ii
ABSTnAC.
If
fi l m
ia
as
a katriculati(n
teaching
to
the
to
be
taurht
it. w hi ch
d i s ci p l i n e .
exam pl es,
f o rm ulae
and
th es e
subject,
must
teaching
films
individual
in J ou th
st ru ct u r a l
genre
film
is
scv
of binar.
b asi s
the s t r u c t u r a l i s t
tool
for
f11ms
.
The
about
the
medium ,
been
be t w e e n
model
an a l y s i s
various
its
fu n c t i o n
volati le and
as
Kitzes ,
.Stephen ..e a 1 n , .jtanlcy
and
C ol in
as
the
va l u a b l e
and
constraints
definite
genre
t h e o r y ' and
reveal in g.
entertainment
films
> re
both
function
c o m ; lex
and
be used
discussion
and
film as
film
theorists
an artistic
culture'
upheld
has
always
pr e c o n c e p t i o n s
victor
ierkins,
not io n
po p u l a r
although
c:
an
culture mo de s
they
in d u s t r y
artistic.
and
.h oca s Scha v^
the
in society,
the
of mu si c a l
film
uolomon,
- ec a u e e
of a c o m m e r c i a l
a
as a
to de bu n k
have
around
can
y e a n , m a n y , like
sou gh t
of an
or g a n i s e d
dogma,
Jim
film
content
o.
which
of
In
...cArthur have
to giv en
form
c r it i c s
p re ju di ce .
'ort ho do x
recent
numerous
oppositions
and
by
present
These
1popular
is cl ou de d
cl
ap pr o p r i a t e
adherence
ifically
'h i g h b r o w • a e s t h e t i c i a m
and
and
A deconstruction
o p p o si ti on s.
the c r i t i c a l
ar g u m e n t
their
the n a r r a t i v e
framework
for
of
school s
a viable cet ho d
s pe ci fi c
pat'em:.
that
sec on da ry
film c a t e g o r i e s
becau se
re vea ls
we need
be m e d i a
Genre
African
and
many
adhere
to
a
individual
CONTENTS
PREFACE
..........................................................
Chapter
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.
T E A C H IN , L i ; E R a T U r E A N D F I L M
Semiotics
: Sifae
Comparing
literary
Metaphor
and
S ty le
2.
THE TH EC R Y
CP
To w a r ds
The
semantic
ana
Film
oncepts
..........
............
.........................................
S pa ce
,ENRE
...................................
.......................................
a c ri ti ca l
Elements
of
approach
-enre
s Plot
Exiatents
A STRUCT' Y A M S i
i ilm
......
Formulae
................ ........
: Characters
.........................
ANALYSIS
Structuraliem
to Senre
...............................
Settings
and
.........................
Or’ THa
rilm
•
VUSICAI................
..............................
A Structuralist
An a l y s i s
of
the W e s t e r n
.........
A Structuralist
Analysis
of
the M u s i c a l
.........
/♦ .
SWING TIME
5.
AN A M E R I C A N
t C O M .AC\
IN
6 . u INGIN'.
IN
7.
LADY
MY
o y s terns
.
..............................................
Events
3.
C w .Fx h A T I V E S T U D Y
a
..........................................
Symbolism
lime
and
:
FAIR
.HE
PARIS
RAIN
AN D Raut LUTI, N
: N A T HA Liu... A N
: REALITY
.................
STYLIbATlON
A N v ILLUSION
: IN J l V I v U A L F'HaEDiK
..........
AND S O C I A u
RESTRICTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONCLUSION
LIST
......................................................
OP R E F E R E N C E S
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
............................................
....................................................
OF FILMS
PREFACE
The
reeetirch
film
The
for
oouna
impressed.
this
work
began wh e n
of i..u s i c .
since
then
films,
some m e d i o c r e ,
I hope
this
fi ab le
prejudice
I saw my
I wu u nine y e a r s
1 have
and
cat
oth er s
d i s s e r t a t i o n will
t h ro ug h
old
w i t h w h i c h many
regard
and
musical
enormously
countless
exceptional
alleviate
Virut
genre
in
the ir
some
of
the
this
po p u l a r
ar ti st ry .
unjusti­
cu ltu re
mode .
My
sincere
of
the
help
thanks
Witwatererand
have
been
I acknowledge
r e g is t e r e d
And
of
also
like
a note
pr egnancy
arrive
whose
van Zyl
of
the
e n c o u r a g e m e n t , aivi se
University
and
co n s t a n t
the
Scho ol
to e x pr e s s
of Natal
of d r am at ic
Art
•*’w h i c h I
am
student.
my
gratitude
for a l l o w i n g
to the
me
authorities
to use
their
fa ci lit ie s.
I extend
my
to hr John
invaluable.
