent
obtained occasionally from telephone.
69
Table. 1 Different aspects of information obtained from ICT tools regarding agriculture
(n=120)
RAGHUPRASAD et al
70
A STUDY ON PURPOSE OF USING ICT TOOLS AMONG FARMING COMMUNITY
4. Information regarding marketing
9. Information on Integrated Pest Management
(IPM)
Majority (85%) of the respondents haven’t
obtained information on marketing from radio and 15
per cent of respondents occasionally obtained.
Maximum (73.33%) of the respondents sometimes
obtained information on marketing from TV and 16.67
per cent of respondents never obtained. Considerable
number (66.67%) of the respondents never obtained
information from telephone and 33.33 per cent
obtained occasionally.
Majority (85.00%) of respondents haven’t
obtained information on IPM from radio. Nearly 65
per cent of farmers occasionally took information on
IPM from TV and 35.83 per cent of the respondents
never obtained from TV. Majority (96.67%) of the
respondents never obtained information on inputs from
internet and 3.33 per cent of respondents occasionally
obtained.
10. Information o n In tegrated Nutri ent
Management (INM)
5. Information regarding weather
Majority of respondents (85.84%) haven’t
obtained information on weather from radio, followed
by 14.16 per cent of respondents who occasionally
obtained information on weather from radio. Nearly
57.50 respondents occasionally obtained information
Majority (85.00%) of respondents never
obtained information on INM from radio. Nearly 65
per cent of farmers occasionally took information on
INM from TV and 35.83 per cent of the respondents
never obtained. Majority (97.50%) of the respondents
never obtained information on inputs from internet
and 2.50 per cent of respondents have occasionally
obtained.
on weather from TV, and 30.00 per cent of
respondents never obtained.
6. Information regarding crop insurance
The study indicated that television was most
used ICT tool and it was used for many purposes
like inputs, production technology, credit, marketing
information, weather information, crop insurance and
information related to government programmes and
schemes. The probable reason might be that majority
of the respondents possessed TV and mobile. TV is
the most effective communication tool to disseminate
the farm information to the farming community since
many decades. TV became popular since it provides
information in the form of audio with video. Further,
different types of programmes like success stories,
interviews, phone in programme are telecasting
through TV is provided wide range of information with
effectiveness. Portability and multiple uses of mobile
can help in getting information at their door step and
even at working places. Further, they perceive that
the information provided from these sources is found
credible and timely. Hence, majority of the
respondents obtained information regarding different
aspects of agriculture by means of TV and mobile.
Majority (96.67%) of the respondents haven’t
obtained information on crop insurance from radio
and 3.33 per cent of respondents occasionally
obtained. More than half (53.33%) per cent of the
respondents occasionally obtained information on crop
insurance from TV and 46.67 per cent of respondents
never obtained.
7. Information regarding government programmes
Majority (96.67%) of the respondents didn’t
get information on government programmes from radio
and considerable number (70.84%) of the farmers
took information on government programmes from
TV. Majority (97.50%) of the respondents never
preferred to obtain information from telephone.
8. Information on post harvest technologies
Maximum number (62.50%) of the
respondents never obtained information on post
In order make farmers updated with the recent
technologies, the television is best and most suited
media. The television has access to far and remote
areas in the country hence it is very much necessary
to work on this and to make policy arrangements.
harvest technologies from TV and 37.50 per cent of
respondents have occasionally obtained. A great
majority (97.50%) of the respondents never obtained
information on post harvest technologies from
internet.
71
RAGHUPRASAD et al
The method, procedure and the timings of
the television programmes needs to be taken care.
The next best media as revealed by the study is
radio. Since, it has wider coverage and less cost
media it can be used to disseminate the information
to the farmers. The radio being one of the most
preferred media by the farmers has created less
impact on the farming. Hence, there is a need to
make radio programmes most effective and efficient.
community were electricity problems (I), lack of ICT
Problems in using ICT tools among farmers
interpreters (VIII), problems of foreign language (IX)
The results in Table 2 indicated that
problems in using ICT tools among farming
and Lack of locally relevant information (X).
literacy among the farmers (II), more time and
practice required to learn the tools to use (II), lack of
trained man power (III), clarification is difficult if any
doubt arise (IV), initial cost is more (IV), time of
broadcasting and conferencing is not convenient (V),
recurring expenditure is more (VI), Lack of training
centres in rural area (VII)),
dependency on
Table 2. Problems in using ICT tools
Sl.
No.
Statements
Score*
Percentage
Rank
1
Electricity problems
344
95.60
I
2
Lack of ICT literacy among farmers
250
69.40
II
3
More time and practice required to learn to use the
tools
250
69.40
II
4
Lack of trained man power
244
67.80
III
5
Clarification is difficult if any doubt arise
243
67.50
IV
6
Initial cost is more
243
67.50
IV
7
Time of broadcasting and conferencing is not
convenient
242
67.20
V
8
Recurring expenditure is more
241
66.90
VI
9
Lack of training centers
236
65.60
VII
10
Dependency on interpreters
195
54.20
VIII
11
Problems of foreign language
167
46.90
IX
12
Lack of locally relevant information
158
43.90
X
* - Multiple responses
personnel regarding ICT usage and non-availability
of these tools. Majority of the people can’t able
access information independently from ICT tools
because of lack of knowledge and complexity of few
tools and cost is more for some of the tools like
computer, TV and internet due to their medium level
of income. Time of broadcasting and conferencing is
not convenient due to time constraint in prime hours
especially in TV programme. The leisure time
programmes in television, radio and video
conferencing is most welcomed effort by the farmers.
More severe problems in using ICT tools
among farming community are electricity problems
in rural areas because of frequent load shedding in
rural areas hence they can’t able to get information
regarding agricultural broadcasted through television
and radio timely. The study revealed that in rural
areas majority of the people had education up to
primary to high school, so that they can’t able to
easily access ICT tools that it requires more time
and practice to learn to use ICT tools. The findings
of the study indicated that there was lack of trained
72
A STUDY ON PURPOSE OF USING ICT TOOLS AMONG FARMING COMMUNITY
Most of the time farmers spend in field only hence
they are unable to watch programmes during day time.
Further, there is a lack of locally relevant information
and non availability of ICT tools in local dialect like
internet, kiosk and computer is one of the important
constraints that farmers are facing hence there is a
need to develop the ICT tools in local language.
telecenters, rural community-based information
centers, that accommodate ICT tools like telephone,
computer-based systems with internet connection,
are required to enhance ICT usage by farmers in
obtaining agricultural information. Increased
mobilization of farmers into farmer’s organizations
as a strategy for agricultural development will not
only enhance the use of ICTs but will also assist
farmers in securing credit facilities and better bargain
to establish multipurpose ICT centers from which
they can get information about improved agricultural
technologies.
CONCLUSION
The findings of the study inferred that
majority of the farmers obtaining information regarding
different aspects of agricultural through television and
mobile. Hence, there is a need to educate farmers
other ICT tools like internet, conferencing and
agricultural DVDs by means of providing training and
ensuring availability of these tools in rural areas.
Majority of the respondents expressed that lack of
ICT literacy, infrastructure facilities, problem of foreign
language and lack of trained man power. Hence,
developmental departments need to organise training
programmes at village level and make farmers to
expose different extension services and more to
acquaint with new ICT tools and also training
opportunities on application, maintenance and skills
development in ICTs for farmers and extension agents
should be provided. Establishment and operation of
Recommendations
1.
Ensuring the programme broadcasting during
leisure period mostly during the night through
television, radio and the video conferencing.
2.
Training of farmers on usage of ICT tools viz.,
kiosk, internet, web portals and the digital video
disks (DVD) of package of practices.
3.
Development of ICT tools on the local language
so that farmers who are not aware of universal
language (English) make the best use of the
tools.
REFERENCES
Annonymous, 2003. Technical Centre for Agricultural
and Rural Cooperation. ICTs–Transforming
Agricultural Extension. An e-discussion.
Musa Abu Hassan, 2009.Problems and obstacles in
using Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) among Malaysian agrobased entrepreneurs. European Journal of
Scientific Research.36 (1): Pp.93-101.
Murithii, Jhamatani, A and Rao, D.U.M., 2009.
Information Technology for Agriculture and
rural development. International research on
Food Securit y. Natural Resources
Management and Rural development.
Tropetag. University of Hamburg.
Okello, J.J., Okello, R.M and Adera-Ofwonaf, E.,
2009. Awareness and use of mobile phones
by smallholder farmers in Kenya. E-Agriculture
and E-Government for G lobal Policy
Development. IGI Publishers.
73
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 70-74, 2013
PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR
PRODUCTION & MARKETING OF PRODUCTS
G.PADMINI DEVI, P. RAMESHKUMAR REDDY and CH. VENUGOPAL REDDY
Department of Agricultural Extension, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030
Date of Receipt : 08-03-2013
Date of Acceptance : 10-05-2013
ABSTRACT
The results of the study indicated that lack of training in enterprise planning, multiple roles of women
entrepreneurs, lack of experience in planning followed by inadequate working capital, lack of adequate
infrastructure, no and less access to skilled labour, lack of advertizing and branding of the products, competition
from branded products and lack of skills in sales promotion were the major planning, production and marketing
problems facing by women entrepreneurs. Appropriate training in enterprise planning and development, support
from family members both in family and enterprise running, assertiveness training to make quick decisions
at appropriate timings, provision of sufficient working capital by the government, infrastructure in the form of
industrial plots & sheds to be provided by the state run institutions, provision of skill oriented training to the
labour, networking with potential customers, product branding and training on sales promotion were the major
suggestions given by the women entrepreneurs for better planning, production and marketing of the products.
INTRODUCTION
Ent repreneur is t he key factor of
entrepreneurship and now women have been
recognized as successful entrepreneurs as they have
qualities desirable and relevant for entrepreneurship
development. In the process of entrepreneurship,
women have to face various problems associated
with entrepreneurship and these problems get doubled
because of her dual role as a wage earner and a
homemaker. Women in India constitute a larger
proportion of total unemployed population and hence
it is imperative to find out the entrepreneurial
constraints faced by them. Keeping this in view, an
attempt was made to study the problems faced by
the women entrepreneurs in planning, production and
marketing of products and to develop suitable
strategies for building successful women led
enterprises.
for the study. Thus, A total of one hundred and fifty
women entrepreneurs were selected based on
proportionate random sampling. An open ended
interview schedule was used to elicit data for the
study and all the responses were coded in the form
of frequencies and later on convert ed into
percentages and ranks were assigned.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It was evident from Table-1 that majority of
the women entrepreneurs (71.33%) expressed the
problem of lack of training in enterprise planning and
development and received first rank. The reason for
this might be that it was often overlooked by the
institutions in providing training on enterprise
managerial aspects. At the same time even if training
is available, women may be unable to access it
because it is held at a time when they are meeting
family responsibilities. Sixty eight per cent of the
women entrepreneurs were facing the problem of
performing the multiple roles as it was necessary for
them to perform household chores, child rearing and
at the same time they have to concentrate on
enterprise activities. The entrepreneurs were also
expressed problems like lack of experience in planning
(third rank – 64.00%), uncertainty in getting resources
(fourth rank -60.00%),limited exposure to technical
know-how (fifth rank – 56.00%) inability to anticipate
problems in production and marketing (sixth rank -
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Exploratory research design was adopted for
the study. Three districts namely Ranga Reddy,
Guntur and Chittor were selected from Telngana,
Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema regions
respectively based on maximum number of women
entrepreneurs. With respect to entrepreneur selection,
sixty nine (69) women entrepreneurs from Ranga
Reddy, Forty four (44) from Güntur and Thirty seven
(37) from Chittor district were selected respectively
email: kraghuprasad@yahoo.co.in
74
PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTIONS FACED BY THE WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN PLANNING
48.00%) and lack of knowledge on availability and
procurement of machinery and raw material(seventh
rank-40.00%). Limited number of entrepreneurs (eighth
rank -30.67%) expressed lack of analytical skills in
identifying the enterprise. The reason might be due
to low education, less awareness on various
enterprises.
Table 1. Problems as perceived by women entrepreneurs in planning of enterprises
S.No.
Frequency
Percentage
1.
Lack of training in enterprise planning
107
71.33
I
2.
3.
Multiple roles of women entrepreneurs
Lack of experience in enterprise planning and
management
102
96
68.00
64.00
II
III
4.
Uncertainty in getting resources
90
60.00
IV
5.
6.
Limited exposure to technical know-how
Inability to anticipate problems in production and
marketing
84
72
56.00
V
7.
Lack of knowledge on availability and procurement
of machinery and raw material
Lack of analytical skills in identifying the enterprise
60
8.
Problems
A perusal of Table- 2 indicated that, majority
(first rank - 70.67%) of the women entrepreneurs
suggested to provide appropriate training in enterprise
planning and development to overcome the problems
in effective planning of enterprise activities followed
by needed support from family members both in
family and enterprise running (second rank - 66.67%)
so that it would help the entrepreneurs in
Rank
48.00
46
40.00
30.67
concentrating on business effectively. Assertiveness
training to make quick decisions at appropriate
timings(third rank - 59.33%), technical know-how on
small scale enterprises (fourth rank - 55.33%) and
professional expertise on latest production and
marketing trends(fifth rank -47.33%) were the
suggestions given by women entrepreneurs to solve
the problems in planning the enterprise activities.
Table 2. Suggestions given by the women entrepreneurs for better planning of enterprises
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Suggestions
Provide appropriate training in enterprise planning
and development
Needed support from family members both in
family and enterprise running
Assertiveness training to make quick decisions at
appropriate timings
Provide technical know-how on small scale
enterprises
Provide professional expertise on latest production
and marketing trends
Create awareness on various sources of
machinery and raw material
It was evident from the Table-3 that
inadequate working capital (first rank- 85.3%) was
the major production problem as working capital is
the business’s back bone and every entrepreneur’s
Frequency
Percentage
106
70.67
100
66.67
89
59.33
83
55.33
71
47.33
60
40.00
Rank
I
II
III
IV
V
primary task is to keep it flowing. But, due to
inadequate initial investment and delay in getting
financial assist ance from inst itutions the
entrepreneurs was always in need of finance. Lack
75
DEVI et al
of adequate infrastructure (second rank – 76.7%),
was another major problem in running the enterprise
as most of them were middle income group they
could not afford to rent or lease in a better place with
all facilities. No and less access to skilled labour
(third rank - 73.3%) was another problem as most of
the workers were migrated to places for better
remuneration. Frequent fluctuations in raw material
prices (fourth rank -65.3%) were also one of the
important problems as there was no regulated market
price for the raw material. Purchasing of raw material
in small lots (fifth rank 56.00%) as the entrepreneurs
were not having sufficient funds to purchase raw
material in bulk. Lack of technical know-how about
running of the enterprise( sixth rank -53.3%) and lack
of knowledge and skills in maintenance of production
records(seventh rank-48.00%) was some of the
production problems the women entrepreneurs were
facing. The reason for this might be due to lack of
training in production aspects. Limited number (eighth
rank- 45.30%) of entrepreneurs was facing the
problem of lack of information networks to exchange
information about modern technologies. This might
be due to inefficiency of institutions in maintaining
data base of potential entrepreneurs.
Table 3. Problems perceived by women entrepreneurs in running the enterprises
S.No.
Problems
F
%
85.3
76.7
73.3
65.3
1
Inadequate working capital.
128
2
3
4
5
Lack of adequate infrastructure facilities.
No and less access to skilled labour
Frequent fluctuations in raw material prices.
Purchasing of raw material in small lots results in high
costs.
115
110
98
84
6
Lack of technical know-how about running of the
enterprise.
Lack of knowledge and skills in maintenance of
production records
Lack of information networks of women entrepreneurs to
exchange information about modern technologies.
Inadequate power and water supply.
80
7
8
9
From the Table – 4 it can be observed that,
the suggestions given by the women entrepreneurs
to overcome the production problems were, provide
sufficient working capital by the government (first rank
-85.33%) so that they can purchase raw material,
machinery other production needed material in time
for continuous production. Infrastructure in the form
of industrial plots & sheds to be provided by the state
run institutions(second rank - 76.00%) so that would
help entrepreneurs in availing benefits like subsidies
on land, building, power supply, water supply,
information on meals, exhibitions etc. Followed by
other suggestions like, skill oriented training to the
labour (third rank -73.33%), regularization of raw
material cost by the government (fourth rank -64.67%)
and finance on subsidy basis for purchasing the raw
material in bulk (fifth rank -55.33%), upgrade technical
know-how through training(sixth rank- 53.33%), impart
72
68
54
56.0
Rank
I
II
III
IV
V
53.3
48.0
45.3
36.0
training on record maintenance(seventh rank47.33%), create networks among existing & potential
women entrepreneurs for information exchange(
eighth rank- 44.67%).
It was evident from the Table-5 that majority
(first rank – 73.33%) of the women entrepreneurs
problem with respect to marketing was lack of
knowledge on advertizing and branding of the
products. This might be due to less mobility, less
technical expertise and less finance the entrepreneurs
were not concentrating on advertizing and branding.
Competition from branded products (second rank 72.67%), was another major problem facing by the
women entrepreneurs. The reason might be that
growing awareness of customers on various aspects
of marketing made them to prefer branded products.
However, most of the women entrepreneurs were
76
PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTIONS FACED BY THE WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN PLANNING
having sufficient funds they were not involved in
personal selling. The entrepreneurs were also facing
other marketing problems viz., inability in meeting
the demand of the product(sixth rank-48.00%),
insignificant location of the enterprise(seventh rank42.00%), changing preferences of the customer
(eighth rank-39.33%) and turnover liquidity due to
piece meal payment(ninth rank - 36.00%). Limited
number (tenth rank-34.67%) of entrepreneurs
expressed lack of knowledge in supply chain
management as they were not having technical
expertise in assessing demand and supply.
running business on small scale and were not
involved in direct marketing hence they were not
concentrating on branding.
Lack of skills in sales promotion (third rank -69.33%)
due to non-availability of training on various aspects
of marketing especially sales promotion. Dominance
of wholesalers in fixing price (fourth rank – 50.67%)
as the entrepreneurs were still struggling for
establishment of their product they were not in a
position to decide their own price. Inability for personal
selling (fifth rank -49.33%) as most of them were not
Table 4. Suggestions of women entrepreneurs for effective running of the enterprises
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Suggestions
Provide sufficient working capital by the
government
Infrastructure in the form of industrial plots &
shed to be provided by the state run
institutions
Provide skill oriented training to the labour
Regularization of raw material cost by the
government
Provide finance on subsidy basis for
purchasing the raw material in bulk.
Upgrade technical knowhow through training
Impart training on record maintenance
Create networks among existing & potential
women entrepreneurs for information
exchange
Regular supply of electricity and water
Frequency
128
Percentage
85.33
Rank
I
114
76.00
II
110
97
73.33
64.67
III
IV
83
55.33
V
80
71
67
53.33
47.33
44.67
53
35.33
Table 5. Problems as perceived by women entrepreneurs in marketing of product
S.No.
Problems
Frequency
Percentage
Rank
1.
Lack of knowledge on advertising and branding of
the products
110
73.33
I
2.
Competition from branded products
109
72.67
II
3.
Lack of skills in sales promotion
104
69.33
III
4.
Dominance of wholesalers in fixing price
76
50.67
IV
5.
Inability for personal selling
74
49.33
V
6.
Inability in meeting the demand of the product
72
48.00
7.
Insignificant location of the enterprise
63
42.00
8.
Changing preferences of the customer
59
39.33
9.
Turnover liquidity due to piece meal payment
54
36.00
52
34.67
10. Lack of knowledge in supply chain management
77
DEVI et al
From Table. 6, it was evident that nearly
three fourth of the women entrepreneurs suggested
that networking with potential customers (first rank 73.33%) followed by product branding (second rank 72.00%) training on sales promotion (third rank 68.67%), improve the negotiation and bargaining skills
through training (fourth rank- 50.67%), government
should provide sufficient financial assistance to enter
into direct marketing (fifth rank - 49.33%), time line
management between production and marketing (sixth
rank-47.33%), more number of industrial estates
especially for women should be allotted (seventh rank42.00%), innovativeness in product development to
meet customer demand (eighth rank-38.67%),
sensitizing the customers towards repayment ethics
(ninth rank-36.00%) and provision of knowledge on
supply chain management (tenth rank-34.00%) were
the suggestions given by women entrepreneurs to
overcome the marketing problems.
Table 6. Suggestions given by the women entrepreneurs for better marketing of products
S.No
Suggestions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Networking with potential customers
Ensure product branding
Training on sales promotion
Improve the negotiation and bargaining skills through
training
5.
Government should provide sufficient financial
assistance to enter into direct marketing
Time line management between production and
marketing
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
More number of industrial estates specially for women
should be allotted
Innovativeness in product development to meet
customer demand
Sensitizing the customers towards repayment ethics
Provide knowledge on supply chain management
Frequency
Percentage
Rank
110
108
103
73.33
72.00
68.67
I
II
III
76
50.67
IV
74
49.33
V
71
47.33
63
42.00
58
38.67
54
51
36.00
34.00
REFERENCES
Chidambaram, K and Themozhi G 1998. Constraints
for women entrepreneurs. Social welfare Vol
45 (1):28-31.
Ramachandran, S and Selvarani 2005. Problems
and prospects of women entrepreneurship in
rural areas. Kisan world Vol.32 No(12)
Madasamy, V and Xavier Joseph, A 2005 Women
entrepreneurs in rural IndiaJauary, Kisan world
Vol.32 (1): 21-22
Vijayachandran, B and Harikumar V. 2006. Self-Help
Groups in Kerala. Kurukshetra Vol.54, No.(9).
