This exam is marked out of 53 (including 3 SPAG marks)
The focus is upon how warfare has changed. You therefore need to be able to say things like:
X changed in this way. It changed because…
The questions will be based upon different themes. These themes are:
Technologies, weapons and Armies
Tactics and types of war
Media Reporting and Propaganda
Equipment
Civilians, effects of war and attitudes in society
Recruitment
Movement and Transport
Medicine and Causalities
Daily Life
Key Battles
You should therefore revise in themes!
TOP TIP!
Timelines, colourful, and possibly containing pictures, may well help you revise this topic, and help you see
how the changes happen over time.
Technology, Weapons and
Armies
Overview:
c50AD – 1350 – Romans, Celts, Saxons and Normans
Infantry soldiers (soldiers who fight on foot) make up
majority of army
Dagger, swords, spears, shields
1350 -1450 – SLOW CHANGE
New Key Weapon = the Longbow
1450 -1700 - RAPID CHANGE!
New Key Weapon = Gunpowder weapons
1350 – 1700 – Similarities = Infantry the biggest part of the army
Hand to hand weapons
Armies got bigger
Differences = Standing armies emerged
Uniforms appeared
1700 -1800 – Mainly SLOW CHANGE/CONTINUITY (1700-1790)
Cannons were made lighter
Armies grew
Organisation of armies improved
1800 – 1900 – 1790 – 1815 = RAPID CHANGE
1815-1850 = STAGNATION
1850 – 1900 = RAPID CHANGE
New Key Weapon = Rifles and machine gins
1900 – Present Day – RAPID CHANGE
c50AD – 1066
Roman soldiers:
Most Roman soldiers were infantry, foot
soldiers. Their main weapons were daggers
and swords. Soldiers used two-foot long,
double-edged swords; they were mainly used
for stabbing, but could also cut off limbs when
swung.
Most soldiers also carried two seven-foot
throwing spears with a throwing range of 30
meters.
Soldiers also carried a shield, round in shape,
over a meter long and a meter wide. They
were made of wood and edged with metal.
Soldiers would make a wall of these shields to
protect themselves from arrows or spears.
To protect themselves the Roman soldiers
wore light armour. This was made up of
interlocking metal plates and a metal helmet
with metal flaps to protect the neck and
cheeks.
Celtic weapons:
The Celts were skilled in metalwork. This meant that
the spear became the key Celtic weapon. They had
long spears for stabbing and smaller throwing spears.
Most Celtic warriors also had swords up to a meter
long, used for slashing the enemy, and large decorated
wooden shields, often covered in leather, with a metal
boss in the centre for defence.
Few Celtic warriors wore armour. Most wore normal
clothing for fighting – coarse trousers, shirt and cloak,
often dyed in bright colours.
The Celts had no standing armies, but some tribes
became wealthy enough to pay a few full time
warriors. These formed small war bands. They had
warrior training schools to practice their skills. They
claimed special powers from Celtic gods and held
religious rituals for new recruits.
Roman Armies:
Roman soldiers were known as Legionaries. They
were organised into legions of about 6000 men.
Each legion was led by several centurions (senior
soldiers) and an officer.
Each legion had specialist archers and 120
horsemen to act as scouts. It would have its own
medical staff, carpenters, vets, armourers,
surveyors and priests.
This meant that each legion was a self-contained,
flexible fighting unit.
In total there were 28 legions, meaning that
150,000 regular soldiers at any one time. The
Roman army also had about 150,000 auxiliary
troops, foreign soldiers from land then Romans had
conquered.
Celtic ideology:
Celtic society was too poor to recruit large,
permanent paid armies. Nor did they need them,
They did not want to rule large areas of land, and
most fights were small raids into nearby villages to
steal cattle, valuables or slaves or to weaken their
enemies by killing family members and burning
villages and crops.
Sometimes Celts did all that they could to avoid
battle. Society relied upon their men to work the
land and could not afford to lose men in battle. SO
sometimes, a small number of men were chosen to
fight in a stage battle, which decided the outcome
of the war.
c50AD – 1066
Celtic warrior leaders:
Saxon armies:
With no standing army, there were no officers in Celtic
fighting. But Celtic society did have leaders who had
better equipment:
The Saxon King had two main kinds of
soldiers, the housecarls and the fyrd.
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Housecarls:
These warriors had better leather smocks and
helmets; some had bronze or iron helmets,
decorated with coral or even gold.
A few nobles fought on horseback. Their four
cornered saddles gave them stability, meaning
that they could use their swords and spears
better.
In some Celtic tribes, noble warriors used battle chariots.
There were two wheeled vehicles, about four meters
long. A charioteer drove while the warrior threw his
spears, before dismounting and fighting on foot.
These were professional soldiers paid for by
the King. They were recruited from a young
age from the strongest boys and trained to
use weapons. They were clothed, armed and
fed by their Lord. When fighting, they were
either fed by their Lord’s supply waggons or
lived off the land.
Fyrd:
These were an army made up of free men,
who were expected to volunteer in times of
danger. In early Saxon times the fyrd were
very disorganised and made up of farmers
with only scythes and axes for weapons. But
over time they became a hardened fighting
force. Because it was based upon local men,
the King could raise the fyrd in any part of
the country he needed.
Saxon weapons and armour:
Soldiers in the fyrd brought their own weapons. They usually had swords, a spear and a shield, and
some kind of protective clothing, like a helmet or leather clothing. However, some fyrdmen
arrived only with farm tools for weapons.
Housecarls were much better armed. For attack, they had swords, spears and sometimes a battle
axe. These had metal axe-heads, with cutting edges about 30cm long, mounted on a long pole. In
the hands of a strong man, these could easily behead an enemy. Some housecarls were also
trained as bowmen.