U ni ve r s i t y
Li br ary
go
as a l o s t - G r a d u a t e
I would
the
mu s t
when
F inally,
my
standing
and
of a p p r e c i a t i o n
a comfortable
this
work
love
and
pride
was
my
ha ve
one,
to my
unborn
and h a v i n g
child
the
good
for m a k i n g
grace
to
completed.
thanks
been my
go
to my h u s b a n d ,
strength.
whose under­
i-'ow that
und
the
in sti t ut ed
examination
of
stuay
the
as
in
a subject
sonu
Transvaal
h
of
chccis
l
le n accej.te ., r e c o g n i s e d
worthy
of M a t r i c u l a t i o n
fall in
un oe r
.d u c a t i o n u a p u r t u e n t ,
the
there
jurisdiction
i a n
urgent
.
film
usin.
the
traditional
methodo
which
ap
ly
to the
.
-he
fundament-! 1 d i f f e r e n c e s
Let.eo n
the
t.o i r.rratuve
.
while
Literature
exists
-n tne
v.r it ten
word
ate
the
.
re l e v a n t
for l i t e r a t u r e
to
:ilm
only
results
in m i s p l a c e d ,
,
this
ho
would
cause
confusion
a visui l n a r r a t i v e
«fe need
a media
about
the
nature
of film
and
. i nifie. .
Specific
approach
to
the
te ac h i n g
of film
.
one
hlch
tut
one
c.
u s e . film
vhich conoid
visu
1
: o f.lm us
id
for
fi lm
tc
chir.f li te rat ure ,
u d take o into
ac co u n t
•
Master
Of
o
lL:.
provide.,
time
that
Arts
tu
t;.r
the
ilssert it ion en ti t l e s
-t
-CC
folic,
in,
a v era ge
s p e n d . absorb inf
■ I..'
the
C
-1 - ' V'l
information
white
.L.e -so c ry
.i
regarding
-out:; A f r i c a n
n:
act ice
si cv6
the a m o u n t
scuool
of
cnild
:;c in:
"-out:. Af r i c a n , upils ..pend 3*7 h o u r s (or V, * of t .eir
leisur e time on the rc .in
of ;oo s ; the balance of
,
,
.
(a fu rt he r b r e a k d o w n of
be tt er pupils spend 3
ti;-- f i ( u r e - inuicate that the
ore time on the reading of
.
There wa., no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between the two
."roups r e g a r d i n g the time . pent vievi;., tel ev is io n
and films on the com me rc ia l c i r c u i t s - a strong
ar gu me nt in favour of teachin, v i s u a l liter .cy at all
levels of a c h i e v e m e n t at s c h o o l . ) " 1
.
./ *x .
Mr
cvticluaes
ae
it will
in t er pr et
of
the
that
equip
the
the
Department's
introduced
c o nt en t
involved
pilot
of
in
study
into six
film
iiouth A f r i c a n
the vis ua l
te achers
study
is of
pupil
vital
with
the means
of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
the
irancvaal
in wh ic h
Transvaal
a film
schools
imp or ta nc e,
media.
hducati
course
auu ed
to
One
n
was
that:
"Visual media are very m u c h part of our everyday life,
and if some or o t h e r form is not in tr od uc ed into
s c h o o l s , e d u c a t i o n will become i r re le v a n t and the
pupils will be u n p r e p a r e d to face the on sl aug ht of
m a s b m e d i a when c o n f r o n t e d with the outside and adult
world ..." 2
E xpo su r e
to a g r o w i n g
in cre ase
in South
s t a ti s t i c s
In the
which
United
24 hours
watch
less
have
and
been
35/
or me re
than
of
Africa
Kingdom
w at ch
averag e
amo un t
visual
it
is
re leased
of
pupils
week
as
re ad in g m a g az in es
and
reading
books.
« e can assume
African
pupil
is a s s u r e d
visual m e d i a
ap pa re nt
Grov*
film
it
in
se condary
obviously
methods
the me th o d
12 - 14
32* of
and
from
the
abroad.
a g 5 group
this
watch
group
an
oppose : to 7,5 ho ur s
spent
C ,6 hours
per week
this
the South
that
greater
the
could
a convincing
level,
stage.
which he
but my
is a new
ex pos ure
to
t ren,; 3 w h i c h
as
the
are
ex amples
of
in a class room
of
and
syllabus.
to the medium,
communication
and
Hi s
one
in a visu al
of
theae
Grov£
narrative
of
film
otill
has
for
of
is how
n.
in
the
ou tlined
gi ven
films
the
the seco nd ar y
is ap pr o p r i a t e
an an example
mode.
the
teaching
short
si tu ati on
is studi ed
co nc er n
are
suitable
each
study
p r o g r e s s , and
the r e q u i r e m e n t s
ana lys is
each
its
of
the
there will
appropriate
be used
time
primary
dissertation
advocates
five
of
as many
In his
case for
subject,
monitoring
particularly
provides
limitations
school
it
be c o n t i n u a l
experimental
which
to c o n s i d e r
Americans
follow.ng
made
school
jiace
used,
and
the
only
of an even
future
others h a v e
is taught.
film
the
in
the
overseas.
and
at
-
news papers
is on
in cc untries
per week.
pc.
me dia
sh oc k i n g
per week and
12 h o u r s
? S ,4 h o u r s
of
I am
of
in a g r e e m e n t
with G r o v t 'a m e t h o d o l o g y
the
pro gress
wh ich
further teaching
school s
or
It will
form
aims
further
part
co nc ept s.