78
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 75-81, 2013
A STUDY ON GROWTH, PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT OF KISAN CREDIT
CARDS ON FARMER’S INCOME IN RAJASTHAN – AN ECONOMIC APPROACH
S. S. MEENA and G. P. REDDY
Department of Agribusiness Management and ABM-Division, Head, NAARM,
College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030
Date of Receipt : 1-06-2013
Date of Acceptance : 17-08-2013
ABSTRACT
In India, The Kisan Credit Card Scheme was initiated in 1998-99 providing entrance to short term credit in
the agricultural sector. The paper vitally examines the growth in Kisan Credit Cards issued, pattern of credit acquisition
by the farmers, its impact on farmer’s income and constraints faced by the farmers holding Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
across Karauli district in Rajasthan State, India. The study used both primary and secondary data from the year 2001
to 2011 used for analyzing the objectives. Stratified random sampling method was used for Selection of samples.
Thus, a total of 120 farmers were selected for collecting the required data for the study through pre-tested questionnaire.
The results revealed that the number of kisan credit cards (KCC) issued from past 10 years was continuously
positive and is increasing in the Commercial Banks (29.80), Regional Rural Banks (19.57) where as Co-operative
Banks (-6.76) are showing decline trends. The study also examines that, Commercial Banks are the major source for
farmers for the credit which sanctioned Rs. 8,156 lakhs (77.23 %) of the total credit given by the banks to the farmers.
While RRBs and Co-operative Banks are given Rs. 1,112 lakhs (10.53 %) and Rs. 934 lakhs (08.84 %) respectively
and the share of credit from the money lender to the farmer was Rs. 358 lakhs (03.39 %) of the total credit. The results
also reveal that, the income of kisan credit card (KCC) holders is 25 to 30 per cent more than the Non kisan Credit
Card (KCC) holders. This income gap is attributed because Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holders use good quality input
material in agricultural operations. However, the study also says that, the large number of the farmers in both the
categories opined that the rate of interest was high (61.67 % in Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and 93.33 % in non-Kisan
Credit Card (KCC)). Hence, the study suggests that as the large number of the farmers in both the categories opined
that the rate of interest was high (61.67 % in Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and 93.33 % in non Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
and also there is a need to consider the additional activities related to crop production while fixing credit limit under
Kisan Credit Card (KCC). Hence, banks are suggested to consider the additional activities while fixing credit limit
which ensures bridging the credit gap.
INTRODUCTION
like fertilizers, irrigation, pesticides, chemicals,
capital, etc.
Agriculture is the backbone of our economy.
The share of agriculture in the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) is 14 % which provides employment
to nearly 66 per cent of population in the country.
Agricultural credit, Kisan Credit Card (KCC) is an
instrument which played a very important role in
development of agricultural sector. It enabled the
farmer to go for short-term credit which is used by
the farmers for purchase of inputs and other services.
Farmers prefer short-term loans and medium-term
loans while some large farmers are used to long-term
credit for completing their needs those are related to
agricultural inputs, raw materials other agricultural
allied activities also. The Green Revolution of Indian
agriculture is a good example to a large extent which
depends on financial institutions for the support to
agricultural sector in terms of expansion in inputs
The incorporation of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
Scheme was done by RBI and NABARD in 1998-99.
Since, incorporation of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
scheme, State Cooperative Banks (SCBs) through
DCCBs and PACS and also the Regional Rural Banks
(RRBs) and Commercial Banks (CBs) are
implementing the scheme under the guidelines of
NABARD. Samantara (2010) mentioned that the
introduction of a new credit product called Kisan
Credit Card (KCC) in 1998-99 with three different sublimits viz. production, assets maintenance and
consumption needs is a step in this direction to
address the challenge. Farmers have been given
sufficient freedom to decide how to use their credit,
while at the same time a set repayment schedule
has been provided. However for this scheme to be
email: gpreddy_naarm@yahoo.co.in
79
MEENA and REDDY
successful, education of both the farmers and also
the bank officials about the scheme is required.
selected for the purpose of study. These respondents
were selected by stratified random sampling method,
thus, a total of 120 farmers were selected for
collecting the required data for the study. Secondary
data was collected from District Lead Bank, NABARD,
journals, (http://www.nabard.org), etc. The data
collected on number of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
issued and amount sanctioned in Karauli district of
Rajasthan from the year 2001 to 2011. The data
collected were tabulated, processed and analyzed
using appropriate tools and technique. The CAGR
method was used to calculate the growth of Kisan
Credit Card (KCC) in the study area. The credit
acquisition pattern is measured to the amount taken
by the farmers. The impact of Kisan Credit Card
(KCC) on farmer’s income is determined by the
comparison of the income of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
holder and Non-Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holders.
Opinion survey method was conducted to study the
institutional and management constraints.
The Kisan Credit Card is a pioneering credit
delivery innovation for providing adequate and timely
credit to farmers under single window, with flexible
and simplified procedure, adopting whole farm
approach, including the short-term credit, medium
term and long term credit needs of the borrowers for
agriculture and allied activities and a reasonable
component for consumption needs. Its coverage is
comprehensive and broad which is extended to all
types of farmers (Kallur, 2005). Interestingly, Andhra
has yet again bagged first position among all states
in
the
count ry
with
regard
to
the issue of KisanCredit Cards for ‘2001-2002,”
(www.articles. economictimes. indiatimes.com,2002)
announced by B.Vasanthan, SLBC chairman Andhra
Bank. He also stated that, against a target of 40 lakh
Kisan Credit cards, AP had issued 42.7 lakh cards
during the year. AP State Co-operative Bank has
topped the list by issuing 30.6 lakh cards. During the
previous year too AP was ranked first in the country
with regard to the issue of Kisan credit cards. For
the year ended March 2001, AP had issued as many
as 34,00,487 Kisan Credit Cards while Maharashtra
and Rajasthan issued 17,61,511 and 15,13,697 cards
respectively.
To estimate Compound Annual Growth Rate
(CAGR), this can be written as:
If yt denotes the observation (e.g. number of
KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC) issued) at time t and r
is the compound growth rate, model employed for
estimating r is based on Eq. (1):
yt = y0 (1+ r) t
The performance in the implementation of
the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme has been
impressive in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab,
Rajasthan, T amil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and
Uttaranchal.
………… (3.1)
The usual practice is to assume a
multiplicative error-term exp (€) in Eq. (1) so that the
model may be linearized by means of logarithmic
transformation, giving Eq. (2):
ln (yt) = A + Bt + €
………… (3.2)
Where, A = ln (y0), and B = ln ( 1 + r ). Eq. (2) is then
fitted to data using “method of least squares” and
goodness of fit is assessed by the coefficient of
determination R2. Finally, the compound growth rate
is estimated by Eq. (3):
METHODOLOGY
The aim of the study was to evaluate the
overall performance of Kisan Credit Card scheme.
The study was conducted in three major Kisan Credit
Card (KCC) issuing tehsils namely Karauli, Hindaun
city and Nadoti of Karauli district in Rajasthan. For
selection of sample farmers, in each tehsils, two
villages were selected for study purpose based on
the number of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) issued. Every
village was divided into four categories i.e. marginal
farmers (< 1ha), small farmers (1 to 2ha), medium
farmers (2 to 4ha) and large farmers (> 4 ha.). In
each village 10 Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holders and
10 Non-Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holders were
r^ = exp (B^) – 1
…………. (3.3)
Where r^ = estimated compound growth rate.
exp (B^) = co-efficient of time (t).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Growth in kisan credit cards issued in the study
area
The analysis of growth rate and per cent
change in kisan credit cards issued in the study is
presented in the Table.1 the results shows that, the
80
A STUDY ON GROWTH, PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT OF KISAN CREDIT CARDS ON FARMER’S
number of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) issued from
2001to 2011 was continuously increasing in the
Commercial Banks with slight variations in few years
as well as Regional Rural Banks were showing the
same pattern while Co-operative Banks were exact
opposite of these two. The numbers of Kisan Credit
Card (KCC) issued was high in the initial years of
incorporation of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme
but they were showing high negative growth rate in
last four to five years. The compound growth rate
calculated from the ten years data. The compound
annual growth rates for Commercial Banks, RRBs
and Co-operative Banks were 29.80 per cent, 19.57
per cent and -6.76 per cent respectively. Three banks
shown significant at 1 % level of significance
compound growth rate and here overall CGR is 16.37
per cent which is also significant.
Card (KCC) Scheme. Loganthan (2008) analyzed
Kisan Credit Card scheme and came out with similar
result. Patel (1999) suggested to modify the scheme
to fit the needs of users in particular area than
introducing uniform scheme in the country. Trivedi
(2006) reviewed status of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) in
Madhya Pradesh and concluded that the scheme had
achieved less than its target. Anjani kumar et al (2007)
revealed that the distribution of credit under Kisan
Credit Card was less skewed. Singh and Sekhon
(2006) concluded that Kisan Credit Card Scheme was
efficient for meeting short term credit requirement.
3. Impact of kisan credit card on farmer’s income
The perusal of Table-3 shows that, in the
category of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holder, marginal
farmer’s average income is Rs. 62,333.33 as
compared to Non-Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holder,
marginal farmer’s average income is Rs. 48,000. The
difference in the income of marginal farmers is Rs.
14,333.3 (7.66 % of total marginal farmers KCC
holders). In the small farmer’s category, the
difference in the income of small farmer’s income
with respect to Non-Kisan card credit holder was Rs.
27,677.77. It accounted for 8.01 % of total small
farmers KCC holders. In the category of medium
farmers average income of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
holders is Rs.1, 34,000 as compared to Non-Kisan
Credit Card (KCC) holder’s average income is Rs. 1,
15,000. The difference in the income of medium
farmer’s is Rs. 19,000 (4.72% of total medium farmers
KCC holders) and in the category of large farmer’s
average income of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holder’s
is Rs. 1, 98,000 as compared to Non-Kisan Credit
Card (KCC) holder’s average income is Rs. 1, 65,000.
The difference in the income of large farmer’s is Rs.
33,000 (5.55 % of total large farmers KCC holders).
The result of this comparison of farmer’s income of
Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holder’s and Non-Kisan
Credit Card (KCC) holder’s Category reveals that,
average farmers income for the KCC was higher than
that of non KCC category. It also reveals the
adequacy of credit for the Kisan Credit Card holders
was more when compared to Non-Kisan Credit Card
holders. The income of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
farmers was high due to availability of credit, which
was used for good quality input material required in
the agricultural production process.
2. Pattern of credit acquisition by the farmers
The pattern of credit acquisition is presented
in the Table-2 represented that in the year 2006-07,
the amount sanctioned through Kisan Credit Card
(KCC) in the Karauli district were Rs.1,887 lakh only.
In Karauli district of Rajasthan, Commercial Banks
are the major source for farmers for the credit which
sanctioned Rs. 8,156 lakh (77.23 %) of the total credit
given by the banks to the farmers. While RRBs and
Co-operative Banks are given Rs. 1,112 lakh (10.53
%) and Rs. 934 lakh (08.84 %) respectively and some
of the farmers have taken credit from the money
lender i.e. 358 lakh (03.39 %) of the total credit. From
these data of the different banks which are available
in the study area, we conclude that most of the
farmers have taken the credit from the banks. Banks
were the major source of credit acquisition in the
studied area.
The compound annual growth rate was 16.37
per cent per annum and there is consistent growth in
Kisan Credit Card (KCC) issued in Karauli District of
Rajasthan (Table 1). As far as the study area is
concerned, in the Karauli district there is high positive
growth both in the number of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
issued and amount sanctioned. It might be due to
either banks were already reached the satisfaction
level or there was good performance of banks with
respect to implementation of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
but we have to need some changes in Kisan Credit
81
MEENA and REDDY
Table 1. Percentage change and growth rates in number of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) issued in Karauli
District (Agency-wise status of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)
Sr.
No.
Agency
Commercial Banks
RRBs
Co-operative Banks
Year
KISAN
CREDIT
CARD
(KCC)
issued
(in lakh)
1.
2001-02
58
-
22
-
195
2.
2002-03
117
101.72
56
154.54
125
-35.897
298
3.
2003-04
215
83.76
79
41.07
115
-8
409
4.
2004-05
469
118.14
69
-12.65
129
12.17
667
5.
2005-06
530
13.00
99
43.47
107
-17.05
736
6.
2006-07
596
12.45
117
18.18
102
-4.67
815
7.
2007-08
675
13.25
129
10.25
88
-13.72
892
8.
2008-09
729
8.00
147
13.95
79
-10.22
955
9.
2009-10
650
-10.83
132
2.32
89
12.65
871
10.
2010-11
810
24.61
169
28.03
99
11.23
1078
Total
4849
%
change
in 201011 over
2001-02
CAGR
% change
over
previous
year
KISAN
CREDIT
CARD
(KCC)
issued
(in lakh)
% change
over
previous
year
KISAN
CREDIT
CARD
(KCC)
issued
(in lakh)
Total
1019
364.11
29.80**
(5.295)
% change
over
previous
year
275
299.18
19.57**
(5.690)
6996
1128
-53.50
-6.76**
(4.143)
16.37**
(6.904)
Note: ** Significant at 1 % level ;
* Significant at 5 % level
Figures in parentheses are‘t’ values; CAGR: Compound Annual Growth Rate.
Table 2. Agency-wise amount sanctioned in Karauli District (Rs. in lakh)
Commercial
Agency
Banks
RRBs
1485
175
2006-07
(78.69)
(09.27)
1567
225
2007-08
(76.85)
(11.03)
1430
239
2008-09
(73.25)
(12.24)
1741
217
2009-10
(78.21)
(09.74)
1933
256
2010-11
(78.70)
(10.42)
8156
1112
Total
(77.23)
(10.53)
Source: Lead District Bank (Bank of Baroda).
sanctioned.
Money
Co-operative
Lenders
Banks
Total
65
1887
162
(03.44)
(08.58)
(100)
68
2039
179
(03.33)
(08.77)
(100)
82
1952
201
(04.20)
(10.29)
(100)
74
2226
194
(03.32)
(08.71)
(100)
69
2456
198
(02.80)
(08.06)
(100)
934
358
10560
(08.84)
(03.39)
(100)
Note: Figures in parentheses are per cent to amount
82
A STUDY ON GROWTH, PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT OF KISAN CREDIT CARDS ON FARMER’S
Table 3. Farmer’s Income in Karauli district of Rajasthan (in Rs.)
KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC) holders
Sr.
No.
Name of Tehsils
Marginal
(n=15)
Small
Medium
Large
(n=15)
(n=15)
(n=15)
All (n=60)
1
Karauli
62000
125000
130000
198000
515000
2
Hindaun
65000
116000
127000
201000
509000
3
Nadoti
60000
104000
145000
195000
504000
187000
345000
402000
594000
1528000
62333.33
115000
134000
198000
509333.3
Total
Average
Non- KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC) holders
Sr.
No.
Name of Tehsils
Marginal
Small
Medium
Large
(n=15)
(n=15)
(n=15)
(n=15)
All (n=60)
1
Karauli
45000
87000
120000
170000
422000
2
Hindaun
48000
85000
115000
165000
413000
3
Nadoti
51000
90000
110000
160000
411000
144000
262000
345000
495000
1246000
48000
87333.33
115000
165000
415333.3
Total
Average
Table 4. Opinion of borrower with regard to term and condition of loans
Sl.No.
1.
Views
Categories
Purpose of loan
KISAN
CREDIT
CARD
(KCC)
Holders
50 (83.33)
10 (16.67)
33 (55.00)
27 (45.00)
49 (81.67)
11 (18.33)
23 (38.33)
37 (61.67)
59 (98.33)
01 (1.67)
60(100.00)
00 (0.00)
57 (95.00)
03 (05.00)
57 (95.00)
03 (05.00)
27(45.00)
33 (55.00)
59 (98.33)
01 (1.67)
60
Non-KISAN
CREDIT
CARD
(KCC)
Holders
28 (46.67)
32 (53.33)
23 (38.33)
37 (61.67)
08 (13.33)
52(86.67)
04 (06.67)
56 (93.33)
55 (91.67)
05 (08.33)
09 (15.00)
51 (85.00)
56 (93.33)
04 (6.67)
29 (48.33)
31 (51.67)
07 (11.67)
53(88.33)
60 (100.00)
00 (00.00)
60
Agricultural
Non-Agricultural
2.
Adequacy
Adequate
Inadequate
3.
Timeliness
Timely
Untimely
4.
Rate of Interest
Low
High
5.
Repayment
Easy
term
Difficult
6.
Procedure for
Simple
Advance
Cumbersome
7.
Accessibility
Easy
Difficult
8.
Security
Flexible
Rigid
9.
Loan
Frequently
Supervision
Rarely
10.
Did borrowing
Yes
helped
No
No. of
Respondents
Source: Primary data from sample respodents Note: Figures in parentheses are per cent of total respondents.
83
MEENA and REDDY
Table 5. Opinion of Managers in respect of Kisan Credit Card scheme in study area
Sr. No.
Particulars
1.
Sense of worthwhile
accomplishment
2.
Communication and Coordination
3.
4.
5.
6.
Growth in Agricultural
Advances
Number of KISAN CREDIT
CARD (KCC) issued
Procedure followed for
issuing KISAN CREDIT
CARD (KCC)
Accessibility to the Branch
Advance
Agricultural Officer
7.
8.
9.
10.
Time taken to sanction
loan under KISAN CREDIT
CARD (KCC)
Recovery percentage of
loan under KISAN CREDIT
CARD (KCC)
Attitude of Borrower
Categories
High
Moderate
Low
Well
Somewhat good
Not at all
Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
Easy
Cumbersome
Karauli District
(in %)
52
30
18
82
10
08
83
17
93
07
100
0
Easy
Difficult
Provided
Not Provided
Timely
Untimely
75
25
65
35
98
2
Good
Poor
98
2
Co-operative
Non co-operative
97
3
Source: Primary data from sample respondents
4. Identification of the constraints
(61.67 %). About the timeliness, 81.67 per cent
farmers under Kisan Credit Card (KCC) felt that the
credit was timely while large number of the farmers
under Non-Kisan Credit Card (KCC) felt that it was
untimely (86.67 %). The large number of the farmers
in both the categories opined that the rate of interest
was high (61.67 % in Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and
93.33 % in Non Kisan Credit Card (KCC)).
Opinion survey met hod of farmer
beneficiaries was carried to find out timeliness,
security, adequacy, interest and other issues of Kisan
Credit Card (KCC) and the results are summarized in
Table. 4. More than 80 per cent of farmers borrowed
credit to meet the expenditure incurred in agriculture
under the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) category while
only about 47 per cent of the borrowers were reported
to borrow for agriculture purpose in Non- Kisan Credit
Card (KCC) category. This was because the loan
given under KCC was mainly crop loans. With regard
to adequacy of credit large number of farmers under
Kisan Credit Card (KCC) opined that the credit was
adequate (55 %) but under Non-Kisan Credit Card
(KCC) the borrowers opined that it was inadequate
The opinion of bank managers with respect
to Kisan Credit Card (KCC) is presented in Table-5.
With regard to sense of accomplishment in the Karauli
district 52 per cent expressed high sense of
accomplishment. In respect of communication with
policy makers regarding agriculture and rural financing
82 per cent respondents in the Karauli district felt
that it was well. According to opinion of bank
84
A STUDY ON GROWTH, PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT OF KISAN CREDIT CARDS ON FARMER’S
managers in Karauli district the number of Kisan
Credit Card (KCC) issued was satisfactory (93%).
to Non-Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holders. The
institutional and management constraints are
negligible in the study area but marginal farmers were
not involved in this scheme. The farmers are having
access to adequate and timely credit. There is
minimum paper work and simplification of
documentation for withdrawal of funds from the banks.
Now-a-day, banks are providing assured availability
of credit at any time enabling reduced interest burden
for the farmers. Sanction of the facility for three years
subject to annual review and satisfactory operations
and provision for enhancement. Banks are giving
flexibility of withdrawals from a branch other than the
issuing branch at the discretion of the bank. Kisan
Credit Card (KCC) holders are benefited due to timely
availability of the credit; they are able to buy the
products whenever they want without keeping credit
in the shops. The study also suggests that, KCC
should not only be a vehicle of short term credit to
agriculture but also increasingly as a source of
investment and consumption needs of farmers.
Nearly all the bank managers in the study
area agreed that the procedure followed for issuing
the Kisan Credit Card was simple and favorable to
the farmers. The loan sanctioned under the Kisan
Credit Card (KCC) scheme was in time and majority
of them felt that there was easy accessibility to the
bank branches. As far as recovery of loan under Kisan
Credit Card (KCC) was concerned, nearly all bank
managers in the study felt that it was good and attitude
of the borrower was co-operative.
CONCLUSIONS
The growth of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) in
the study area is positive and the credit acquisition
pattern, in case of Karauli district of Rajasthan,
Commercial Banks are the major source for farmers
for the credit which sanctioned Rs. 8,156 lakh (77.23
%) of the total credit given by the banks to the
farmers. However, the income of Kisan Credit Card
(KCC) holders is 25 to 30 per cent more as compared
REFERENCES
Kallur, M.S. (2005), Impact of Kisan Credit Card on
Patel, A.R. 1999. Kisan Credit Card scheme: Needs
for banks initiatives and co-ordination.
Financing Agric, 27 (3): 3-6.
Flow of Credit and Repayment Rate in
Backward Region : A case of Agricultural
Development Bank of Shorapur Taluka,
Samantara S(2010), Kisan credit Card, a study,
occasional Paper-53, NABARD, India.
Gulbarga District, Karnataka State, Indian
Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 60, No.
Singh, H and Sekhon, M.K. 2005. Cash benefits of
the kisan credit card scheme: Onus is upon
farmers. Indian Journal of Agricultural
Economics. 60 (3): 319-334.
3, July-September, P 396.
Kumar, A., Singh, D.K and Kumar, P. 2007.
Performance of rural credit and factors
Trivedi, S. 2006. Kisan credit card: missing target.
Business Standard. Bhopal, April 12.
affecting choice of credit sources. Indian
Journal of Agricultural Economics. 62 (3): 297-
http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/200205-23/news/27357557_1_kisan-credit-cardsc r op- loans - s s i- adv anc es
http://www.nabard.org/English/
KisanCreditCard.aspx
313.