For defence, housecarls had a coat of chainmail, called a byrnie, a pointed helmet to deflect blows
and a wooden shield, usually a long one, to protect the legs as well as the body.
c50AD – 1066
The Norman Army:
The main difference between the Norman and Saxon armies were the Norman mounted knights.
These were usually men of wealthier families and they considered themselves the cream of the
fighting forces. The Saxons did not fight on horseback, whereas up to half of the Norman army
might be made up of mounted knights.
The Normans also had foot soldiers, infantry. These were usually professional soldiers, employed
by the leaders of the army.
The Normans also had large numbers of archers in their armies.
Norman weapons and armour:
For attacking Norman knights mainly used spears, but also swords, small axes and lances.
To defend themselves, they wore knee-length chainmail shirts, called hauberks. Sometimes they had
chainmail hoods and a pointed helmet, typically with a ‘nasal’ to protect the face. They also used shields
– usually kite shaped.
Norman foot soldiers also used spears, swords and axes. The bows they used were quite short and they
only drew the strings back to their bodies, not fully to the ear. The Normans also used crossbows.
Norman infantry were less likely to be wealthy than the knights. As a result, though they had helmets
and shields, they were less protected. Few wore chainmail; it was too heavy and expensive.
1066 - 1350
The Assize armies:
The feudal system provided large numbers of mounted knights and also some infantry, but
infantry was the biggest part of the medieval army.
By 1181 all freemen who owned a small amount of property had to provide their own arms
and fight for the king.
The early medieval army:
Between 1066 and 1350, the early medieval army was composed of knights and infantry:
Infantry:
They made up most of the army. Some were the permanent men-at-arms employed by knights. But most
were poorer men doing their feudal duty. Some were pike men. Pikes were three-to-six metre spears. Pike
men gathered around knights or archers and pointed their pikes towards enemy cavalry or infantry
charges. An axe-head fixed near the top of pikes made halberds to thrust and cut.
Mounted Knights:
These were the elite of the army. Made up of wealthy landowners, knights could provide their own horses,
swords, shields and lances. At first they had hauberks – chainmail tunics; then, armour developed. By
1300, metal breastplates and back plates were common. After about 1400, knights wore full suits of
armour, though these were soon seen to be impractical.
Archers:
Some shot crossbows; these were very accurate and so powerful their bolts could pierce armour. But
crossbows were slow to re-load so most archers used short bows, about 50cm long, with a 100 metre
range.
1066 - 1350
Siege weapons for attacking castles:
Siege engines:
These were designed to break down walls of towns or castles.
A mangonel was a catapult which worked by winding rope to create tension – like stretching an elastic band. It
had a long, flat trajectory. They hurled rocks at walls.
A trebuchet was like a large sling. It had a long beam on a pivot; the beam had a sling on one end and a heavy
weight on the other. When the weight dropped, the sling on the other end catapulted a rock, on a high trajectory,
over the walls. They also hurled spears and rotting dead animals over the walls to cause death and disease.
Rams, sows and penthouses:
Attackers also used battering rams to break down walls or castle doors. To get close, they advanced under a long
hut on wheels, called a penthouse or a sow. A metal-tipped battering ram was slung from the roof of the sow.
While defenders tried to kill them with arrows, rocks and fire bombs, attackers under the shelter swung the ram
against the walls.
Mining:
Sometimes attackers dug a mine under the castle walls. They propped up the roof of their tunnel with timber
props as they dug. Once under the walls, they would start a large fire. This destroyed the props, causing the
tunnel to collapse. The attackers hoped this would also make the walls above collapse, creating a weak point to
attack.
Storming the walls:
Once the walls were weakened, attackers had to storm the walls in a frontal assault. This was a very dangerous
task, since defenders used arrows, spears, rocks and swords to fight them off from above.
The simplest way for attackers to get to the top of the walls was to use ladders. But it was dangerous as only one
attacker at a time could climb the ladder. Defender frequently tipped the ladders, and attackers, back down onto
the ground.
Attackers also used wheeled siege towers, called belfries, to make a more concerted attack. These were made of
wood and covered in wet animal hides to prevent fire being used against them. Attackers could shelter in the
towers and then, many at a time, emerge from a platform at the top of the tower and leap onto the walls.
Who won?
Most sieges failed. Attackers often ran out of food, money or patience, or they fell ill from exposure or infected
water. Defenders suffered terribly from hunger in long sieges or were slaughtered if the walls fell, so many
decided to negotiate a solution.
1350-1450
Key weapons and make-up of the army:
Archers – especially the longbow
Mounted Knights: the rich and privileged of society.
They would have good protective clothing such as metal
helmets, breast and back plates, arm and leg guards.
They also carried shields and were well armed with
swords. They would take with them several horses and
servants. They would fight on foot if needed.
Infantry: The foot soldiers were the biggest part of the
army. They were mainly poor and provided their own
weapons such as daggers, swords, axes and clubs. They
were therefore badly armed and poorly protected with
leather padded tunics. Lucky ones had metal helmets
and chain mail. Some were pike men.
BIGGEST CHANGE IN THIS ERA –
KEY WEAPON: THE LONGBOW
Could fire 400m and terrified the enemy.
An archer could fire 15 arrows a minute, compare
to 3 for a French crossbow.
The arrows could pierce plate armour.
Knights could be pinned to their horses by arrows
that went through armour, chain mail, flesh and
bone and into the saddle.
