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Citation
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History and memory in Hou Hsiao-hsien's A City of Sadness and
Tian Zhuangzhuang's The Blue Kite
Chan, Shuen-yan.; 陳旋茵.
Chan, S. [陳旋茵]. (1999). History and memory in Hou Hsiaohsien's A City of Sadness and Tian Zhuangzhuang's The Blue
Kite. (Thesis). University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
SAR. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b3195184.
1999
http://hdl.handle.net/10722/40461
The author retains all proprietary rights, (such as patent rights)
and the right to use in future works.
History and Memory in
Hou Hsiao-hsien's A City of Sadness and
Tian Zhuangzhuang's The Blue Kite
CHAN Shuen-yan
for the degree of Master of Arts in Asian Studies at the University of the Bong Kong
in June 1999
*(
Declaration
I hereby declare that this dissertation represents my own work and it has not been
previously submitted to this University or to any other institution for a degree, diploma
or other qualification.
L)
;
'j
CHAN Shuen-yan
111
Acknowledgements
To make this dissertation a completion, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr.
Esther M.K. Cheung, my supervisor, for her guidance, inspiration and valuable
suggestions in the course of writing the manuscript. Also, I want to extend particular
thanks to my friends, Miss Mabel Cheng and Miss Ann Leung, for sharing their opinions
with me in regard to the New Chinese Cinema movements. Lastly, I would like to thank
my classmates for their encouragement and my family for their support.
IV
ThE UNIVERSITY OF I-lONG KONG
LIBRARIES
Thesis Collection
Deposited by the Author
Abstract of dissertation entitled
History and Memory in
Hou Hsiao-bsien's A City ofSadness and
Tian Zhuangzhuang's The Blue Kite
submitted by
CRAN Shuen-yan
for the degree ofMaster ofArts in Asian Studies
at the University of the Hong Kong
in June 1999
This dissertation is a comparison between A
City ofSadness
and
The Blue
Kites
directed
by Hou Hsiao-hsien and Tian Zhuangzhuang respectively, with specific focus on how
private memory of the past enters negotiations with public accounts of the official
history.
These two films are chosen for comparison because they share a similar
narrative form of telling the story of a nation through the story of a family. More
importantly. they are cinematic productions from Taiwan and Mainland China, the two
Chinese communities which have their own wounded history in the post-World War H
period. Hence, it is ofworth to compare how the two films are portrayed as the story of
a nation and what messages the two directors have incorporated into the films.
To facilitate the interpretation ofthe films telling the story of a nation via the Interplay
of memory and history, Walter Benjamin's discourse on histoiiography, Fredric
Jameson's national allegoly and Gbñel Teshome's proposition of third cinema as the
vehicle for national liberation will form the basic theoretical framework for the
following discussion. Upon this framework we shall proceed to discuss how the two
films are structured as the national allegories. telling the story of a nation through family
I
dissolution.
Apart from talking their common features, we shall also examine
differences between the two films. While A Ciy ofSadness, as an allegory, operates to
challenge the public historical events (official history) though the private memory
whereas the private memory
in The Blue Kite
serves as the
witness
ofthe public events.
As the analysis on the two films proceeds, one will note, by looking back and representing the past, Hou Hsiao-hsien attempts to examine the national ìdentity of a
Taiwanese whereas Tian Zhuangzhuang contemplates how politics repeatedly rule over
lives. Through the comparison of these two films. it is aimed to trace the soclo-political
development and progress in textual and extra-textual contexts. Interwoven with a
number of factors, A
liberation than
The
Cuy ofSadness is
Blue
Kite.
seemingly a more successftil vehicle for national
In fact, this may indicate, whìle Taiwan today is on the
road of political liberalization, Mainland China is still in struggle for political
liberalization.
11
Note on Romanization
Chinese names, places and terms mentioned in relation to the Republic of China (i.e.
Taiwan) are in Wade-OEles system whereas those in relation to People's Republic of
China are in Pinyin system.
V
Contents
Abstract
i
Declaration
¡il
Acknowledgments
iv
Note on Romanization
V
Table of ContenLs
Vi
Chapter 1
Introduction
1
Chapter 2
Bistory and the New Chinese Cinemas
Chapter3
12
History and Memory ofthe New Chinese Cinemas in theoretical framework
Chapter 4
Family, Nation and the State
23
(4.1) Family dissolution forming the strueture of the national allegory
(4.2) Relating Present to the Past - People, Nation and Identity
23
41
Chapter 5
Conclusion: Vehicle for National Liberation
58
Appendix I: About the Directors
Appendix fi : Filmography
Bibliography
64
65
66
vi
Chapter 1
Introduction
In the
last four decades, Taiwan and the People's Republic of China (PRC) have
experienced a very different course of socìo-polìtical development.
While Taiwan
underwent a rapid modernization and industrialization between I 950s and I 970s, people
of the mainland were thrown into endless political movements during this period.
In
spite of the prominent differences in their historical experiences, people in both places
have their own wounded histoiy in the post-World War II period.
By the
I 980s, political and economic liberalization
(at varied degrees) gaIned
momentum in both pIacs. Alongside the trend of liberalization. cinema became a more
genuine cultural manifestation of a society, rather than functioning as a state apparatus
disseminating the state ideology. Meanwhile, in the hope of liberating their fellow
countrymen from the oppressed past, filmmakers of Taiwan and Mainland China (those
from the New Chinese Cinemas in particular) embarked on various cinematic projects to
negotiate with the official accounts ofthe past via the personal I private memories of the
populace. The filmmakers were enthusiastic about these projects because they felt, the
official history of a nation was solely written for the interests of the ruling class, it bad
never been a ful picture of the past. Hence, prIvate memory from the populace (in
fragments and ruptures) was needed to amend and to reconstruct the history of a nation.
It was against such a background that the films A City ofSadness ( (11) ) and
The Blue Kl/e ( ()t) ),
telling the story ofa nation through the story of a family,
i
were produced by Hou Hsiao-hsìen
and Tian Zhuangzhuang (±iJ±)
respectively in the early I 990s.
To acquire a better understanding about the relationship between history and memory as
constructed in A
City of Sadness
and
The Blue Kite,
Walter Benjamin's discourse on
historical wrìting will be borrowed as the framework to examine how the individual
memory can contribute to the re-writing and the reconstruction of a
nation's histoty.
Also, the personal memory depicted in the films is shaped by the public events in
history. it should have its counterparts in the nation forming the popular memory. Since
the split between the private sphere and the public sphere becomes trivial through the
formation of popular memory, the two films will then be read at collective level in
context of Fredric Jamesons national allegory. Yet, one should flote that Jameson's
approach is not totally explainable of the cultural productions in Taiwan and Mainland
China, bis approach has its own insufficiencies.
Therefore, Gabriel Teshome' s
discourse on third cinema will be used to improve the applicability of Jameson's
national allegory in these two Chinese communities. Finally, the extent that these two
films can serve as, what Teshome calls, the vehicle for national liberation will be
evaluated in the last section of the dissertation, so as to grasp a better understanding
about the socio-political development and progress in these two Chinese communities.
Chapter 2
History and the New Chinese Cinemas
A City of Sadness ( (T1) )and The Blue Kite ( <EJ) ) are films
produced
by Hou Hsiao-hsien and Tian Zhuangzhuang respectively who are the prominent
directors ìn Taiwan and the People's Republic ofChina (PRC). As the two directors are
among the representative figures of the New Chinese Cinemas in the I 980s, links with
these movements are noted in these two films. In this regard, a brief description of the
historical background leading to the emergence of the New Chinese Cinemas will
be
provided. Mier depicting the historical background ofthe New Cinemas, an explanation
of why the two New Cinemas have features worthwhile for comparison
will be
attempted.
The New Cinema and the changing Taiwanese society
In 1945, the Nationalist (i.e.
the
Kuomintang or KMT) government's takeover of Taiwan
ended the fifty years of the Japanese occupation and a new era in the history of Taiwan
commenced. Yet, this "new" era was only marked by the traumatic experiences of the
K.MT's misrule, the outbreak of the February 28 Incident and subsequently the White
Terror Movement.' After its retreat to Taiwan in 1949, the new government exerted
strict control over the film industty to eradicate the Japanese influence and to strengthen
the KMT's regime; films about communism, anti-government and pornography were
11n face of the coimpt tepressive and exploitative nile, Taiwanese were disappointed with the Nationalist
govenhinent which took back Taiwan ßm Japan in 1945. Tensions between the government and the
people as weli as between the mainlaixers ami the local Taiwanesc intensified. In 1947, the Febniaiy 28
Ijicident bmlce out as a result of a trivial dispute between the OffiCiaIs and a Taiwanese woman. Yei it
triggered off demonstrations and protcts expressing Taiwanese discontent and anger towards the KMT,
which led to the imposition ofmartial law (until 1987) and the White Terror later.
3
banned in the 1950s. In view of the moral decadence alongside modernization in the
1960s, the govemment-patroned Central Motion Picture Corporation (CMPC L4J)
promoted "Health Realism" melodrama, which featured positive attitudes towards
traditional moral values. Duiìng these two decades, only a few genres like romance and
martial arts from the private production houses were allowed.
By the late 1970s and the early 1980s, in face ofpeople's declining interests towards the
domestic production, the government loosened its control and took the lead to sponsor a
) (1982) directed by four new directors,
film called in Our Time (
thereby starting the New Cinema movement. Between 1983 and 1989, a group of welleducated
filmmakers2, such as Hou
Hsiao-hsien, Edward Yang () and Wu Nien-
jen (), became very active in this New Cinema movement. All these filmmakers
were born in the post-World War II era, during which Taiwan underwent a drastic socio-
economic restructuring from an agricultural to an industrialized capitalist society.
Hence, many of them were keen on examining issues I problems that Taiwanese people
faced in the increasingly modernized and complicated society of Taiwan.
To a large extent, the emergence ofthe New Cinema movement indicated the Taiwanese
society in political and socio-economic transition and transformation.
Between the
1970s and the 1980s, growing affluence among Taiwanese led to the rise of the middle
() '
most the 1mmakers like Edrd Yang
Wu
&
According to Li & Then
and
Wan
Rn
(t)
parlicipatitig
in
the
New
Cinema
movement
are
very
wellNien-jen
education. They have either received higher education or even post-graduate education ut Taiwan or from
1996 ' p.
abrnad See
2
48-49
4
class and the growing number of educated Taiwanese at home or from abroad,
demanding for more political power. Meanwhile, during this period, various events
changing Taiwan' s international relations and domestic conditions occurred.
They
included the PRC's takeover of Taiwan's seat in the United Nations, the American
recognition of "One China (PRC)" policy, the release of political prisoners, the founding
of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP
promoting the Independence of
Taiwan, the lifting of martial law and the end of the Chiang (Kai-shek and his sons)
dynasty.
In face of Taìwan's marginalized status on the diplomatic front and growing political
agitation against the KMT at home, many intellectuais (including the filmmakers of the
New Cinema) were inspIred to examine the identity issue of being a Taiwanese, thereby
embarking on various projects of re-considering the history of Taiwan and
roots alongside the move towards liberalization and democratization.
their cultural
During this
period, these filmmakers, as the cinematic spokesmen of Taiwan in transition, developed
new forms and styles of flimmaking to interpret and to re-write the history, society and
culture of Taiwan. Unlike the previous films, films of the New Cinema primarily cast
non-/semi-professional actors and were shot on-location so as to establish a more
realistic relationship with history and memory. Most of these films are presented in
thematic binary pairs3: rural vs. urban peasant/working class vs. middle class; as well as
past vs. present. Amidst the above presentations in the films, many films are the return
Nornes, Abc Mark & Yeti, Yueh-yn. "City of Sadness" USA, University of California, Berkeley,
Availthle froni
Engine [AccesSed 28
1994.
//cnee.bekeIey.eduIPapCTS/CitOfS&1fleSS/ViOIeflCe.htm1> Yahoo Sesrch
Apiil 1999]
5
to native culture
(±1-h) and are against the "true Chinese culture (i.e. the "mid-
land" culture L1)I{1) promoted by the KMT ever since its retreat to Taiwan in 1949.
In fact, the directors were posing challenge towards officialdom and initiating
discussions on political taboo.
Among the notable examples Illustrating the aforementioned is Hou Hsiao-hsìen's A
City ofSadness, which
is the first film about the former taboo, the February 28 Incident,
after the lifting of martial law in 1987.
The film has only covered a short period
between 1945 and 1949 though, that period was crucial in determining the later
development ofthe Taiwanese history. When the film was screened in 1990, its indirect
portrayal ofthe former taboo events did not only bring in huge impact on the Taiwanese,
but also stirred up people's memory about the June Fourth Incident happened one year
before. The February 28 Incident and the June Fourth Incident were so much alike in
many aspects that the February 28 Incident was even coined as the Talwanese version of
the June Fourth Incìdent.