Loganthan. 2008. Kisan credit card- a boon for small
farmers. Indian Co-operative Review. 45 (4):
300-304.
85
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 82-87, 2013
UTILITY OF HERBAL PRODUCTS IN ANTIMICROBIAL FINISHING OF
COTTON FABRICS
D.ANITHA, S.DHANA LAXMI and G.MAHESH
Department of Apparel and Textiles, College of Home Science
Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad 500004
Date of Receipt : 23-02-2013
Date of Acceptance : 10-07-2013
ABSTRACT
Antibacterial finish was imparted to cotton fabrics using extracts of fresh leaves of Polyalthia longifolia
(Ashoka), Psidium Guajava (Guava), Cassia angustifolia (Custard Apple) and their combination. Pad-dry-cure method
was followed to treat fabric samples with pure aqueous extracts and the combination of extracts. Antimicrobial
property of treated fabrics was evaluated by AATCC 147, AATCC 30 and AATCC 100, against the microorganism
and S.aureus and E.coli. The effect of treatment on properties of the fabric was evaluated using standard BIS
procedures. Results indicated that fabrics treated with Polyalthia longifolia and its combinations showed better
antimicrobial properties than other sources. The finished samples had increased drapability and thermal conductivity
but a loss in tear strength.
METHODOLOGY
There are many things in a home for microorganisms to live on. All textiles provide a growing
environment for these micro-organisms. (Yau,1998)
They are very different in their chemical nature, mode
of action and impact on people and the environment.
Microbes grow rapidly under warmth and in the
presence of moisture which the human body provides
through sweat and body temperature (Ramachandran
et.al 2004). These micro-organisms create problems
in textiles, including discoloration, stains and fiber
damage, unpleasant odour and a slick, slimy feel.
The natural and synthetic fibers vary greatly in their
response to microbial growth. Natural fibers, such
as cotton and wool, are especially susceptible to
microbial growth. Dust mites accelerate microbial
growth because they retain oxygen, water, and
nutrients (Kut et.al 2005). In the present era, health
consciousness is a major issue and the current need
for antimicrobial textiles on the market is huge.
Imparting this antimicrobial finish in an eco friendly
way is an important feature that consumer looks in.
The toxicity produced by the synthetic antimicrobial
agents can be prevented by using herbs (Deepthi,
2007). To answer these toxicity problems from
synthetic agents, the ancient idea of finding healing
powers in plants has been sought after. India is a
varietal emporium of medicinal plants and is one of
the richest countries in the world with regard to genetic
resources for medicinal plants.
Plain weave cotton fabric of 65x72 was used for
the study. The fabric was scoured using 2g/liter of
non-ionic detergent and 1g/liter of caustic soda with
a material-liquor ratio of 1:20. Leaves from Polyalthia
longifolia (Ashoka), Psidium Guajava (Guava),
Cassia angustifolia (Custard Apple) were collected
in and around Hyderabad. The leaves are shown in
figure (1-3).
Extraction
Fresh and good quality leaves from P. longifolia,
P. guajava, C. angustifolia without any damages were
sorted and cleaned. Around 100 gm of leaves were
weighed with an equal ratio of ethanol and distilled
water. The material was chopped and crushed in a
grinder. Addition of 5 ml cold distilled water helped
to get a homogeneous mixture the extract was filtered
using watman’s paper. Extracts from all three sources
and a combination of sources in a ratio of 50:50 were
tested for antimicrobial activity using test method
AATCC 147.
Application of finish
The pure extracts and their combinations (50:50)
were applied onto cotton fabrics at various
concentrations of 100 per cent, 20 percent and 10
per cent. Cotton fabric was soaked in the solution of
plant extract for 15 minutes. Then the fabric was
passed through a padding mangle twice to remove
excess solution and was dried at 35°C for 15 minutes
email: anithaprasad59@yahoo.co.in
86
UTILITY OF HERBAL PRODUCTS IN ANTIMICROBIAL FINISHING OF COTTON FABRICS
in a hot air drier. Dried samples were evaluated for
antimicrobial property. The treated samples were also
analyzed after they were laundered.
antimicrobial property (Jain and Sharma 2009).
Custard leaf extract with Ashoka combination yielded
higher zone than the pure extract (Table no.2 and
figure 4&5). The zone of inhibition exhibited by the
treated fabrics against microorganism indicated that
samples treated with A+G had higher zone followed
by samples treat with Ashoka alone. Though the
inhibition zone had decreased in fabric sample over
the pure source, yet the same trend of pure extract
in terms of their resistance to microorganisms was
observed here.
To assess the impact of finish the treated and
untreated fabrics were subjected to testing of fabric
geometrical parameters such as yarn count, fabric
weight; handle properties stiffness, crease recovery,
drape, thermal conductivity and mechanical
properties such as strength and pilling following the
standard procedures laid down BIS at the Textile
Quality Analysis lab at College of Home Science,
Hyderabad.
3. Evaluation of TBC and TMC of treated cotton
fabric
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Treated fabric samples have shown different
results shown in table no.3. Among all the samples,
fabrics treated with 100 percent pure Ashoka extract
showed good antimicrobial property than the diluted
For the purpose of convenience the samples are
labeled and the details are furnished below:
A-Ashoka C – Custard G - Guava A+G - Ashoka+
Guava (50:50) A+C - Ashoka+ Custard(50:50) C+G
- Custard+ Guava(50:50)
extract. Among the diluted concentrations 20%
extracts showed good antimicrobial properties than
their 10% counterparts. The combination sources of
A+G, A+C, and G+ C on fabric had good antimicrobial
1. Microbial and bacterial count of pure extracts
Antimicrobial property of the pure extracts from
leaves of Ashoka, Custard, Guava, and their
combinations were evaluated and are presented in
(Table no.1). The sources showed different degrees
of activity. Pure leaf extract of Ashoka and Custard
have yielded 0 cfu of TBC (Total Bacterial count)
and TMC (Total Microbial content) while the guava
properties at 100% level. Among the combined
sources pure extract of A+C showed good
antimicrobial property followed by A+G, G+C. Fabrics
treated with extract of Ashoka with all the three
concentrations and its combinations with other
sources showed good resistance against microbes.
4. Impact of laundering on Antimicrobial activity
treated fabric samples
showed less antimicrobial property. The combination
of pure extract of A+G, A+C showed 0 TBC and TMC
but C+G showed less antimicrobial property. Ashoka
and its combinations showed good antimicrobial
It was observed that the antimicrobial properties
of treated fabrics reduced after washing. The TBC
count increased in second wash than first wash
indicating the loss of antimicrobial property in the
samples. Among all, samples treated with Ashoka
had more antimicrobial property in first wash followed
by Guava and Custard. In case of the combination
sources A+C showed less TBC count indicating
higher antimicrobial property than A+G, C+G. After
the second wash the TBC count of all the sample
increased indicating a further loss of the property of
property than other sources. Chanda and Nair 2010
also reported that ashoka leaves has antibacterial
properties against the gram positive bacterial and
fungal stains.
2. Testing of zone of inhibition of pure extracts
and treated fabric samples
Some of the pure extracts were tested for zone
of inhibition (Zoi) using test method AATCC 147-1998.
Pure extract of ashoka showed 1 cm zone around
the sample followed Guava and Custard. The
combination of pure extracts of A+G had higher zone
of inhibition than Ashoka indicating its higher
the fabric due to laundering (Table no.4). This may
be due to the aqueous extraction which is removed
at each wash.
87
ANITHA et al
5. Assessment of Fabric properties
least recovery in both the directions. This variation
might be observed due to the various sources used
in the treatment of the fabrics. The drapability of the
fabric had increased in treated sample than control
samples as seen in table no 6. Sample D had good
drape among the treated fabrics and sample B had
registered low drape. The finish might have acted as
a softener which improved this drapability.
Fabrics were treated with only those extracts
that have yielded best antimicrobial properties under
different AATCC test methods. Treated fabrics were
coded and were evaluated for geometrical and
physical properties.
Sample A - control/plain fabric
Sample B – fabric treated with Ashoka
The thermal conductivity of the control sample
was found to be 1.8 CLO. Among the treated fabrics,
Sample C – fabric treated with Ashoka and Guava
sample C had least CLO value indicating good heat
conductivity. Sample B and D had almost similar CLO
Sample D – fabric treated with Ashoka and Custard
1. Geometric properties
values. In comparison with the control, none of the
treated fabrics had high CLO values.
The yarn count was observed to be highest in
untreated over all the treated fabrics. No variation
was registered among the treated fabrics. In case of
fabric weight the treated fabric gained weight
compared to the control samples which is shown in
table no 5. This may be due to the shrinkage of the
fabric during treatment and compactness of yarns
after the treatment.
The tear strength of the control samples was
found to be higher than treated sample. The strength
of the treated sample reduced after treatment as
shown in table no 6. Sample C lost more strength
while sample D has retained higher strength than other
treated samples. Treated samples had showed slight
pilling (Standard II) while control samples did not pill
indicating that the finish improved the smoothness
of the fabric surface.
2. Handle and Mechanical properties
The stiffness of the treated sample decreased
after treatment indicating its suppleness leading to
good drape factor. Control sample had higher stiffness
than the treated sample. Sample D had low bending
length than the sample B and C in warp and weft
direction. Highest flexural rigidity was observed in
sample C indicating low stiffness. From the table it
can be inferred that treated samples had highest
recovery in comparison with the control samples.
Sample C had almost similar crease recovery as the
control in warp direction. It can be concluded that
the sample B had highest crease recovery in both
warp as well as in weft direction and sample D had
CONCLUSION
The antimicrobial properties of Polyalthia
longifolia (Ashoka), Psidium Guajava (Guava),
Cassia angustifolia (Custard Apple) and its
combinations were evaluated. The Total bacterial
count, Total microbial count and zone of inhibition
when assessed for all the plant sources indicated
that Ashoka and its combinations with Guava and
Custard showed good antimicrobial property against
microorganism E.coli and S. aureus. Fabric samples
treated with a combination of guava and ashoka had
good heat conductivity low stiffness and crease
recovery and with acceptable pilling property.
Table 1. Total microbial counts of pure extracts
S.NO
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Name of the Source
Ashoka leaf
Custard apple leaf
Guava leaf
Ashoka + Guava
Ashoka + Custard
Custard + Guava
TBC( cfu/ml)
0
0
20
0
0
10
88
TMC ( cfu/ml)
0
0
25
0
0
20
UTILITY OF HERBAL PRODUCTS IN ANTIMICROBIAL FINISHING OF COTTON FABRICS
Table 2. Zone of inhibition of pure extracts
S.NO
Name of the Source
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Zone of inhibition (cm)
Pure extracts
Treated fabric samples
1.0
0.3
0.4
0.1
0.7
0.2
2.0
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.1
Ashoka leaf
Custard apple leaf
Guava leaf
Ashoka + Guava
Ashoka + Custard
Custard + Guava
Table 3. Total Microbial and bacterial counts of treated samples
S.NO
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Name of the Source
Ashoka 100%
Ashoka leaf 20%
Ashoka leaf 10%
Custard apple leaf 100%
Custard apple leaf 20%
Custard apple leaf 10%
Guava leaf 100%
Guava leaf 20%
Guava leaf 10%
Ashoka + Guava 100%
Ashoka + Guava 20%
Ashoka + Guava 10%
Ashoka + Custard 100%
Ashoka + Custard 20%
Ashoka + Custard 10%
Custard + Guava 100%
Custard + Guava 20%
Custard + Guava 10%
TBC ( cfu/ml)
3
7 x 10
3
11 x 10
3
22 x 10
4
22 x 10
4
29 x 10
4
30 x 10
4
4 x 10
4
22 x 10
4
25 x 10
4
60 x10
4
80 x10
4
90 x10
4
50 x10
4
85 x10
4
90 x10
4
60 x10
4
90 x10
4
98 x10
TMC ( cfu/ml)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Table 4. Testing of TMC and zone of inhibition of washed sample
S.NO
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Name of the Source
Ashoka leaf
Custard apple leaf
Guava leaf
Ashoka + Guava
Ashoka + Custard
Custard + Guava
First wash
TBC (cfu/ml)
Zoi (cm)
2
207 x 10
0.2
2
300x 10
NZ
2
450 x 10
NZ
3
800x 10
0.1
3
600 x 10
0.1
3
647 x 10
NZ
Second wash
TBC (cfu/ml)
Zoi(cm)
2
307 x 10
NZ
2
400x 10
NZ
2
550 x 10
NZ
3
900x 10
NZ
3
700 x 10
NZ
3
747 x 10
NZ
NZ = No Zone
Table 5. Geometric properties of fabric
Yarn count
2
S. No
Sample
Fabric weight(g/m )
1
2
A
B
warp
72
54
weft
81
57
0.43
1.5
3
4
C
D
54
54
57
57
1.24
0.47
89
ANITHA et al
Table 6. Fabric Handle and Mechanical properties of fabric
Stiffness
Warp
Weft
S.
N
Sa
mple
1
A
1.51
0.389
1.49
FR
(mgcm)
0.136
2
B
1.39
0.402
1.35
0.386
BL
FR
BL
(cm) (mg-cm) (cm)
Crease
recovery
(angle)
Warp Weft
Tear strength
Drape
coeffici
ent %
121.5
95.8
44.0
Therm
al
condu
ctivity
CLO
1.80
125.7
135.6
39.0
1.26
Pilling
Warp
(kgf)
Weft
(kgf)
5011.2 5011.2
No pilling
2150
Standard
2150.0
II
3
C
1.39
0.402
1.43
0.458
121.4
123.3
35.0
1.10
2419
2419.0
Standard
II
4
D
1.2
0.252
1.25
0.288
95.0
95.0
33.6
1.25
2905
2700.8
Standard
II
Plant Source
Zone of inhibition - plant sources
90
UTILITY OF HERBAL PRODUCTS IN ANTIMICROBIAL FINISHING OF COTTON FABRICS
Zone of inhibition - plant sources treated fabric sample
REFERENCES
Kut, D., Orhan, M., Gunesoglu, C and Ozakin, C.
2005. Effects of Environmental Conditions on
the Antibacterial Activity of Treated Cotton
Knits, AATCC REVIEW, 5 (3): 25-28
Chandra sumitra and Nair Rathish. 2010. Antimicrobial
activity of polyalthia longifolia (sonn) Pendula
leaf extracts against 91 clinically important
pathogenic microbial strains. Chinese
Medicine. 1: 31-38.
Ramachandran, T., Rajendra kumar R, Rajendran,
R. 2004. Antimicrobial Textiles – An overview,
IE (I) Journal of textiles 84 : 42-46
Deepthi G. 2007 Antimicrobial treatment for textiles
Indian Journal of fiber and textile research
32:254-263.
Sun, G and Worley, S. D, 2005 Chemistry of durable
and regenerable biocidal Textiles, Journal of
chemical education 1: 60-64
Harini K, Siva priya S and Giridev V.R , 2007
Checkmate for microbes, Synthetic Fibers 35:
8-12
Vyas, S.K., Gulve, A.l and Kandekar, T.S.2010.
Jain, T and Sharma K. 2009. Assay of antimicrobial
activity of P.Lonifolia Benth and Hook leaf
extracts, Journal of cell and Tissue research
9(2): 1817-1820.
Antimicrobial finishing agents for textiles. Asian
Textiles Journal. 57-64.
91
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 88-93, 2013
IMPACT OF PERSONAL VARIABLES ON WORK RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL
SYMPTOMS AMONG WOMEN WORKING IN PACKING UNITS OF
PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
V. PRASUNA, T. NEERAJA, P. RADHA RANI and A. SHARADA DEVI
Department of Resource Management and Consumer Sciences College of Home Science,
Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Saifabad, Hyderabad-500 004
Date of Receipt : 06-06-2013
Date of Acceptance : 12-09-2013
ABSTRACT
Hyderabad has emerged as a major drug manufacturing city with a presence in the global market. In
pharmaceutical industry mostly men are engaged for working with machines and equipments, where as women are
engaged for sedentary and repetitive manual work. In this situation high rate of work related musculoskeletal
disorders occurrence could be expected. Often the worker has no control over timing and speed of work because of
external factors like assembly line speed or quota systems due to which stress level may increase causing
musculoskeletal symptoms. The sample consisted of 270 women workers randomly selected from nine
pharmaceutical industries in Hyderabad. A scale was developed to study the musculoskeletal symptoms in nine
anatomical body regions. The musculoskeletal symptoms like pain, stiffness, swelling, spasms and so on experienced
by women were explored. Correlation between the personal variables like age, number of years of education,
number of years of experience, physical fitness with musculoskeletal symptoms was identified. Further through
ANOVA significant difference between the respondents with mild, moderate and severe musculoskeletal symptoms
was found out. The results emphasized increase in age, initial years of experience and low physical fitness were the
contributing factors for developing musculoskeletal symptoms.
(ii)
Personal characteristics of the workers along
with the work and work place factors contribute
towards developing musculoskeletal pains,
Finding out the relationship between personal
variables and musculoskeletal symptoms.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
discomforts and disorders. Certain personal
Sampling procedure
characteristics of the worker appear to affect
strength and the slowing of reaction and movement
Hyderabad city was selected to draw the
sample for the present investigation. The women who
were involved in the packing activities in
pharmaceutical industries for a period of minimum
three years and aged above 30 years was the criteria
adopted to select the sample for the study. A sample
of 270 women was chosen at random from nine
pharmaceutical industries from the list procured from
office of the Commissioner of Industries.
times (Cassou et al., 2002). Basic education of person
Variables of the study
vulnerability to work related musculoskeletal
disorders. As the age advances biological changes
occur in the muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints
that contribute to the pathogenesis of work related
musculoskeletal disorders. There are three main
musculoskeletal changes reported in the literature
viz. a reduction in joint mobility, decrease in muscular
can impact their knowledge about work practices.
Dependent variable of the study was
prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms. The
personal variables included age, number of years of
education, number of years of work experience and
physical fitness.
The propensity for injury is related more to the
difference between the demands of work and the
worker’s physical work capacity or work ability.
Hence the present research undertaken with
the following objectives
Data collection and measuring instruments
(i)
Personal characteristics viz., age, number
years of education, number of years of work
experience were collected by interview method.
Determining the prevalence of musculoskeletal
symptoms among pharmacy packing women
workers.
email: prrasunavelaga@gmail.com
92
IMPACT OF PERSONAL VARIABLES ON WORK RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL SYMPTOMS
Physical fitness was measured by using Step Stool
Ergometer.
The physical fitness score was calculated
using the following formula.
1985). The scale assessed the musculoskeletal
symptoms like pain, stiffness, swelling, spasms,
cramps, numbness and tingling sensations. The
frequency of experiencing the musculoskeletal
symptoms in nine anatomical body regions varied
from never to always. The frequency of symptoms
was assessed as never if symptoms may not present.
The frequency of symptoms was assessed as rarely
if prevalence of symptoms was few hours in a week.
The frequency of symptoms was assessed as
sometimes if prevalence of symptoms was 1-2 days
in a week. The frequency of symptoms was assessed
as frequently if prevalence of symptoms was 3-4 days
in a week. The frequency of symptoms was assessed
as severe if prevalence of symptoms was through
out the week. The scoring was given 1 to 5 for never
to always respectively. Higher the score means higher
the prevalence of symptoms.
PFI =
Statistical analysis
Physical fitness is considered as a measure
of the body’s ability to function efficiently and
effectively in work and leisure activities, to be healthy,
to resist hypokinetic diseases, and to meet
emergency situations (Wales, 2011). The
standardized PFI method (Varghese et al., (1994) by
using Step Stool Ergometer was adopted to measure
PFI in the present investigation. The duration of
stepping was maximum 5 minutes with a stepping
rate of 30steps/min. With the help of Pulse Rate
Monitor the heart beat was recorded for every 5
minutes during rest period, stepping activity and
recovery period.
Duration of stepping (sec.)
X 100
Sum of 1st, 2nd and 3rd min
recovery phase count
The interrelationship between personal
variables and presence of musculoskeletal symptoms
was assessed through Pearson’s Correlation
Coefficient. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
computed between the personal variables and
musculoskeletal symptoms of the body to find out
the significant mean differences. Multiple
comparisons t-test was used to find out which means
were different. Step wise regression was carried out
to find out the major contributing factor among all
the variables.
The scores obtained were interpreted using
the Physical Fitness Index scores. Up to 80 was
considered as poor physical fitness score. The scores
81-100, 101-115, 116-135, 136-150 and >150 were
interpreted as low average, high average, good, very
good and excellent.
The prevalence of musculoskeletal
symptoms was obtained by using a scale developed
for the present study. In the present investigation
the nine anatomical regions were grouped as neck,
shoulder, upper limb (upper arm, elbow, fore arm,
wrist, hand and fingers), back (upper back and lower
back), and lower limb (thigh, knee, ankle, feet and
toes) (Kuorinka et al., 1987, Winwood and Smith,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Demographic information
The mean age of the employees was
39.23±4.55 years; mean number of years of
Table 1. Distribution of sample by personal variables (N=270)
Personal variables
Age
Mean± S.D.
39.23±4.55
Min
33
Max
57
Number of years
of education
Number of years of
work experience
Physical Fitness Index
4.3±3.76
0
13
6.13±4.68
3
15
117.14±12.85
81
150
93
33-34
(17.78)
0
(37.04)
3-6
(74.1)
Low
average
(13.70)
Groups (%)
36-42
43-57
(62.96)
(19.26)
1-5
6-9
(27.04)
(21.11)
7-11
>=12
(16.6)
(9.3)
High
Good
average
(42.22)
(31.11)
>=10
(14.81)
Very
good
(12.96)
PRASUNA et al
education was 4.3±3.76 years. The mean number of
years of work experience of packing workers at the
time of assessment was 6.13±4.68 (Table 1). The
majority of the respondents were in high average
(31.11%) and good (42.22%) physical fitness index
groups.
investigation. Majority of the respondents were
experiencing the feeling of pain in neck (74%)
followed by feeling of stiffness (56.3%) and
appearance of swelling (55.93%). Among the
respondents 73 per cent of the respondents were
experiencing the feeling of pain in shoulder followed
by 55 per cent feeling stiffness and 54 per cent with
appearance of swelling. Among the respondents 74
per cent of the respondents were experiencing the
feeling of pain in upper limb followed by 63 per cent
feeling tingling sensations, 62 per cent occurrence
of spasms and tingling sensations in fingers
(Table 2).
Prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms
Respondents working among packing units
of pharmaceutical industry were asked to indicate
the presence of musculoskeletal symptoms using
the standardized musculoskeletal symptoms
assessment scale developed for the present
Table 2. Prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms among pharmacy packing women workers
(N=270)
Musculoskeletal symptoms
Neck (%)
Shoulder (%)
Upper limb (%)
Back (%)
Lower limb (%)
Feeling of pain
74.07
72.96
74.44
59.26
60.37
Feeling of stiffness
56.30
55.19
60.74
51.48
52.59
Appearance of swelling
55.93
54.44
61.11
52.22
56.30
Occurrence of spasms
51.11
51.11
60.00
48.15
53.70
Occurrence of cramps
51.48
47.41
61.85
48.89
52.22
Feeling of numbness
54.81
50.00
60.37
52.59
52.22
Tingling sensations
52.96
52.59
62.96
49.63
52.22
Among the respondents 59 per cent were
suffering from pain in back followed by feeling of
numbness (52.59%), appearance of swelling
(52.22%) and feeling of stiffness (51.48%). Among
the respondents 60 per cent of the respondents were
suffering from pain in lower limb followed by 56.3 per
cent with appearance of swelling, 53.7 per cent with
occurrence of spasms and 52.6 per cent feeling of
stiffness and 52 per cent with occurrence of cramps,
feeling of numbness, tingling sensations. The results
Table 3. Distribution of musculoskeletal symptom scores in neck, shoulder, upper limb, back, lower
limb and over all body
Frequency
of
Neck
Shoulder
Upper limb
Back
Lower limb
Over all body
Symptoms
Symptom
Symptom
Symptom
Symptom
Symptom
Symptom
Score
Score (%)
Score (%)
Score (%)
Score (%)
Score (%)
Score (%)
Normal
9 (25.6)
9 (26.3)
12 (24.8)
9 (27.8)
11 (23.7)
50 (17.8)
Low
10 -16 (15.2)
10 – 14 (16.3)
13 – 24 (19.3)
10-17 (14.1)
12-23 (17.8)
51-66 (8.1)
Moderate
17- 38 (46.3)
15 -37 (44.5)
25 – 51 (45.9)
18-38 (48.9)
24-48 (50.7)
67-187 (54.1)
Severe
39 -45 (12.9)
38 -45 (12.9)
52 -60 (10.0 )
39-45 (9.2)
49-55 ( 7.8)
188-250 (20.0)
Mean
27.1
25.8
37.0
27.7
35.5
126.9
S.D.
10.9
11.5
13.5
10.5
12.3
60.4
94
IMPACT OF PERSONAL VARIABLES ON WORK RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL SYMPTOMS
are in line with the Varmazyar et al., (2009) found
that pharmacy packing workers had high prevalence
of symptoms in knees (44.7%), back (36.8%) and
neck (31.6%).
musculoskeletal symptoms in neck, shoulder, upper
limb, back, lower limb and over all body. According
to the present investigation the number of years of
education was found to be having no relation with
the musculoskeletal symptoms experienced by
women engaged in packing activities of
pharmaceutical industries. On the contrary, Saha et
al. (2010) found that musculoskeletal morbidity was
more among illiterate workers as compared to literate
workers in small scale garment industry.
Relationship between personal variables and
prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms
The possible range of musculoskeletal
symptoms scores on the musculoskeletal symptoms
assessment scale were 9-45, 9-45, 12-60, 9-45 and
11-55 for neck, shoulder, upper limb, back and lower
limb respectively. The mean scores earned by the
sample was 27.1 for neck, 25.8 for shoulder, 37.0 for
upper limb, 27.7 for back and 35.5 for lower limb.
The over all musculoskeletal symptom score on the
scale ranged between 50-250 and the mean
musculoskeletal symptom score earned by the
sample was 126.9 (Table 3).
The computed ‘F’ values revealed significant
mean difference at 0.01 level between number of
years of experience and musculoskeletal symptoms
in neck (F=5.44), shoulder (F=7.35), upper limb
(F=8.49), lower limb (F=6.52) and overall body
(F=7.96). The F value showed significant difference
at 0.05 level between number of years of experience
and back symptoms (F=3.91). The women with less
number of years of work experience were frequently
experiencing neck, shoulder, upper limb, lower limb
and over all body symptoms. The women with
medium experience were sometimes feeling
musculoskeletal symptoms in neck, shoulder, upper
limb, lower limb and over all body. The women with
more number of years of work experience were rarely
experiencing musculoskeletal symptoms in neck,
shoulder, upper limb, back, lower limb and over all
body symptoms. In the present investigation as age
increased perceived level of musculoskeletal
symptoms increased. But when it comes to number
of years of work experience, perceived level of
musculoskeletal symptoms decreased with increased
work experience. Perhaps this could be due to the
reason that irrespective of age, women with more
work experience were allotted jobs like supervision,
collection, guiding others, getting work done and so
on where in they can walk and move around during
this work. Women when first joined or in the initial
stages of the work were given exclusively packing
activities which involved repetitive body motions.
Women in the initial years of work were confined to
the work place with out many movements and women
in the later years of work had the opportunity of
moving around as a part of their duties. With more
experience the women learned some techniques that
simplified the work so that they became cautious
while carrying loads and sitting and grasping the
things made them less prone to musculoskeletal
symptoms.
Age of the respondents showed significant
positive correlation with musculoskeletal symptoms
in shoulder (r=0.15), upper limb (r=0.16) at 0.01 level
and back (r=0.13) and over all body symptoms
(r=0.14) at 0.05 level. The computed F values revealed
significant mean difference at 0.01 level between age
and musculoskeletal symptoms in neck (F=5.17),
shoulder (F=5.22) and over all body (F=4.92). The F
values were found to be significant at 0.05 level
between age and musculoskeletal symptoms in upper
limb (F=4.15) and back (F=3.79). Further multiple
comparisons test was then used to determine which
means differ. The young women were rarely
experiencing musculoskeletal symptoms in neck,
shoulder, upper limb, back and over all body. The
middle aged women and old aged women were
sometimes feeling the neck, shoulder, upper limb,
back and over all body symptoms. There was no
significant difference was observed between middle
age women and old age women. According to the
present investigation, as age increased the
musculoskeletal symptoms in the women engaged
in packing activities of pharmaceutical industries
increased. Similar findings were reported by Morken
et al. (2000) in aluminium industry workers.
Number of years of education of the respondents
showed no correlation with musculoskeletal
symptoms in nine anatomical body regions. The
computed ‘F’ values revealed no significant difference
between number of years of education and
95
PRASUNA et al
Physical fitness index (PFI) of the respondents
showed significant negative correlation with
musculoskeletal symptoms in neck (r=-0.28),
shoulder (r=-0.32), upper limb (r=-0.21), back (r=0.21), lower limb (r=-0.19) and over all body (r=-0.27)
at 0.01 level. The computed ‘F’ values revealed
significant mean differences between physical fitness
index and musculoskeletal symptoms at 0.01 level
in anatomical regions viz. neck (F=8.11), shoulder
(F=10.33), upper limb (6.87), back (7.10), lower limb
(F=6.62) and over all body (F=9.42). When different
groups were compared using multiple comparisons
t-test, the women with low average PFI were
frequently experiencing musculoskeletal symptoms
in neck, shoulder, upper limb, back, lower limb and
over all body. The women with high average PFI and
good PFI were sometimes experiencing
musculoskeletal symptoms in neck, shoulder, upper
limb, back, lower limb and over all body. The women
with very good PFI were rarely experiencing
musculoskeletal symptoms in neck, shoulder, upper
limb, back, lower limb and over all body. As physical
Table 4. Determinants of musculoskeletal symptoms in anatomical regions among women in packing
activities of pharmaceutical industry through stepwise regression
Musculoskeletal symptoms in neck
Step Variables
1
Physical fitness index
Musculoskeletal symptoms in shoulder
Step Variables
1
Physical fitness index
2
Number of years of experience
3
Age
Musculoskeletal symptoms in upper limb
Step Variables
1
Physical fitness index
2
Number of years of experience
3
Age
Musculoskeletal symptoms in back
Step Variables
1
Physical fitness index
2
Number of years of experience
3
Age
Musculoskeletal symptoms in lower limb
Variables
Partial
R-Square
0.027
Model
R-Square
0.575
C(p)
F-value
Pr>F
20.27
16.90
<.0001
Partial
R-Square
0.055
0.007
0.010
Model
R-Square
0.519
0.563
0.573
C(p)
F-value
Pr>F
34.489
15.692
11.298
30.31
3.95
6.34
<.0001
0.048
0.012
Partial
R-Square
0.008
0.006
0.013
Model
R-Square
0.593
0.599
0.612
C(p)
F-value
Pr>F
8.651
6.761
0.038
4.96
3.88
9.04
0.023
0.049
0.003
Partial
R-Square
0.019
0.007
0.012
Model
R-Square
0.376
0.383
0.395
C(p)
F-value
Pr>F
17.78
16.507
13.247
8.14
3.14
5.12
0.005
0.078
0.024
Partial
R-Square
0.013
0.011
Model
R-Square
0.390
0.401
C(p)
F-value
Pr>F
2.477
0.445
5.50
5.03
0.019
0.026
Model
R-Square
0.591
0.599
0.608
C(p)
F-value
Pr>F
12.88
9.738
5.478
19.13
5.06
6.27
<0.0001
0.025
0.013
1
Physical fitness index
2
Number of years of experience
Musculoskeletal symptoms in overall body
Step Variables
Partial
R-Square
1
Physical fitness index
0.029
2
Number of years of experience
0.008
3
Age
0.009
96
IMPACT OF PERSONAL VARIABLES ON WORK RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL SYMPTOMS
symptoms in shoulder, upper limb, back and over all
body (Table 4).
fitness index score increased the musculoskeletal
symptoms in the women engaged in packing activities
of pharmaceutical industries decreased. Similar
findings were reported by Morken et al. (2000) among
aluminium workers.
The prevalence of musculoskeletal
symptoms was more among women workers involved
in packing activities of pharmaceutical industry. The
personal variables like increase in age, initial years
of experience, low physical fitness index were found
to be the risk factors causing musculoskeletal
symptoms among women working in packing
activities of pharmaceutical industry. Ergonomic
interventions like giving rest breaks, training and
education on good ergonomic practices in the work
can reduce the work related musculoskeletal
symptoms. The physical fitness of the respondents
can be increased by regular exercise.
The physical fitness index was found to be the
main contributing factor for musculoskeletal
symptoms in neck, shoulder, upper limb, back, lower
limb and over all body. Initial number of years of
experience was the contributing factor next to physical
fitness contributing to musculoskeletal symptoms in
shoulder, upper limb, back, lower limb and over all
body. Age was found to be one determinant among
all the selected variables causing musculoskeletal
REFERENCES
Alexpoulos, E.C., Tanagra, D., Konstantinou, E and
Burdorf, A. 2006. Musculoskeletal disorders
in shipyard industry: prevalence, health care
use and absenteeism. BMC Musculoskeletal
disorders. 7:88
S., Saue, I. L. L., Seljebo, G. M and Thoppu,
V. 2000. Prevalence of musculoskeletal
symptoms among aluminium workers.
Occupational Medicine. 50 (6): 414-421
Saha, T.K and Dasgupta, A. 2010. Health status of
workers engaged in the small-scale garment
industry: How healthy are they? Indian Journal
of Community Medicine. 35 (1): 179-82.
Cassou, B., Derriennic, F., Monfort, C., Norton J and
Touranchet, A. 2002. Chronic neck and
shoulder pain, age, and working conditions:
Longitudinal results from a large random
sample in France. Occupational and
Environmental Medicine. 59:537-544
Varghese, M. A., Saha, P. N and Atreya, N. 1994. A
rapid appraisal of occupational work load from
a modified scale of perceived exertion.
Ergonomics. 37(3):485-491.
Kuorinka, I., Jonsson, B., Kilbom, A., Vinterberg,
H., Biering S.F., Andersson, G and Jorgensen,
K. 1987. Standardized Nordic questionnaire
for the analysis of musculoskeletal
symptoms. Applied Ergonomics. 18(3): 233–
237.
Wales, J. 2011. Physical fitness. http://en.wikipedia/
wiki/Physical_fitness
Winwood, R.S and Smith, J.L. 1985. Anatomy and
Physiology for Nurses, Education Academic
and Medicinal Publishing Division of Hodder
and Stoughton, London. 35-80.
Morken, T., Moen, B., Riise, T., Bergum, O., Hauge,
S. H.V., Holien, S., Langedrag, A., Pedersen,
97
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 94-96, 2013
COOLING EFFECT OF BODY ON MILK PRODUCTION AND FEED
CONSUMPTION IN THE CROSS BRED COWS
SURESH RATHOD, M.KISHAN KUMAR and CH.SREEDHAR
Department of Instructional Livestock Farm Complex,
College of Veterinary Science, Korutla, Karimnagar-505326
Date of Receipt : 14-02-2013
Date of Acceptance : 12-07-2013
ABSTRACT
The effect of cooling of body on milk production and feed intake was carried by selecting 5 groups of HF
crossbred cows i.e. Loose housing system with sprinkler (T1), Loose housing system without sprinkler (T2), Barn with
sprinkler (T3), Barn with fan (T4) and Barn without fan (T5). Average daily milk yield (Kg) was significantly highest in
loose housing with sprinklers and barn with sprinklers (T1 & T3). There is no significant difference in the consumption
of concentrate feed between the treatments and the animals consumed whole quantity of feed offered. Consumption
of roughages (Green & Dry fodder) was significantly higher in T 1, T 2 & T3.
INTRODUCTION
early lactation (5-60 days of lactation) were selected
for study and are open. The animals were divided in
to five groups of five treatments viz: loose housing
with sprinkler (T1), loose housing without sprinkler
(T2), barn type with sprinkler (T3), barn type with fan
(T4) and barn type without fan (T5) all the animals
kept on concrete floor. The entire study period was
60 days, divided in to two parts namely adjustment
period for 15 days and 45 days for observation period
in the month of April and May. The sprinklings of
water were utilized 3 times a days at 10:30 am, 12:30
pm, and 2.30 pm at 2 hourly interval by operating 30
minutes. The data pertaining to macro climatic were
collected from Agro Advisory Service Unit RARS,
Jagitial, and micro climate with in the animal vicinity
once in the morning at 9:00 am and again in evening
at 3:00 pm.Tthe phsychrometric tables were used to
derive the relative humidity in percentage using the
wet and dry bulb readings.
Milk yield is a function of genetic makeup of
animal and environmental int eract ion. The
environmental factors i.e. temperature, humidity,
radiation and wind influence the ability of the animal
to maintain heat balance, milk production and feed
consumption. The environmental factors stress signal
the CNS and hypothalamus to alter feed intake and
heat production leading to decline in milk production
and other productive performance. In a hot
environment, when the body temperature is high the
evaporative heat loss by respiration and skin surface,
which lead to lower in production. Maintenance of
productivity at high ambient temperature is determined
mostly by the balance between metabolic heat
production and heat loss. Various management
practices can be useful to alleviate the severity of
the climatic influence of summer season. Water is
an effective cooling agent either wetting of the animal
body surface or through indirect evaporative cooling
of air. The present investigation aimed to find out
the effect of body surface cooling by sprinkling of
water, provision of fan in conventional barn and in
loose house confinement on milk production and feed
consumption of cross bred cows (HF) during summer
seasons
The cows were maintained under uniform
feeding of concentrate 2.0 kg as mash daily to meet
maintenance requirement and the extra ration was
fed to high yielders based on average milk yield over
and above the 8 Kg of milk. Green fodder and dry
fodder produced in farm was fed adlibitum thrice a
day. Drinking water was provided four times a day
through weighing of water in individual buckets to
each of the cow and weighing back of the leftovers
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The study was carried out on fifteen
crossbred cows (HF) three in each group of
Agricultural Polytechnic, Regional Agriculture
Research Station, Jagitial. All the animals were in
The milk yield of animals was recorded at
milking time individually in kgs. Milk samples were
collected once in a day for laboratory analyses
email: sureshrathod_2006@yahoo.co.in
98
COOLING EFFECT OF BODY ON MILK PRODUCTION AND FEED CONSUMPTION
separately for individual cows at each milking and
followed appropriate procedure to estimate Fat (IS:
1224 (Part I) 1977), SNF (IS: 1224-19558, total solids
and protein contents as per the standard procedure.
The feed consumption was calculated by weighed
quantities of fodder and concentrate offered to
individual cow and weighing the left overs. The
statistical analyses of the data was carried out by
using standard procedure of Snedecor and Cochran
(1989)
This attribute that during the hot and humid climate
animals needed free ventilation with free air
exchange. The sun shine observed in the study area
was 10:30 hrs.
Milk yield and milk constituents
The average daily milk yield and its
constituents recorded for different treatments were
shown in table 2. Average daily milk yield (Kg) was
highest in loose housing with sprinklers and barn with
sprinklers (T 1 & T 3) and difference was highly
significant. This might be due to cooling effect of
sprinkler which might has reduced the ambient body
temperature. The study is in agreement with
Mahendra singh et al. (2008) and Dass et al. (2008),
There is no significant difference in the milk
constituents (Fat, SNF and Total solids). Similar
findings were reported by Mahendra singh et al.
(2008).with regards to constituents.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The micro climatic changes during the study
period including environmental temperature are
represented in Table 1. The mean macro climatic
temperature, minimum & maximum was recorded as
19.500 C to 36.570C. The relative humidity in the
morning was 65.80 and in the evening 48.55 percent.
The wind speed was 6.23 Kmph which along with
change in R.H will cause change in environmental
profile. The mean maximum temperature in the five
treatment of study area is lower (P<0.001) than the
environmental temperature. This indicated that the
provision of proper housing with shade and cooling
effect, reduced the temperature with in the vicinity
of animal. The maximum temperature in the loose
house without sprinkler and barn type without fan (T2
and T5) was significantly (P<0.001) higher than loose
house with sprinkler, barn type with sprinkler and barn
type with fan (T1, T3 and T4). This may be due to
cooling effect of sprinkler and fan provided in the
animal shed. The minimum mean temperature
recorded in the (T4 & T5) barn with fan and barn without
fan was higher than that of other three treatments
and that of environmental temperature at morning.
The variation may be due to cooling effect sprinklers
and free ventilation in the shed similar findings was
record by Thirumurugan and Saseendran 2008.
Relative humidity in the morning and evening was
significantly (P<0.001) high in barn with sprinkler
followed by barn with fan and barn without fan than
the loose house with sprinklers and loose house
without sprinklers. This shows that the moisture
accumulation in side the shed due to hindrance in
the exchange of air increased relative humidity
(Tthirmurugun and Saseendran 2008, Michale Brouk
2005 and Rehman et al.,1982). The environmental
wind speed was lower (6.23 Kmph) than the ideal
wind speed (8 Kmph) suggested. ( Mc Dowell,1972).
Feed and water Consumption
There is no significant difference in the
consumption of concentrate feed among the
treatments and the animals consumed whole quantity
of feed offered. Consumption of roughages (Green
& Dry fodder) was significantly higher in (T1, T2 & T3)
loose housing with sprinklers, barn type with sprinkler
and loose house without sprinkler fallowed by barn
type with fan and lowest intake in barn type without
fan. This was clearly indicated that cooling effect on
body with sprinkler and evaporative heat loss, free
air movement at loose housing system increased
dry matter intake and reduced heat stress. Similar
findings reported by West (2003). Voluntary intake
of water is significantly higher in barn type without
fan followed by loose house without sprinklers, barn
type with sprinkler and lowest intake of water is in
the T1 group. It appears that, heat stress increased
voluntary intake of water and sprinkling of water
reduced heat stress and water consumption. Similar
findings were reported by Thirumuragan and
Saseendran (2008).
The cooling system (sprinkling of water)
increased dry matter intake, reduction in water intake
and increased milk yield. Hence, it is clear that
summer management and heat stress management
with sprinkling of water in loose housing system helps
in increasing of milk yield.