Small armies – 6,000 men
Impact of the Longbow:
1. A decline in mounted Knights. The Knights were no longer the most powerful regiment on the
battlefield. Knights could now be brought down in large numbers and as more fell others fell on the
bodies, this brought them into hand to hand conflict and equalled them.
2. The rise of Mercenaries. Because the Longbow needed strength and training, only full time soldiers had
the time to perfect its use. Through this training, units of 100 men could be taught to fire and re-load in
unison so that they could land showers of arrows on small areas and this had a deadly effect.
3. The end of chivalry. The spirit of war changed. Face to face combat started to decline, there was little
honour in death from an arrow fired from an unidentified archer.
1450-1700
The age of Gunpowder weapons:
The Cannon:
The cannon, the matchlock and the flintlock.
The Matchlock (A musket gun):
Advantages:They could kill at 400m, which was
further than the longbow, pierce armour at 200m
and the operators did not tire in battle like
archers did.
Problems:They were inaccurate and frequently
misfired making them useless in the rain. They
weighed over 10kg (heavy!) and they had to be
balanced on a stick. They caused smoke when
fired which made aiming difficult and took two
minutes to re-load.
Problems: They were inaccurate so could only be
used against large targets such as town walls. They
only had a range of 100m. This made them vulnerable
to capture. They often went wrong and backfired,
killing those who were operating them.
Advantages: Trunnions were introduced which made
it easier to change the range of fire. Quadrants were
used to improve aim. Specialist cannons, such as
mortars and howitzers, which lobbed cannon balls
over wall, were developed. The ‘Mad Margaret’
cannon was developed which had a long aim. By 1500
field gins were developed which were smaller (light
artillery) and could be pulled around the battlefield by
horses. They were no longer stationary and could be
used against the infantry.
The Flintlock: Invented in 1700:
By 1700 the flintlock replaced the Matchlock. The
Flintlock used flints to create a spark to fire the
weapon and this meant that they could be preloaded and a soldier could carry lots into battle
and fire rapidly, without having to reload. They
could also be used by the Cavalry. Matchlocks
could not be carried on horses, but the Flintlock
could. New ‘Dragoon’ units were created. There
were men on horses who also used the Flintlock.
IMPACT of the cannon: In 1415 the French town of
Harfleur resisted Henry V’s siege for 5 weeks. In 1449
its walls were destroyed by cannon in 2 weeks.
Larger armies. At the Battle of Naseby, Oliver
Cromwell had an army of 22,000 men.
Impact of gunpowder weapons:
1. Changes in infantry: Musketeers gradually replaced archers in the infantry. Pike men began to
disappear as musketeers attached long knives, bayonets, to the end of their guns which turned
them into thrusting weapons.
2. The decline of the cavalry: Cavalry charges were easily cut down. After 1450 the cavalry still existed,
but was weaker.
3. Infantry lines: Lines of Muskets replaced Infantry Squares. By 1600, lines of 10 men were used. They
would fire and then retreats, letting another line of 10 men step forward and fire. This achieved a
constant volley of fire. The need to re-load quickly led to increased discipline and training.
th
1700’s – 18 Century
Highlights:
Mainly a time of continuity:
Infantry made up 75% of most armies.
Muskets continued to be used. The English ‘Brown Bess’ flintlock musket, which came into service in 1715,
remained in service for 130 years and 7.8 million were made, but re-loading times fell to 30 seconds.
The cavalry continued to decline.
BUT:
Changes were made to light artillery (small cannons). They were now made of bronze to make them lighter.
The carriages were also made lighter. These were then pulled by horses and became an effective part of
18th century armies. (Example – in 1709 British field guns swept whole ranks of French off their feet using
exploding canisters at the Battle of Malplaquet
The size of armies also grew. Even in peace time
armies of 50,000 were common. They were
permanent, paid armies. During wartime, extra
troops were also recruited. During the Spanish
War of Succession in 1709 the British Army was
150,000 strong. 80,000 of these troops were
mercenaries.
This increase in the size of armies saw three
other changes:
1. Central administration. In 1722 a new
War Office was created to run the British
Army. It was in charge of army
administration, finance and supplies.
2. Standardised weapons and uniforms.
The British Red Coats was the most
famous!
3. Regiments. These were smaller units
within the large army. Each had its own
base, emblems and staff (some of the
bases and emblems still exist today!)
th
1800’s – 19 Century
A century of two halves:
1800-1850 = A time of continuity (little change)
1850-1900 = A time of rapid change
1815-1850:
The core of the army was well-drilled infantry
who wore bright colours.
Cavalry continued to decline, but still supported
the infantry.
New technology like the telegraph was used
from the 1830’s. This was however ignored by
the army.
The growth of artillery actually slowed.
Numbers of men in the army fell.
WHY?
Napoleon had been defeated and there was no
threat from France so no need to bring in
changes
Most army officers saw no reason to change
things
Cavalry, although weak, was still admired by the
upper classes
Impact of rifles, machine guns and developments in
cannons (cannons are also known as heavy artillery).
Battles were transformed!
The army with the newest rifles and cannons would win a
battle.
Frontal attacks upon an enemy were now useless,
defensive weapons now dominated the battlefield.
These new weapons also finally brought an end to the
cavalry; horses could not withstand these bullets.
Why rapid change?
1. New science and technology made steel cheaper to
make.
2. Conveyor-Belt production (mass production).
1850-1900:
Rifles:
These replaced muskets as the spiralled grove
inside the barrel of the gun made the bullet
spin and therefore fly further and straighter.
By the 1860’s they could kill from a mile away.
Percussion cartridges replaced the need for
flints and sparks, meaning that soldiers could
fire well in damp weather.
Conical bullets could be loaded into the gun
through a magazine containing many bullets.