In my
op en i n g
Chapter
li te ra t u r e
show
that
dispel
the
study.
tea chi ng
are
of
film,
are
the
- en cod ed
and
decoded
by
the
difference
w a tc hi ng
vis ua ll y
a film
sh own
in fo rm at io n
th"
of
and
our
encoded
'seeing'
the
of
the
own
in his
by
image
by de c o d i n g
own m i n i .
the n o v e l i s t
to hie
w o r k , ope ra te s
assume
that
used
it
s u c c e ss fu ll y
em plo yed
of m e t a p h o r
directly
viewer.
L i k e w i se
literaiy
symbolism
which
gr e a t e r
and
is
it munt
are m u t u a l l y
* hen
that
the
image.
rea
The
er cr eat es
concept,
used
significant,'
context.
that
Kany
it can
it
and
hearic,
of
The
is
the
sy m b o l i u m
concepts.
be
is
tt: <* medium.
visual
•‘x c l u s i v r
the
the w r i t t e n word
and
film
-
either
providing
and
film
- we hear
a literary
to
and
concept
to l i t e r a t u r e , b u t
sight
exp la in s
both visu al
visual
and
is a u d i o
be noted
perceived
the
is
that
are
liter a tu re
the
when
concepts
are
au dib le
a; p r e p r i n t s
the
literary
Blues tone
in a visual
context
in film
through
is
help
they
which
and
rea lis ed
they
complexity
applicable
e film
in a way w h i c h
equ iv al en t
perceived
in
be
reconstructing
di ff e r e n t l y
la only
of
imagination
Met ap ho r,
to give
how
soundtrack
and
of film
of
literary
message
the
and
i n f or ma ti on
imaginatively. 4
novel
his
with
highlighting
or c o n t r a d i c t s
via
study
in which
reinforces,complements
communicates
which
te a c h i n g
off shoot
George
on a screen,
into
the
it must
perception
reception
an image
institutions.
misconceptions
t e x t , and
seeing "
provide
s e c on da ry
this wi ll
and
the wa y s
to
their d i f f e r e n c e s
held
How ev er ,
our
"ways
for
that
concepts
extend
li te ra tu re
is an
re t d e r / v l e w e r .
between
two d i f f e r e n t
of seeing
into
the
study
in
in
encoded
I hope
film
both
of
are
c om mo nl y
same.
d if fe re nt ,
employed
we are
most
if, that
e s s e n ti al ly
they
as
the
and
film
used
Education
body
t
I aim
do a c o m p a r a t i v e
ways.
that
be
illuminate
com mun ic at e,
notion
One
to
att em pt s
framework
I will
different
may
into H i g h e r
in order
they
in entlrel)
w hi ch
a theo ret ica l
of fi lm
etudy
been m a d e .
of a gr ow i n g
study
and
my
a l rea uy
ex amples
even
to build
has
and
and
A l th ou gh
aye.bolian
ia a spe cif ic
presentation
occurence
and
in a visual m o d e
in a li te r a r y
is re ce i ve d
includ e
signs
of
this
from
- Se m io ti cs ,
theory
d i s cu ss
of
the
to
concep t
li terary
and
the
stylistic
op en in g
will
of
film
film.
style,
how
upon
style,
and
it
to use
the M u s i c a l
to its
will also
of
the
the
science
a p pl ic at io n
fi na l l y ,
sh o w i n g
i13
communicates
chapter
theory
focus
aevice,
di f f e r e n t
symbolism
cr it ica l
study
of
film
My
the
and
is ent ir el y
form.
visually.
a discussion
of
artistic
I will
how
is m a n i f e s t e d
it differs
in
pa rt i c u l a r
films.
I have
chosen
category
spend
for
some
p o p ul a r
study
time
mode.
commercial
film
of
c u lt ur e
of te n c omp lex
g e ne ric
and
e xam pl e
and
neglected
of
ence
st ri c t l y
and
to
the whole
of
the
films
cu lt u r e .
especially
Cr iti cs
have
are
audience
in cl i n e d
of
and
one
of the mo s t
and
i n di ff er
output
films
th erefore
have
of films
have
on
unworthy
of Ho ll yw oo d
borne
films
1 i tie
a p p r ai sa l.
Because
in a mass
ma rk et , g e n r e
been d o w n g r a d e d
to view
what
co ntempt,
to a n a l y s e
str iking
film critics
impact
has
the matic
u n jus tif ied .