99
SURESH et al
Table 1. Means of macro and micro environmental changes during study period
Parameters
Maximum
Temperature º C**
Minimum
Temperature º C**
Mean
temperature ºC
Relative Humidity
(morning) %**
Relative Humidity
(evening) %**
Mean relative
humidity %**
Wind speed
(kmph)
Sunshine (Hrs)
macro
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
36.57±0.25
32.08±0.13
33.01±0.11
32.32±0.14
32.64±0.11
33.92±0.15
19.50±0.16
19.65±0.16
20.18±0.12
19.82±0.15
21.14±0.14
22.34±0.11
27.60±0.19
26.02±0.15
27.01±0.15
27.35±0.12
26.54±0.11
27.24±o.14
65.80±0.15
67.01±0.14
67.36±0.18
69.22±0.11
68.78±0.14
68.26±0.16
48.55±0.17
49.85±0.15
48.68±0.13
51.23±0.13
48.59±0.19
49.65±0.13
58.75±0.12
58.36±0.16
58.22±0.12
60.22±0.18
58.86±0.11
59.64±0.12
6.23±0.04
10.13±0.05
Table 2. Averages of production parameters, feed and water consumption of crossbred cows in different
treatments
Parameters
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
Milk yield (kg/d)**
8.56±0.18
7.05±0.12
8.05±0.11
7.85±0.09
7.01±0.02
Milk fat %
4.12±0.06
3.85±0.03
3.92±0.07
4.21±0.02
3.95±0.05
Milk solids not fat %
8.68±.0.04
8.52±0.03
8.62±0.04
8.65±0.04
8.58±0.03
Milk total solids %
12.88±0.07
12.57±0.03
12.74±0.02
12.92±0.04
12.75±0.02
Con.feed consumption (kg/d)
4.86±0.18
4.80±0.09
4.68±0.08
4.58±0.12
4.74±0.10
Green fodder kg/d**
26.22±0.24
24.45±0.32
25.86±0.30
24.90±0.24
22.24±0.26
Dry fodder (kg/d)**
10.26±0.24
9.23±0.12
9.65±0.20
8.92±0.12
8.28±0.23
Water intake (kg/d)**
22.83±0.38
29.02±0.36
26.72±0.28
24.65±0.64
30.34±0.24
Involuntary water intake
(kg/d)**
20.26±0.24
19.10±0.28
19.68±0.32
18.88±0.26
17.24±0.18
Total water intake (kg/d)**
43.09±0.28
48.12±0.20
46.40±0.26
43.53±0.38
47.58±0.22
REFERENCES
Das, M.M., Singh, K.K., Maity, S.B and Pailan, G.H.
2008. Management of summer stress for milk
production and reproduction in dairy animals.
Indian dairy. 60 (5): 51-54.
Mc Dowell, R.E. 1972. Improvement of livestock
production in warm climates. Free Man W.H
and Co. San francisco USA.
Michale Brouk. 2005. Evaluating and selecting
cooling systems for different climates.
Proceeding of the 7 th W est ern Dairy
Management Conference, March 09-11-2005:
33-40.
Mahendra singh, Sharma, D.K., Dutta, S and Ghosh,
A. 2008. Effect of modified management on
milk production composition and physiological
response in cross bred cows in eastern region.
Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 61 (4): 295297.
Rehman ,Z.U., Gillani, A.H., Ahmed, M. and Ali, C.S.
1982. Indian veterinary Journals, 59 : 170
Snedcor, G.W and Cochran, N.G. 1999. Statistical
Analyses. 9 th edition. Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Thirumurugan, P and Saseendran, P.C. 2008. Effect
of housing systems and sprinklings water on
production and feed consumption of cows
Indian veterinary Journals 85 (11): 1203-1206
West, J.W. 2003. Effect of Heat stress on production
in dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Sciences. 86:
2131-2144.
100
Research Notes
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 97-99, 2013
FARMERS’ SUGGESTIONS FOR BETTER PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OF
TANK IRRIGATION SYSTEM
KADIRI MOHAN1 and P.RAMESHKUMAR REDDY
Extension Education Institute, Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030
Date of Receipt : 03-11-2012
Irrigation tanks were part of an ancient tradition
of harvesting and preserving the local rainfall through
streams and rivers for later use, primarily for
agriculture and other uses. Tanks are especially
critical in parts of South India, without perennial
rainfall, where water supply replenishment depends
on a cycle of dry seasons alternating with monsoon
seasons available. Tanks are the important source
of irrigation in Andhra Pradesh with around 80000
tanks spreading in the districts where there are no
other surface irrigation sources. Tank irrigation was
declined to about 50 per cent (10.68 lakh ha during
1955-56 to 5.84 lakh ha during 2007-08) (GOAP, 2008)
due to several administrative, technical and social
reasons. Andhra Pradesh was the first state that
introduced and implementing Participatory Irrigation
Management (PIM) approach for managing water
resources since 1997. In this connection,10800 Water
Users Associations (WUAs) have been formed (out
of which 8079 WUAs were under minor irrigation
projects i.e., tanks) with a specific responsibilities
and powers to manage their own irrigation sources.
Under this new regime of PIM all the farmers (water
users) have to plan, organise, coordinate and
implement the tank development activities in
coordination with Irrigation and allied departments.
With this back ground, this study was under taken to
assess the constraints faced by the farmers under
PIM approach particularly in tank irrigation commands.
Any suggestion made by a person who has
experienced a particular situation will certainly guide
others into the right direction. Hence, an attempt was
made to elicit suggestions from the farmers who have
been experiencing the pros and cons of participatory
water management particularly under tank irrigation
system since a decade. Suggestions not only find
the ways and means to solve the current problems,
Date of Acceptance : 20-08-2013
but also help to arrive at a strategy for effective
management of irrigation system.
The present study was conducted in purposively
selected three districts viz., Chittoor, Vizainagaram
and Warangal based on predominance of tank
irrigation representing three regions of Andhra
Pradesh i.e., Rayalaseema, Coastal and Telangana
respectively of Andhra Pradesh. From each district
two mandals were selected purposively based on
maximum area under tank irrigation. From each
mandal two irrigation tanks and from each irrigation
tank ayacut 15 farmers were selected randomly, thus
making a total of 180 farmers. The data was collected
through personal interviews with the help of semistructured interview schedule. Farmers’ suggestions
on various aspects of participatory tank irrigation
management were ranked in Table 1.
It could be inferred from the Table 1, that farmers
indicated adequate funds need to be provided by the
government to take up development works on regular
basis (rank-1), tank ayacut should be developed with
permanent water distribution structures (rank-II),
special survey on tank ayacut and catchment need
to be carried out to curb encroachments (rank-III),
tank maintenance works should be completed before
onset of monsoon (rank-IV), WUAs office with
amenities need to be provided in the village to
conduct meetings and to perform office works (WUAs)
(rank-V), severe punishments must be given to rule
breakers like lavish water users (rank-VI), coordinated
efforts of agriculture irrigation and revenue
departments for effective implementation of
participatory tank irrigation system (rank-VII), political
and external influences on WUAs functioning should
be seriously curt ailed (rank-VII I), all t ank
development works should be given to WUAs (rankIX), avoid undue delay in sanctioning of funds by the
email: kadirimohan@hotmail.com
101
MOHAN1 and REDDY
Table 1. Suggestions elicited from the farmers for better participatory management of tank irrigation
system
S.No.
Suggestion
F
%
Rank
1
Adequate funds need to be provided by the government to take up
164
91.11
I
155
86.11
II
134
74.44
III
development works on regular basis
2
Tank ayacut should be developed with permanent water distribution
structures
3
Special survey on tank ayacut and catchment area need to be carried
out to curb the encroachments
4
Tank maintenance works should be completed before onset of monsoon
125
69.44
IV
5
WUAs Office with amenities need to be provided in the village to conduct
116
64.44
V
109
60.56
VI
98
54.44
VII
75
41.67
VII
meetings and to perform office works
6
Severe punishment must be given to rule breakers like lavish water
users
7
Coordinated efforts of agriculture, irrigation and revenue departments
are needed for effective implement of participatory tank irrigation system
8
Political and external influences on WUAs functioning should be
seriously curtailed
9
All tank development works should be given to WUAs
70
38.89
IX
10
Avoid undue delay in sanctioning of funds by the Government
62
34.44
X
11
Elections should be conducted under political free conditions in a fair
54
30.00
XI
36
20.00
XII
and democratic manner
12
Involvement of tenant farmers in decision making
government (rank-X), elections should be conducted
under political free conditions in a fair and democratic
manner (rank-XI) and Involvement of tenent farmers
in decision making (rank-XII).
All the farmers suggested that allocation of
sufficient funds to the WUAs for taking major
development works which will lead to control of
wastage of funds and improve the quality of works.
The training programmes need to be conducted to
farmers on regular basis to empower the farmers on
latest innovations for efficient water utilization. The
training also makes the farmers aware of the functions
of WUAs, convert the unfelt needs to be felt needs,
impart skills, knowledge and attitudes and ultimately
leads to full participation of farmers.
At present, there is a great danger for asserts
and properties under tank because of encroachments.
A special joint survey on the tank system properties
and clear demarcation by the revenue department
involving WUAs will certainly safe guard the tank area
and catchment area from encroachments.
Another important suggestion that farmers
suggested was as tank system is mainly dependent
on monsoons and it should be made mandatory to
complete all the tank repair works before the onset
of monsoon for its full utilization. Office facility for
WUAs should be provided for smooth conduct of
activities because at present all the activities are
carried out at the President and Management
Committee members residences. Due to prevailing
102
FARMERS’ SUGGESTIONS FOR BETTER PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OF TANK IRRIGATION
social issues like class and caste in villages some
farmers are not freely visiting the WUA management
members residence. Severe punishments should be
given to rule breakers with out any discrimination to
ensure better obeying of rules and regulations.
Lack of coordination among agricultural, revenue
and irrigation department is resulting in meager
collection of water cess and also hindering adoption
of latest technologies. Political influences on
management activities and elections of management
leadership should be curtailed and done fairly in
democratic manner. Further, when all the works in
the tank system allocated to WUA management with
government support and supervision will ensure better
quality of works and moreover increases the
accountability on part of the water users. Tenant
farmers should be registered and made them to
involve in the participatory aspects of the tank
management to ensure complete participation of the
water users. These findings were in line with
outcomes of Krishna (2001) and Purnima (2001).
REFERENCES
GOAP, (Government of Andhra Pradesh) 2008.
Annual Reports. Irrigation and Command Area
Development Department, Government of
Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad (India)
Krishna, D.V. 2001. SMART analysis of Water Users’
Associations in Godavari Eastern delta: A
case study. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis submitted to
Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,
Hyderabad (India).
Purnima, K. S. 2001. A study on Water Users
Associations in Khammam district of Andhra
Pradesh. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis submitted to
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharward,
Karnataka (India).
103
Research Notes
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 100-104, 2013
CHARACTER ASSOCIATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS FOR SEED
YIELD IN QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE (Zea mays L.)
K. VIJAY KUMAR, M. R. SUDARSHAN, KULDEEP SINGH DANGI and S. MADHUSUDAN REDDY
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture,
Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030
Date of Receipt : 21-02-2013
Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal
crop, next to wheat and rice and it is staple food in
many developing countries (Morries et al 1999).
Maize crop is of great significance due to its demand
for food, feed and industrial utilization. It plays an
important role in world economy and trade. Since
maize protein lacks two essential amino acids lysine
and tryptophan and protein deficiency is characterized
by many growth and health related complications in
humans. Therefore, considerable importance has
been given to Quality Protein Maize (QPM) breeding.
The material for the present study comprised
of sixty three quality protein maize genotypes
(numbered BQML-101 to BQML-163) that were
obtained from Maize Research Centre, Agricultural
Research Institute, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. The
experiment was carried out at College Farm, College
of Agriculture, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad
during rabi 2008-09 in a randomized block design with
three replications. Each genotype in each replication
consisted of a single row of fifteen plants with a
spacing of 75cm X 20 cm. Five representative plants
were selected at random from each line and
observations were recorded on each plant for sixteen
traits viz., days to 50 per cent tasseling, days to 50
per cent silking, plant height, ear height, days to
maturity, ear length, ear girth, number of kernel rows
per ear, number of kernel per row, 100-seed weight
(g), ear weight (g), shelling (%), protein content (%),
oil content (%), starch content (%) and grain yield
per plant (g). The correlation coefficients were
calculated as per the method suggested by Johnson
et al. (1955). Path analysis was worked out as per
method suggested by Deway and Lu (1959).
The Correlation coefficients between yield,
its component characters and quality parameters are
presented in Table 1. In this study the values of
Date of Acceptance : 26-06-2013
correlation coefficients indicated that in general, the
magnitude of genotypic correlation coefficients were
higher than phenotypic correlation coefficients for all
the traits which implied negligible influence of
environmental factors and strong inherent association
between the traits. Grain yield was significantly and
positively correlated with ear weight, number of
kernels per row, ear girth, shelling per cent, 100 seed
weight, number of kernel rows per ear, ear length
and oil content, while days to 50 per cent tasseling,
days to 50 per cent silking, and days to maturity had
negative association with grain yield. The remaining
characters, plant height, ear height, protein content
and starch content did not indicate any association
with seed yield. This indicated that seed yield can
be improved by making selection on the basis of ear
weight, number of kernels per row, ear girth, shelling
per cent, 100 seed weight, number of kernel rows
per ear, ear length and oil content. The traits ear
weight, number of kernels per row, ear girth, shelling
per cent, number of kernel rows per ear and 100 seed
weight which had strong positive correlation with seed
yield could be exploited in breeding programmes.
Similar results were reported by Jayakumar et al
(2007), Hemavathy et al (2008) and Shinde et al
(2009).
Path coefficient analysis that partitions the
correlation coefficient into direct and indirect effects
was worked out and is presented in Table 2. Among
the characters studied, days to 50% silking, ear
height, oil content and starch content had negative
direct effect on grain yield and the remaining
characters had positive direct effect. The character,
ear weight had the highest direct effect on seed yield
and it was followed by days to 50% silking and
shelling per cent. The traits, ear weight and shelling
per cent with high direct effect also had positive
email: vijay.kk410@gmail.com
104
CHARACTER ASSOCIATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS FOR SEED YIELD
correlation with seed yield while days to 50% tasseling
had significant negative correlation with seed yield.
Days to 50 per cent tasseling had negative
indirect effects through days to 50 per cent silking,
ear height, ear length, ear girth, number of kernels
per row, ear weight and shelling per cent. This trait
had positive indirect effects through plant height, days
to maturity, protein content and oil content. Days to
50 per cent silking showed negative direct effects on
grain yield. This trait had negative indirect effect
through ear height, ear length, ear girth, number of
kernels per row, ear weight, and shelling per cent.
This trait had positive indirect effects through plant
height, days to maturity, protein content and oil
content. Starch content had positive indirect effect.
Plant height had positive direct effects on
grain yield and negative indirect effects on grain yield
through ear height, ear length, number of kernels per
row and ear weight. This trait had positive indirect
effects through days to maturity, ear girth, 100 seed
weight, shelling per cent, protein content and oil
content. Ear height had positive indirect effects
through days to 50 per cent tasseling, plant height,
days to maturity, ear girth, 100 seed weight, shelling
per cent, protein content and oil content. Days to
maturity showed positive direct effect on grain yield.
This trait had negative indirect effects on grain yield
through days to 50 % silking, ear height, ear length,
number of kernels per row, ear weight, 100 seed
weight, and shelling per cent whereas, oil content.
This trait had positive indirect effects through days
to 50 per cent tasseling, plant height, ear girth,
number of kernel rows per ear and protein content.
Ear length had positive direct effects on grain
yield and had positive indirect effects through days
to 50 per cent silking, ear height, ear girth, number
of kernel rows per ear, number of kernels per row,
ear weight, 100 seed weight and shelling per cent.
Starch content had negative indirect effect. Ear girth
had positive direct effect on grain yield. This trait
had positive indirect effects through days to 50 per
cent silking, plant height, days to maturity, ear length,
number of kernel rows per ear, number of kernels per
row, ear weight, 100 seed weight and shelling per
cent.
Number of kernel rows per ear had positive
direct effect on grain yield. This trait had negative
indirect effects on grain yield through days to 50%
tasseling, plant height, protein content and oil content
and had positive correlation with days to 50 per cent
silking, ear height, days to maturity, ear length, ear
girth, number of kernels per row, ear weight, 100 seed
weight, and shelling per cent. Number of kernels per
row had positive direct effects on grain yield and
showed negative indirect effects on grain yield
through days to 50 per cent tasseling, plant height,
days to maturity, protein content and oil content. This
trait showed positive indirect effects on grain yield
through days to 50 per cent silking, ear height, ear
length, ear girth, number of kernel rows per ear, ear
weight, 100 seed weight, and shelling per cent.
Ear weight had positive direct effect on grain
yield. 100 seed weight had positive direct effect on
grain yield. Positive direct effect was shown by
shelling per cent on grain yield. This trait had negative
indirect effects on grain yield through days to 50 per
cent tasseling, ear height, days to maturity and oil
content and had positive indirect effect through
remaining characters viz., days to 50 per cent silking,
plant height, ear length, ear girth, number of rows
per ear, number of seeds per row, ear weight, 100
seed weight, protein content and starch content.
Positive direct effect on grain yield was shown by
protein content. This trait had negative indirect effect
on grain yield at phenotypic level through number of
kernel rows per ear and starch content.
Oil content had negative direct effect on grain
yield. This trait had positive indirect effect through
days to 50 per cent silking, ear height, days to
maturity, ear length, ear girth, number of kernel rows
per ear, number of kernels per row, ear weight and
shelling per cent. Negative indirect effects on grain
yield was exhibited by days to 50 per cent tasseling,
plant height, days to maturity, 100 seed weight,
shelling per cent and protein content and had positive
indirect effect through days to 50 per cent silking,
ear height, ear length, ear girth, number of kernels
per row, ear weight and oil content. Similar results
were reported by Kumar et al. (2006), Jay kumar et
al. (2007), Brar et al. (2008) and Saidaiah et al. (2008).
Among the characters studied, ear length,
ear girth, number of kernel rows per ear, number of
kernels per row, ear weight, 100 seed weight, shelling
per cent and oil per cent had positive and significant
105
* Significant at 5 per cent level,
** Significant at 1 per cent level.
Table 1. Correlation coefficients among yield and yield attributes in sixty-three genotypes of Quality Protein Maize (Zea mays L.)
VIJAY et al
106
Phenotypic residual effect =0.1438
Genotypic residual effect = 0.1057;
Bold figures are direct effects
Table2. Path coefficient analysis indicating direct and indirect effects of components characters on grain yield in sixty-three genotypes of Quality
Protein Maize (Zea mays L.)
CHARACTER ASSOCIATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS FOR SEED YIELD
107
VIJAY et al
correlation coefficient with grain yield and had positive
direct relationship with ear weight and shelling per
cent. Hence, it might be regarded as these characters
contributed maximum to the seed yield. Thus,
selection based on these characters would result in
improvement in seed yield.
REFERENCES
Brar, S. P. S., Chawla, J. S and Pritpal Singh, 2008.
Studies on different selection indices and Path
analysis in Maize (Zea mays L.). Crop
Improvement 35: 16-19.
Johnson, H. W., Robison, H. F and Comstock, R. E.
1955.
Estimates of genetic and
environmental variability in Soybean. Agron.
J. 47: 314-18
Dewey, D. R and Lu, K. H. 1959. A correlation and
path coefficient analysis of components of
crested wheat grass seed production.
Agronomy Journal 51: 515-518.
Kumar, S., Shahi, J. P., Singh, J and Singh, S. P,
2006. Correlation and path analyis in early
generation inbreds of Maize (Zea mays L.).
Crop Improvement 33: 156-160.
Hemavathy, A. T., Balaji, K., Ibrahim, S. M., Anand,
G and Deepa Sankar 2008. Genetic
variability and correlation studies in Maize
(Zea mays L.). Agricultural Science Digest 28:
112-114.
Morries, M. L., Risopous, J and Beck, D. 1999.
Genetic changes in future recycled Maize
seed. A review of the evidence CIMMYT econ.
Working paper no.99-07 Mexico D.E. CIMMYT
P.1.
Jayakumar, J., Sundaram, T., Raguramarajan, A
and Kannan, S. 2007. Studies on path
analysis in Maize (Zea mays L.) for grain yield
and other yield attributes. Plant Archives 7:
279-282.
Saidaiah, P., Satyanarayana, E and Sudheer Kumar,
S. 2008. Association and path coefficient
analysis in Maize (Zea mays L.). Agricultural
Science Digest 28: 2
Jayakumar, J., Sundaram, T., Prabu, D. A and Rajan,
A. R. R. 2007. Correlation studies in Maize
(Zea mays L.) evaluated for grain yield and
other yield attributes. International Journal of
Agricultural Sciences 3: 57-60
Shinde, S. A., Shelki, D. K and Sawargaonkar, G. L.
2009. Intercharacter associations and path
analysis of yield components in rabi Maize.
International Journal of Plant Sciences 4: 4951.
108
Research Notes
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 105-109, 2013
EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIATION ON GERMINATION PARAMETERS IN
PROMISING RICE CULTIVARS DURING LONG TERM STORAGE
L.VIDYA KUMARI, M. SREEDHAR, S.VANISREE and K. KESHAVULU
Department of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture,
Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030
Date of Receipt : 26-07-2013
Paddy cultivation and productivity in Andhra
Pradesh has been on the forefront in the entire
country. The rice varieties released by Acharya N.
G. Ranga Agricultural University in view of the area
occupied, require cost effective and environmentally
friendly storage methodologies with minimum
interference with seed quality and storability
parameters.
In many countries bot h fumigation with
chemicals and heat sterilization have been applied
for safe storage with varying degree of success.
However, such applications run with disadvantages
like toxic residue accumulation with potential
environmental hazards and altering seed potential to
remain viable and vigorous for longer periods of
storage. In t his context, gamma radiat ion
administered at sub lethal doses can be availed as
an effective alternative technology to sanitize the
seed before storage with minimum deterioration of
seed quality and storability. Effectiveness of selected
sub lethal gamma radiation dose in maintaining the
seed quality and storability parameters during an
extended period of ambient storage under farmer’s
condition need to be ascertained. Therefore, the
present study was carried out to investigate changes
in seed quality and storability parameters of
promising rice varieties at different doses of gamma
radiation stored under farmer’s conditions for nine
months.
The seed of four rice varieties (i.e. Two long grain
varieties: Tellahamsa, Sumathi; and two medium
grain varieties: Sambamahsuri and Swarna) were
collected from Seed research and Technology Centre
and Agricultural Research Institute, Rajendranagar.
They were packed in HDPE bag (700 guage) and
were exposed to selected doses of gamma radiation
(0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 Gy) in GC 5000 radiation
chamber with CO60 source having 2.61 KGy hr -1
Date of Acceptance : 31-09-2013
dose rate. The lab experiment was conducted in
Factorial Completely Randomized Design and
replicated thrice.