Soldiers could now reload quickly, lie down
and fire several shots in quick succession.
Machine Guns:
Gatling guns were small cannon like weapons
which had several small revolving barrels that
allowed up 150 bullets per minute to be fired.
By the 1880’s machine guns had become
smaller and lighter.
Cannon:
These were now made form steel which
improved their strength. Shells developed
which made cannon’s more deadly. 10 shells a
minutes could now be fired that explode on
impact.
th
1900’s – 20 Century
The 1900’s were dominated by
two World Wars and the Cold
War
New weapons were introduced
during World War One (19141918) – planes, tanks, gas and
submarines.
Old weapons continued to have a
big impact on the battles –
artillery, rifles and machine guns.
Aircraft:
Advantages:
 At the beginning mainly used for
spying over enemy lines
 Used for dropping bombs
 Bomb sights were developed
which made aiming better.
Disadvantages:
 Pilots were then given pistols to
fire at each other. This was
inaccurate!
 Initial bombings were really
inaccurate.
 When fitted with machine guns,
the guns would often rip through
the propellers, destroying them.
Tactics:
Were increasingly used in support of
advancing infantry by bombing
tranches and no-mans-land.
TANKS:
First used during the Battle of the Somme in 1916.
Advantages:
 Able to cross rough ground easily, this made crossing
shell holed no-man-land which was covered with barbed
wire a doddle!
 Able to crush machine gun positions with ease.
 Equipped with machine guns they were able to fire upon
the enemy.
 At first they scared the German who had no idea what
they were!
Disadvantages?
 The broke down easily
 They were slow
 During the Battle of Amiens 534 tanks were used. After
four days only 6 hadn’t broken down.
Tactics:
Troops would advance behind the tanks, giving them extra
protection from the machine guns.
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Gas:
First use at Ypres in 1915.
Advantages:
Could kill and injure lots of people all at the same time.
Terrified soldiers.
Disadvantages:
Gas masks were able to combat the effects of the gas.
Were reliant upon the wind. If the wind changed direction
the attackers would feel the effects!
Tactics:
Used against trenches before an infantry attack. The
advancing infantry would all be wearing gas masks and
protected from its effects. The enemy would hopefully be
caught off guard as they tried to put on their own masks
and disoriented from the gas.
Submarines:
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Advantages:
Were able to attack ships with a sense of surprise, especially at the beginning when detecting them
was very difficult!
Were used to starve a country into defeat by sinking their food supply ships.
Allowed the weaker Germany Navy to inflict damage upon the stronger British Navy
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Disadvantages:
Submarines could not always tell who were the enemy and who were on their side.
Had to resurface often to recharge their batteries – putting them at risk.
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Tactics and types of wars
Overview:
c50 – 1066 – Roman tactics and simple defensive/attacking methods
1066 – 1350 = Siege warfare
1350 – 1450 = Feigned retreat and sieges
1450 – 1700 = Sieges
1700 = Sieges
1800 =
1900 = Total War, trench warfare, war in the air
c50AD - 1066
Roman army tactics:
Roman generals would normally position infantry in the centre of their armies, with the cavalry at the sides
and archers and spear throwers behind the infantry. Their attacks would follow this pattern:
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A hail of arrows and spears would be sent over the infantry to disrupt the enemy
The infantry would drive forwards into the enemy, forming a wedge shape or a series of wedges,
protected by their shields
This would force the enemy backwards and crush them together, allowing the Roman soldiers to stab
at their enemy between their shields
The cavalry would then cut down the retreating enemy troops
When attacking towns the army changed tactics:
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Legions used their engineers to build artillery: catapults to throw rocks or large spears at the enemy
The engineers also built towers, sheds and latters to attack the fortified walls
The Orb:
Type: DEFENSIVE
When used: If part of the army
had been split off from the main
group or encircled by the enemy.
The Wedge:
Type: ATTACKING
How it works: The legionaries
form a circle around the officers
and the archers (these were the
most important people!) using
their shields as protection. Seen
as a ‘desperate last stand’.
When used: Used aggressively to divide the enemy.
How it works: The centurion is at the front of the ‘V’ and the
legionaries form the sides of the ‘V’. They have to stay close
together to stop the enemy from breaking the line. As the wedge
advances, more soldiers join on at the ends to divide the enemy
even further. Breaking the enemy formation was key to winning on
the Roman battlefield!
c50AD - 1066
The Repel-Cavalry:
Type: DEFENSIVE
When used: To combat a cavalry charge.
How it works: The soldiers form a line, with the men at the front crouching down with their shields in front of
them and their spears stick out of the gaps. The men behind put their shields over the top of the men in front,
and have their spears ready to throw. The spears would stop horses from running at the soldiers, often
causing them to retreat. Those retreating would then knock into the cavalry behind them, causing a domino
effect and making themselves easy targets for archers.
The Tortoise:
Type: DEFENSIVE
When used: To advance but remain protected from spears, arrows, etc.
How it works: The Tortoise is square. The men at the front hold their shields in front of them. The men at the
sides hold their shields to the sides. The men in the middle hold their shields above them. The men had to move
in close formation to ensure that the shields were touching so that no missiles could get in and injure any
soldiers.
Celtic army tactics:
The Celts rarely fought large-scale wars, but sometimes they had no choice. As the Roman Army fought its way
across Europe and Britain, the Celts were at constant war with the Romans. Sometimes the tribes joined forces to
fight the Romans (see Boudicca Revolt).
But Celtic warriors were not suited to large battles. There were several reasons for this:
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Celtic society produced very few permanent, trained soldiers, and none of them were drilled in fighting in
large groups.