Th es e
public
musicals,have
been made
and
to
complex
is
form,
a valuable
m et aph or s,
prolific
eno rmous
a measure
of
deg re e
Lra'.
of critic al
for a mass
s tr uc tu re d
pr ov i d e s
es capist
cinema-going
to a lack
entertaining with
a t t e m pt s
The
b ou nd ar ie s
the d i s i n t e r e s t
the
'Golde n
as
the
the
It
li terary
or d i s r e g a r d
01
its a d h e r e n c e
The m u s i c a l
and
to this
by
visual
to a large
s e rio us
within
abundance
va ri e d
di s m i s s e d
American
c at er e d
and
is
a t t e nt io n.
relationship
ma k e rs
the
artistry.
Hollywood's
been
serious
upon
most
ignore
du ri n g
and
c r iti cs
re cen tl y
tended
ma d e
vivid
of
a part
is a d e n s e l y
limited
I shall
approaches
it b e i n g
conventions.
because
as a specific
therefore
falli ng
film c a t e g o r i e s
of many
Until
and
and
Genre
various
the m u s i c a l
s t r u c t u r e s , the many
symbolism
the
.respite
in du str y
f or m u l a e
tea c h in g
an a l y s i s ,
outlining
c ul tu re
p o pu la r
and
Fi l m
these
and
to
film­
popular
1 the masses'
c o n s e qu en tl y
films
seriously.
find
lew
Yet
there
ha v e
been
years,who
ha ve
sensed
that
there
film
a hackneyed
plot
and
than
There
some
critice,
a growing
realisation
e x t eri or ,
pr es en te d
in these
structure
and
was
that
within
the
the
critics
various
ap p r o a c h e s
and
inappropriate
mediu m,
but
into which
for
it
tt jories.
what
is
is
critical
which
As
a b o v e , the m u s i c a l
reputation
criticism
in
for
levelled
turn c lo t h e s
the
critics
being
than
all
what
pl ea su re
they
and
there
to
provide
about.
like
is
Hoy
any
the
It, that
as a result
of
the g e n r e
film
the
are
it
to
com mo n
escapism.
wi t h
Madsen,
in
from
used
to de sc ri be
then
the
vacuous,
and
to be n o t h i n g mere
of a few
the m u nd a n e
of
something
echoing
nscapism
of m u s i c a l s
terms
da rkness
in m u s i c a l s
aud ie nc e
value
is be lieved
in the
a
u s e d :- rrivolous,
and
escape
the
film.
en^oyec
s h a l l o w , ir r e s p o n s i b l e ,
cha nc e
thrusts
note
genre
adjectives
often
cultur e
and
the most
is
c.ter.
v ar iou s
to examin e
and
this
c r i t i c al
channelled
of
the au di enc e
value
iaul
cinema
culture
lives,
a de e p e r m e a n i n g ,
film A as n e v e r
i mp or ta nc e
o ff er
the
of their d a i l y
If
The
popular
usea
the most
the
a popular
to fol lo w
variety
glo.cy,
m e a n i n g l e s s ...
indeed
it
a wide
m u s i c a l , among
unintelligent,
fine
at
lurked
essentially
discourse
stated
glossy
ac ce pte d
e n d e a v o u r was
the
beneath
Ihe~e m e t h o d s
interesting
to a genre
performers.
to an aly se
of
recent
ste re ot yp ed
"hat h a p p e n e d
frameworke
fi l m
that
films,
attempted
in
iu of te n more
a few
was
complexity.
particularly
the mo vi e
it
is
in
to sing
views
sours
routines
theatre.
their
and
of many
ability
dance
others
hi m,wrote:
" A l t h o u g h e s c a p i s m can be used to Justify anything,
the thin st o r i e s and the m i n i s c u l e m e s s a g e s of the
avera ge m u s i c a l make it c le ar that the only reason
it thriv es dur in g days of ordeal in that it oilers
the n a t i o n a l au di en ce c o l l e c t i v e p l e a s u r e , re l ax at io n
and e s c a p i s m .
fi l m and te le v i s i o n m u s i c a l s really
find t he ir social v a l u e , if they neeu one, in giving
the vi ew e r s o m et hi ng to sing ab out and in providing
a respi te from c o n t i n u a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n with
.he
Iroblems".
When
one n o t e s
during
the
the y e a r s
of
amount
of m u s i c a l s
that
the U r e a t D e p r e s s i o n
were
and
produced
con si de rs how
popuiHi
they
were,
imi
w ar ye ars
(lot and
nd
logical.