The New Onema and the reform era in Mainland China
In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party's victory over the KMT was heralded by the
establishment ofthe People's Republic ofChina. Thereafter, the socialist rule under the
leadership of Chairman Mao (Zedong) in China started, during which various major
historical events occurred. They included the Hundred Flowers Movement, the Anti-
Rightist Campaign, the Great Leap Forward and the Great Proletarian Cultural
Revolution. At the very onset of their rule, policy makers had realized cinema as an
ri
important state apparatus for mass communication and education.
Hence, filins that
were based on the Soviet model revealing "socialist realism" were encouraged whereas
imported films (e,ccept those from the Soviet bloc) were totally banned4. During the
Cultural Revolution ( I 966-76), the notion of promoting the nationalist-socialist cinema
was further strengthened. Hence, revolutionary opera, such as
by Sfraíegy (
LLJ> )
Taking Mountain Tiger
became the dominant film genre in China.
In i 976, the arrest of the Gang of Four marked the end of the disastrous Cultural
Revolution in China. With the resumption of power by Deng Xiao-ping in the late
I 970s, China entered the reform era. During the reform era, Deng partially liberalized
the economy and started the open-door policy. The new atmosphere injected energy to
the film industry. The traumatic experiences associated with the CultUral Revolution,
the increasing exposure to Western cinema, the contributions of the Beijing Film
Academy and the liberalizing socio-political atmosphere altogether gave rise to the New
Chinese Cinema ìn 1984 wIth the release of Chen Kaige's (L) Yellow Earth
( (±) ).
Other prominent filnunakers of the New Cinema include Zhang Yímou
and Tian Zhuangzhuang (Wf±±). As most of them were the fifth class to
graduate from the Directing Department of the Beijing Filin Academy in the early
1 980s, they were labelled as the "Fifth Generation" filmmakers.
Filmmakers of this generation were all
zhiqing
(educated young people
some of
them were once the ardent Red Guards in the early stages of the Cultural Revolution
4
Dissanayake Wimal. & Tain, Kowk-kan
New Chinese Cinema.
Hong Kong Oxford Univeisìty Press
However, during the period (around the late I 960s) that they (as
.zhiqing)
were sent to
the remote rural areas of the countryside to 1eam from the people" by working with the
peasants. they were disillusioned by the party and the state ideology. Nevertheless,
according to Rayns5, their experiences in and memories about China's most backward
regions later became the basis of their thoughts and their work. This may explain why
most of their films are set in the barren land of China (with motifs like rural area, the
peasantry, the ancient ritual and religious practices) and are highly stylized
with
spectacular visual effects and idiosyncratic and exotic stories. To a large extent, these
allegorical films are embedded in a broad and nationwide intellectual movement seJfstyled as "cultural reflection"
fansi
culture. As a
(weithuafansi
and 'historical reflection" (lis/ii
attempting to establish links with their "nation" and their national
result,
the superior visual quality of these films distinguished themselves
from films produced by the "traditional" (i.e. socialist-realist) ways and had successfully
catered to the audiences of the internatìonal (multicultural and multinational)
markets.7
In this way, directors like Zhang Yimou were able to entice financial resources (from
abroad) for their production even though some oftheir films were banned at home.
Alongside the reform leaders' success in improving the general economic conditions and
people's livelihood, by the end of I 980s, the country faced rising inflation. moral
1998, p.1-5.
5
Rayns, Tony. "Chinese Vocabulaiy -an lñtmduction to King of the Childreii and the New Chinese
Cinema" in King' oftlie Children and the Ne,w Chinese Cinema (Chen, Kaige. & Rayns, Tony.). Loudon
Faber and Pabcr 1989, p.3.
6
Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng. historical 1ntrodiiciion Qinese Cinemas (I 896-1996) and Transnational Film
Studies" in Tramcnatîonal Chinese Cinemas: Identity, Nationhood, Gender (Lui Sheldon. ed.) Honolulu:
UniveTsily ofHawaii Prcss l997, p.5.
decadence, widespread corruption., official profiteering, a widening gap in income
between the new rich and the poor, and an increasing loss of faith in communism. All
these contributed to the growth of the student movement demandìng for more
democracy and liberalization in May 1989 but was ended by the governments brutal
suppression in the June Fourth Incident. The incident was definitely a blow to China's
renowned economic success (which was the expected key to political liberalization) in
the reform era, it was an even more severe blow to the Chinese people. recalling them to
the haunting memories of the past. In läce of the old and new wounds (from the
Cultural Revolution and the June Fourth Incident), Tian decided to shoot The
Blue Kite
in 1991 hoping to let the younger generations understand more about what happened in
the past and urging for the elimination of oppression among the Chinese people.
Thtferent deveIopmenk similar experiences
In the last four dec&les, Taiwan and the PRC have experienced a very different course
of development. WThile Taiwan underwent a rapid mod&nization and industrialization
between I 950s
and I 970s,
people of the mainland were thrown into endless political
movements during this period. However, the two places do share a common feature i.e.
each having its wounded history. By the I 980s, changing international and political
conditions coincidentally provided an apparently liberal setting in both places. It was
within such a context that cinema no longer served as a state apparatus disseminating the
state ideology, but could lùnction to liik up the personal memory and the natior.l
history; and to establish negotiations between the past and the present.
7Zbang Xudong. "Politics ofthe Visual Encount
Reaxling the Fifth Generaúon" in Chinese Modenmcm
¡n the Era ofReform: Cultural Fever, Avant-carde Fic.tion and the New Chinese Cinema. (Zhang
Hence, the emergence of the New Chinese Cinemas in the 1980s was largely a response
Different from their predecessors. the
to the governments' liberalizing policy.
filmmakers of the New Cinemas tended to present challenges towards the authority in
the films by opening up their wounded history as the two places moved along the trend
of liberalization. As a matter of fact, they did hope that their involvement in historical
and cultural reflections could lìberate their fellow countrymen from the memoty of the
dark and wounded past. thereby facing the f.ìture with ìntegrity and dignity. In this case.
it is of definite worth to compare the works produced by the filmmakers of these two
places.
Of the numerous productions by the filmmakers from the New Cinema
generation, Hou Hsiao-hsien's A Cuy
Kile are
of Sadness
and Tian Zhuangzhuang's
The Blue
chosen for comparison in this dissertation. lt is because the two films, telling
the family saga of Taiwan and the mainland respectively, have favourably provided a
common ground to compare how they address, re-constmct and re-present their
wounded history with respect to their filmic texts and styles.
Nevertheless, richness of the films should not be limited to their textual presentations,
but should be evaluated in relation to the extra-te,dual events occurred in society. As a
matter of fact, both A City of
Sadness and The Blue Kite
have adequately manifested
their associations with and their impact on the contemporary events. As a matter of fact,
the most notable event that has linked up the two ifims is the June Fourth Incident in
1989. When A City
ofSadness was first released in 1990,
the Chinese communities) tended to
compare
Xudong) Durham and London: Duke University Press,
lo
people (especially those from
the February 28 Incident to the June
1997v
p.203-213.
Fourth Incident. Meanwhile, the occurrence of the June Fourth Incident had such a
strong impact on the mainland Chinese that people like Tian Zhuangzhuang decided to
tell how "politics rule over lives"8
in The Blue Kite.
Yet, while A City of
treated with enthusiastic responses (from the officials and the people),
Sadness was
The Blue Kite
faced numerous obstacles during and after its production in spite ofTian's mild criticism
of the authorIty. In this regard, we shall examine how the films act as the indicators
reflecting the pace of democratization and political liberalization when they are read in
context ofthe socio-political events. In other words, a discussion on the two films as the
vehicles for national liberation and the instruments revealing the socio-politìcal progress
ofthe two places will be offered in the later chapter.
5TIaII,
Zhuangzhnang.
"lIistoiy.
. .
bornage. .memory".
.
Available
fiin
Yahoo Search Engine [Accessed 6 April
1999)
11
Chapter 3
History and Memory of the New Chinese Cinemas in theoretical
framework
Both A City
ofSadness (
fr) )
and The Blue Kite ( (J) ) are about the
family story presented in the form of the characters memory via the diary and the
recollection of youth.
When placing their memories alongside the socio-political
backgiound, a discussion on history of Taiwan and Mainland China is presented to the
viewers indeed. In view of such link constmcted in the two films, Walter Benjamins
discourse on historical writing in his "Theses on the Philosophy of Histoiy"9 will be
borrowed as the framework to examine the relationship between history and memory.
As the personal memory depicted in the films is largely shaped by the public events in
history, it should have its counterparts in the nation and
the
advent of (oppressed)
popular memory is likely to be triggered offby an individual's memory. In this case, the
stories of
the two films are no longer understood at personal level. Instead they should
be read at collective level in context of Fredi-ic Jameson's national allegory. Yet, one
should note that Jameson's approach is not totally explainable of the cultural
productions in Taiwan and Mainland China, it has its own insufficiencies and will be
noted in the following discussion. Lastly, suitability of the two films as Gabriel
Teshome's third cinema fhnctiomng for national liberation, will be evaluated in the last
section ofthis chapter
9Benjainin, Walter.
"Theses on the Philosophy of Histor
in illuminafions. (Arendt, Hannah. ed. &
ZObD, Hariy. trans.) New York: Schocken Books. 1969, p153-263.
12
Histoiy, based on historicism, is believed to have all truth recorded, therefore the
"eternal" image of the past is always achieved. However, in Benjamins work,'° he
Criticizes that historicìsm only offers generality but ignores particularity in the course of
historical development. Under most circumstances, historicism only cites empathy with
the victor;
such history only follows
the preference and the orientation ofthe victor, thus
benefiting the ruler.' Meanwhile, true picture ofthe past seems to vanish quickly, those
images of the past, that are of no concerns to the present, are easìly forgotten on the
surface. As time moves ahead (i.e. progresses), people will get farther and farther away
from the previous wounds and catastrophes. Yet. the struggling I oppressed class will
still remember the wounds and they serve as the "depository ofhistorical knowledge".'2
In this regard. Benjamin believes that history is subject to mampulation, there is always
a secret agreement between the past generation and the present one. Hence, at a moment
of danger or at a configuration pregnant with tensions, memory and shock springs up.
As what Benjamin states, "to articulate the past historically does not mean to recognize
it 'the way it really was' (Ranke). It means to seize hold ofa memory as it flashes up at
a moment of danger. . . [and] this danger affects both "the content of tr&Iìtion and its
celer'3
"History is the subject of a structure whose site is not homogenous, empty time, but time
filled by the presence of the
now."'4
Here, it means when certain events (which have
not been integrated/absorbed in the existing order of history) break out or are
lo
Ibid
1Ibid., p.256.
'2lbid., p.260.
31bid, p.255.
13
discovered, the original optimum (history) is destabilized and is ready for further
construction and reconstruction. In fact, they are to blast open
the historical
continuum
as dictated by the victors in history and initiate a revolutionary opportunity of revolution
fighting for the oppressed past. Hence, when historians decide to relive an era and to
offer a genuine image of the past. they are about to cause damages I irritations to which
happened in the later course of hIstory.
Hence, history is no longer static. Historical wrìting becomes critical, ìnterverutionist
and highly ideologìcal. In Yip's words, "all representations ofthe past, then, are shaped
and defIned by the political and cultural concerns of the specific moment from which
they
emerge."t5
Hence, the filmic texts are presented in poetic manner though, they are
to serve for a political cause ultimately.
Similar to some third world countries, both Taiwan and Mainland China have their dark
past. Although the governments may want to conceal it, the oppressed class remembers
this and has served as the depository ofhistorical knowledge as mentioned by Benjamin.
In face of the wounded history, Hou Hsiao-hsien and Tian Zhuangzhuang are
manifesting how they are blasting open the historical continuum and touching upon
polìtical taboo by producing A Cuy fSadness and
The Blue Kite. lt
is because both Hou
and Tian believe that history should include both official accounts and popular memory
ofthe past.
For the part contributed by popular memory, one can notice that a story of
an individual actually resembles stories of his/her fellow countrymen owing to the fact
'4fbid, p. 261.
15m1n
p, 141.
14
that both Taiwan and Mainland China were in developing stage in terms of their modes
ofproduction in the last few decades. Sìmìlar to other third world countries, both places
had been undergoing the process of re-building their own identity and constructing a
new socio-politica! structure, during whìch a strong-government rule was established.
As a result, publìc sphere was enlarged at the expense ofprivate space. Individuai desire
was subordinated to collective desire. Power of the people was delegated to the ruling
class at an augmenting scale. To further secure their power, the ruling class stipulated
all kinds of oppressive rules are stipulated and individuality is severely suppressed. As
thousands of people are involved in public sphere. theìr experiences become similar to
each other under such an oppressive regime.