Celtic society valued heroic individual warriors; so they had no interest in fighting as units.
Celtic society had no written language, so it had no war manuals to spread information about battlefield
manoeuvres or tactics.
There were no clear leaders in Celtic society. Celtic armies formed up in trial groups, warriors fighting
alongside those they knew. These groups did not all have the same weapons or equipment.
Celtic tactics two:
So, Celtic tactics were simple – mainly mass attacks. One simple tactic they used was to try to frighten the enemy:
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Before battles, warriors beat their weapons against their shields, shouting blowing horns and beating
drums.
They destroyed the enemy’s sacred sites to show they were not afraid of their gods.
Some warriors fought naked, with their bodies pained in dye, their long hair dyed blond with lime and with
beards and droopy moustaches
When they attacked they often centred their attacks upon one point, but this cramped them for space,
and Celtic warriors needed to swing their swords.
Saxon warfare:
Saxon armies were usually used for
defence against invading forces, such as
the Vikings, or rebellions. Their tactics
involved:
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Forming a defensive front line of
housecarls behind a wall of shields
Strengthening this defensive line
with fyrdmen behind the housecarls
Rebuffing attacks with this shield
wall
Using spears and arrows, from
behind the shield wall, to weaken
the enemy.
Moving forwards in formation,
using swords and axes to attack
enemy lines
Norman warfare:
Norman armies were more aggressive than the Saxons.
Spears, arrows and cavalry charges were often used to
soften up the enemy before the infantry moved
forward. The cavalry were often deadly when chasing
fleeing enemy foot soldiers.
Another difference between Norman and Saxon
warfare was the development of castles. These stone
fortresses were common homes and military bases for
wealthy knights in Europe, long before they were
introduced in Britain.
1066 - 1350
Limited warfare
The feudal system produced small armies. William the Conqueror’s army of 8,000 men at the Battle of Hastings in
1066 was considered large. King Henry II had only 6,000 knights in the 12th century.
The campaigning season was limited too. Fighting was only possible from the late spring, after crops had been
sown, until the autumn, after which the weather could make it impractical to move troops and fight battles.
These factors meant that this was an age of limited warfare.
The aims of most wars were limited too. Rulers often used their armies like private possessions – to force a rival
to give him land or money, or to settle a dispute between royal families. Unlike in later wars, rulers rarely
destroyed their enemy’s army or conquered their country.
Fighting was also limited. In feudal societies, rulers had good reasons to avoid battles. At a time when rulers led
armies, losing could mean that they were killed, or they could be captured. If they were captured it usually meant
paying a large ransom in exchange for freedom. So, instead of fighting, commanders might spend most of their
time manoeuvring their armies to avoid a battle or to trap their enemy in a hopeless position. This manoeuvring
might involve skirmishes or raids. Occasionally an army would just plunder an area, either to destroy an enemy’s
food supplies or capture a town to steal valuables.
Even if you wanted a battle, it was not easy. It was difficult to know where your enemy was. Commanders relied
on intelligence from scouts using imperfect means like smoke signals, church bells or pigeons. If the commander
of a feudal army wanted to fight, he would have to hold a council of war with his leading noblemen to get their
agreement.
1066 - 1350
Battlefield tactics:
Preparing for battle:
Generals would try to draw up their armies in positions which were difficult to attack – on the top of slopes or
protected at the back and sides, perhaps by woodland, marches or rivers. They would then try to weaken the
enemy by using arrow or the cavalry.
Cavalry attack:
Knights considered themselves the elite of feudal society, and they liked to take the leading role in battles.
They were the tanks of medieval warfare. They would form into a tightly packed group and charge, hoping to
burst through the enemy defences. A mounted knight (150lb), his armour (60lb) and weapons (40lb) required
a sturdy horse. At a top speed of about 15 miles per hour, probably as fast as you could run, the combined
weight of the knight and horse made a colossal impact.
Defence:
The defending infantry would try to weaken the cavalry attack. They would:
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Fire arrows into the attacking cavalry
Position troops behind spiked posts
Put troops in tight squares, protected by spikes
Lay caltrops on the ground to injure the attacking horses
The infantry charge:
Befitting their place in society, the attacking infantry followed the mounted knights, to exploit gaps in the
enemy defences. If necessary, knights dismounted and also fought on foot.
Once hand-to-hand combat began, fighting was like a frenzied butchery. Face-to-face, men tried to smash an
opponent’s skull or arms with a mace or axe, or to pierce his armour joints, or slash his belly or cut the
tendons in arms or legs with an axe or a sword.
Retreat:
Sometimes mounted knights charged and then pretended to retreat; this sometimes tricked infantry into
chasing them. Once they were away from their protective spears or spikes, the knights then turned upon the
disorganised infantry.
The same was true at the end of the battle. In hand-to-hand fighting, once one side turned and fled in
disorder, it usually led to slaughter. It was common for soldiers more to be killed in the final retreat than in
the battle itself.
Leadership:
There was usually little difference in the size of medieval armies or their weapons. Often the outcome of a
battle was therefore determined by the quality of leadership or the discipline of the troops.
1066 - 1350
Castles:
The Normans began building castles in 1066 to replace the forts once built by the Romans. Castles were a big
change from the past. They had several functions:
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
A safe place for the Norman barons to live amongst the hostile Saxon population
A stronghold which could be defended against attack by another baron or foreign enemy
A military base from which to launch attacks
The nobles could only build a castle with the permission of the King. At first a key consideration was speed. The
Normas needed to be safe after defeating Harold Godwinson. So, cheap, plentiful materials, wood and earth,
were used for the first castles. They were motte and bailey castles.