Hut
is
Incomplete
and
about
the nature
of
it
understanding
Al th ou g h
only
it
book
de b u n k e d
He
Film
the
showed
and
in many
it does
as
film
it
was
the
not
and
musicals
argument
shows
popular
negate
or th o d o x
structured
that
ap pe ar s
of
is not
v a li di ty
Perki ns
theory
upon
the
cul ture.
its
Victor
of
a lack
senses,
(197?)
traditional
that
that
the es c a p i s t
is e s c a p i s t
function,
In nis
<iddi. to
its
as
art.
successfully
of
film.
d o g m a and
prejudice:
"f o rm u l a t e d u nd er the guise of an ae st h e t i c s of taete
and personal r e s p o n s e which rested on c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
of social status: the status and pr es tig e of the
C in e m a as an Art and therefore, by im pl ica tio n, the
status and pr es t i g e of the film j o u r n a l i s t - c r l t l c . " 1
During
the
around
two do m i n a n t
First ly
noti
lute
the
1 9 5 0 ' y film
which
a p p r oa ch es
e s ta b l i s h e d
n of cine ma
as a
c h a ll e n g e d
the
'High
of an
indivi du al
approach
a new
ph en om en on
Into
talk
about
c u l tur e' .
texts
mass
aw
focus
texts
of
And
of a g r o u p
upon
Following
their
the
u nde r
T r u af f a u t ,
European
Chabrol
magazine
an
film
and
therefore
idea
Individual
text
and
br ou gh t
and
these
and
films
texts,
ay
one
that
could
were
was
films,
placed
call ed
into
ana lys is
the
cou ld
for
sr ght
foundation
thrust
was
is n e c e s s a r i l y
rooted
in its
again st
In the
the
which
early
of
of
the
1960's
in f l u e n t i a l
to un c o v e r
baaed
the cri ti c
class
Fre nc h s t r u c t u r a l i s t s '
f r a me wo rk
w ri ti ng
art
Individual
a definite
the
critical
to u n d e r s t a n d
as
'p op u l a r
structure
critical
there
the
of
b eg an
of a ca te gor y.
du C i n e m a
at
only
be an a l y s e d .
oth er s
Cr it ic s
a discourse
sociological
theory
culture
theo.y.
reg arded
im portant
Cahler
T he ir
and
the
of g e n r e
industry.
art
with
longer
st ru c t u r e s
all
away
no
sociological
that
did
be cau se
provided
of H o l l y w o o d
thought
a total
label
the
'film
- genre
the new
to
the
texts
function
clung
of
of
films
which
film.
and
to an
recognition
the
methodology
body
part
cul tu re .
context
we r e
Genre
po la ris ed
form,
focus
a class
Films
but
new
criticism
theory
\rt'
authority
This
and
r e g a r di ng
or thodox
establishment1.
to
theory
the d e e p
the genre
upon
social
must
the
film
premise
structure
isola te
and
sro bin.
in this,
(auteur)
once
iircctivn
relationship
again
theorists
the
ma in ta i n e d
industry
u ■•o t on t i the
ith hi
or th odo x
we r e
t
there
in
the
co ul d
(fa In)
.vac raise^
f i .m e:.tabl*ahoe«t
t 1 -. rh-
that
t ■ xt
.
«t
.cl.ywood
Ie no
first
no
»r: i t.«t new
tit
commercial
j lacu
director's
e . t ik 1 i .h:cen
f il.mz. ikir::
or a:, i n d i v id ua l' s
.
d i r e c t o r n i gh t
try
rulit.commercial
experimentation
soul:;
utoor'tically
ideolo y
an;
be crus.-es
.-.hicn allots
deviation
fro m
n-
pro ve n
room
box
cy
the
; or
office
.
•
Ho .ever,
the
the
critics
John
for.,
evidence
had
It
became
its
.
to aaxit
. a ben
aiinnelli made
a
: ..
a very
obvious
t th..
that
...
directors
uli
Alfred
stron
pe rsonal
that
each
u t v u r , de . ■
.1 1 e or
t
file
of
-cunte
the
calibr e
o
..itcncoch unci Vine
mark
bore
upon t h e i r
the
f t f n b u c .u ...e o .
indel ibl e
films.
,ta:;p o
.e struc tur e
o
,
ort hod ox
even
th eo ri st s
in a mass
accounts;
ap pe a l
cin em a
for
this
by
the re was
«i
d x i 1 1 -n , * tha
a place
for
the
•
upon
s t r uc t u r a l i s t
n e t h c d o 1 c y derive . : rcr.. li ng u i s t i c s
,
and
systems
in s o c i e t y
po pu la r culture,
vision
Th es e
und his
t o
pri nciple
he
eve
solved
that
u n #• ..i 1y •
t fie problem
-as
artist
such
i r • •tly
r- ..ul t ir.
ope rat es
cu ltu re mode.
an
..ere
-' ; rt ichc.
there
•'<r.i c h x e d to
• «c ortho;
< ' the
for
.hey
fout. . n
l i m it at io ns
of the
an
x
x< :or tue
hov. the
continued
. «■I i p v . a
auteur
room
film
film
t. xs c a t e g o r y
c r u 1 d inhabit
as genre
one.
r..;n . e s v--1 * on
a
direct
r
urt.verr..
to .;enre
in
re.
t hr
individu; 1 art istry
a
to coexist
»h •. v;.
re i<.t i o i.m ;x ,
i- ficulty
;uteur
.nu ^.ccepvvu
w i th in
acccytii.