Data at bi-monthly intervals on germination
parameters were generated for a period of nine months
after storage and the changes during storage were
recorded.
Germination test was conducted on pure seed
fraction using 100 seeds in four replicates following
between paper (BP) method at 250C temperature and
93+2 per cent relative humidity (ISTA, 1985). Field
emergence potential of seeds from each treatment
was measured as per the method suggested by
Shenoy et al. (1990). Three hundred seeds in each
treatment were sown in three replications of hundred
seeds each on raised bed (4 x 1 m) of red loamy soil
with a spacing of 10 cm between the rows. The
number of seeds germinated in each row was
calculated on 10th day and field emergence (%). Daily
germination counts were performed until no further
germination was observed for seven days. An index
of the speed of germination was calculated by adding
the quotients of the daily counts divided by the number
of days of germination (Maguire, 1962). Peak value
and coefficient of velocity of germination ( Czabater,
1962) were computed using relevant formulae.
Germination parameters are good indicators
of field performance of a seed lot. Lab germination
data provides an estimate of viability under favourable
ambience, while field emergence gives an idea about
ability under real time situations. Parameters like
speed of germination, peak value and coefficient of
velocity of germination evaluate the efficiency of
germination in terms of time taken to complete the
total process of germination.
Interaction effects of gamma doses, varieties
and storage period presented in Table 1, suggested
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109
VIDYA et al
that germination percentage differed significantly
during storage. At 50 Gy in Sambamahsuri highest
percentage of germination (99) was recorded followed
by 98 percent in other treatments of Sumathi / 0, 50,
100 Gy, Tellahamsa / 50, 100 Gy, Sambamahsuri /
100 Gy and Swarna / 100 Gy during first bimonthly
period. Among all above treatments Sambamahsuri
/ 100 Gy , Swarna / 100 Gy, Tellahamsa / 50 Gy and
Sumathi / 50 Gy maintained the higher germination
percentage up to 4th bi-month of storage (97, 97, 96
and 94% respectively) and were significantly
superior to corresponding 0 Gy values (93, 92, 92
and 90% respectively) and remaining treatments.
These results were in accordance with findings of
Wang and Yu (2011) who reported that after 22 months
of long-term storage, germination rates of irradiated
rice variety were higher than that of non-irradiated
sample. These changes in germination rates were
attributed to self-repair mechanism of irradiated
organism.
The above results of germination capacity of
rice varieties were validated using the data obtained
from the field emergence studies. Field emergence
gives accurate and reproducible results in predicting
the planting value in field condition. Interaction effects
of gamma doses and varieties were significant during
all bi-monthly intervals of storage. The field
emergence ranged from 83 per cent (at 200 Gy in
Tellahamsa and Sumathi) to 94 per cent
(Sambamahsuri / 100 Gy) at the end of 4th bi-month
indicating the deleterious effect of higher gamma
dose. Dhakal and Pandey (2001) stated that
degradation of seed membrane and food reserves at
0 Gy in all test varieties was due to natural ageing.
Further, damage caused by free radical production
at higher doses of gamma exposure could have
played a major role in the gradual decline of seed
germination.
Among interaction effects which were
significant (Fig.1), maximum speed of germination
of 43.9 were recorded at Swarna 50 Gy after 1st bimonth and decreased to 37.4 at the end of 4th bimonth. Among other superior treatments,
Sambamahsuri /100 Gy (43.4), Tellahamsa / 50 Gy
(42.8) and Sumathi / 50 Gy (42.70) in 1st bi-month,
got reduced to 36.8, 36.7 and 36.4 respectively at
the end of 4th bi-month storage. These treatments
were significantly superior to their 0 Gy and remaining
treatments during first and fourth bimonthly studies.
Lower speed of germination observed at 200 Gy in
Tellahamsa (32.1), Sambamahsuri (32.3) and Sumathi
(32.8) at end of 4th bi-month storage indicating the
retarding influence of higher doses, which could be
attributed to diminished metabolic activity and
increased susceptibility to stress. Further, enhanced
speed of germination upto 100Gy was presumably
due to higher germination caused by stimulatory effect
of lower gamma doses.
Among significant interaction effects (Table
2), higher peak value of 32.7 was registered for
Sambamahsuri at 100 Gy at 1st bi-month and retained
maximum value (24.3) at the end of the 4th bi-month
and was followed by Swarna /100 Gy (24.5),
Tellahamsa / 50 Gy and Sumathi / 50 Gy (19.60)
which got reduced to 19.4, 16 and 18.8 respectively
at the end of 4th bi-month storage. These treatments
were significantly superior to their corresponding 0
Gy and remaining treatments during first and fourth
bimonthly studies. In each rice genotype lower peak
value of germination was observed at 200 Gy
(Tellahamsa 15.0; Sumathi 17.8 and Swarna 18.2)
at the end of 4th bi-month of storage indicating the
deleterious effect of the dose on the progress of
germination.
Similarly, for coefficient of velocity among
significant interaction effects (Fig.2), Swarna at 100
Gy showed 42.1% at 1st bi-month and recorded
maximum co-efficient of velocity of germination (38.2)
at the end of the 4 th bi-month f ollowed by
Sambamahsuri /100 Gy (42.4), Tellahamsa / 50 Gy
(41.9) and Sumathi / 50 Gy (41.7) which got reduced
to 36.1, 36.1 and 36.3 respectively after nine months
of storage.
In this context, Chaturvedi et al. (2012)
while working on the effects of gamma irradiation on
germination of rice indicated that storage period in
combination with higher doses of gamma radiation
had not only resulted in drastic reduction in
germination percentage but also prolonged the period
for completion of the germination process. The results
from this study alos indicated that long duration fine
grain varieties like Sambamahsuri and Swarna
completed the process of germination in
comparatively quick time than short duration long
110
Figures in parentheses indicate angular transformed values
Gy G2= 100 Gy G3= 150 Gy G4= 200 Gy
S1= Tellahamsa S2= Sumathi S3= Sambamahsuri S4= Swarna G0= 0 Gy G1= 50
Table 1. Germination (%) as influenced by the interactions among storage period, gamma doses and varieties
EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIATION ON GERMINATION PARAMETERS IN RICE
111
a= Tellahamsa S2= Sumathi S3= Sambamahsuri S4= Swarna G0= 0 Gy G1= 50 Gy
G2= 100 Gy G3= 150 Gy G4= 200 Gy
Table 2. Peak value of germination as influenced by the interaction among storage period, gamma doses and varieties
VIDYA et al
112
EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIATION ON GERMINATION PARAMETERS IN RICE
grain varieties viz., Tellahamsa and Sumathi thus
confirming the greater ability to buffer the effects of
storage under the influence of gamma radiation.
Finally, it could be concluded that gamma dose
of 50 Gy for Tellahamsa, Sumathi and 100 Gy for
Fig 1. Speed of germination as influenced by the
interaction among storage period, gamma
doses and varieties
Sambamahsuri, Swarna was found to be most
effective in sustaining the optimum seed germination
during long term storage under the influence of
gamma radiation.
Fig 2. Co-efficient of velocity of germination as
influenced by the interaction among
sto rage perio d, gamma d oses and
varieties
REFERENCES
Chaturvedi, A., Sreedhar, M., Singhal, R. K.,
Venubabu, P., Pavan Kumar, D and Aparna,
M. 2012. Effect of Gamma Irradiation on
Germinat ion of Rice Oryza Sativa L.
International Journal of Bio-resource and
Stress Management 3(1):018-021.
Czabator, F.J. 1962. Germination value: An index
combining speed and completeness of pine
seed germination. Forensic Science. 8:386396.
Dhakal, M.R and Pandey, A.K. 2001. Storage
potential of niger Guizotia abyssinica Cass.
seeds under ambient conditions. Seed Science
and Technology. 29:205-213.
Maguire, J.D. 1962. Speed of germination in selection
and evaluation for seedling emergence and
vigour. Crop Sciences. 2 (1): 176-177.
Shenoy, V. V., Dadlani, M and Seshu, D.V. 1990.
Associat ion of laborat ory assessed
parameters with field emergence in rice. The
non-anoic acid stress as a seed vigour test.
Seed Research. 18 (1): 60-69.
Wang, J and Yu, Y. 2011. Effect of gamma irradiation
pre-treatment on embryo structure and longterm germinating characteristics of rice seed.
International Agro Physics. 25 (4): 383-388. ISTA. 1985. International rules for seed testing and
annexes. Seed Science and Technology.
13: 13 – 15, 299-355.
113
Research Notes
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 110-112, 2013
INFLUENCE OF NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION ON FOOD LABELS ON
CONSUMER BUYING
SWETHA KODALI, NEERAJA TELAPROLU and P. RADHA RANI
Department of Resource Management and Consumer Sciences,
College of Home Science, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Saifabad - 500 004
Date of Receipt : 18-02-2012
The nutritional information on food labels
helps the consumers to choose variety of foods and
maintain a healthy diet with low saturated fat and
cholesterol. Nutritional labeling is found to affect the
consumer’s purchasing behavior significantly. Some
evidence reveals that provision of nutrition information
on food labels helps the consumers to make healthy
food choices (Anderson and Zarkin, 1992).
If the labels on food products are not provided
with sufficient nutritional information, the consumers
may not be aware of nutrient contents present in the
food product which show the effect on their buying
decision. Given this background, the study was
planned to find out the influence of nutritional
information on food labels on consumer buying.
The purpose of present study was to find out
whether consumers are influenced by the nutritional
information while purchasing the food products. The
twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad were
selected purposively as a study area. Exploratory
research design was followed and 120 sample of
consumers were selected from the very popular
supermarkets located in the study area. The tool
selected for collecting the information was an
interview schedule. The independent variables
selected for the study were age, gender, occupation,
number of years of education, marital status,
occupation, income, percentage of share in total
shopping, percentage of responsibility in total family
money handling, knowledge about the label and
purchase decisions of consumers.
Frequencies and percentages were
calculated for the profile of the respondents on the
variables. Chi square analysis was done to find out
the association between independent and dependent
variables of the study.
Date of Acceptance : 04-06-2013
The mean age estimated was 26 years with
standard deviation of 5.08. Comparatively larger
proportion (65.8%) of the sample was in the age group
of 22 to 31 years. Nearly one-fifth (18.3%) of the
sample was in the age group of 18 to 21 years. The
remaining 15.8 per cent of the sample was in the age
group of 32 to 45 years. Female consumers were
found to be higher in proportion (56.7%) compared to
male consumers (43.3%). The difference between
male and female consumers was found to be
negligible. Beus and Dunlap (1992) found that females
are more likely to use nutritional labeling than males
and have shown that sex play a major role in buying
behavior.
The variable ‘education of the respondents’ was
measured in terms of number of years of education.
The mean number of years of education was found
to be 16.39 with a S.D of 2.08 years. Nearly (70.3%)
were found to be with post graduate level of education.
Only 10 per cent of the sample had above 18 years
qualification.
Higher proportion (70.8%) of consumers who were
buying ready to eat meal food products were
unmarried consumers and (27.5%) of the consumers
were married consumers. Among the total sample,
comparatively higher proportion (50%) was found to
be employees and students formed forty percent of
the sample, the remaining being house wives.
The income details of the respondents was
gathered. The respondents were asked to state
whether their monthly income was above Rs 50,000
or between Rs 20,000 and 50,000. Nearly (57.5%) of
the sample were found to be from the middle income
group where as 42.5% of the sample were from the
higher income group. Nayga (1997) showed that
income has a significant effect on the use of
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114
INFLUENCE OF NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION ON FOOD LABELS ON CONSUMER BUYING
nutritional labeling, where as Caswell and Padberg
(1999) revealed that income does not necessarily
indicate a higher willingness to pay for nutritional
information on food items.
The percentage of share of responsibility in
the family shopping of the respondents was
cat egorized as t otal responsibility, major
responsibility, moderate responsibility, very less
responsibility and negligible responsibility and the
percentage given accordingly was 100%, 75%, 50%
and 25% for the responsibilities. The respondents
were asked to indicate their share in total family
shopping in terms of percentage. Total responsibility
of family shopping was shouldered by 37.5 per cent
of the sample. Only 5.8 per cent indicated very less
responsibility. Three fourth of the consumers were
found to be either taking total or major responsibility
in total family shopping and were more concerned
with the nutritional information on the food product
while purchasing.
The percentage of responsibility in the total
family money handling of the sample was studied.
From the distribution of the sample by percentage of
responsibility in total family money handling, it was
observed that (39.1%) of the respondents were either
taking total or major responsibility in family money
handling. As the sample consisted mostly unmarried
students and employees it was evident that young
generation by virtue of their employment were staying
away from family and shouldering responsibility of
the total money management.
The mean score of the knowledge level about
the label was found to be 9.16 with a standard
deviation of 1.56. Only half (51.6%) of the sample
chosen for the study had possessed good amount of
knowledge regarding the label features and
regulations. Slightly more than one third of the
population (38.3%) scored between 7 and 9 marks
only. Ten percent of the respondents scored below 6
marks. Almost half of the sample did not possess
adequate knowledge regarding label features and
regulations. It is evident that almost half of the sample
among the consumers who scored less than 10 were
lacking appropriate knowledge on label features and
regulations. The findings of the study were contrary
to the study conducted by Prathiraja and
Ariyawardana (2003) where 86% of respondents had
knowledge about the nutritional labels on food
products, while 14% did not have knowledge about
nutritional labels.
The decision for purchasing ready to eat food
products was studied under four heads, viz; need,
price, quality or attraction. Among the four factors,
attraction for the product on the spot that influenced
70 per cent of the respondents always. 60.8 per cent
of respondents mentioned need for the product as
the influencing factor for purchasing food products
always, while price always was considered by only
26.6 per cent. Slightly more than one fourth of the
population mentioned that quality of product never
influenced to seek the nutritional information (Table
1). But the study conducted by the Prathiraja and
Ariyawardana (2003) revealed that twenty five percent
were buying the product based on the quality. In the
present investigation, attraction towards the product
and need were the factors that always influenced more
number of consumers to prefer the nutritional
information while buying the product
Table 1. Distribution of Sample by purchasing decisions while selecting ready to eat meal food products
N=20
Frequency of purchasing
Purchasing decisions
Always
Sometimes
Never
%
%
%
Purchasing based on need
60.83
39.16
-
Purchasing based on price
26.66
65.83
7.5
Purchasing based on quality
10.00
59.16
30.86
70
22.5
7.5
Attraction for the product
115
SWETHA et al
Table 2. Association between influence of nutritional information on food labels on consumer buying
and selected variables of the study
N=20
Independent
Independentvariable
Variable
Nutritional informationon
information on food
Nutritional
foodlabel
label
2
Age
Gender
Number of years of education
Marital status
Occupation
Income
Percentage of share in total family shopping
Percentage of responsibility of the respondent in
handling family money
knowledge on label features and regulations
Purchasing decision based on need
Purchasing decision based on price
Purchasing decision based on quality
Purchasing decision based on attraction for product
χ value
14.1765
2.0419
6.2658
3.4106
8.1936
0.8184
5.0346
6.4657
Prob
0.0088*
0.1530
0.0436*
0.3325
0.0847*
0.3656
0.1693
0.0910
7.7060
2.1043
3.0284
1.7134
4.4632
0.0212*
0.1469
0.222
0.4246
0.1074
*- Significant at a probability level of < 0.05
Influence of nutritional information on food
labels on consumer buying and selected independent
variables of the study was found out by chi square
test.
Highly significant association was found
between the dependent variable and age, number
years of education, occupation and knowledge on
label features and regulations, whereas there was no
association with other independent variables
Table 2).
As per this study, young consumers were
more influenced by the nutritional information on food
label while purchasing the product compared to adult
consumers. Highly educated consumers were
seeking the nutritional information.
REFERENCES
Anderson, D.W and G.A. Zarkin. 1992. Consumer
and Producer Responses to Nutritional Label
Changes. American Journal of Agriculture
Economics. 74:1202-1207.
Nayga, R.M. 1997. Impact of Socio-Demographic
Factors on Perceived Importance of Nutrition
in Food Shopping. Journal of Consumer
Affairs. 31(1):1-9.
Beus, C and R. Dunlap. 1992. Understanding Public
Concerns about Pesticides: An Empirical
Examination. Journal of Consumer Affairs.
25:260 - 275.
Prathiraja, P.H.K and Ariyawardana, R. 2003. Impact
of Nutritional Labeling on Consumer Buying
Behavior. Sri Lankan Journal of Agricultural
Economics. 5: 11-21.
Caswell, J.A and Padberg, D.I. 1999. Toward a More
Comprehensive Theory of Food Labels.
American Journal of Agricultural Economics.
74:460 - 468.
116
Research Notes
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 113-119, 2013
VARIABILITY IN YIELD AND ITS COMPONENT TRAITS IN QUALITY PROTEIN
MAIZE GENOTYPES (Zea mays L.)
K. VIJAY KUMAR, M. R. SUDARSHAN, KULDEEP SINGH DANGI and S. MADHUSUDAN REDDY
Department of Genetics and Plant breeding, College of Agriculture,
Acharya N.G Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-30
Date of Receipt : 21-02-2013
Maize (Zea mays L.) is the world’s most
widely grown cereal and is staple food in many
developing countries (Morries et al, 1999). It occupies
a position of prominence in the world economy as
commodity for trade. In India a major part of grain
produced is utilized as feed followed by human
consumption. Quality Protein Maize (QPM) could be
a good source of protein for the people who have
limited access to other protein sources like meat,
egg and milk. Discovery of opaque-2 (o2) and floury
(fl2) mutant opened up possibilities for improvement
of protein quality with 70-100% higher lysine and
tryptophan, which later lead to the development of
quality protein maize (QPM). In this context existence
of genetic diversity among genotypes or parents is
very much desired. Estimating variability in a
population forms an effective tool for the breeder to
design his testing procedures for identifying superior
genotypes. Heritability is index for calculating the
influence of environment on expression of the
genotype and genetic advance would be helpful in
assessing nature of gene action.
The materials for the present st udy
comprised of sixty-three quality protein maize
genotypes (numbered from BQML-101 to BQML-163)
obtained from Maize Research Centre, ARI,
Rajendranagar. The experiment was carried out at
College Farm, College of Agriculture, ANGRAU,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad during rabi 2008-09 in a
randomized block design with three replications. Each
genotype in each replication consisted of a single
row of fifteen plants with a spacing of 75cm X 20
cm. Five representative plants were tagged at random
from each line for recording observations on sixteen
traits viz., days to 50 per cent tasseling, days to 50
per cent silking, plant height, ear height, days to
maturity, ear length, ear girth, number of kernel rows
per ear, number of kernel per row, 100-seed weight
Date of Acceptance : 27-07-2013
(g), ear weight (g), shelling (%), protein content (%),
oil content (%), starch content (%) and grain yield
per plant (g).
The estimates of genetic coefficient of
variability (GCV), phenotypic coefficient of variability
(PCV) together with heritability estimates would give
best picture about the extent of advance to selection
(Burton and Devane 1953). The data was analysed
statistically and the various parameters like PCV,
GCV, heritability and genetic advance were worked
out as per Singh and Chaudhary (1985).
Analysis of variance revealed that the
difference among the genotypes were highly
significant for all the sixteen characters studied (Table
1). Based on the mean performance the genotypes
BQML-110, BQML-105 and BQML-119 gave highest
grain yield per plant. The other high yielding entries
were BQML-106 BQML-136 and BQML-120, while the
least grain yield was recorded for the genotype BQML161. High yielding genotypes along with high protein
content are BQML-106, BQML-105, BQML-110,
BQML-136 and BQML-119 (Table 2).
The estimates of PCV, GCV, heritability,
genetic advance (GA) and GA as percent of mean
for different characters are represented in (Table 3).
The GCV as well as PCV were higher for grain yield
per plant followed by ear weight, numbers of kernels
per row, ear height. The other characters such as
plant height, ear length, 100 grain weight, oil content,
ear girth, number of kernels rows per ear, days to 50
per cent tasseling, days to 50 per cent silking, shelling
per cent, days to maturity and starch content had
small values for GCV and PCV.
The PCV was the highest for grain yield per
plant (30.82%) followed by ear weight (27.65%) and
number of kernels per row (22.24) while rest of the
characters showed low phenotypic coefficient
email: vijay.kk410@gmail.com
117
VIJAY et al
variation. Allard, 1970 suggested that GCV would be
more useful for the assessment of inherent or real
variability as it exhibits the heritable portion only. The
estimates of GCV for different characters were less
than those of PCV. It is evident, therefore, that the
influence of environment on the expression of these
characters was considerable in this study. The range
was the maximum for plant height (239.33) followed
by ear weight (141.00), days to maturity (122.00) and
grain yield per plant. Range was minimum for oil
content followed by protein content, ear girth and
number of kernels rows per ear. Similar results were
reported by Salami et al., (2007).
The heritability estimates were found to be
moderate to high for all the characters studied and it
ranged from 59.34 for number of kernels rows per
ear to 97.80 days to 50 per cent tasseling. High
estimates of heritability were recorded for days to 50
per cent tasseling, days to 50 percent silking, plant
height, ear height. High values of heritability indicated
that in the present study all characters are heritable
except number of kernel rows per ear, and oil content
(%). High heritability estimates are helpful in making
selection for superior genotypes on the basis of
phenotypic performance of quantitative characters.
Similar results were observed by Satyanaryana et al
(2003) and Neha Singhal et al (2006).
In the present study, highest genetic
advance as percentage of mean was observed for
grain yield per plant (56.62) followed by ear weight
(50.20), while starch content (4.06) had lowest genetic
advance. Four out of sixteen characters days to
maturity, shelling percent, protein content and number
of kernel rows per ear had moderate genetic advance.