Motte and bailey castles:
The motte was a mound, made of layers of earth. It
usually had a circular wooden barrier at the top,
with wooden barrier at the top, with wooden huts
leant against the inside walls. It was the last place of
refuge in an attack.
Changes in castle design:
As wooden castles were easily attacked by fire
and easily rotted, improvements were needed.
Stone Keeps:
One solution was a circular stone tower, or
keep, on the motte. A circular stone tower, or
keep, on the motte. But circular keeps were
too small for lavish living space for barons. So
the nest solution was tall, square keeps. But
these were too heavy to sit on the motte, so
they were usually built inside the bailey.
Stone curtain walls:
From about 1000 onwards, the wooden
barriers around castles were replaced with high
stone walls – curtain walls.
The bailey was the courtyard below the motte. It
provided the housing and storage for normal life,
but it was also surrounded by a wooden barrier on
an earth bank, as the first line of defence.
Ideally, a castle was sited high up, with views all
around and wells to provide water in the bailey and
motte. Sometimes, water in the ditch around the
bailey strengthened the defences of the castle.
1066 - 1350
Later changes to castle design:
Over time, castle designers found ways of changing the features of castles to make them easier to defend.
There were many changes:
Crenellation and shutters:
Curtain walls were topped with Crenellations which had gaps through which defenders could fire arrows.
Overtime, wooden shutters were out in place for offer greater protection.
Bratticing and machicolations:
Later, castle designers found ways to build overhangs on the outside of the top of the walls, so defenders could
fire arrows or drop rocks on attackers at the base of the wall. At first, these structures were wooden, but were
eventually made of stone.
The glacis and towers:
Tall, thin walls could easily be breached. The first solution was to make the base of the wall thicker, and sloped,
to make attack harder. This sloe was called the glacis. Towers were another improvement to defence. From a
tower, a defender could shoot along a wall at any attackers trying to breach it. At first the towers were square.
Soon, designers realised that rounded towers were less easy to attack.
Gatehouses:
Castle designers also realised that the weakest point of a curtain wall was the large hole designed into every
one – the entrance. To counter this, they began to develop gatehouses around the entrances. Gatehouses
included lots of defensive features such as towers, drawbridges, portcullises and a killing ground – a heavily
defended space that attackers would have to cross to get to the entrance.
Ditches and concentric castles:
To stop attackers easily getting to the castle walls, designers began to put a series of concentric ditches aound
the walls. Eventually, this idea turned into concentric walls. These replaced single curtain walls with double
rings of walls – low external ones and higher internal walls for extra security.
1066 - 1350
Siege technology:
A full front attack upon a castle or town walls was never a first option. Attackers usually decided
upon encirclement, then battery, then negotiation and finally attack.
Encirclement:
This meant cutting the castle or town off from reinforcement and supplies (including water).
Sometimes this was enough to starve the castle or city into surrender, unless a relief force drove the
attackers away.
Battery:
This involved weakening or breaching the walls. This was done in a variety of ways, such as using
siege engines, battering rams, fire and mines.
Negotiation:
If the defenders thought that their position was hopeless then they might agree to surrender. This
would usually involve paying the attacking army large amounts of money either to go away or, at
least, not to kill those behind the walls.
Attack!
If negotiations failed, after weakening the walls, attackers could then launch a full assault. They used
ladders and siege towers. It took great bravery and discipline. Attacking armies were often bigger
than defending forces so, once inside, the result could be a slaughter.
1350-1450
Main tactics:
Archers and Cavalry dominated attacks
Pikes and shields were the main form of defence
Infantry was still the deciding force
Feigned retreat – Parts of armies would pretend to run
away to draw defending forces away from key defences.
When the troops had followed, those running away would
turn and attack.
Sieges – Attackers would surround a castle or a town that
had barricaded themselves in behind strong defences. The
attackers would let no people, food or water in or out. The
people inside would eventually run out of food and water
and be forces to surrender.
Types of warfare:
Medieval Warfare where Feudal armies were led by Kings.
Limited war – limited in their aims such as to take riches
from foreign land and to capture enemies for ransom
Warfare was mainly raids, sorties and skirmishes rather
than battles. Kings led armies, so they avoided battles if
possible (they could be killed!) Henry V only fought at
Agincourt because he had no choice.
Key Battle and the tactics that won the
fight: Agincourt, 1415.
1. Surprise attack – Henry V sent
archers to hide in trees and fire into
French lines.
2. The use of the Longbow. Henry
ordered his archer’s to fire when the
French were 200m away.
3. The choice of a narrow battlefield
(More detail about this battle in the Battles
section of this revision booklet).
1450-1700
New Siege tactics were introduced
as towns used cannons to defend
their walls. (After they had
strengthened the walls to take their
weight!) Sieges became longer and
trenches were built by the attackers
around the towns they were
besieging to shelter troops from the
cannon fire.
th
1700’s – 18 Century
Limited war continued.
Armies were led by rulers rather than generals.
Rulers fought for limited gains and were happy with an
agreed peace rather than total defeat of the enemy.
Sieges and skirmishes were still more common than battles.
th
1800’s – 19 Century
Key Battle and the tactics that won the fight: The Battle of Waterloo, 1815 and the
Crimean War of 1854-6.
1. Setting up key defensive positions.
2. Heavy bombardment.
3. Use of infantry squares/lines.
4. Use of cannon in the infantry squares.
(More detail about this battle in the Battles section of this revision booklet).
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1900’s – 20 Century
World War One:
In World War One (1914-1918) the scale of the war was total. 80% of the word’s population were formally at
war. The armies were larger than ever seen before. Germany had an army of 877,000 by 1914.