1n o n — a r t i s t i c 1 or people
flo uri sh
eviti wi th i n
lolly..ood film
indu. try *
. .t;
t;.e mao sUx.o,
*> m e d i u m
the strict,
«hxio
«.hut
-hxs
retitort. . the
refutation,
.and perf o r a e r s
no
equally
it held
.rti- tic.
at> the str
cture
of ..ol I/wo ..d 'f» le
r.•
.et iou for
fhla
of the
re
the
d i r e c t : r-
-r . -..L tneir - ti ..a
-r, an-jr.t -•
, er.re and
.in.
..;'.ic-lt to ucce ;•
vision
o;
the a u t e u r
■
L’iue ica 1:
are
u c o d L 1 n o 1 1 >.n <
of tne c u a i c n l
. enre
the
an . h ;.
cun
struct -*r »n p r i n c i I es
: • ru on a 1 ai n-.ture of
.
,
set
of s t r u c t u r e s
the
..us ic
hich
constitute
the n a r r a t i v e
core
o»
1.
.
critic
1 e: : hosts
au th or s
and
av.-cy fr
exar.ine
•- t e
in :iv idu
. texts
t h <• brc - ier structure,
o
tr.c
potulur
•
genre
filn becane
atructuralist
ccnsi iered
it
a c ti vi ty
re h
is or ga ni se
signify
in
absorb;-
tern,
issues
r<
» te :# unu n c .. -n
of
th< ir
result
co nc ep t
vital
n
An
the
the
< enre oper •te
. eneric
upon
at.
the n a i n s t r e a n
thi
of a b roa de r
imp or ta n t
into
>■
ov.n interna l
of senio-
raised
and
•* struct -re , no.,
u -
cohesion
> o.y, v..
and as
part
u;■ s t e ...
of
of a
this
cr it i c a l
a c t i v i ty
, opular cu ltu re
was
an.; sao.
to focus
nov. i.
■
hu si c a l
fils,
r e ce i ve d
but
c ul tu r e
ear
•• ich are
often
,
pr ob abl y
stron. '
.n 1
t
one
o:
criticised
••
. re
the most well-
of
tne
••
popular
.c . i inj
.... .y
i
attitudes
c ult u ra l
towards
»•.OM.cn
importance
mi
o t h e r a .11 c r o :
..'ere r e f l e c t e d
...; .art
social
and
o . - e geiire s
.
,
.
question
deeply
entrench;d
social
at n u r t u r e
,lt.
» t ut
simply
5
exposed
and
ac cep ted
gave
vent
to a t t i t u d e s
in s o c i e t y .
The m u s i c a l
a l re ad y
prevalent
re in f o r c e s
or
society's
my the .
The
of
works
of R i cha rd
the most
art ist ic
po pul ar
Rodgers
prolific
sense and
cult ure
and
at
Cs ca r Ha om er et ei n,
successful
the
medium
and
box
writers
offic e)
re fl ect s
(both
Il lu m i n a t e
society's
two
in
the
how
a
u nd erl yin g
mythologies.
Car ou s el
w h i ch
(1956)
dealt
Haameretein,
used
W hen he
this
Billy
baricer who
fails,
unsav our y
he
falls
y ears
later he
a guiding
pride
the
A me ri can 's
and
Rodgers
ends
captured
dilemma
as a basis
the
Carousel
even
film
in
of
the
inspires
ails
The
before
1 (1951)
King with
Eu rop ean
children
a huge
go ve r n e s s ,
acco rd in g
him
ri fte en
a hostile
o v e r w h e l m in g
of hope
American
to believe
a man's
and
environment
odds
opt imism
Dream.
that
"You'll
success
will
end:
King end
Or ie n ta l
and
like many
"When y o u walk through a storm hold y o u r head
and don't be afraid of the dark
At the end of the storm is a gold en land
And the sweet gentle song of a lark...
walk on walk on with hope in your heart
and yo u' l l never walk a 1 one
you'll never walk alone."
In The
to join
capture.
is
with
spirit
one
*t
fac.^y.
his posthumous
Billy
these
the G re at
unemploy­
is a film about
to grips
a ga in st
and
persuaded
to escape
to give
and
support his
and
his
un emp lo ye d
in a r o b b e r y .
earth
star.
to
and
for Carousel
poverty
tries
trying
to
Rodgers
is a proud
to crime
Jigger
to come
But
to be honest,
widespread
of d i f f i c u l t y .
alone"
in the
poverty.
knife
in the myth
n e v er walk
come
face
trying
failing.
against
Bigelow,
returns
dau gh te r
in
qu est
is dr i v e n
on his
i.olnar' e liilo'" (1909)
ethical
desperately
friend
Billy
upon Ke r e n c
A m e ri ca 's
The hero,
Carousel
his
st ru g g le
reflected
m ent.
based
with ma n's
corresponding
w hic h
was
Rodge rs
and
Ha mm e r o t e i n
family
and
an ob noxious
who he
to We ste rn
in humb le
up high
e m plo ys
to educate
practices,
subservience.