Similar results reported by Kabdal et al. (2003) and
Neha Singhal et al (2006). High heritability coupled
with genetic advance arises due to additive gene
effects (Panse and Sukhatme 1985). High heritability
estimates but low genetic advance as per cent of
mean suggested that high heritability of these
characters was due to non-additive gene effects and
their interactions (Panse and Sukhatme 1985), hence,
high heritability alone cannot be relied upon for making
improvement through simple selection procedures.
Table 1. Analysis of variance for sixteen characters in Quality Protein Maize (Zea mays L.)
S.No.
Character
Mean sum of squares
Replications
2
df
Treatments
62
Error
124
1.
Days to 50 % tasseling
4.6**
118.62**
0.88
2.
Days to 50% silking
2.68
121.75**
1.01
3.
Plant height (cm)
53.53
2631.35**
38.13
4.
Ear height (cm)
16.86
657.08**
13.48
5.
Days to maturity
8.57
157.29**
3.87
6.
Ear length (cm)
3.3*
17.74**
0.74
7.
Ear girth (cm)
0.7
6.00**
0.5
8.
No. of kernel rows / ear
1.33
6.01**
1.11
9.
No.of kernels / row
12.58
78.51**
6.45
10.
Ear weight (g)
1470.64**
63.26
11.
100 seed weight (g)
0.77
37.44**
0.77
12.
Shelling %
0.15
82.17**
4.07
13.
Protein content (%)
Oil content (%)
0.03
3.37**
0.24
14.
1.07*
1.72**
0.27
15.
Starch content (%)
2.96**
7.22**
0.5
16.
Grain yield / plant (g)
** Significant at 1 per cent level
175.13*
172.57*
1071.00**
*Significant at 5 per cent level
118
41.57
VARIABILITY IN YIELD AND ITS COMPONENT TRAITS IN QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE GENOTYPES
119
VIJAY et al
120
VARIABILITY IN YIELD AND ITS COMPONENT TRAITS IN QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE GENOTYPES
121
Table 3. Estimation of variability, heritability and genetic advance as per cent of mean for sixty-three QPM genotypes (Zea mays L.).
VIJAY et al
122
VARIABILITY IN YIELD AND ITS COMPONENT TRAITS IN QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE GENOTYPES
REFERENCES
Burton, G. W. and De Vane, E. H. 1953. Estimating
heritability in tall fescue (festuca arundanacea)
from replicated clonal material. Agronomy
Journal 45: 478-481.
Kabdal, M. K., Verma, S. S., Ahmed, N and
Panwar, H. B. S. 2003. Genetic variability
and correlation studies of yield and its
attributing characters in maize (Zea mays
L.). Agricultural Science Digest 23: 137-139.
Morries, M. L., Risopous, J and Beck, D.1999.
Genetic changes in future recycled maize
seed. A review of the evidence CIMMYT econ.
Working paper no.99-07 Mexico D.E. CIMMYT
P.1.
Neha Singhal, Verma, S. S., Baskheti, D. C and Anil
Kumar 2006. Heritability, genetic advance,
correlation and path coefficient estimation in
high quality protein maize (Zea mays L.). Asian
Journal of Bio Science 1(2): 54-56.
Panse, V. G and Sukhatme, P. V. 1985. Statistical
methods for Agricultural workers. Fourth
revised edition.
Salami, A. E., Adegoke, S. A. O and Adegbite, O.
A. 2007. Genetic variability among maize
cultivars grown in Ekiti-State, Nigeria. MiddleEast Journal of Scientific Research 2 (1): 0913.
Satyanarayana, E., Shanti, P., Rekha, P. M and
Kumar, R. S. 2003. Studies on the identification
of suitable parents from high old maize (Zea
mays L.) germplasm for making potential single
cross hybrids. Research on crops 4(3): 348354.
Singh, R. K and Chaudhary, B. D. 1985. Biometrical
methods in quantitative genetic analysis.
Kalyani Publishers. New Delhi.
123
Research Notes
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 120-123, 2013
CORRELATION AND PATH ANALYSIS IN GREENGRAM
(Vigna radiata (L.) WILCZEK)
SRIKANTH THIPPANI, K. B. ESWARI AND M. V. BRAHMESWAR RAO
Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture,
Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030
Date of Receipt : 16-05-2013
Date of Acceptance : 20.08.2013
The seed yield of greengram is low; the
productivity of this pulse crop is to be stepped up by
evolving high yielding varieties. Therefore, to bring
about improvement in this crop, a thorough knowledge
of breeding behaviour of character is very essential.
Correlation studies indicate the magnitude of
association between pairs of characters and are useful
for selecting genotypes with desirable combinations
of characters thereby assisting the plant breeder in
crop improvement. Grain yield is a complex character
and is controlled by many factors. A direct selection
for desirable types should not only be restricted to
grain yield alone but other components related to grain
yield. The knowledge of the interrelationship of grain
yield with other important characters is necessary to
determine which of these characters could be used
for high grain yield. Correlation coefficient has been
employed for this purpose. However, the correlation
coefficient between two characters does not
necessarily imply a cause and effect relationship.
The inter-relationship could be grasped best if a
coefficient could be assigned to each path in the
diagram designed to measure the direct influence
among them. Path coefficient analysis is a statistical
technique of partitioning the correlation coefficients
into its direct and indirect effects, so that the
contribution of each character to yield could be
estimated. Therefore, the present investigation was
undertaken to find out the correlation and path
coefficient of mungbean genotypes and identify the
promising genotypes.
The field experiment was laidout in RBD with
three replications to evaluate 60 greengram genotypes
during kharif 2012 at college farm located at college
of agriculture, ANGRAU, Rajendra nagar, Hyderabad.
Each genotype was grown in 3 rows of 5 m length
with a spacing of 30 cm between rows and 10 cm
between plants with in row.
The replication wise mean values of ten randomly
selected plants were used for computing phenotypic
and genotypic correlation coefficients as well as direct
and indirect effects for eleven characters viz., days
to 50% flowering, days to maturity, plant height (cm),
number of primary branches per plant, number of
clusters per plant, number of pods per cluster, number
of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, 100seed weight (g), pod length (cm) and seed yield per
plant (g). Correlation coefficients were worked out by
using method described by Johnson et al., (1955).
The path coefficient analysis was carried out
according to the procedure described by Dewey and
Lu (1959).
Information regarding the nature and extent
of association of morphological characters would be
helpful in developing a suitable plant type, in addition
to the improvement of yield, a complex character for
which direct selection is not very effective. Thus, it
is important to explore the possibility of increasing
grain yield by indirect selection of some component
traits. Any unfavourable association between the
desirable characters may lead to limited genetic
advance. To study the inter-relationship of
contributing characters and seed yield, genotypic and
phenotypic correlation coefficients were computed
from the estimates of variances and co variances
for all possible combinations of characters studied
(Table 1). Grain yield per plant was found to be
positively and significantly correlated with the plant
height, numbers of pods per cluster and number of
seeds per pod at both genotypic level and phenotypic
level.. These results are in accordance with
Venkateswarlu (2001), Priya and Reddy (2008),
Rahim et al. (2010), Reddy et al. (2011) and Khanpara
et al. (2012). So improvement in seed yield is possible
by taking above characters as criteria in selection
scheme.
email: thippanisrikanth@gmail.com
124
* significant at 5% level
** significant at 1% level
P=Phenotypic level
Table 1. Genotypic and Phenotypic correlation coefficients in Greengram (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek).
G =Genotypic level
CORRELATION AND PATH ANALYSIS IN GREENGRAM
125
126
* Significant at 5 per cent level and ** Significant at 1 per cent level
Genotypic residual effect = 0.8063 and Phenotypical residual effect = 0.9042
P=Phenotypic level
G =Genotypic level
Table 2. Estimation of direct (bold) and indirect effects of yield and its components in greengram (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek
THIPPANI et al
CORRELATION AND PATH ANALYSIS IN GREENGRAM
Pat h coefficient analysis accommodate an
assistance for categorizing the total correlation into
direct and indirect effects. The results of path analysis
showed (Table 2) that number of pods per cluster
had maximum and positive direct effect on seed yield
followed by seeds per pod, plant height, pod length
and 100-seed weight at genotypic level. The negative
direct effects on grin yield by days to 50% flowering,
days to maturity, primary branches per plant and
number of cluster per plant. These results are
agreement with Dhuppe et al. (2005) for days to 50%
flowering; Priya and Reddy (2008) for plant height;
Dhuppe et al. (2005) for number of primary branches
per plant; Priya and Reddy (2008) for number of pods
per plant; Roopa Lavanya and Bini Toms (2009) and
Priya and Reddy (2008) for number of seeds per pod;
Sirohi et al. (2007) for pod length; and Upendra Kumar
et al. (2005), Priya and Reddy (2008), Roopa Lavanya
and Bini Toms (2009) and Reddy et al. (2011) for
100-seed weight. Path analysis revealed that number
of pods per cluster had high direct effect, therefore,
simple selection for this character would be useful to
maximum seed yield. Considering all the aspects
together it is apparent from path analysis that
maximum effects as well as appreciable indirect
influences were exerted by plant height, number of
pods per cluster and number of seeds per pod towards
seed yield per palnt. These characters also exhibited
significant and positive association with seed yield
per plant. Hence, they may be considered as the
most important yield contributing characters and
appropriate prominence should be placed on these
components while breeding for high yielding types in
green gram.
REFERENCES
Dewey, D. R and Lu, K. H. 1959. A correlation and
path coefficient analysis of components of
created wheat grass seed production. Agron.
J. 51: 515-518.
Dhuppe, M. V., Madrap, I. A., Chandranker, G. D
and More, S. S. (2005). Correlation and path
analysis in mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.)
Wilczek). Journal of Soils and Crops. 15 (1):
84-89.
Haritha, S and Reddy S. M. (2002). Correlation and
path coefficient analysis in mungbean (Vigna
radiata (L.) Wilczek ). Legume research. 25(3):
180-183.
Johnson, H. W., Robinson, H. F and Comstock, R.
E. (1955). Estimat es of genetic and
environmental variability in soybean.
Agronomy Journal. 47: 477-483.
Khanpara, M. D., Vchhani, J. H., Jivani, L.L.,
Jethava, A. S and Vaghasia, P. M. (2012).
Correlation and path co-efficient analysis in
greengram (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). Asian
Journal of Biological sciences. 7 (1): 34-38.
Priya, M. S and Reddy, K. H. P. (2008). Character
association and path analysis in twenty one
F3 progenies of mungbeen (Vigna radiata (L.)
Wilczek). Journal of Research. ANGRAU
36(1): 16-20. 8ref.
Rahim, M. A., Mila, A. A., Mahmud, F., Zeba, N and
Afrin, K. S. (2010). Genetic variability,
character association and genetic divergence
in mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). Plant
Omics Journal. 3 (1): 1-6.
Roopa lavanya, M and Bini Toms (2009). Association
and relationship among yield contributing
characters in mungbeam. Journal of Food
Legumes. 22(1): 65-67.
Sirohi, S. P. S., Dhama, S. K., Singh, S. P., Nitin
Kumar and Bahuguna, D. K. (2007). Correlation
and path coefficient analysis in mungbean
(Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). Progressive
research. 2 (1/2): 129-131.
Reddy, D. K. R., Venkateswarlu, O., Obaiah, M. C
and Jyothi, G. L. S. (2011). Studies on genetic
variability, character association and pathcoefficient analysis in greengram (Vigna
radiata (L.) Wilczek). Legume Research.
34(3): 202-206.10 ref.
Upendra Kumar, Singh, S. P and Vikas (2005).
Variability and character association in
mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). New
agriculturist. 16(1,2): 23-28.
Vikas Paroda, V. R. S and Singh, S. P. (1998).
Phenotypic correlation and indirect relation of
component characters with seed yield in
mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek) over
environments. Ann. of Agric. Res. 3(2): 11215.
127
Research Notes
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 124-126, 2013
INFLUENCE OF ROW SPACING AND PHOSPHORUS LEVELS ON SEED
PRODUCTION OF DHAINCHA (Sesbania aculeata)
B. VENKANNA, B. JOSEPH, K.B. SUNEETHA DEVI and A. SIVA SANKAR
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,
Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030
Date of Receipt : 09-07-2013
In the present day context where in emphasis
on use of organic fertilizer in agriculture, green
manure is the cheapest and best source of improving
soil fertility and maintaining the health of an agroecosystem. Dhaincha is an ideal green manure crop
as it is quick growing, succulent, easily decomposable
and produces high amount of bio mass with low
moisture requirements. It can be grown in the salt
affected soils and also in ill drained soils. It is quick
germinating and fast growing crop and bears more
number of nitrogen nodules which fix atmospheric
nitrogen. Though the value of green manure crops in
supplying nutrients is well proved, green manuring
practices have not been widely adopted by the farmers
due to multiple factors. Among the constraints, nonavailability of good quality seed at the appropriate
time is the foremost one. A lot of work on its utility
as green manure crop has been done. But no serious
efforts were made to increase the seed production of
Dhaincha.
For maximizing seed production, an optimum
plant density per unit area is an important
management tool. There is a tendency to neglect
the mineral nutrition of nitrogen fixing legume crops
whose exceptional capacity to produce seeds,
biomass and protein depends on the availability of
adequate nutrients especially phosphorus. The
nodulation and nitrogen fixation require high
phosphorus status in the host plant.
A field experiment was conducted at College
Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad on sandy clay loamy soil. The soil is
slightly alkaline in soil reaction(pH7.6), medium in
organic carbon(0.45 %), low in available nitrogen (l76
kg ha-1) and medium in available phosphorous (5l.7
P205 kg ha-1) and potassium (294 K2O kgha-1). The
treatments comprised of three row spacings (30 cm,
Date of Acceptance : 22-08-2013
45 cm and 60 cm with a plant population ofl,66,666,
1,11,111 and 83,333 plants ha-1 respectively.) and
three phosphorus levels (0 kg, 25 kg and 50 kg ha-1).
The gross plot size was 28.8 m2 (7.2 m x 4.0 m).
The experiment was laid out in a randomized block
design with factorial concept and replicated thrice. A
basal dose of 20 kg nitrogen and phosphorus as per
the treatments was applied. Irrigation was given as
and when required after giving due weightage to
rainfall. A total of five irrigations were given during
the crop period. The total rainfall received was 10
mm which was distributed in three rainy days. No
serious pest and disease incidence was observed
except root rot at 60 DAS hence drenching of copper
oxy chloride 50 % WP was done to control the root
rot. The crop was weeded twice to keep the plots
weed free. The data was taken at 30, 60, 90 DAS
and at harvest. The crop was cut, dried, threshed,
seed yield was recorded and finally B:C ratio was
analyzed. The crop was sown on 8th Nov, 2012 and
harvested on 7th March 2013.
The results revealed that row spacings and
phosphorus levels significantly influenced the growth
parameters, yield attributes and yield of Dhaincha
crop.
Effect of row spacing
Among the three different row spacings (30,
45 and 60 cm) studied, Dhaincha sown at wider row
spacing of 60 cm recorded more number of pods
plant -1, number of seeds pod -1 than closer row
spacings of 30 and 45 cm. Higher seed yield (2l23
kg ha-1) was recorded at row spacing of 30 cm closely
followed by that from 45 cm (1887 kg ha-1), while the
lowest seed yield of 1742 kg ha-1 was observed at
wider row spacing of 60 cm. The improved per plant
yield attributes at 60cm row spacing has not reflected
in per hectare seed yield of Dhaincha. Though, all
email: bvenkanna77@gmail.com
128
INFLUENCE OF ROW SPACING AND PHOSPHORUS LEVELS ON SEED PRODUCTION
the yield attributing characters were higher at wider
spacings, these improvements were not sufficient to
compensate the loss in plant population per unit area
from closer row spacing. Similar increase in seed
yield at closer spacing was also reported by
Sangeetha et al.(2011), Shastri et al. (2007),
Yaragoppa et al. (2003) and Parlawar et al. (2001).
Higher gross returns, net returns and B:C ratio
were obtained at 50 kg ha-1 phosphorus application
than lower levels (0 and 25 kgha-1). But B:C ratio
obtained at 50 kg ha-1 phosphorus application was at
parwith.25 kg ha-1.These results are similar to the
findings of Parlawar et al. (2001).
Higher gross returns, net returns and
B:Cratios were obtained at closer row spacing of 30
cm followed by 45 cm, while the lowest at 60 cm.
The study revealed that growth, seed yield
ha , gross monetary returns, net monetary returns
-1
and benefit: cost ratios were recorded significantly
higher with row spacing of 30 cm andP205application
Effect of phosphorus levels
@ 50 kg ha-1. However B: C ratio of 25 kg P205 ha1was at par with 50 kg P205ha-1. Yield attributes were
Among the three different phosphorus levels
(0, 25 and 50 kgha-1 studied, Dhaincha with 50 kg ha1
phosphorus application performed better in terms of
number of pods plant-1, seedspod-1 and seed yield
kgha-1 than the other phosphorus levels (0 and 25 kg
ha-1)Similar findings were also obtained by Singh and
Gangaiah (2012), Rengalakshmi and Purushothaman
(1999)and Parlawar et al. (2001).
significantly highest for row spacing of 60 cm and 50
kg P205ha-1. Row spacing of 30 cm along with
application of 25 to 50 kg P205 had can be considered
as an optimum management technique for obtaining
increased seed yield of Dhaincha.
Table 1. Influence of row spacing and phosphorous levels on yield and yield attributes of Dhaincha
(Sesbania aculeata)
Treatment
No. of
pods
-1
plant
No. of
seeds
-1
plant
S1 - 30cm
18.37
S2 - 45cm
S3- 60cm
Seed
yield
Net
returns
-1
Rs ha
B:C
Ratio
Kg ha
Gross
returns
-1
Rs ha
26.04
2123
53097
40522
3.2
23.53
26.57
1887
47194
34894
2.8
27.64
26.93
1742
43555
31405
2.5
SE(m)±
0.4
0.18
50
1253
1253
0.1
CD at 5%
1.25
0.55
150
3758
3758
0.2
22.02
23.02
1732
43305
31863
2.7
-1
23.28
26.82
1896
47402
35061
2.8
-1
24.20
30.13
2125
53138
39897
3.0
SE(m)±
0.4
0.18
50
1253
1253
0.1
CD at 5%
1.25
0.55
150
3758
3758
0.2
SE(m)±
0.72
0.31
86
2171
2171
0.17
CD at 5%
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
-1
Row Spacing
Phosphorus levels
-1
P1- 0 kg ha
P2- 25 kg ha
P3- 50 kg ha
SxP
129
VENKANNA et al
REFERENCES
Parlawar, N.D., Girl, D.G., Adpawar, R.M and
Yadgirwar, P.V. 2001. Influence of seed rate,
row spacing and phosphate level on seed yield
and economics of dhaincha Sesbania
aculeataL.PKV Research Journal. 25(2): 6872.
Shastri, A.B., Desai, B.K., Pujari, B.T., Halepyati,
A.S and Vasudevan, S.N. 2007. Studies on
the effect of plant densities and phosphorus
management on growth and seed yield of sun
hemp Crotalaria juncea L. Karnataka Journal
of Agricultural Sciences. 20(2): 359-360.
Rengalakshmi, R and Purshothaman,S.l999.Effect
of season, spacing and phosphorus on seed
production of Sesbania species. Madras
Agricultural Journal. 86(4-6): 232-235.
Singh, H and Gangaiah, B. 2012.Seed production of
dhaincha Sesbania aculeata as influenced by
nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization. Indian
Journal of Agronomy. 57(4): 397-402.
Sangeetha, R., Yakadri, M., Srinivasaraju, M and Sai
ram, A. 2011. Seed yield of Dhaincha Sesbania
aculeata as influenced by sowing dates and
plant densities during rabi season. Journal of
Research, ANGRAU. 39(4): 57-58.
Yaragoppa, S.D., Desai, B.K., IIalepyati, A.S and
Pujari,B.T.2003. Influence of plant densities
and phosphorus management on growth and
seed yield of Sesbania aculeata (Wills.) Poir.
Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences.
16(2): 297-299.
130
Research Notes
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 127-129, 2013
SCALE CONSTRUCTION FOR MEASURING THE ATTITUDE TOWARDS
PURSUING SELF EMPLOYMENT IN AGRICULTURE
KADIRI MOHAN1 and P.RAMESHKUMAR REDDY
Extension Education Institute, Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030
Date of Receipt : 03-11-2012
The search for jobs is all the more difficult
because of the fact that the rank of jobless and
underemployed was already high and is steadily
increasing. Due to recent trends of globalization and
privatization there is growing suspicion and securing
full time Government employment may remain only
a dream. Agricultural graduates are no exception to
this situation. Even after the available many avenues
in private and public sector still the number of
unemployed agricultural graduates is growing up. In
order to utilize the potential of the unemployed
agricultural graduates in the process of agricultural
development of the country, Government of India have
initiated schemes to support the graduates to set up
their own agri-business units for his/her own
development and helping the others with their
services. It is a universally accepted fact that the
attitude of an individual plays an important role in
determining his behaviour with respect to a particular
object. Attitude is the pre-disposition of action (Sherif
and Cantril, 1945). It is degree of positive or negative
affect associated with some psychological object
(Thurstone and Chave, 1929). Thus, attitude in the
study was operationally defined as “the degree of
positive or negative feelings of agricultural graduates
towards perusing self employment in agriculture. After
graduation an agricultural graduates with the right and
positive attitude towards self employment can
motivate himself/herself to use available resources
and government support in establishing his/her own
agri-business unit. Keeping these aspects in view
this study has been undertaken to construct an
attitude scale to measure the attitude of the
agricultural graduates towards self employment.
METHODOLOGY
i.
Selection of type of attitude scale: For
measuring the attitudes, different type of scales
which were developed by Thurstone, Likert,
Date of Acceptance : 20.08.2013
Guttman and Bagardus were available and in
this study Likert method of summated ratings
(Likert’s Technique, 1932) procedure was
followed.
ii.