Hence, when reading the cultural
productions of Taiwan and Mainland China, they are no longer interpreted at personal
level but at national level; and are in close association with political development of the
two places. As a matter of fact, all these above can be discussed with reference to
Fredric Jamesons discourse on national allegory.
In this case, an explanation of
Jameson's national allegory and its suitability in understanding films of the New
Chinese Cinemas will be discussed.
In Frederic Janieson's "World Literature in an Age ofMultinational
notes that the Third World is closely associated to the First
World.'7
Capitalism",16
he
Their relation is
Jameson, Frcdiic. "World Lileralure in an Age fMU1tInatiOTh1 lapitalisin" in The Cunent in
Clayton and Virgie Lokke. e&t).
West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue UUÎVeTSIty Press, 1987. p. 139-155.
17
Janiesoi the mint World tefets to counlxies that once experienoed impeii1ism and
colonialism aixi the First World refers to the capitalist camp inbipolar context dwing the Cold War era.
See Jameson's "World Literature in an Age O1MU11±natiOIRI Capùnlism" in The Current In Cri&isin:
Ecavs on the Prerent wid Future ofLiterwv Theov (Koelb Clayton and Virgie b*ke. ed.). West
Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press. 1957, p. 139-158.
1G
Criticism: Esav on the Present and Future ofLiterarv Theory (Kaelb
15
characterized as the struggles against Fìrt World's cultural and economic imperialism in
the post-colonial period. Hence, he hypothesizes. all Third World cultural productions
share certain common qualities in spite of their different national cultures and diverse
historical backgrounds. Second, all Third World texts or narratives are allegorical and
can be read at national level as national allegories.
It is because Third World texts mostly depict lives of people during the imperial and
colonial period or their experiences that are directly or indirectly resulted from the
former colonial rule in the post-colonial period. To a large extent, similar experiences
are found among the populace having been under the oppressive rule of the colonial
(alien) government and struggling against the oppressive ruling class or the authority.
When viewing the Third World in this aspect, in contrast to the First World, the split
between private and public spheres is therefore trivial and insignIficant. Secondly, no
matter how poetic and aesthetic the text is, their metaphorical form is highly political
and are to serve for a political cause. Thirdly, Jameson has noted that every lust and
desire depicted in these Third World texts are closely associated with desire for
economic and political power.
As a matter of fact, these three characteristics are
observed in many developing countries.
Having discussed how Third World texts are different from those of the Fìrst World,
Jameson fùrther reiterates that the story of the Third World essentially projects a
political dimension in its national allegory.
Life of an individual in the story is
associated with collective lives. In other words, the story of an indIvidual can be read as
the stoty of all the people I the whole nation in Third World. This is a total contrast to
16
First World where one's personaL experience does not necessarily relate to the
experiences of the rest of his/her fellow countrymen.
As a Third World story tells the story of the whole natìon through the story of an
individual. Hence it requires other forms and styles to express and convey the subtle (or
hidden) message. Totally different from the secular and ordinary cultural productions in
forms and styles, third-world texts, in fact, are reconstructing and revealing what
Jameson's claim ofthe real world beneath the appearances ofour own world. Through
the process of reconstructing the real world, Jameson believes the national allegories
can contribute to a "cultural revolution" removing "subalternity" (namely the mental
inferiority feelings and the habits of subservience and obedience developed by situations
of domination) on one hand.
On the other
hand, it can project fliturity with reference to
the narrative text, which is largely the product of the contemporary socio-poIitical and
cultural conditions.
However, Jameson's discourse is not totally explainable ofall Third World Literature, as
noted by Aijaz Alunad. Tn his article "Jameson's Rhetoric ofûtherness and the National
Allegory",18
Ahmad notes that descrIptions of any kind are always ideological and
cannot be purely descrIptive. This also applies to Jamesons delineation of the First,
Second and Third Worlds in bis article. Ahmad argues that Jameson's classification
lacks comparable expression. It is because his classifcation of the first-and-second-
world is based on modes of production or production system (i.e. capitalist or socialist)
8 4j
Aijaz. "Jainesoxfs Rhetoiic of Otherness and the Nalìovat Allegory" in In Theor: Clcses.
Naflons. Literahires. London Verso, 1992, p.95-122.
17
whereas the Third World is defined in terms of ìntra-national domination (i.e. the
experience ofcolonialism and imperialism). In this
cases
countries classified in the First
or Second Worlds can also be understood as the Third World countries as far as they
once experienced colonìalism and imperiaLism. The United States and Hong Kong are
the typical examples noting the contradictions ìn this classification.
Also in the eyes of Ahmad, Jaineson tends to search for a unitary determinant as the
source of all narrativity in the sphere of ideology and cultural production (i.e. imperial
and colonial experiences). Yet Ahrnad argues that there is no such thing known as
Third World Literature" which can be "constructed as an internally coherent object of
theoretical
knowledge."9
There are some texts in the Third World revealing the
features of national allegory though, not all third-world texts are national allegories,
according to
Ahmad.2°
He further notes, Jameson has generalized I totalized i
homogenized the ideology of Third World and the qualities in their cultural productions
to such a large extent that he has ignored certain issues, which pose significant
differences among the texts of the so-called Third World.
These issues include
periodization, social and linguistic formations, political ideological struggles found in
the texts of these countries/states.2' For instance, before 1980s. films were heavily
censored in Taiwan and films about Communism were prohibited under the authoritarian
rule ofthe KMT. Between 1950s and 1970s, the government continued to regulate the
1
Ahmad, Aijaz. "Jamesozfs Rhetoiic of Otlicrncss and the National Allegory' in ¡n Theory: C1a.sres.
Nalions. Literatures. Lomlon: Verso, 1992, p. 96-97.
20 Ibid., p. 109. Alunad CXi1iCie that Janieson insists over and over again that the national experience is
central to the cognitive formation of the Third World inteIICCtJa1 and that the narrativity of that
experience takes the form exciosively of a 'imtiona1 aJ1egoi'.
21Ibid,p.97.
18
industry through the issuance of directives. Under the strict control of the government,
filmmakers could hardly have the freedom to produce films that could speak for the
nation (under oppression) and could hardly be national allegories.
On the
wholes
Ahmad emphasizes that multiple determinants and
dimensions22
should
be noted when studying texts of the so-called Third World Literature. As a matter of
fact, some of Ahmad's criticisms are also noted in the cases of Taiwan and Maìnland
China where the stories ofA City ofSadness and
The Blue Kite occur.
In order to resolve
the problems of applying Jamesons theory to Taìwan and Mainland China, Teshome's
discourse on
Third
Cìnema will be borrowed to add in more specifications so that a
model can be formulated to justify A Cuy of Sadness and
The Blue Kite
as the national
allegories and the vehicles for national liberation. Nevertheless, one should note, the
unique historical experiences of Taiwan and Mainland China may require some of their
cultural productions to be interpreted accordingly.
As mentioned before, Jameson's classification ofthe worlds is probIematic.
this can be remedied
by Gabriel Teshome's classification. In his
World: the Dynamics of Sivie and Ideology,24
However,
Third Cinema in Third
countries that are classified as the Third
In addition to the shuiicomings of Jameson's &scourse mentioned in the text, cultumi
heterogeneity of social formalions among different continents (i.e. Asia, Lan America nd Aflica) is so
different that it is impossible to bave one theorj generalizing Third World Litetature. Also, Third World
countries' colonial and imperial experiences vary from one to another. Heiice people's responses and
reactions to the ideas of imperialism and colonialism during the coloinal and the post-colonial period are
22
impossibly identicaL
23
to Janiesoi the worlds are classified into First Second and Third Worlds in ternis of
production systems For instance, the ?RC, which is a socialist siate, may be classiñed as the Second
World instead ofthe Third WOrhL
24
Teshotne, G. R Third Cinema in Third WorkL the Dami olSivie and ¡deolozy(dissei1ation). Ann
Arbor, Michigan: University MicroIins hiteTnalional, 199 1, p. 9
19
World should embody both political and economic qualities. In other words, Third
World countries should be those that have been colonized one time or another and are in
developing stage with a mixed or planned economy. While some ofthese countries have
opted for socialist reconstruction
oftheir
society. some have chosen the capitalist mode
of deve'opment. In this way, it can remove the problem of insufficient comparable
expressìon. As Taiwan and Mainland China fit it the above criteria, they can be loosely
delined as the Third World.
Yet, this does not mean that their cultural productions in the cinematic arena (as Third
World Literature) are necessarily national allegories. Instead, they should be those that
are qualified as third cinema. According to
Teshome,25
third cinema should be built
upon the rejection of the concepts of traditional cinema as represented by Hollywood
and should be about the lives and struggles ofpeoples ofthe Third World,, serving for an
ideological end. Hence, third cinema refers to films with social and political relevance.
In fact, Teshome contends that third cinema, political in nature, manifests stmngly their
opposition to imperialism and class oppression; and is coined as a cinema of
decolonization and for liberation.2' To be more specific. third cinema should be able to
liberate minds (oppressed and subaltern), to contribute to the development of new
consciousness to transform the society and to develop new film language that can
accomplish the aforementioned goals.27
25Jbid, p. l-11.
26Th1d p. 4. In this regard, Teshome flotes thattbe principal characteristic ofThird Cìnema is really not
so much where it is made, or who makes it, but the ideology and the consciousness it portrays.
1bid, p.6.
20
As both A Cuy f Sadness
and The Blue Kite tell
the lives and struggles of
Chinese
through the characters' memories of their family dissolution via unconventional forms
and styles, they should be well qualified to be third cinema and can be read as national
allegories.
In this regard, the next chapter wIll offer a discussion on how these two
films are read as national allegory. Also, as these national ailegories are blasting open
the historical continuum through the juxtaposìtìon of private memories and official
history, hence, attention will be placed on how the private-public relation ìs constructed
in the nexi chapter.
To a large extent, national allegories and third cinema are to have close associations with
oppression and struggles. ht their discourses, Jameson and Teshome point out that these
struggles are related to the nations' colonial experience. In the case of A City
of
Sadness, this may be very true as Taiwan had been under colonial rule ofseveral foreign
powers including Holland and Japan in history. However, The Blue KUe, with its setting
in Beijing, is not a cultural production/outcome resulted from former colonial and
imperial experience.
Stiictly speaking China (excluding Taiwan. Macau and Hong
Kong) in the last two centuries had not been colonized by any foreign power, in spite of
its semi-colonial staths in times of Scramble for Concessions at the turn of the
centwy. Hence colonial experience may not be a
allegory found in
necessary
20th
pre-condition for national
the films. Instead the cultural production may be coined as national
allegory if it is produced in a state, of which its people experienced/experience
oppression and were/are in struggle against the authority in the past or at present. As
such an unpleasant experience I memory happens to a vast majority of the people whose
21
memories are ready to spring up at a moment of danger to reconstruct the nation s
history28, the cultural production should be read I interpreted at national level as
allegory. Then A
CUy ofSadness and The Blue Kite
cari act as national allegories telling
the unpleasant memories in the past, serving to amend and reconstruct their history. To
Benjamin, this ìs really essential because the fullness of the past is only available to the
redeemed
mankind.2
state relation -have
In this case, how the issues - identity of a Taiwanese and peoplebeen
put forward by the directors to destabilize the historical
continuum will be discussed in the next chapter.
Having studied the
allegories
ofthe two films, the challenges posed on the authority and
the redemption process of addressing the wounded history, we sb11 proceed to examine
how A City of Sadness and
The Blue Kiíe,
as the politicized cinema, can act as the
weapon for national liberation and to transform their communities in the last chapter of
this dissertation.
2S
Wa1ter
"Theses on the Philosophy of HistorÇ in Illumination
Zohii, hairy. Irans.) New Yoik: Schocken Books, 1969, pîS5.
1bid, p. 254.
22
(Arendt, Ninnh
et &
Chapter 4
Family, Nation and the State
In this chapter, there will be two major sections. The first section will focus on how the
national allegories of A City of Sadness and
The Blue Kite
are structured by the family
dissolution; and how these allegories operate via the cinematic styles, the reiteration of
motifs and the juxtaposition ofprivate narratives and public events. Also, in the light of
Jameson's national allegory, a more detailed discussion on the private-publìc relation
will be offered. Having studied the directors' construction ofthe national allegories, the
national identity issue addressed by Hou Hsiao-hsìen ìn A City
of Sadness
and the
peopl&s struggles amidstst the state politics portrayed by Tian Zhuangzhuang
Blue Kile
in The
will be scrutinized in the next section.