create d
di sp o s i t i o n .
his
is obliged
C o mi ng
as
an
it did
to grovel
only
ten
years
after
ar. influx
1 earl H a r b o u r was
of Or i e n t a l
unconciously
American
ye l l ow ,
whose
a lie n
King
and
respect,
the
S i am es e
the
A m e ri c an
of Siam
and
m usi ca l,
d ea li ng
and
to
:he
ha rmo ny
the
fact
on
serious
Cne
of
is
that
in
the
film wae
and
but
beyond
its
initial
oth er
deeper
layers
are
with
i ne vit ab le
fantas y
love
(framed
youth
i nn oce nc e.
for
Bob
Fosse's
it
as
whichever
let
thio
and
story,
e x t r e m i sm
e x t r e m i sm
re nd ere d
joy
there
of
and
way
it is
lacific
the
issues
hollow
and
aound
referred
content
a very
in si gn i f i c a n t .
of Lusic
(1965/,
of a typical m u s i c a l
impact
as
entertainment
As well
r e v ol vi ng
the
so ci ety 's
and
around
da r k e r
effects
Ins pired
paradise,
only
the h ar sh
of Tne
the
reaching
island
to avoid
upon
fl^m
the
subject
of dogma
fear
as
of
upon
of
provides
an o u t ­
fee ling.
Cabar et
in a far more
used
the
same
subject
e x tr em e
and
te rr if yi ng
matt er
way.
aggression
become
re c u r r i n g mot if s
in this
of w ai t o r n
Ber li n
and
he do n i s t i c
Cab a re t
of
in t e r m a r r i a g e
of war was
and
It reflects
some
serious
s i g n i f i c a ti on .
it focus es
of
i n t e g r a t i o n and
exuberance
em ot ion s
hazism)
these
of
a t te mp t
the
film,
racial
to a n o t h e r
succe ss
all
of
Couth
the
"Larch
overtly
attitu de s,
threat
In the
of
sy mpathy
to a l l e v i a t e
with
tr ea tm en t
tended
and
C h i n e s e 1'.
social
ominous
this
inspires
is a more
tropical
panic.
revelation
sequence
h e lp ed
for
it has
and
and
final
m u si c a l
"heathen
of
unfathomable
who
complexities
film.
this
m an
have
fr i v o lo us
reaso ns
genre
de al ing
the
the
the
specifically
mo m e n t s
the
issue
these
this
that
in fle eti ng
cont ain ed
Perhaps
would
p r ej ud ice
audience.
racial
la nguage
of
I
of xe no ph o b i c
was
qu ite
blocked
and
whose
P a c i f i c , (1958)
e ntr en che d
in the wake
au sp ic i o u s
de li gh t f u l
of
T he King
a m ou nt
a benev ol ent
the
fear
South
the
as
una
unierstaniably
children"
e f f e c t i ve ly
a c e rt ai n
an enigma.
Although
end
was
people
culture
the
lmc.igrantb,
rellected
socie ty
attac kea ,
reveals
its co nfused
as much
about
the
social
but
presented
'iolence
ho rr if y i n g
and
picture
heroine.
climate
of
the
19/0
s
an
it a o <•s about
a to ri ea
are ro
wartime
longer
Germany.
part
of
the
Eaaily
palatable
neceutiary
love
g e ne ri c
fo r mu l a .
The
proble m with
once
a r ef le c t i o n
and
d lsc uaa ed ,
This
Implle.-.
has
in
been
some
the
that
exist.
One
a method
hide
discover
in dividual
na r r a t i ve
like
aims
what
film,
and
ge n e r ic
verbal,
aspect,
consciously
through
formal
vitally
and
it
qu a l i ti es
To
decode
formula e.
la a
song and
th<
which
.-’or
ol
dance
sty 11 nati on
of
of
the
" heyond
the
form
ie
or c o n t r a d i c t e d
film
g e st ur e
by
or
which
Its me an in g
So m u s i c a l
which
that
so
.he d i s ­
s i g ni fi es ,
t h i u in a popul ar
films
considers
are
of
its c o mp le x
ami
the
is f o r e ­
an an a l y s i s
to u n d e r u t a n d
of
up a
communication
analysis
isolate
Formula
la a complex,
procedures
words
propose
atructure
of music.
to an
not
one
structure;
c u lt ur e m e d i u m
deconstruct.
a mu n leal
i i lu, i
tic ui.cd as
part
of
the
'natural
di scourse'
is one
of
the
f e a t u r es
of
tacitly
lHupproprii le
an
says
imparts
a mu s i c a l
iltlnu, h
ona
[erform vr o.
is
how
did
la to
e x p r es si on,
and
cod in g
n oth*T
subtext
iiff )cult
The a u d i e n c e
of
and
simp ly
of c o m m u n i c a t i o n
structure
u nd ers ta nd
its
itself
tnec. elves
import an t.