In World War One the fighting was different from what had gone before. Defensive weapons were more
powerful to attacking weapons. The defenders dug into defensive positions and used rifles and machine guns
to mow down attacking infantry. Both sides dug trenches and the war lasted for four years.
A ‘total war’: All aspects of society went towards winning the war:
Economically: Britain produced 170 million shells during the war and Woolwich Arsenal in London had
100,000 workers.
Politically: The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) gave the government power to direct the war effort. It
controlled railways, shipping and mines, introduced rationing and censored what papers printed about the
war.
Trench Warfare:
Trenches were 2 meters wide and 2 meters deep. These were the front line
Support trenches were built further back. These were for off duty soldiers and supplies.
Reserve trenches were further back again. This is where the troops rested and ruched to the
front line if needed.
Trenches were dug in zigzags so that the enemy could not fire along them if they were captured.
Rival trenches werenormally dug anything from 50m to 800m apart. The space between them
was known as ‘no-mans-land’. This area would have barbed wire across it as extra defence.
‘Going over the top’:
The only tactic to take the trenches was by ‘going over the top’. This involved the infantry
walking towards enemy fire. It soon became clear that machine guns could easily kill the
attackers. But generals had no other tactics, they just sent more men! If they did reach and get
into the enemy trench fighting became hand-to-hand, although hand grenades and flame
throwers helped as well.
Artillery:
Artillery was used before mass attacks in the hope of weakening the opposition defences.
Approx. 70% of all World War One causalities were caused by artillery fire, but the trenches
withstood the barrage and the shells ploughed up no-mans-land, making it harder to cross.
Gas:
Gas was a new tactic/weapon of World War One. It was first used by the Germans on 22 nd April
1915 at the Battle of Ypres against the Canadians. Hundreds were killed.
Creeping Barrage:
First used at the Battle of the Somme, a creeping barrage involved artillery fire moving forward in stages just
ahead of the advancing infantry. By autumn 1916 the Allied forces developed a system where the barrage
moved forward at 50 metres per minute. To work, the strategy required precise timing by both the heavy
artillery and the infantry. Failure to do this would result in the artillery killing their own soldiers.
Although creeping barrage was sometimes successful when the commander had limited objectives, it failed to
provide the means to end the stalemate on the Western Front.
Artillery barrage:
A barrage is a term used to describe extensive artillery fire against enemy positions. Barrages were classified as
light, moderate or heavy. A light barrage amounted to six or seven shells every ten minutes. A moderate barrage
was thirty shells a minute and a heavy one, fifty to sixty shells a minute. There were several different types of
barrage used during the First World War.
Tunnelling:
On the Western Front during the First World War, the military employed specialist miners to dig tunnels
under No Man's Land. The main objective was to place mines beneath enemy defensive positions. When it was
detonated, the explosion would destroy that section of the trench. The infantry would then advance towards the
enemy front-line hoping to take advantage of the confusion that followed the explosion of an underground
mine.
The Gulf War, 1991:
This was a limited war for the British; they wanted Saddam Hussain, who had invaded
Kuwait, to withdraw his troops back to Iraq.
It was also an Asymmetrical War (when larger countries fight for smaller countries).
An airwar:
The main tactic in this war was bombing. During a five week bombardment 100,000 sorties
were flown which dropped 88,000 tons of bombs.
These planes included stealth bombers (planes that did not show up on radar) dropping
laser guided bombs and cruise missiles which were fired from up to 1,500 miles away.
Second phase: land war:
British Challenger tanks were far superior to Iraqi ones. They could travel at 45 miles an
hour, were protected by Chobham armour and fired depleted uranium shells.
Media Reporting and
Propaganda
Overview:
1350-1700 – No Media reporting or propaganda.
EXCEPTION! – English Civil War of 1640’s
1800’s –
KEY INVENTION! – The Telegraph.
Made communication easier.
Key War = Crimean War.
1900’s –
Propaganda plays key part in World War One.
War Reporting becomes instant and effects the way
that wars are fought.
1350-1700
During this time people were not as informed about wars as today for three main reasons:
1. Armies were small and few people had a direct experience of fighting.
2. Communication was limited. There was no radio, television or the internet. Even the impact of
written pamphlets was reduced by low levels of literacy.
3. Kings did not need to inform or consult people about their wars. They were not elected by the
public and they used royal armies, not public ones.
But, as always, there are exceptions:
During the English Civil War both sides needed the support of the people as their military bases and
food supplies would be weakened without it. They both therefore supplied and used propaganda.
th
1800’s – 19 Century
KEY INVENTION:
The Telegraph!
This changed wartime communication. Whilst it was impractical for soldiers to use it during battles, the
government and general staff used it with generals on campaign.
Newspapers took advantage of the telegraph and throughout the Crimean War the public were kept up to
date on the war through the daily newspapers. The public found out about the lack of provisions that the army
faced, the poor weather that the soldiers had to endure and the injuries suffered by the soldiers. The public
put pressure upon the government to provide better supplies and care for the soldiers and public support for
Florence Nightingale soared.
At the beginning of the war, The Times, used an officer in the British Army for war reports. Sent by horse and
ship, the letters took a week to arrive.
The most famous reporters of the Crimean War was William Russell who used telegraph to report on a daily
basis. His writing outraged the public and helped to cause reforms of the army, especially in the areas of
medical care, but it did not reduce the popularity of the war.
th
1900’s – 20 Century
World War One:
Propaganda was a key part of World War
One. The British government used
propaganda for a number of reasons:
1. To boost support for the war.
2. To get men to join the war
through:
a. Guilt
b. Excitement
c. Love of their country
3. To instil a hatred of the enemy.
4. To get women into the factories.
5. To encourage people the grow
vegetables and work the fields.