(4.1) Family dissolution forming the structure of the national allegory
Famìly is an important unit in the social structure of the Chinese people. directors can
definitely articulate its symbolic significance ofthe collective experience ofthe people
through the events occurred to the family. Yet, such a stmcture of the story may not
necessarily tell the audience that a 1iníly saga is interpreted as the story of a nation. It
very depends on how the directors stnicture the narratives in order to convey this notion.
In the followings, we shall examine how the directors structure their stories as the
national allegories and how these allegories operate to destabilize the history.
In these allegories, private narratives and public events (mediated by state apparatuses)
are frequently juxtaposed. In fact, they are used to destabilize history through the
23
directors addition of multiple perspectives (other than the official one). In the eyes of
Gramsci, a state comprises both the politica! society and the civil
society.3°
While
political society is m&!e up of state institutions such as the army and the central
bureaucracy which exercise dIrect domination on people, civil society is made up of
voluntary affiliations like schools and families. In other words, there are ideas dictated
by the authority in the political society there are also ideas voluntarily contributed by
populace ¡n the civil society. Hence, historical knowledge should not only involve
official history, but
should also
include other perspectives, constituted by popular
memory (in fragments and ruptures).
As mentioned by Jean-Francois
Lyotard,3'
"Histoiy ìs made up ofwisps ofnarratives, stories that one tells, that one hears, that one
acts out
.
.
. a mass of millions of insignificant and serious little stories that sometimes let
themselves be collected together to constitute big stoñes and sometimes disperse into
digressive elements." In this case, June Yip32 further claims "History here is no longer
conceived of as a univocal, seamless narrative but as a complex dialogic web of
multiple, heterogeneous. and fragmentary stories that by chance touch, intersect and
sometimes contradict each other." In other words, private narratives (Le. personal
memory) are needed ìn forming public accounts of historical events (i.e. popular
memory).
30
31
Saii, Edrd. Orientalism. New York: Vintage, 1981, p 7.
Yip. June. "COnstructing a Nation: Taiwanese Hìsloiy
TranmaIna! Chinese Cmema: 1&ntUv. Naffonhco
ofilawail Press, 1997, p.143.
32161d, p.143.
24
and the Films of Hou Hsìao-bsien'
in
Gender. (Lu, Sheldon. ed.) Honolulu. Unrversity
To establish link I contrast betweenì the private sphere and the public sphere in A City of
Sadness and
The Blue Kite,
state apparatus has served as the intermediary. In the eyes of
Louis A1thusser33 the State, as a "machine" ofrepression, only endorses the ideology of
the ruling class and liinctions to secure their domination over the rest of the people.
Hence, peopl&s submission to the miing ideology is required in order to consolidate the
State power. To achieve this end, the State apparatuses become the means functioning
as either the Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs) or the Ideological State Apparatuses
(ESAs).34
While the RSAs primarily function by violence, aiming to protect the ideology
of the ruling class so as to secure the State power, the ISAs primarily function by
ideology. aiming to consolidate the niling ideology "behind a 'shield' provided by the
RSAs"35
so as to
legitimize
the State power.
In the two films, both types of state
apparatuses have been employed by the directors in presenting the official histoty.
Hence, we shall study how these apparatuses have also become the subjects of
ch1lenges by the popular memory.
Distancingfrom Ihestory ofihefamily meditaling the sadness oftIie city
Jn A City qf Sadness.
Hou }{siao-hsien' s innovative cinematìc form and style have
effectively conveyed his story as a national allegory to the audience. Also these
allegories have operated to destabilize history by distancing the audiences from the
NOteS towaixts an lns1igation)" in
3Althussei; Louìs "ideology and I&ological State Apparatus
trans.)
New
York & London. Monthly Review
B.
Brewster
nin and Philosophy and Othet Ea
Press, 1971, p.127-186.
411eTe, the RSAs xefer to the govermnent the admhiiciition, the army the police. the courts, the prisons
the religious
and so OiL Ou the other band, the ¡SAs refer to the number ofinstitutions in society including
radio)
and
the
cultural
ISA the educatioLa1 ISA tI family ISA, the communications ISA (like press and
ISA (like aits and literature).
35
¡bid, p. 150.
25
plots, establishing certain motifs and offering alternative perspectives to an issue,
thereby urging the audience to imagine and structuretheir understanding of history.
As a family saga (about old Lin Ah-lu and his four sons), A City ofSadness, taken place
itt
northern Taiwan, Jinguashi (i1) and hufen ()iíf3), covers the period between
1945 and 1949, i.e. from the surrender of Japan to the Nationalist government's Tetreat
to Taiwan. Despite the fact that the film opens with hope and optimisn such as the
broadcast of Japan's surrender, the birth of Wen-hsiung's son who was named Guang-
ming ()) and the opening of Little Shanghai (the nightclub), every of its narratìves
direct to the eventual break-up of the Lin family and thus the devastation of the whole
natìon through the brutal acts ofthe KMT. In the film, Wen-hsiung (m), the eldest
son of Lin Ah-lu, is a nightclub owner, a black marketer and a gangster (as his father).
In the later part of the film, he is killed in a fight with
the
gangsters. Meanwhile, Wen-
sun (rn), the second son, never appears in the film. The audiences are told that he is a
doctor and disappears in the Philippines during the war. Upon his return from Shanghai,
Wen-hang
the third son, is obsessed by the torture from the Chinese government
for being the Japanese interpreter in the war. As the film develops, he is again accused
olbeing the collaborator by the gangsters. Wen-hang is then arrested by the government
and is beaten into mentally ilL Wen-ehing () (the youngest son) ìs the leading
character in the film and he is related to most of the events occurred
Working as a
photographer, he and his circle of friends, Knan-jung () (Kuan-mai' s elder brother)
Despite the fact that
in particular, have actively involved in the rebellious movements.
Wen-ching does not actively participate in these events, he is arrested thiring the White
26
Terror (after the February 28 Incident). At the end ofthe fIlm, before bis arrest, Wen-
ching deliberately takes a photo of his family. telling the audiences how Taiwanese
treasure to preserve a complete fmi1y.
Yet, the photo-taking process has only
foreshadowed the destruction of the family (and the nation) from the frozen looks of
Wen-chìng and his wife, Kuan-mei
To some critics, the Lia family, as structured in A
City of Sadness,
is an awkward and
unusual family setting in Taiwan under the Japanese Occupation. This is because the
four sons are of different social status (some are gangsters and others are intellectuals).
Nevertheless, it is this setting that
can encompass the
diverse experiences of Taiwanese
from different social classes and backgrounds during that period. To a large ectent, the
family acts as a collection centre of disconnected and fragmented stories. Sentimental
plots or build-up for climax are rarely cultivated. By presenting the nariatives in such a
non-linear manner, the viewers are Less involved in the plots at personal (private) level
of the characters.
Jnstead we are kept away from the characters' stories and ai-e
encouraged to associate these events with the story of nation. Hence, the film becomes
histoiiogTaphic, urging the viewers to consider the film In wider context.
Apart from the narrative construction, Hou's "self-restricting" cinematic
styles36
important in constructing a stoiy ofthe nation. Among the typical styles adopted in the
film are long shots, long take and few close-ups-
36
The closest shots employed in -the
Nornes Abe Mark & Yeb, Yueh-yu. «Qty of Saliiess' USA, Universir!
Available fro!l1
Engine [Accessed 28 Apii) 19991
27
ofCalifortha, Berkeley, 199&
Yahoo Search
film are only up to the chest, i.e. the medium close-ups. Long shots and long take often
operate simultaneously ìn the film. Even during the wedding ceremony of Kuan-mel
and Wen-ching, in spite of the apparent focus on the couple, only long shots, medium
close-up and rear projection are used, direct front projection on the couple is hardly
found. In this way, the wedding in the film is no longer a private event between Kuanmei and Wen-ching. The audiences are not drawn to their private sphere, but are guided
to ponder the plot and the event in a wider context ofthe contemporary situatìons. Here,
one can see how individuals are submerged into a wider context of the family and the
nation. Also, in
the film, visual
violence and repressive state apparatuses (RSAs) are
deliberately downplayed to serve for similar function. For instance, fighting scenes
between gangsters are depicted by a series of long shots and extreme long shots with
long take. This is very unusual compared to ordinary films which are used to include
on-location close-up and medium shots to reveal violence. Apart from this, audiences
do not see/hear explicit and detailed execution ofRSAs in the film, only radio broadcast,
faceless police, military march, hallway and wire bars of the prison, rear projection on
the police arresting Wen-hang, long shot of the police shooting Kuan-jung and his
associates, as well as expected ofi-screen execution of RSAs are noted. All these
depictions are to de-sentìmentalize the whole event, thus distancing the audiences from
the events on-location. In this way, the audiences are given time and space to ponder
these events in context of the whole nation through pondering the off-screen
environment and possibilities associated with the event.
Hence, they are no longer
personal events ofthe characters, but ofthe thousands ofoppressed Taiwanese living on
the island at the time.
28
Mother feature contributing to the formation of national allegory
the reiteration of motifs. In the film, motif of
hospital has
in A Cuy ofSathiess is
been delicately portrayed.
Rather than being the workplace of Kuan-mei, hospital hs thnctìoned to tell
the stories
of the populace. Hospital scene is first presented when Kuan-mei starts her job in
Jinguashi.
Later on, along one single axis with the same camera angle and steady
camera movement, the hospital hallway is repeatedly shown under various
circumstances including Shusukos (-f)
visit for
Kuan-mei before leaving Taiwan, the
return of sick and unstable Wen-hang from Shanghai, the wounded being sent to the
hospital as a result of riots, the birth of Kuan-meis son and so on. Through the
delineation of a specinim of experiences among the Taiwanese in that period. the
hospital, as a silent, stagnant and unchanging object, becomes the location witnessing
separation. pain, suppression. chaos, birth and death of the people, telling the audience
the fate ofa nation.
Throughout the film, Hou has deliberately juxtaposed private narratives and publìc
events in a parallel manner. In fact, he is reconstructing history by posing constant
challenges towards the
public (official) accounts
of history through the private narratìves
ofthe characters which become the popular memory.37
Radio broadcast is among the
most
of the film, radio broadcast about
remarkable ISAs in the film. In the very beginning
the
surrender of Japan by
the emperor
has helped in
legitimizing the newly established Nationalist government which is manifested by the
positive responses in private.
However, as the story develops, one wìll notice how
people are disillusioned and how the optimistic start only turn out as an irony.
Apart from the broadcast by the emperor (symbol of' authority), broadcast by the
authority have been repeatedly used as a tool to tell what the public is portrayed under
the official assumption. Meanwhile, a "real" public beneath the "official" public is
disclosed through the characters' acting and plots in the film. The prominent example in
the film ìs Chen Yi's () broadcast of settling the so-called riot and pacifying the
Taiwanese after the February 28 Incident. In the filin, such a dissemination of state
ideology and "actuality" by Chen Yi has been presented thrice
As a matter of thct
spreading the state ideology through this ISA is primarily to entice support from the
populace (who have little information about the truth) by manipulating people's protest
(ti-iggered off by the February 28 Incident) into an immoral and peace-disrupting riot.
However, the dìrector argues that people in private do not totally submit to what the
state claims. As a matter of fict, the three broadcasts in the film are intercut with scenes
disagreeable with the official claim on the protest. They include scenes of the wounded
masses at the hospital hallway, Wen-ching's recount oftbe authority's brutality and the
chaotic conditions witnessed during his stay in Taipeì after the incident; as well as
Kuan-mei's diary via voiceover.
Here, a more detailed discussion on the fuxiction of' Kuan-mei' s narration is attempted.
In the film, Kuan-mei's narration is about her personal events written in the diary
Histoiy and the Films of Hou Hsiao-bsien" in
37Yip June. 'Conucting a NaliolE Taiwanese
Naflonhood.
Gender. (Lu, Sheldon. eEL) Honolulu: University
Transnational Chinese Cinemas: Identity,
though, these events, being put in context of that partìcular period of history, are
associated with the contemporary political and socio-economic conditions, retelling the
history of a nation. Hence, Kuan-mel's voiceover/narration has presented the feminine
force38
questioning the masculine,
official
accounts
under the conventional
historiography. Traditionally, women are supposed to be confined to the private space
and should not intervene in the affairs of the public sector. However, in face of the
1inear' account of the Taiwanese hìstoy established by the officials and the authority
who have deliberately concealed parts of the actuality, women's entry to the public
space
symbolizes interruptions ofthe officiai histoiy and addition ofnew perspectives to
the official history with contradictions and reconstruction. Through Kuan-mei's diary,
we learn about how official history is not a mirror. but a distorted image of 'full"
history. FulJness of history also requires the fragmented and personal documentation of
events from the populace
lìke
According to Nomes & Yeh (1994), the
Kuan-niei.
feminine voice in the film becomes a powerful antithesis to contrast the linear,
hegemonic discourse ofthe nation's history.