Collection of attitude stimuli: A set of
statements broadly covering the area of self
employment in agriculture were collected from
the available literature and through interaction
with the extension experts and agricultural
graduates who are private, government and self
employed. A tentative list of 60 statements
consisting of 32 negative and 28 positive
statements were drafted keeping in view of the
applicability of statements suited to the area of
study.
iii. Editing the statements: Each statement was
edited considering the 14 informal criteria
suggested by Thurstone & Chave (1929) and
Edwards and Kilpatrick (1948).
iv. Item analysis: For the purpose of preparation
of final scale 60 statements were administered
to 60 agricultural graduates who just passed out
during 2007-08 academic year from College of
Agriculture, Rajendranagar, ANGR Agricultural
University, Hyderabad. The respondents were
asked to indicate their degree of favourableness
or unfavourableness with each item on 5 point
continuum scale. Scoring was given for positive
statements as 5,4,3,2 and 1 and for negative
statements as 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively. The
total individual scores of each respondent for 60
statements were computed by summing up their
score for all statements and arranged in
descending order. Further, the respondents were
divided into 4 groups, comprising 15 respondents
in each group. The top 25 per cent were
considered as the highest group and bottom 25
email: kadirimohan@hotmail.com
131
MOHAN1 and REDDY
S.No.
Statements
SA
1
I would like to use my talents and skills in my own enterprise
2
Every agricultural graduate should start his/her own agriculture
business unit without thinking of any other avenues of employment
after graduation
3
Own agribusiness unit is more remunerative and rewarding to a
student of agriculture when compared to other graduates
4*
I will be more recognized when I work with a good organization
rather than self employment
5
Self employment in agriculture is having lot of scope and
opportunities
6*
It is easy to grow professionally when I work with a reputed
organisation
7*
Being a graduate in agriculture, it is below prestige to take up farm
related self employment
8*
Self employment is highly uncertain and involves risk
9
I wish to be a job provider rather than job seeker
10
Being a agriculture graduate, I find it is prestigious in the society if I
start my own agriculture enterprise
11*
Efforts will be wasted if I go for self employment which is highly
unsecured
12*
Government service is only the best available career for an
agricultural graduate
13*
Working with any organization gives me more scope to perform and
concentrate fully on work
14
I would like to contribute something to farming community with my
own self employment enterprise
15
Being a graduate in agriculture, it is easy to accept challenge of
pursuing self employment in agriculture
16
If all agricultural graduates pursue agricultural related self
employment it will boos agriculture growth of the country
17*
I don’t possess the required entrepreneurial and managerial skills to
take up agricultural related enterprises
18*
I would like to enjoy the position and authority working in an private /
Government organization rather than going for self employment
19*
Person who does not fit for jobs only will opt for self employment in
agriculture
20
Being a agricultural graduate I am fully equipped with the abilities
required to set up own agri-business
21*
Self employment will never be a career for young agricultural
graduate
22
I want to become a role model to other agricultural graduates by
succeeding in my own farm related enterprise
23*
All other enterprises are profitable when compared to agricultural
enterprise
24
Agricultural related self employment will give me more satisfaction
then other self employment avenues
* Negative statements
132
A
UD
DA
SD
SCALE CONSTRUCTION FOR MEASURING THE ATTITUDE
per cent scores as the lowest group and were
taken for evaluation of individual statements. The
‘t’ values for each statement were calculated
using the formula suggested by Edward (1967)
v.
vi.
Selection of the statements for final scale:
All the 60 statements were then arrayed on the
basis of their ‘t’ value. From these, 12 positive
and 12 negative statements were selected for
the final scale with their scale value more than
1.75.
Validity and Reliability: The validity of the
scale was examined with the help of content
validity to determine how well the contents of
the scale represented the subject matter under
study. As all the possible statements covering
the universe were selected by discussion with
extension experts and officials of the agriculture,
the present scale satisfied content validity.
Reliability of the scale was calculated by testretest method. The reliability coefficient (r) was
found to be 0.84 indicating that the attitude scale
has precision, accuracy and can be used for
measurement.
FINAL ATTITUDE SCALE
The agricultural graduates have different
options about self employment. The following
statements show some such differences. Please
indicate by putting tick ( Ö ) mark in the appropriate
box with whether you Strongly Agree (SA), Agree
(A), Undecided (UD), Disagree (DA) or Strongly
Disagree (SD) with these statements.
REFERENCES
Edward, A.L. 1967. Techniques of Attitude scale
construction. Vakils, Feffer and Simons Inc,
New York.
Edwards, A.L and Kilpatrick, F.P. 1948. A technique
for construction of Attitude Scale. J.App.
Psycho. 32:374-384.
Sheriff and Cantril 1945. Psychology of attitude.
Psychology Review 52.
Thurstone, L.L and Chave, E.J. 1929. The
Measurement of attitude. Chicago University
Press, USA.pp 39-40.
Likert, R.A. 1932. A technique for the measurement
of attitude. Arc. Psychology.
133
RESPONSE OF SAFFLOWER (Carthamus Tinctorius L.) GENOTYPES AND
PLANT DENSITIES ON YIELD COMPONENTS, YIELD AND ECONOMICS UNDER
RAINFED CONDITIONS
P. SATISH, C SUDHAKAR and C.SUDHARANI
Agricultural Research Station, Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University
Tandur, Ranga Reddy- 501141
Date of Receipt : 05-02-2013
The trial was conducted at the Agricultural
Research Station, Tandur during 2010-11 winter
season with four different spacings viz, 45x20 cm,
45x30 cm, 60x20 cm and 60x30 cm and with four
varieties SSF-708, A-1, NARI-63 and SSF-773 in split
plot design. Plant height, number of branches /plant
did not exhibit any significant difference with row
spacing and genotypes. Safflower crop when flanked
at 45 (cm) rows recorded maximum number of
capitula per plant (39.4) and seed yield of 1386 kg/
ha. Similarly gross returns of Rs 30492/ha, net returns
of Rs 23892/ha and benefit cost ratio 4.62 was higher
with 45x30cm spacing. Among the safflower entries
tested SSF-708 has produced significantly higher
seed yield of 1295 kg/ha which was on par with
Annegeri-1 (1252 kg/ha). Similarly gross returns of
Rs 28490 /ha, net returns of Rs 23892/ha and benefit
cost ratio 4.62.
Safflower is one of the important oilseed
crops cultivated in India since ancient times. It is
also cultivated in countries like USA, Mexico,
Aregentina and China. India occupies first position
in cultivation of safflower area, the productivity of
safflower crop is lower (630 kg/ha) than the world
average (859 kg/ha). In India It is cultivated in an
area of 2.71 lakh ha with a production of 1.71 lakh
tones and productivity of 632 kg/ha (DOR Annual
Report, 2010). Even though the productivity increased
to three folds for the past three decades the present
productivity of 632 kg/ha is still very low under
improved methods of cultivation.
Safflower is an important winter season
oilseed crop grown in Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra
and Karnataka. In Southern Telangana Zone of
Andhra Pradesh it is cultivated as fallow crop or
contingent oilseed crop. It is imperative to adjust all
inputs and management practices to the stored
Date of Acceptance : 21-06-2013
moisture for ensuring efficient moisture use under
varied seasonal conditions in the arid and semi arid
tropics. To reach the maximum yield in addition to
optimum plant density, consistent distribution of
plants and consequently the structure of plant canopy
and elite genotypes are great importance. Patel et
al. (1994) stated that highest grain yield for 30, 45
and 60cm rows were obtained for narrow row of 30
cm. Hence, the present investigation was carried out
to find the optimum row spacing in different safflower
varieties.
The field experiment was conducted at
Agricultural Research Station, Tandur during the
winter season (2010-11). The experiment comprised
of four row spacings 45x20 cm, 45x30 cm, 60x20
cm and 60x30 cm and four varieties SSF-708, A-1,
NARI-63 and SSF-733 laid out in split plot design
with two replications. The soil of the experimental
site had pH of 7.83 with low, medium and high
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium respectively.
The safflower crop was grown during October and
harvested in the month of march. All the
recommended cultural practices were followed. Seed
yield and yield components were recorded.
The study revealed that the plant height and number
of branches were not influenced by plant geometry
(Table 1). Safflower crop when flanked at 45 (cm)
rows recorded maximum number of capitula per plant
(39.4) and seed yield of 1386 kg/ha. Similarly gross
returns of Rs 30492/ha, net returns of Rs 23892/ha
and benefit cost ratio 4.62 was higher with 45x30cm
spacing than 60 cm row spacing. The crop flanked
with 60 cm rows spacing succumbed to moisture
stress and reduced the yields than 45cm rows.
Among the safflower entries tested SSF-708 has
produced significantly higher seed yield of 1295 kg/
ha which was on par with Annegeri-1 (1252 kg/ha).
email: sathishpindi@gmail.com
134
Table.1 Effect of row spacing and safflower varieties on yield components, yield and economics
Treatments
Plant
height
(cm)
No of
branc
hes/
plant
No of
capitul
a/
plant
Seed yield
kg/ha
COC
Rs
Gross
return
Rs
Net
return
Rs
BCR
S1 45 X 20 (cm)
83.2
10.6
31.2
1129
6600
24838
18238
3.76
S2 45 X 30 (cm)
82.6
10.7
39.4
1386
6600
30492
23892
4.62
S3 60 X 20 (cm)
81.0
10.5
32.5
1119
6600
24618
18018
3.73
S4 60 X 30 (cm)
84.0
11.9
31.4
1095
6600
24090
17490
3.65
SE m±
1.5
1.0
1.5
62
CD(5 % )
NS
NS
5.2
215
SSF-708
82
10.5
31.6
1295
6600
28490
21890
4.32
Annegeri-1
83
11.2
39.1
1252
6600
27544
20944
4.17
NARI-63
83
11.5
32.3
1069
6600
23518
16918
3.56
SSF-733
82
10.5
31.6
1113
6600
24486
17886
3.71
SE m±
1.6
0.4
1.4
57
CD(5 % )
NS
NS
3.9
166
SE m±
3.0
2.1
2.9
124
CD(5 % )
NS
NS
NS
NS
Spacing
Entries
Interaction
Similarly gross returns of Rs 28490 /ha, net returns
of Rs 23892 / ha and benefit cost ratio 4.62 was
higher with 45x30cm. T his may be due to
performance of a variety varies from region to region,
place to place under varied environmental conditions.
Interactions were found non significant.The results
corroborate with the findings of Gholamreza Zefei et
al (2012). While, Somangouda et al (2012) stated that
the yield attributes and yield response was uniform
under varied planting system.
REFERENCES
DOR Annual Report 2010 Annual Report of AICRP
on Oilseeds-Safflower, 2010-11 Directorate
of Oil seeds Research, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad
Patel, ZG, Menta, SC and Roy, VC 1994 Response
of safflower to row spacing and nitrogen
phosphorus fertilizers nad vertisols of south
Gujarat, Indian Journal of Agronomy, 39: pp
699-700
Gholamreza Zefie, Hossein Shamshi and Farjam
Fazeli 2012 Effect of planting density on
yield and yield components of safflower
(Carthamus tinctorius L.) cultivars in spring
planting. Journal of Oilseeds Research
(Special issue) pp 224-226.
Somangouda, G., Halagalimath, SP., Kambrekar,
D.N., Bsawarajappa, MP and Harish Babu BN
2012. Effect of plant density on yield, yield
components and economics in safflower
(Carthamus tinctorius L.) under rainfed
conditions. Journal of Oilseeds Research
(Special issue) pp 203-204.
135
Research Notes
J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 132-134, 2013
SENSORY PROPERTIES OF GUAR-GUM INCORPORATED TOMATO SAUCE
E. SHARATH and K. UMA MAHESWARI
Department of Foods and Nutrition, Post Graduate and Research Centre,
Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural university, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030
Date of Receipt : 02-01-2013
Date of Acceptance : 15-07-2013
Gaur gum is a white to creamy coloured free
flowing powder and free from extraneous matter. Its
ability to suspend solids, to bind water by hydrogen
binding and form strong tough films accounts for its
wide application in various industries. Industrial grade
guar gum is used in paper, textile processing,
explosive, detergent, drilling fluid, ceramic and paint
industries. I ts purified grade is used in
pharmaceutical, dielectric, cosmetic and food
industries. ( Kaur and Iqbal bhatra, 1984). A study
was carried out to know the sensory quality
characteristics of guar gum incorporated tomato
sauce, as guar gum is a colloidal substance which
increase the consistency and maintain the texture
of the sauce.
1) . The hydrocolloid (guar-gum) was incorporated at
0.2 and 0.5%, in both 100g of sauce. Each sample
in hot condition was poured in poly propylene
container, and sealed. The sample was stored at
ambient temperature (20-22oC) for 24 hours before
the analysis. The Sensory evaluation of developed
tomato sauce was carried out by using 9 point hedonic
scale. (Marek Sikora et al., 2007). The product was
stored for one month and again sensory properties
evaluation was done.
Tomato sauce prepared by incorporating
different levels of guar gum was subjected to sensory
evaluation, before and after the storage period of one
month. Sensory evaluation was done for freshly
prepared sauce and again after the storage period of
one month. The data was presented based on the
mean scores of 10 semi trained panelists.
Tomato sauce was prepared as per the
standard receipe procedure of Srivastava,1994 (Fig
Table 1. Mean sensory scores of tomato sauce prepared by incorporating different levels of guar-gum
before and after storage
Attribute
Before storage
Tomato sauce
Control G1
G2
SEd ±
CD (5%)
Colour
Flavour
Taste
Aroma
Consistency
Overall acceptability
9.00
9.00
9.00
9.00
8.00
9.00
8.16
7.50
7.60
8.00
8.83
8.10
0.38
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.38
0.47
0.94
1.15
1.15
NS
1.15
NS
0.94
1.15
8.16
8.16
8.20
8.00
8.83
8.40
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.47
0.38
0.38
0.94
NS
0.94
NS
0.94
NS
1.15
NS
0.94
NS
0.94
8.33
7.66
7.80
8.10
8.50
7.66
NS
After storage period ( one month)
Colour
Flavour
Taste
Aroma
Consistency
Overall acceptability
9.00
9.00
9.00
9.00
8.00
9.00
8.33
8.20
8.16
8.10
8.50
8.24
email: sharath.fst@hotmail.com
136
NS
SENSORY PROPERTIES OF GUAR-GUM INCORPORATED TOMATO SAUCE
Each value represents the average of three
determinations
G1- Tomato sauce with 0.2% guar-gum concentration
G2- Tomato sauce with 0.5% guar-gum concentration
C- Control sauce
Fig 1. Standard recipie procedure for the preparation of tomato sauce (Srivastava,1994)
137
SHARATH and UMA
NS- Non Significant at 0.05% level of probability.
Addition of guar gum did not affect the colour of the
sauce. After one month of storage period, the mean
sensory score of colour remained same. There was
no deterioration of colour during the storage period
which determines that the sauce can be stored for
longer period.
Among the tomato sauce samples, the
control sample had highest mean sensory score for
flavour and the score decreased for the sauces
prepared using guar gum, the decrease was noticed
with both the concentrations of guar gum used. After
storage period, the mean sensory score of flavour
for control sample remained same while that of guar
gum incorporated samples improved. At the initial
stage the guar gum flavour has dominated the sauce,
but as the sauce was stored the guar gum flavour
decreased due to which the acceptance scores were
increased. Statistically significant difference was not
observed in mean flavour score after storage.
The mean sensory score of taste was highest
for control sample and lowest for both G1 and G2
samples. The addition of guar gum has reduced the
taste of the tomato sauce. After storage period, the
mean sensory score for tast e in guar gum
incorporated sauce samples improved while the taste
of control sample remained the same. The taste of
guar gum which was dominating the initial stage was
reduced due to which the taste of sauce improved.
Statistically significant differences were not observed
in mean taste scores.
Significant differences were not observed in
mean aroma score even after one month of storage
period, there was no change in the aroma. Marek
Sikora et al. (2007) also reported similar results on
rheological and sensory properties of dessert sauces
thickened by starch–xanthan gum combinations.
Consistency was the main property of sauce
and was directly proportional to the total solid content
present in the sauce. The consistency of sauce
samples was found to be unaffected with the addition
of guar gum to the samples, as the differences in
samples were found to be not significant statistically.
The sensory scores of consistency remained the
same even after storage period. There was no effect
of storage on the consistency of the sauce.
Among the tomato sauce samples, the
mean overall acceptability score was highest for the
control sample and lowest for G1. After the storage
period, the overall acceptability was found to improve
in the samples prepared using guar gum and all the
samples were comparable with each other for the
overall acceptability.
The evaluation suggested that 0.5% of guargum incorporated sample was best suited for
preparation of tomato sauce as it did not affect the
quality and also improved the consistency.
REFERENCES
Marek Sikaro., Stainslaw Kowalski., Piotr Tomasik
and Marek Sedy. 2007. Rheological and
sensory properties of dessert sauces
thickened by starch-xanthan gum. Journal of
Food Engineering. 79:1144-1151.
Perminder Kaur and Iqbal S. Bhatia (1984). Proteins
and trypsin inhibitor activity of guar seed. J.
Sci. Food Agic. 35: 987-995.
Srivastava, R.P.1994. Tomato processing. Fruits and
Vegetable preservation. Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi. PP: 253265.
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Journals and Bulletins
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Hu, J., Yue, B and Vick, B.A. 2007. Integration of trap makers onto a sunflower SSR marker linkage map
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Tables and Graphs : The data in tables should not be duplicated in graphs and vice versa. Mean data for
main treatment effects should be presented with appropriate SE± and CD values wherever necessary.
The 2 or 3 way tables should be furnished only if the results are consistent over years and are
distinguished to have consideration of significant practical value. SE± and CD values however,
should be furnished in the tables for all interactions and should be explained in the results and
discussion. The treatments should be mentioned atleast in short forms if they are lengthy, but not
abbreviated as T1, T2 and T3 etc. The weights and measures should be given in the metric system
following the latest units eg. kg ha-1, kg ha–1 cm, mg g-1, ds m-1, g m-3, C mol kg-1 etc.
Typing :
The article should be typed in 12 pt font on A4 size paper leaving a margin of 2 cm on all sides.
There should be a single line space between the rows in abstract and double line in rest. Verify
the manuscript thoroughly for errors before submitting it for publication.
Note :
Latest issue of the Journal may be consulted. Further details can be obtained from the book
“Editors style Manual, edn 4. American Institute of Biological Sciences, Washington DC”.
URL : http://www.angrau.ac.in/Publications.aspx
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONSIDERATION OF PUBLICATION OF ARTICLES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Research of not less than 2 years and of high standard will be considered as full length paper.
If necessary, it will be considered for short communication.
MSc. Research of one year should be submitted in the style and format of short communication.
The total number of pages should not exceed 10 for full paper and 5 pages for short communication
including tables and figures. The figures should be legible.
Previous research of 5 years old before the date of submission will not be considered.
All the authors should subscribe for the Journal
The manuscript should be submitted in duplicate as per the guidelines of the Journal to Managing
Editor, The Journal of Research ANGRAU, AICC & ANGRAU Press, ARI Campus, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad – 500 030.
The manuscript should accompany the declaration certificate and subscription enrolment form.
The authors should accept the editorial / referees comments until the quality of the paper is improved.
The revised manuscript should be submitted in duplicate along with a compact disk.
REVIEW PROCESS
The articles will be initially screened by the editors. It will be sent to an expert for peer review only if
it contains adequate original information and is prepared as per the guidelines. The author, then, may also be
asked to revise it if the expert desires. After getting the article suitably revised and edited, it will be placed
before the editor for a final decision. The accepted article will be finally checked for language and grammar by
the English editor before being sent to the press. The decision however to publish the paper lies with the
editor. Any article which is not able to meet the expected standard or is not prepared in conformity with
guidelines will be rejected without assigning any reason.
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS
FOR CONSIDERATION OF PUBLICATION OF ARTICLES
1.
Research of not less than 2 years and of high standard will be considered as full length paper. If
necessary, it will be considered for short communication.
2.
M.Sc. Research of one year should be submitted in the style and format of short communication.
3.
The total number of pages should not exceed 10 for full paper and 5 pages for short communication
including tables and figures. The figures should be legible.
4.
Previous research of 5 years before the date of submission will not be considered.
5.
All the authors should subscribe for the Journal
6.
The manuscript should be submitted in duplicate as per the guidelines of the Journal to Managing
Editor, the Journal of Research of Research ANGRAU, AI&CC and ANGRAU Press, ARI Campus,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
7.
The manuscript should accompany the declaration certificate and subscription enrolment form.
8.
The authors should accept the editorial / references comments until the quality of the article is improved.
9.
The revised manuscript should be submitted in duplicate along with a compact disk.
10.
DD may be drawn in favour of “Managing Editor, Journal of Research, ANGRAU” Payable at Hyderabad.
SUBSCRIPTION TARIFF
ANNUAL
Individual
:
Rs. 300/- author
Institution
:
Rs. 1200/-
Individual (till retirement) :
Rs. 1200/-
Reprints Charges
Rs. 100/- per page
LIFE
:
1.
Publications : Managing Editor - Journal of Research ANGRAU, AI&CC and ANGRAU Press,
ARI Campus, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
2.
Publications : The DD should be mailed to the Managing Editor - Journal of Research, ANGRAU
- Press Agricultural Research Institute, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030.
least in short forms if they are lengthy, but not abbreviated as T1, T2 and T3 etc. The weights and
measures should be given in the metric system following the latest units eg. kg ha-1, kg ha-1 cm, mg
g-1, ds m-1, g m-3, C mol kg-1 etc.
Typing : The article should be typed in 12pt font on A4 size paper leaving a margin of 2 cm on all sides.
There should be a single line space between the rows in abstract and double line in rest.
Note : Latest issue of the Journal may be consulted. Further details can be obtained from the book
“Editors style Manual, edn 4. American Institute of Biological Sciences, Washington DC”.
URL : http://www.angrau.ac.in/Publications.aspx