They also made
films of the war.
The film ‘The
Battle of the
Somme’ was
released a few
days after the
battle started.
But it had been
faked, and the
details of the
British losses
were not
shown.
Post-World War Two:
The Gulf War:
Support for warfare during the Two World Wars was very high, but
afterwards dropped. This is generally because of the memories of WW1
and WW2, the fear of nuclear war and a greater knowledge of the horrors
of war which have been publicised by the new methods of communication
such as radio, television, films and the internet.
The reporting of wars and the impact that this has had upon society has
changed the way that wars have been fought. Due to the high levels of
media coverage which discuss all casualties, armies try to avoid as many
deaths as possible as if the public believe that too many people are dying
the war may have to be halted.
Commanders are now more accountable for their actions during wars. The
Geneva Convention and Hague Conventions set out how wars should be
fought, and since then several leading war leaders have been tried and
executed for atrocities during warfare. Individual soldiers have also begun
to be held account for their actions. In 2007 a British soldier was jailed for
mistreating an Iraqi civilian and the government paid the civilian £3 million
in compensation.
Reporters today tend to report the events, not the propaganda of previous
wars. Due to the mass media in war zones it is now harder to censor
information.
World War One Propaganda
Equipment
Overview:
1350-1450 – Soldiers provided their own equipment.
1450-1900 – Government’s provide for armies
Baggage trains
Uniforms
1900’s –
Royal Logistics Corps
c50AD - 1066
Roman equipment:
The Roman army were provided with the fighting equipment that the soldiers required. They were made in
specially built army weapon factories. Uniform was standardized and again provided for the soldiers. Medical
care was provided by each legion.
Soldiers travelled with generous rations: 3lb of bread, 2lb of meat and two pints of wine a day.
Roman forts had fresh water and safe ways to dispose of sewage. Larger forts also had hospitals, doctors, herbal
medicine for routine illnesses and opium for dealing with pain.
Celtic equipment:
The Celts provided their own weapons and armour for battle. This therefore meant that each man carried very
different equipment than the man standing next to them.
As Celts rarely fought large battles, they went home after the battle for food and rest.
Saxon equipment:
The housecarls were clothed, armed and fed by their Lord. When fighting, they were either fed by their Lord’s
supply waggons or lived off the land.
In early Saxon times the fyrd were very disorganised and made up of farmers with only scythes and axes for
weapons that they provided themselves.
Medieval provisioning:
The feudal system provided men for an army; but food and supplies had to be provided in other ways.
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

Baggage trains of carts, mules and horses carried supplies. Each man in the army needed about 3lbs
of food per day and each horse 20lbs of fodder (grass or hay). River water caused illness amongst
soldiers, so armies carried mead, beer or wine instead.
Supply by river or sea made it easier to carry heavy goods. An army supplied by ships could move at
about 20 miles per day.
Plunder was common. Soldiers were sent to forage as it marched slowed to about five miles per day.
Foraging left a wasteland that could cause more civilian deaths from starvation than deaths in battle.
1350-1450
During Feudal times, Kings did not have the money to provide food and weapons for their
armies. Neither did they have a big enough civil service to store and distribute weapons
and food. Feudal armies were therefore expected to provide their own weapons and
protective clothing. They also ‘lived off the land’ which meant stealing food from fields and
stores of the local population where they were fighting.
1450-1900
When armies became permanent they went on longer campaigns, both of these factors meant that the King had to
make better arrangements for feeding their troops. The development of gun powder weapons meant that standardized
weapons were needed.
To provide food, weapons and other supplies commanders began to use baggage trains. This included the wagons,
stores and people that followed the armies around. These people tended to be women and children, often of the
soldiers, women who earned a living doing the soldier’s cooking, washing and sewing. Other women were prostitutes
and STD’s were common within armies. Men also followed the armies earning a living as doctors, blacksmiths
carpenters, tailors and cobblers.
The introduction of permanent armies led to the introduction of uniforms. Uniforms had been unpopular because
soldiers associated them with servants, it was difficult to mass-produce the items and it was expensive to replace them.
But first of all coloured sashes were introduced (blue for the French and orange for the Dutch) and were followed by the
New Model Army introducing Red Coats for its troops in the English Civil War.
As the armies got bigger, so did the baggage trains. An army of 30,000 men required 25,000 horses and large quantities
of gunpowder and shot. It also needed 20 tons of bread and the equivalent of 1,500 sheep every day.
The baggage train was vital to armies. If the baggage train was destroyed then the army was fatally weakened. This is
why the Royalists were so keen to destroy Parliament’s baggage train at Naseby.
1900’s – 20th Century
Modern technology has changed provisioning for armies. Because food and supplies can be stored
centrally and then moved very quickly by land or air whenever needed, there is no need now for an army
to travel with what it needs.
During World War One over 3 million tons of food were sent from Britain to the troops in the trenches.
Some 300,000 British personnel were employed to store, distribute and cook it in the fields.
When on active duty today, troops are given emergency rations that they carry and cook as best they can.
British troops in Afghanistan in 2009 were issued with ration packs containing pre-packed food such as
corned beef, fruit dumplings in custard,chocolate, and even tikka masala, providing up to 4,000 calories a
day. The Army has a separate Royal Logistic Corps to arrange its transport, catering and supplies. It
employs about 16,000 soldiers.
Civilians, effects of war and
attitudes in society.
Overview:
1350 – 1450 –
Little impact once mercenary armies were common
1450 – 1900 –
Gunpowder weapons divided society.
Gunpowder weapons create jobs.
1900’s -
Freedom lost during World War One.