In A City of Sadness, focus
has been placed on the ISAs at the expense of the RSAs.
Here, it may reveal that Hou does not simply intend to lament on the brutal acts of the
government. Instead he tries to establish a dialogue with the offlcìals, challengìng the
truthfiulness of official histoty and the correctness of the official action. To a large
ofHawail Press, 1997, p.!41
38
Nom
Abe Mark & Yeb, Yueh-
"city of Sadness" US& University of Califernia, Berkeley. 1994
Yahoo Search
Available from
Engine LAccessed 28 Apiil 1999J
31
extent, he is presenting and urging for alternative perspectìves in understanding the
history of Taiwan.
(Re-)construction bypeople, (re-)desmiction by politics
When structuring his national allegory
in The Blue Kite,
Tian Zhuangzhuang adopts an
audience-friendly, melodramatic approach to exhibit stories of various characters and
how
these
stories are outcome of the ruthless politics.
The Blue Kite is a recount of
Tietou's () childhood and youth as well as how Tietou (born in
Shujuan
his
mothers
the early
1950s) and
survive through the turbulent years in China. With the
background settìng in a Beijing family in between the early 1950s and the late 1960s, i.e.
from the death of
Stalin
to the start of the Cultural Revolution. one sees the re-
presentation ofseveral events and their severe effects on the vast majority ofthe Chinese
people. Among the major events depicted in the film include the Hundred Flowers
Movement, the MtiRightist Campaign, the Great Leap Forward and then the Cultural
Revolutìon. Because of these events, Tietou loses his father, Shaolong (j); because
of these events, her mother marries twice to Guodong (*) and Lao Wu () after
the death of Shaolong. At the end of the film, Shujuan worried about Lao Wu, an old
party cadre under severe criticism, goes to his bouse and tries to intervene as her
seriously ill husband is under attack by the Red Jurads. To help ber, Tietou is also
brutally beaten up. Finally, Shujuan is arrested and is sent to a labour camp as a
counter-revolutionary. Similar to A
City of Saibiess,
the stoiy starts positively with the
building-up of a new f.mily (i.e. the marriage of Shujuan and Shaolong), but it ends in
the total destruction of the family in spite of Shujuan' s repeated attempts to reconstmct
32
it through marriages. From the story of Tie-tou's family, Tian Zhuangzhuang prompts
the audiences to ponder
the
misfortune of countless Chinese families through the
sadness of one family.
For
The Blue Kl/e,
its allegorical structure is built upon the different stories of the
characters, who are representing the ordinary Chinese and thus the whole natìon.
Throughout the film, Tietou, the narrator,
is keen on
recounting the experiences/stoñes
of the people (i.e. friends and relatives) around him amidst those two decades of
turbulence. Through the stories of Tietou' family (i.e. the Lin family) and Shujuan's
family (i.e. the Chen family). the stories of different people (taking up various roles in
the Communist China) are presented and a structure of telling the story of a nation is
constructed. On top of'this, the scope of historical re-presentation is "enriched" by the
repeated effort in formIng a new family through the three marriages of Shujuan. In the
film, almost all the characters have a story to teil. With all these individuas stories
clustered together, a picture of popuIr memory of a nation and thus the national
allegory, contrasting wìth the official history, is consinicted.
Apart from the use of narrative form, motifs in the
film have
helped in reiterating the
director's challenge of the officialdom. The motif of having meal at the dining table in
the borne of Tietou's grandmother has appeared in several scenes. The act of eating
plays a crucial role among the Chìnese people indeed. Family gathering is always
manifested in the form of hang
all the members sitting
around
the
dining table for
meaL. Hence, dining table can be treated as the intennediary for family togetherness and
completeness, especially for important occasions like wedding and re-union. In the film,
33
the dining table functions for family gathering where Shujuan and her siblings discuss
the severe impact of political events on the daily lives of their family menibers
disclosing the truth in contrast to the official 'truth". From the meal of an ordinary
family and their discussions on political issues, the viewers can feel the
intensity
of
political impact on the ordinary people which in turn, urges the viewers to meditate the
political atmosphere and environment surrounding the Chìnese people at the time.
Another motif reìterated in the film is the train station. Train station is for re-union and
separation representìng joy and sorrow. There are several times in the film shooting
about the arrival of the frain and its departure, intercut with dialogues among the
characters such as Sholongs departure and Zhu Ying's (*) return after her release
from jail, Contrary to the motif of dining table, which is located in the private sphere
but represents the repetitious dining scenes of other families in China, train station is iii
public sphere. By shooting Tietou's family amidst the crowds, the viewers are guided to
associate the misfortune of Tietou's family with thousands of other Chinese families.
To the Chinese, train station may have an even more specific meaning. It is the starting
point of (where) people' s relocation at massive scale takes place "thanks to" the repeated
"Up the Mountain and Down the Village" programme&
In addition,, the director
presents several shots of public places and peopl& s activities in the public sphere so as
to reveal the socio-political influences surrounding the vast majority of the Chinese
people; and how numerous 1milies are treated unfairly like Shaolong who is accused of
being the rightist.
34
Different from his previous highly stylized films like Horse
Blue Kite
appears as a political melodrama. In the
films1
) ). The
Thief ( (
several objects are employed to
foreshadow the upcoming events through their symbolic significance.
An obvious
example is the toy-horse which has its head broken off during the wedding ceremony of
Shujuan and Shaolong, signifying their later misfortune.
Throughout the film, the
director has spent much efforts on enriching the contents ofthe narratives and projecting
the notion of"authenticity" ofthe narratives. To a large extent, this approach indicates a
departure from the Fifth Generation's cinematic styles and the director's return to the
traditionaL I conventional style of film-shooting.
As the film was shot in the post-
Tiananmen period, Tian's direct and blunt narration ofthe Chinese wounded history (by
projecting the notion of "authenticity" from the narratives) reveals his boldness and
"outspokenness" towards the officialdom. The film, made in the post-Tíananrnen era, is
no longer a recollection of the old past. It also reminds the viewers of the "new" past
(ie. the June Fourth Incident) and the tragedy ofthe whole nation.
Similar to A City qf Sadness state apparatuses have been adopted as the intermediary
linking up the private and the public in
The Blue Kl/e. Yet, Tian has put more
emphasis
on how politics rule over people's (daily) lives in his construct ofthe national allegory.
In a liberal and capitalist society. split between private and public is easily noted as
private life is seldom affected by public events. However, in a socialist state, everything
is politicized As a resu1t state apparatuses become the tools (a1opted by Tian) to unveil
the impact/outcome of (public) political events on the populace. At the very beginning
of the filni, Tie-tou has narrated how his parents' wedding and his birth are
simultaneously postponed because of the broadcast of Stalin's death, a mighty and
remote (to the Chinese) leader of the Soviet Union. Events like this have only resulted
in minor social impact on the lives of the ordinary people. However, they have shown
how the public events have influenced the private events like marriage and sìgnif the
loss/reduction ofprivate space among the people under a socialist regime.
In
facts
thìs notion of public sphere (events) encroaching private life is reiterated and
intensified through a spectrum of ideological state apparatuses (ISAs) in the film.
Similar to A
Cuy qf Sadness, radio
broadcast, as an important cominunìcation ISA, is
repeatedly used in the film to disclose the official stance on the major public events. In
most cases, ìt ilinctions as the instrument to foreshadow the up-coming effects on the
characters ìn privare sphere as a result of those public political events.
For instance,
intolerable of the severe criticism on the state bureaucracy during the Hundred Flowers
Movement, the state decides to introduce the re-education (i.e. persecution) programme
of the so-called rightists. When the radio broadcasts this decision, it foreshadows the
up-coming catastrophe to Tie-tou's family.
Upon this broadcast, plots of Shaolong
being criticized and being sent to the remote areas for re-educatIon are displayed.
In
addition to Shaolong, Shuyan (4), Shujuan's younger brother, is another victim of
the political movement due to his criticism in school.
Once a new campaign is
announced, its impact on various characters is shown one by one in the fi1n such as the
impact of the Anti-Rightist Campaign on Shaolong. Shuyan and Guodong (Tie-iou's
first stepthther). As a result, popular memory of the state suppression is constructed
through a constellation of individuals' pnvate experiences.
To a large extent, the
director has revealed how politics (in public sphere) rule over people's private lives,
how little privacy people can preserve and how people can hardly be in control of their
36
own lives in era ofturbulence. In the film, Tietou, the narrator, is responsible for telling
audiences what happen to the characters who are affected by politics. For instance, the
deaths ofShaolong and Tie-tou's stepfathers, the innocence ofZhu Ying beingjailed for
years, the return of Uncle Shuyan and the arrest of his mother condemning the Red
Guards.
In doing so, Tietou becomes the mouthpiece of the director criticìzìng the
atrocities done by the government to its people.
Apart from the ISAs exhibited in
The Blue
Kites
the fervent masses and later the Red
Guards, flJnctioning to "police the conduct of people in New China", become the
repressive state apparatuses (RSAs) to a certain extent. In the film, the masses are
actively encouraged to execute the state directives. For instance, people are mobilized to
join the parade supporting the Great Leap Forward under the leadership of some party
members, showing the popu1r participation in public events. Furthermore, the most
prominent example of ordinary people taking up the role of RSAs is the Red Guards
breaking into Lao Wu's house to arrest him. Lao Wu is an old party cadre, he should
enjoy power and contro! supposedly. However, vacillations ìn politics, all of a sudden,
make him subject to the "illegitimate" Red Guards' humiliation and torture. In a socialist
regime, the RSAs are no longer confined to the government, the police and the army.
Under the rule of man, populace can also be manipulated into the RSAs initiating
repression and oppression to their fellow citizens. Here, one can note how events in
public sphere penetrate into every aspect of private life. Politics do not only rule over
the people, they are suffocating the whole ofthe nation.
37
Comparison
Having discussed the structure of the two fi1ms national allegories and their
Incorporation of private narratives posIng challenges towards officia1dom one may find
it easier to understand The Blue Kite as a stoiy about the vast majority of Chinese
through its linear narration of a family story accompanied by others' stories with a
central storylìne on the mother-and-child relationship. After seeing the film, grievances
ofthe Chinese when looking at their history via people's memories are felt.
In spite of its complicated presentation. a more detailed examination on A City of
Sadness will allow the viewers to discover that
Hou1s narrative form and cinematic
styles are of high coherency and consistency. Plots and technìques in the film are
interwoven and echo to each other in the process of presenting the national allegory. In
addition, this national allegory has inoduced new perspective to the audience which is
successfùlly established by
them to meditate the events
the
director's deliberation of vacating time and space for
and issues ocìaliy
endorsed for the nation. When Hou
tells the stoiy on the cinema screen, the viewers are also guided into other off-screen
domains of the nation' s story and history. Hence, the national allegoiy presented in A
City of Sadness becomes fr much more weil stmctured and ìs more powerful in
aesthetics to entice people to re-consider history.
Although both iJms have established a private-public relation depìcting how piivate
lives are affected by public events via state apparatuses, they are cpressed in different
ways and have different implications to the viewers. In A
City of Sadîess,
Hou Hsiao-
hsien intends to initiate a dialogue with the official history ofTaiwan by contrasting the
38
public/official accounts of events wìth the private recounts of the events. Frequently,
stories ofthe characters told in the film are different from what announced I recognized
by state apparatuses. Hence, contrast between
public accounts
and popular memory
constituted by private recounts is established, urging the viewers to re-consider the
history of Taiwan. Tn a sense, the viewers will note how the private sphere has entered
the public sphere, causing dìsmptions to the history ìn Continuum through the new
perspectives introduced by Hou. Contrary to the introduction of new perspectives in A
CEO' of Sadness, The Blue Kite
has concentrated on how private lives are affected by
public events. In the film, audiences hardly
find obvious
traits ofthe director's intention
to add new perspectives to the historical events occurred in the 1950s and 1960s.
Instead, one will note that it is inclined to be an autobiography at personal level.
In both films, the directors attempt to challenge the legitimacy of the state policy and
actions. However, such challenge ìs more prominently delineated in A City
of Sadness
through various contiasts between private and public set up by the director, probably due
to the repeated "colonization" superimposed by different regimes on the island in
history. Contrary to the KMT government which was treated as an "alien" government
after the retreat of Japan. the establishment of the PRC in 1 949 was generally supported
by the people.
From the films, one may find that struggle against the authority
manifested via popular memory in A
Blue Kite.
CIty ofSadness
is more prominent than that in The
This may reveal that there are groups of people in Taiwan who do not
recognize the KMT as the legitimate ruler of Taiwan. As a malter of fact, this is
revealed by the presence ofsome political parties like the DPP (*), fighting for the
Jndependence of Taiwan.
On the contraiy, Tian Zhuangzhuang has focused on
questIoning the correctness on the
state1s
polices, he does not intend to pose any
challenge towards the legitimacy of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) as the
dominant party in the maInland. The director, through
The Blue Kite,
only hopes that
the government could provide a better society (in political terms) for people to live in.
(4.2) Relating Present to the Past - People, Nation and Identity
People living in either Taiwan or Mainland China have their own wounded history that
are not openly endorsed by their governments. In other words, there are participants in
certain historìcal events still being oppressed and repressed by the authority. As a result.
this class of people becomes the depository of historical knowledge, writes W.
Benjamin.
In fact, they are about to spark off a historical continuum explode by
memory flashing up at a moment of danger. Of course, this will cause instability to the
existing regime. However, to attain peace of mind, one must undergo the process of
redemption, recognizing and reconstructing the past. This is because only a redeemed
mankind can receive the fullness of the past (Benjamin, 1969). As a matter of fct,
Benjamin's ideas ofre-writing history have constituted the leading motivation behind A
City ofSadness and The Blue Kite. By
blasting open the historical continuum as noted
by Benjamìn. in context of Jameson's discourse on Third World literature, at which
portTayal of hope/desire is a component in the structure of a national allegory, desire(s)
portrayed in the allegories (i.e. A City of Sadness and
)union.
The Blue Kite)
is fmily (re-
To fulfill the hope, ìt requires the authority to re-assess re-evaluate and
recognize what actually happened in the past. In other words, redemption is made and
the past is reconstructed. Following this line of thought, we shall proceed to examine
what the directors have incorporated in their films to achieve this desire and the
contemporary socio-polìtical conditions that prompt them to incorporate these elements
in their films.
41
¡n search of cultural and nativiwi ¡dent ity
Although A Cil)) ofSaduess has only
covered a very short period in the post-World War
II era, the text tells the story/history of Taiwan ever since the Dutch and Spanish sailing
to the East and settling in this "beautiful island", flha Formosa in the
16th
century.
The
history of Taìwan sìnce the European arrival has never been a linear project, but has
been disrupted by events external of the native
Taiwanese control.
When putting
Taiwan in contert of its historical development in the last few centuries, one may
discover that the island bas been the colonies of different nations. In particular, Japan
had ruled Taiwan for fifty years up till its surrender at the end ofthe Second World War.
In the post-war period, the KMT government resumed its rule over Taiwan. Yet, native
Taiwanese found it hard to accommodate with this new government which engaged in
numerous acts of malaôministration. In the
eyes of the
native Taiwanese, they fell into
the hands of another colonizer cloaked in the name of de-colonizer.
people's
Eventually,
discontent and anguish towards the KMT government intensified, leading to the
outbreak of February 28 Incident. In response to the riots and chaos, the government
resorted to gun power and state apparatuses to suppress the opponents and dissenters
through the white terror and the martial law.
Before the lifting ofthe martial law in 1987, the February 28 Incident remained a taboo
subject among the Taiwanese. The KMT government did not want to be noted of its
dark past, and the people did not dare to speak out under the tight control of the political
42
system, (secret) po1ice mi1ìtary educational system and media. "Officiai
nationa1ism"9
has been promoted among the Taiwanese people by (the KMT) upholding the Conlùcían
values of loyalty () and filial piety () as well as superimposing the mainland culture
on the island under the claim of TaIwan being an integral part of ancient China. As a
matter of fact, the temporal dìmension of (ancient) pastness is inherent in the concept of
peoplehood, which can be artfUlly manipulated by the KMT to "legitimize" its rule over
Taiwan and to confront the opposìtion° However, the irony is none of the Chinese
dynasty before the 20th
bad ever valued Taiwan as part of the empire.4' Hence,
this explains why the Nationalist government fails to entice people's recognition of
Taiwan as a pal-t of China in the post-World War IT period and why the characters in A
City ofSadness
complain about the marginal status ofbeing a Taiwanese.
By the late 1970s and the early 1980s, Taiwan had been transformed into a modern and
industrialized society. Accompanied with economic success and growing affluence of
the populace, Taìwan was on the road towards democratization. Yet, there were several
sensitive socio-political issues remained and the government did want to downplay
39Anderson, Benedict Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin ad Spread of NailOnaJisin
revised & extended ed.). London: Verso 1991.
Wa11ersteiti, 1miname1. "The Conruction of Peoplehood. Racism, Nationalism, Etbnicîty" in
Nation, Cks: Ambiguous Identities. (by Bahl,ar, E. & WaJierstein, L) London New York: Verso,
1991, p:Th.
Before the 17th y Taiwan was neglected by the chinese government, as reflected from the
absence of the Chinese imperial Government's administitive structure. The erst time thai the Chiiese
government recognized Taiwan as part of its iethtocy was when the Ming government encoiraged the
mion of the sonthern people (snffeiing m famine) to Taiwan. However, only loose control was
tinposed on the is'and. In the 17 century, Taiwan ha1 a populalìon mixed 'uth rnainind inese,
aborigines (i.e. the "mountain people"), Dutch an& SpaiisK Before being colonized by the Japanese in the
20th
Taiwan was sbortty colonized by the Dutch between
Treaty of Shimonoseki at the turn ofthe
1624 and 1662. During theperiod ruledby the Qing court Taiwan remainedlo be loosely adxnithstered in
spite oC its declamtion of Taiwan as an integi1 part of the empire in 1887. Se "Taiwan's 400 years of
histoif. Available from 1ittpj/www.taiwandc.org'het-1624:hln> Yahoo Search Engine jAceessed 15
4
April 1999]
43
them. Some of these included the KMT's legitimacy in ruling Taiwan and conflicts
between the mainlanders and the indigenous. Amidst the opposing forces of concealing
(the dark
past) and
increasing the government's transparency (for political
liberalization), Taiwan ìn transition at that momen of the time became a site entangled
with tensions and oppressed memories, ready for changes.
In view of this, many
Taiwanese were inspired to look back the history of Taiwan and to re-consider their
identity as Taiwanese. Among them ìncluded the filmmakers of the New Taiwanese
Cinema like Hou Hsiao-hsien.
Searching for a Taiwanese identity bas been a frequent agenda
A Cuy of Sadness.
in Hou's
films including
In terms of the cultural categoiy, Taiwanese have no problem in
recognizing themselves as ethnic Chinese. However, the different (and specific) cultural
and historical experiences ofTaiwan
from those ofthe
mainland China in the last four
decades have contributed to the development of a new Taiwanese identity, and these
unique experiences have disinterested many Taiwanese in submitting to the KMT' s
claim of representìng all of China at national level. As a matter of fàct, A Cuy of
Sadness is the film attempting to explore and to provide the origin and formation of
Taiwanese identity today. alternative to the official and conventional version.
To Benedict Anderson, the term "nation" is defined as "an imagined political
community -and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign".42 A nation has its
cultural roots. Its formation is a cultural construct, "not in the sense of building on
44
historical tradition but in that of being collectively imagined by all those
going to the
same kinds of schools."43
Against its historical background and cultural experience in the last few centuries, the
'Taiwanese" national identity has been characterized as of ambivalence, hybridity and
dispersion.44
All these qualities can, in fact, be noted in A City ofSathiess through its
narratives and languages (spoken and written).
The Taiwanese characteristic of ambivalence, in memory of the twin oppression from
the Japanese and the KMT government, is effectively reflected from the narratives of the
characters in the film. Although Taiwan resisted the Japanese rule at national level, Hou
attempts to introduce an unconventional perspective on the relationship between the
Taiwanese and the Japanese in A City of Sadness.
&fore her departure, Shusuko
(daughter of Kuan-jung's Japanese teacher) offers kimono and calligraphy work to her
and Kuan-jung as souvenirs during her visit to Kuan-mei's workplace. The friendship
between Kuan-jung, Kuan-mei and Shusuko is the best illustration of how an equal
footing and harmonious relation is found on the island, surpassing the antagonistic
master-slave relation.
To a large extent, this is a strong manifestation of Bou's
humanistic attitude towards people. In fact, his portrayal of Japanese in this way may
42Anderson, Benedict Imagined Conimunitics: Reflections on tI
Origin and Spread øf Nationalism
(revised tt extended ed.). London: Veiso, 1991, p.6.
44 (3)
43
Tonnesso, S. & Am1ov H. (ed.) "Asia in Theories of Nationalism and National Identity" in Asian
Forn ôfdie Nation. Richmond, Suney: Curzon, 1996, p. 25.
,
45
, 1993 ' p. 3
simultaneously remind people of the Japanese contribution to Taiwan during the
occupation period.45
To a large extent, the friendly relationship depicted above is definitely a strong conlxast
to the conflicts between the native Taiwanese and the mainlanders in the film. An
example showing this is that, Wen-ching (the deaf-mute) is almost beaten up by other
Taiwanese in the train compartment as he is unable to speak out his identity after the
outbreak of Februaiy 28 Incident. From thìs example, it does not only reveal the
intolerance between the native people and the mainlanders towards each other, but also
the hostility of the native Taiwanese towards the outsiders, noting that not all the native
people are the sole sufferers in the 1940s.
As a matter of fact, in the eyes of the native Taiwanese, the antagonistic relationship
between the KMT (from the mainland) and Taìwanese is comparable to that between the
mainlanders and the natives. The most prominent instance is when the KMT policemen
an-est Wen-hang who is accused of being the collaborator for the Japanese during the
World War II, his father expresses the helplessness of Taiwanese during the Japanese
Occupation. They do not intend to be the gangsters, they do not intend to work
for the
Japanese, but their country, the Qing China, abandons them and they have to do so for
the sake of survival. However, the "new" government bas hardly paid sympathy to
45
Amidst the revolts and resistance against the Japanese, Taiwan was ruled by the Japanese for My years,
dining wlñch taI institutions and fundametilal infrastnicflire were set up and these were of crucial
importance to the latter development of Taiwan.. During this period, the Governor of Taiwan was given
over athuinistration, mililaty, andjudiciary power in governing the island. Also, the Japanese ofikials in
Taiwan embarked on improving agTiCUltWBI products and IndUStiIaI development AlU these provided
crucial foundation for the later economic take-otT of Taiwan.
46
them. It onLy comes to exploit them and even purges them. As a matter of fact, in face
of the KMT government and its dark past, the Taiwanese having no inclination to
identify with its ideology, only feel as what Wen-hsiung speaks out about the
Taiwanese, "Eaten by others, ridden by others, sympathized by no one."
Yet, under Hou's portrayaI the whole issue ofnatìonal identity is not simply operated at
this level of identifying with this government or not, but rather, it is fi.irther complicated
by the concept of "motherland"
During the fifty years of the Japanese
(ffl).46
Occupation, the desire of Taiwanese to return to their motherland (i.e. China under the
rule ofthe KMT government) was embodied in revolts and resistance. After the KMT's
takeover of Taiwan, people's desire ofbeing part ofthe motherland shouLd be fulfilled.
However, the whole concept was complicated by the cìvil war between the KMT and the
cc?.
in face of the KMT's oppressive rule after the February 28, intellectuals being
persecuted by the authority still place passion (wishftul thinking) towards their imagìned
motherland. And this is reflected from a poem written by a dissenter hiding in mountain
area. In the poem. the dissenter writes that, in life, he cannot be with the motherland
though, it is hoped that he could return to the motherland upon death. In Chinese, the
poem is r
i
.
While it is not difficult
understand the dissenter's passion for his motherland, one may ask where his
motherland is. When he talks about the motherland, one can associate it with "China".
However, where is China? InTaiwan (under the KMT)? Or in the mainland (under the
CCP)? As a matter offact, this is not only a question for Taiwanese, it is also a question
4&*J o
r r
r
. r--j1
:
«EJ)
°
47
: 19996
IO
for many Chinese (overseas or in the mainland) like Hong Kong people. In short, this is
an issue about Chinese diaspora.
Having discussed the function of the narratives in exploring the national identity issue.
We shall turn to the use of language, spoken and written in the film as an important
Instrument to Convey the notions of ambìvalence, hybridity and dispersion in 'Taiwan
Experience". In the post-war Taiwan, the Taiwanese native dialect (with Hakka and
Amoy accent), coined as primitive and backward, is not recognized officially and
speaking Mandarin is compulsory. Hence, there is scene of teaching Mandarin ìn the
hospital in the film, depriving the importance of the local dialect as the mother tongue
among the native Taiwanese and diluting their orìgìnal native identity. Hence. use of the
Taiwanese dhilect as the dominant medium of narration in A City
of Sadne&s
becomes a
recognition of the native identity and a challenge towards the officially endorsed
ìdentity. Meanwhile, during the Japanese Occupation and the following transitionai
period, the
educated people, who have a Chinese name and a Japanese name, have
revealed the double identitìes of a Taiwanese. In the film, Kuan-mei has a Japanese
name "Hiromi" . The interchangeable use of the two names in the post-war period may
reveal the Taiwanese cultural acceptance to the imperialist, Japan, showing both
eletnents ofhybridity and ambivalence. Also, against a background ofrepeated colonial
and diasporatic experìences, Taiwan has been resided by Dutch and Japanese formerly,
mainlanders, mountain people and native Taiwanese. Incidents showing the linguistic
diversity with several dialects spoken in one scene are portrayed in the film. The most
obvious example is the gangsters' dialogue and negotiations in the Little Shanghai. In
48
fact, the director attempts to show how things, indigenous and foreign, have integrated
into the island socially and culturally. In fict, today's Taiwan is inevitably a mixed form
of all these different cultures.
Apart from the use of languages in telling Taiwanese Experience, intertitles have taken
up an important role in constructing the identity issue in the film. Although Wen-chìng
is a deaf-mute, this does not prevent him from nzrrating the story of Taiwan through
intertitles. By showing the Chinese characters in the middle ofthe black background on-
screen, these intertitles appear as records of events inscribed in tablets, urging the
audiences to "read" about the pastness of Taiwan and the origin/formation of Taiwan
today. These intertitles, each telling an anecdote, consist of several Taiwanese past
experiences.
They include the family history of Wen-ching about his brothers
conscripted by the Japanese, Wen-ching's childhood with scenes of Beijing opera,, the
stoly of sakura during the Meiji era, the last words ofthe dissenters before execution to
their families delivered by Wen-ching, lives of Kuan-jung and his associates in the
mountain area. To the Taiwanese of the older generation, many have witnessed or
experienced that part of history (circa the Februaiy 28 Incident period), yet it is a taboo
to them. They have seen it., but they are not allowed to discuss and share opinions about
it openly (i.e. to hear and to speak) as result of the authority's suppression. From the
intertitles written by Wen-ching, we do not only sense the sadness of a deaf-mute, but
the sadness ofa nation being kept speechless and the silent struggle ofthe people against
the authority (making every effort to tell their memory). From what written on-screen,
the viewers are reading the historical formation of the Taiwanese national identity,
49
whìch has hybrid associations with the Second World War, the mainland Chinese
cu1ture the Japanese and the political persecution and oppression.
Nationhood and siojehood
Similar to Hou, Tian also engages in a process of soul-searching for the Chinese
in The
Blue
Kite, but with a different agenda - examining the relation between people and the
state.
To Immanuel Wallerstein (Wallerstein, 1991), nationhood is a socio-politica!
manifestation in the construction ofdifferent types ofpeoplebood. In the modern world,
nation-state, built upon the concept of nationhood, has been a dominant type in the
formation of a state. Yet, among the different
categories
(others include racism and
ethnicity) of peoplehood why is the concept of nationhood adopted by the authority?
This is because this can allow the ruling class to have a "limited (in boundary) and
sovereign" state by upholding rationhood.
Then the state can
gain
solidarity and
autonomy. eliminating the threats of internal disintegration and external aggression.
Sometimes, such national sentiment can be cultivated and manipulated by the state to
achieve administration uniformity and policy efficacy.47
Hence, it is no surprise that the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) also manipulated the
concept ofnationhood and the notion ofpastness binding people together to establish the
new state, the People's Republic afChina (PRC) in 1949 As a matter offact, the CCP's
success very much rested upon Chinese people's discontent towards the cornipt KNIT
government,
the eigbt-year Japanese occupation and the CCP's countryside
50
mobilization. Hence, the founding of PRC is rather an outcome of agrarian uprisings
and nationalist revolution, its establishment is hardly a pure proletariat and socialist
revolution.
Upon its establishment in 1949, New China, in the Cold War's bipolar context had to
take sIde so as to secure its autonomy in the international arena.
Meanwhile, to
consolidate the state power, opposition and dissension were avoided, counter-
revolutionaries were cleared at massive scale. In view of the changing world and
domestic conditIons, nationhood, emphasìzing common pastness of the people, is no
longer of use value to the mling class.
Instead, a new identity of peoplehood,
constructed in the form of socialist vs. capitalist, is created and upheld. As a result,
Chinese tradition and culture was condemned whereas attempts we made to win out
the world-class powers and the imperialists, like the USA and Britain. In
The Blue Kite,
these two aspects have been delineated by Tian Zhuangzhuang.
In the course of exercising the state ideology and achieving the state policy, people are
totally
ignored.48
A state ìn modern world is to serve its people; but it turns out that
47Wallerstein, linnianuel. "The Construction of Peoplehood: Racism, Nalionalicm. Ethnicity" w R.
(by Balibar, E. & Wallerstein, L) Lrnidon & New York: Verso,
Nalïn, CIass. Ambiguous IdenUie&
1991, p. 81.
In the New China, Chairman Mao Zedong ìntended to transform China from a poor couiifly into a
To end the political disunity, "counter-revolulìonaiies" (the remaining
modern socialist siate.
Guomindang forces and the landlords) were clearecL To let off discontent among the people under the
sbict COmmUnist rule, Mao ithtiated to «let hundred flowers blossom 1 bundred schools contend" in the
early 1950s. Yel; intolerable of the intellectuals' severe criticisms, the goverument started the Miliiigblist Campaign to exadicate the dissenters and to re-educate some of them m 1957. Turning to the
economic arena, the "Great Leap Forward" (GLP) was introduced in I 958, following the rialionalization
of private assets and agricultnral collectiviïalion in the First Five Year Plan (1953-57). The GLP was
intended to quickly transform into a powerful industrial nation by "walking on two legs" (Le. rapidly
developing both industiy and agriu1ture). Impossible goals and targets were set up and eopte throughout
the whole untiy were thrown into this feivent industrial production. People's communes were
4
ç
.
51
',
3
''
people are sacrificed for the interests of the state and the ruling
class.
In The Blue Kite,
the text is centred around the rnan-iages of Shujuan, who marries to Shaolong, Guodong
and Lao Wu. To a large extent, Shujuan's subsequent marriages after the death of her
first husband are the outcome of politics. Shaolong her first husband, is sent to the
remote area for re-education as a result ofthe Anti-rightist Campaign and ìs "killed" by
tree trunk there. Guodong (Tietou's first stepfather) dies from ulcer and malnutrition
during the Great Leap Forward. Towards the end
ofthe film,
Lao Wu (Tietou's second
step&ther) dies from heart attack as a result of the torture from the Red Guards during
the Cultural Revolutìon.4 For each marriage she expects a promising ftìture, however,
her hope is repeatedly crushed by ruthless politics. In the film, another couple being
victimized is Shuseng () (Shujuan's elder brother) and
Thu Ying
who have planned
to get married. However, Zhu Ying's refusal ofparticipating in the dance party for high-
level officials costs her years of imprisonment and ruins her marriage. In the latter part
ofthe film, Shuyan's proposal to marry a girl can even be rejected and can be substituted
by another girl recognized by the party. Under such an authoritarian regime, marnage
has been totally politicized, people's lives have been totally politicized, too.
As a matter of fact, despite its presentation of certain amusing anecdotes, the film is
primarily composed oftragic events like separations and deaths. All the main characters
in the film are only the ordinary people and almost none of them is about to revolt
organized as the self-sufficient units. Contraiy to the leaders' expected success, the GLP proved to be a
failurc.
d
4ç
In face of the OLP fai1ure Mao resigned from the bead of state and other leaders like Lui Shaoqi
initiated several changes in Mao's economic policies to aJ1ea1e the economie condilions. Man felt that
these changes were turning China away from true communisui The conflicts betn the two camps (one
ntic sOci2i, pO1Ìñ! and cultural upheaval -the
led by Mao, the other by Liu) finally resulted in a
1976.
Great Proletarian Cuifliral Revolution between 1966 and
52
against the authority. Instead they are the supporters of the Communist rule and only
seek for a peaceftil life under the new regime. In fact, they have tried to avoid involving
in any sensitive issue. However, vacillations in state policies and political struggles
from above have involved everybody. Shaolong is a typical victim of the unpredictable
shift of political wind. He only engages in a casual talk with his colleagues once and is
designated as a rightist. Another character that may best reveal the unpredictability of
politics is Shujuans elder sister. Throughout the film, she is a staunch supporter of the
party and is in keen defence of party policy. However, this does not save her from
persecution.
Whefl the Cultural Revolution starts, she becomes the victìni of the
movement and is tortured by the young "revolutionaries". To the vast majority of the
Chinese people. the last four decades were ftzll ofendless nightmares.
Through the camera of Tian, the viewers have noted how oppression in various forms
has been implemented by the state and how people's livelihood has been severely
devastated. For the sake ofpolitics at the top, the whole nation ofpeople is thrown into
endless movements and campaigns. However, these have never been the will of the
people.
Among the various groups of people
focused
victimized
at the time, Tian has deliberately
on the intellectual class in the film. As a matter offct, most ofthe characters
come from the educated class instead
ofeoming from the
peasantry. Shujuan is teacher,
Shaolong and Guodong work in the library, Shuseng works fòr the militaiy
Ying is a theafre actress and Shuyan attends high school before sending to
units
Thu
the remote
the background setting ofA City
area for re-education- This is definitely diflerent from
53
ofSadness in
which the Lin family is composed of gangsters and intellectuals. On one
hand, this may have to do with Tian's family background. Tian's parents are from the
educated class
and involved in performing acts in the PRC. To a large extent,
The Blue
Kie is an account! an autobiography of the director's childhood and youth ìn the
country. Unlike Hou (whose family migrated to Taiwan from the Mainland afler the
Second World War), Tian is the witness of major historical events in the Communist
China. On the other hand, in the Chinese modern history, intellectuals have always been
the subjects of victimization and suppression. They are the group of people who are
most concerned about their state and their country. hence they are also the group of
people posing most potential threats to a corrupt regime. As a result, they are oppressed
the most in every political movement and campaIgn. Thirty and forty years ago, the
Anti-Rightist Campaign and the
Cultural
Revolution embarked on the severe
suppression of the intellectual class. During the reform era, such tragic suppression of
intellectuals repeated in the Democracy Wall movement in the early 1980s, in the antibourgeois liberalization campaign in 1986 and in the June Fourth Incident in 1989.
Throughout the film, "Song of CroW' (,) and the blue kite have been reiterated by
the director.
They represent the director's thoughts and attitude towards the state.
"Song of Crow", which is about the filial piety of crows towards mother crow, is the
song that Shujuan teaches Tietou during his chIldhood. The song has been played
several times in the film, especìally when Shujuan and Tietou are together at home.
However, the last time that the song is played is duiing the Red Guards' intrusion into
Lao Wu s honte. Here, the song does not function to symbolize the intimate relationship
between mother and child it acts as an irony to the state, mocking the state's destruction
54
of everything among the people, even the thndamental ìnter-personal affection of the
family. In several state movements, individual interests have been subordinated to the
state interests.
Such notion is particularly prominent during the Culturai Revolution.
The Red Guards (the youngsters) were Indoctrinated o severely that parents and
relatives could hardly be comparable to Chairman Mao (Zedong) and the state. On one
sìde of a coin, this is definitely a successful illustration of how the zenith of the state
power can be reached when absolute obedience is elicited from the masses. On the other
side of the coin, everybody was suspicious of others, trust and care among the members
was absent in family. People (with rationalìty) living under such a regime are of no
difference from living in nightmare. In this regard, how can these people identify with
their state? For those intolerable of all these ìrrationalitìes and tortures, some chose to
escape from their country, some chose to commit suicide. When people lose their
confidence in and loyalty to their country, the nation is on the road of committing selfdestruction.
Another object dellberately portrayed throughout the film is the blue kite. As a matter of
fact, the blue kite has been destroyed more than once in the film. When it is destroyed,
little Tietou cries and asks for a new one from his father. The blue kite has been with
him throughout his childhood and youth. In the film, the kite represents the happy times
of Tietou. When it is destroyed (i.e. happiness crushed), he may be upset for a while.
Yet, unhappiness can be quickly removed by the making of a new one. Here, we may
learn that happiness and joy may be repeatedly ruined, people are also quick to recover
from that. Also, they remain positive anñ hopeful ofthe new happiness. Yet, how many
times can they Withstand this? Apparently, the director may tend to say "No more". By
55
displaying the past/history in the form of memory (through Tietous narration), the
director has exhibited bow polìtìcal struggles (inc1udin the June Fourth Incident) have
ruthlessly taken away happiness ofthe people, the past generations have suffered enough
and it is hoped that this would not happen again to the next generations in the fìiture.
Comparison
In A City of Sadness, Hou has shown bow Taiwanese find it hard to submit to the
Japanese, the KMT government and to bave empathy with the outsiders (i. e. the
mainlanders). By constructing the relations ofthe Taiwanese vis-à-vis the Japanese, the
KMT government and the mainlanders in these ways, Hou has satisfied no party but has
only stirred up criticisms from ail parties. Jn the film, Hou does not intend to re-present
the exact historical and social conditions, distortions and dislocations are noted.
Nevertheless, Hou has successftilly established a forum for discussions though its
exhibition ofidentity discontinuity via ambivalence, hybridity and dispersion caused by
disruptions in the historical continuum.
Different from Hou. Tian and his generation ofChinese, who live in the mainland China,
do not encounter any problem in national identity and historical continuity. However,
Tian's generation experienced such a traumatic era that he deeply feels the helplessness
of Chinese in face of state power and state rule. In the film, Tìan's mixed feelings
towards the state are manifested from characters' private criticism ofthe policy in spite
oftbeìr public submission to the state polìcy
56
Both Hou and Tian claim that their films are not to challenge the legitimacy of the ruling
class (i.e. the KMT government and the l'RC government).
But Hou believes that
Taiwanese should think about where they come from and who they are as Taiwanese.
And Tian hopes that
The Blue Kite
could pay homage to the past generations that
suffered and let the young generations know what happened in the past and that the next
generation would not repeat this in future.
57
Chapter 5
Conclusion: Vehicle for National Liberation
Following Teshome's discourse on in Chapter 2, third cinema, political in nature,
manìfests strongly their opposition to Imperialism and class oppression; and is to serve
as the political weapon for decolonìzatìon and national liberation. To be more specific.
cultural productions coined as third cinema,, should liberate people from oppression, to
contribute to the development of new consciousness, to transform the society and to
develop new film language that can accomplish
regard, an examination of bow A City
the
of Sadness
aforementioned goals.
In this
and The Blue Kite, as national
allegories, can serve as the vehicle for national liberation via the directors' representation ofmemory and history will be attempted in this chapter,
In the previous chapters, Benjamin's challenge towards historicism and his argument on
histoncal reconstniction stimulated by memory springing up at a moment of danger has
provided the framework to examine the two films.
Operating within Benjamin' s
framework, one can find that the two Chinese communities in transition
have
become
the instruments stimulating Hou Hsiao-hsien and Tian Zbuangzhuang to re-present the
oppressed memories of the wounded past in their films.
memories from the private sphere in A City ofSadness and
By staging the oppressed
The Blue Kite,
the directors
have embarked on a dialogue with the official accounts of the past. As a matter of fact.
such a constmction of private memories in negotiation with the official history in the
films have blast open the histotical continuum long endorsed by the existing
governments. For Hou Hsiao-hsien, the national identity issue explored in A City 1
5g
Sadness
has been a disruption caused to the history of Taiwan, whereas victimization of
people under the ruthless politics in
The Blue Kite is
a criticism posed by Tian
Zhuangzhuang towards the authority (in the past and today). In view of the political
nature ofthe two fi1ms their production and release are not only assocìated with the past
of Taìwan and the mainland, but are also indicative of the socio-politica! development
and progress in these two Chinese communities today.
When A
City ofSadness was
first released in 1990, Hou's restrained cinematic styles and
bis creative dealing with the concept ofnationhood have urged people to relate the film
to the
ctra-textua1 issues in context of the contemporary society, thereby initiating a
series of discussions on the February 28 Incident, history of Taiwan and the Taiwan
experience.
At the
times
people of different walks of life were eager to present their
views and opinions towards the different aspects of the film from the cinematic
aesthetics to the historical, political and cultural issues of the society. To some people,
Hou's dealing with Februaiy 28 in A Cuy ofSathiess is like a requiem to the event. To
others like people in Hong Kong, they were remìnded of the June Fourth Incident
occurred in I 989. While some critics showed strong appreciation to the film as they
were amazed by }lou's boldness in opening up the wounded past of Taiwan from a
humanitarian
standpoint,50
some radicals were dissatisfied with Hou's wishy-washy
reconstruction ofthe wounded past.5' There were movie-goers dìsappointed by the lack
ofviolence and the actual course ofthe February 28 Incident on-screen. There also were
5ot . (J
(E)
.
,
'jj±'1991
I f993
38-48
scholars noting many distortions and misplacements in the film, claiming it failed to
portray a historically correct society of Taiwan.
Nevertheless, one should note that the film, having incorporated unconventional
perspectives about Taiwan. has successfully enticed new and multiple perspectives from
people on various historical and socìo-polìtical issues in relation to Taiwan. Here, one
can note how A CUy of Sadness, as a product of the director who was stimulated by a
moment of danger (i.e. the Taiwanese society in transition), became a vehicle prompting
people to engage in explorations in other domains. In fact, these are definitely essential
qualities for national liberatIon, thereby establishing a healthy nation. As a matter of
fact, people' s incessant struggle for a re-assessment of the wounded past ìn the last four
decades finally brought the ¡(MT government to give up efforts of concealing its dark
past. In 1992, the KMT government promised to issue a report that disclosed corruption
and misrule being the fundamental causes of the February 28 Incident, in contradiction
to the past official interpretation. In addition, monument was erected in memory of the
victims in the February 28 Incident. Some people may argue that Taiwan is still far
from being a liberal and free society as the Nationa! Security Law was introduced to
partially substitute the martial law though, Taiwan is on the road of further political
liberalization and is known of moving the quickest in pace of democratization amotg the
Chinese
mjnunities (e.g. Macau, Hong Kong and Mainland China). On the whole, A
Cuy of&zdness
the last decade.
does play the role of third cinema as a vehicle for national liberation in
Yet,
for The BIne Kite,
it is totally another story. The film was shot three years
after the
June Fourth Incident (1989). As any sensitive issue (posing potential threats to the
regime) should be avoided in the post-Tìananmen era, the film which was largely an
outcome of the June Fourth Incident encountered numerous obstacles during the period
it was shot. At the time, anonymous letters were sent to the ministries and party
committees, accusing Tian Zhuangzhuang of 'opposing the Communist Party and
Socialism" through the production of
The Blue Kite.
As a matter offact, the final edit of
the film was done in Japan as the post-production was forbidden in the mainland's film
studio. To make it worse, Tian was not allowed to leave Chìna to finish his work during
that period. In fact, this Incident has indicated that Third World Cinema in China still
has a long way to go in achieving total liberation ofthe people.
Despite the fact that the film enjoyed acclaim and gained awards abroad, it was banned
at home. Nevertheless, its prohibition from public viewing in China widely aroused
people's concern about the freedom of expression and human rights in China. The film
has been very mild in its criticism towards the regime. Yet. the government insisted on
a ban of the ñlm. As Tian Zhuangzhuang states, 'I finished shooting
1992.
The Blue Kite in
But while I was involved in post-production, several official organizations
involved with China's film industry screened the
1m.
They decided that it had a
problem concerning its political 'leanings', and prevented its completion. . . The stories in
the film are real. . Wbai worries me is that lt is precisely a fear of reality and sincerity
that has led to the
ban."52
In fact, the
government's
Ireatment of the film reveals that
from
Available
Review"
FUni
a
Kite:
Blue
"The
James.
1ittpJ/2O9.7S.2O.222/mOVieSJb/b1UC_kitC.h11I1> Yahoo Search Engine [Accessed 6 December 19981
52ßerardmneJli,
61
people in China (officials or ordinary people)
are still
obsessed with the wounded history
and they do not know how to handle it properly, resulting in double
standards53
amidst
the trend of continuing economic liberalization in the post-Tiananmen era.
Nevertheless, TIan's detennination of completing
the film
regardless of numerous
obstacles should be appreciated. In fact, Tian's boldness tells that people are witnesses
of history and historical events occurred in their times have definitely formed a part of
their memories. These memories are ready to spring up when they are triggered offat a
moment of danger. To Tian, the June Fourth Incident bas become
"the
moment of
danger". ¡t did not only stir up hIs memory about China ìn the last four decades, but also
urged him to produce
The Blue Kite
to re-examine our histoiy and to let the younger
generations know about the history. h fact,, Tian once says £Our parents' generation
paid for the history with theIr blood and tears. . .Things have improved since the
ecottomic reforms, but ifChina really wants to change, people have to understand what's
happened get rid of the idea that politics rules their lives. .Many people today don't
know anything about this period (1950s and 96Os). Discussion ofthe persecutions
of
the Anti-Rightist Campaign. . is still taboo for writers, artists and filmmakers. . . The Blue
Kite pays homage to my parents'
generation."54
Co-incidentally, the June Fourth Incident has become the intermediary linking up A City
of Sadness and
5
The Blue
chezi Kaige's FaìewellMy
Kite. If the February 2S hcidn is noted as the Taiwanese
Concubine and
Thang Yiinou's To
Leve
we produeed
th fewer obsiacles
intheearly 1990s.
54Tian,
19991
Zhiinghuang.
'HÍtoiy. . .
Available
from
homage. . .memoiy".
Yahoo Scaidi Engine [Accessed 6 Apiil
version of "the June Fourth Incident", one should be delighted to see the KMT's
willingness to lift the martial law and to re-evaluate the nature ofthe incident compared
to the Chinese government's unwillingness to re-assess the June Fourth Incident.
From the textual and extra-textual events occurred in relation to
The Blue
Kite, one may have
observed that the two
A City ofSadness
and
places, Taiwan and the mainland
China, are in different stages of national liberation. Over the last
decades
globalization
nd multinational capitalism brought enormous economic benefits to both places. yet
they did not contribute much in improving the human rights conditions ìn Mainland
China. Nevertheless, it is hoped that the country's growing interactions with the global
markets can play
a part ín quickening China's political liberalization, like what
happened to Taiwan in the last two decades.
While A City ql Sadness can be treated as a requiem soothing the
history of Taiwan, the treatment of The
Blue
oppressed
in the
Kite in Mainland China indicates that
Chinese people are still in the queue for redemption to receive the fullness ofthe past.
63
Appendix h About the Directors
Hou Tlsiao-hsien
Hou Hsiao-hsien ari active parLicipant in the New Cinema movement is definitely
among the most representative figures. Born in Guangdong province of the mainland
China in 1947, Hou's family moved to southern Taiwan in 1948. After completing
compulsory mIlitary service ìn I 969, Hou studied film and drama at the National Taiwan
Academy ofArts. He joined the film industry in 1973 upon his graduation. Hou's films
(refer to Appendix II: Fulmography) are largely autobiographical, emphasizing realism
through ìts authentic artistic and esthetic portrayal of life in Taiwan. His unique
observational and documentary-like style has earned him several international awards
and has been acclaimed as the most representative director of the Taiwan's national
cinema. Three films (A Cii), of Sadness, The Puppetinaster and Good Men, Good
Women) he produced between I 989 and i 995 are even coined as his epic trilogy, representing the past and the present of Taiwan.
Tian Zhuangzhnang (EEffi±Í±)
As one of the prominent New Cinema filmmakers, Tian Zhuangzhuang was born in
I 952. His parents were known actors and were zhiqing. During the Cultural
Revolutìon, Tian was sent to ulm province and later he joined the army. In the I 970s,
he obtained an apprenticeship in the photographic department of the governments
Agricultural Film Unit. In 1978, he entered the Beìjing Film Academy. In 1980, he codirected a video film called Our Corner. In the following years, he directed a number of
films (refer to Appendix II: Filmography). In 19S5, Tian made On the Hunling Grciund
and it caught international recognition for the first time. In I 986, he directed The Horse
Thief Although his films were commented as too stylized and too difficult to
The Horse Thief another highly stylized and exotic film. did win for him
another international recognition. In i 992, Tian made another award-winning film The
Blue Kite. In the meantime, Tian also participated in several commercial productions for
the domestic market.
understands
rI
Appendix II: Filmography
Hou Hsiao-hsien
Year
Title
1980
Cute Girls
19x1
CheerfulWind
1982
1983
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1989
1993
1995
1996
1998
Green, Green Grass ofHome <)
The Boys from Fenkuel (IJX)
(J*4)
The SandwichMan
A Summer at Grandpas (1)
The Time to Live, the Time to Die (1E)
Dust in the Wind (J)
Daughter ofthe Nile
ACìtyofSadness
The Puppetmaster
(
(X>
Good Men, Good Women ()
Good-bye South, Good-bye
Flowers ofShanghai
(L)
Tiui Th.inazhuin9
Year
1982
1983
1984
1985
I 986
1987
1988
1991
1992
1997
Title
Red Elephant
( I[)
A SummerEperience (>
September <iIM)
On the Huntìng Ground
Horse Thief (
(L)
(1A)
DmmArtìst
Rock'nRollKids
Da Taijian Lì Lianyng
(A)
The Blue Kite
Steel is Made this Way
65
11)
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