course.
must
lend
and
coop.emented
i t y l i i e : form
genre
their a u d i e n c e s
films make
one's
Iso lat ed
and
atructure
in w hi ch
that
were made,
mu sic al
pern a -s a facial
the m e d i a t i n g
they
c o he si ve
discourse
fo r e g r o u n d s
automatically
the
system
lu
the m u s i c a l
Solomon
The
lo
film ce ase s.
dissertation
i: lividual
system.
iu a
of
in te rn al
reinforc ed,
the
. e p r es s. on
this
the
hew
In natural
Music
the
In
of
from
constitutes
groun ded.
pose.
truth
aort,
at ru ctu re
In w h i c h
To go a ; St m l e y
narrative
a visual
tlmen
thlu
aoclal
function
the grim
s tr uc tu red
usually
only
for an a l y s i n g
film.
of
examination
the
events
of my
an al y a ea
the w i d e r
fu r t h er
that
cases
mu si ca l
of
to reflect
pretend
and
cr i t i c a l
That
acknowledged
for a 'We: tern'
p e r f o r m a nc e
prepared
by
the
film
serves
vie we r
tu accept
but
or a n o t h e r
the dual
that
the g e n r e
would
genre.
fu nc t i o n
be
This
of
defamiliuriainy
the
audience
screen,
are
or become
oblig ed
effect
is
to view
in
thesis,
events
ide ntify
it.
a Brechtian
of
the
alienating
the m e d i a t i n g
cann ot
the T h e a t r e
dial ect ic
aimultaneousiy
throug h
submerged
Organurn for
M ar xi s t
and
5 o the a u d i e n c e
al i en at i ng
Short
who
action
1'rom a di s t a nc e,
of music.
action
the
In
is
with
the
this
outlined
based
the
language
pr inciple
co nc e p t
which
on
in A
upon
antithesis', synthesis.
the
10
Brecht's
own a l i e n a t i n g
te chn iqu es
stylised
acting
methods
drew
the aud ie nc es
attentions
the c h a r a c t e r
onto
the aspect
performance.
away
His
from
reason
choice
for
based
this
upon his
out of a sympath
In Beyond
was
or e m pa th y
F o rm u l a , S t an l e y
using
musical
songs
at
the
into Nati
ext re mi sm
grotesque
caricatures
appar en tl y
and
hu mo ro us
finally
Musical
films
they
can
in an approach
the
specific
the
provide
the
most
naturally
and
flow.
properties
film has
the
that
ap pr oac h
to
insights
entertai nm en t,
» hat
of any
critical
hence
critical
specific
takes
into
endea vou r
understanding
ap proach
with in
fa c t o r
which
film
which
is
of
to
di s c o u r s e
to conside r
is a p p r o p ri at e
the
is needed,
a method
the music al
and
in
uncontrollable
escapist
fr a m e wo rk
of
The
fighting.
film.is
of any
approach
^1
presenting
become
function.
im portant
account
of
enjoyed
An
which
film
devices,
p e o p l e , Indu lg ing
of
analysis
suitable
it takes
The Genre
Musical
on s t a g e .
fr ami ng
by
a
than
Bob Posse's
provide
Berlin
simply
that
function
to which
whether
not
function
be to provoke
and
extent
the
The
a work,
can
are
Klub
violent
characteristics
co n si de ra tio n.
should
Kat
real
into
character
citer
and
to make
rather
the n ar ra ti ve .
wa rt i m e
ful fi l
to
on
Kit
of
the
B r e c h ti an
situations
co llapse
Cenre
al th ou gh
and
re sp on se
S o lo mo n
to co m m e nt
se quences
with
s n owi ng
ol
the a u d i e n c e
intellectual
C a b a r e t as an e x amp le
and
to a l l o w
- s o n g s , placards
to the
is the
form
i.e.
c h a ra c t e r i s t i c s
form.
criticisn
renew ed
support
and
an alysis
of Ho ll ywo od
in recent years.
Brom
its
early
be ginnings
when
st ru ctu ral ist s
texts,
there were
t a 1 k about
classes
r e f er en c es
to v a ri ou s
genres,
musi ca ls,
and
it has
emerged
as
so on,
gent
cri tic al
that
it accepts
publicly
essential
system.
have
methodology.
films
The
must
theory
about
of genre
3 but
expl oi ted
genre
because
films
recurrent
general
are
by
narrative
artist
film,
wh e t h e r he
suc ce s s f ul
is
and
the
elegance
fres hne ss
and
He must
and
with
It
br il lia nt
su cc ess ful .
rich,
some
cat egory
it a c c o r d i n g
give
of
the
of
is most
in si gh ts
visual
films
poised
of m i s e - e n - o c e n e
in an
images
the g e n r e .
F red
a keen
to v anc e the
each nev
Similarly
step
Vincent e
never
exhausts
changing and
i m pr es si oni sti c
striking
genre
and fo rm ul ae
and with
constantly
- a
film.
his
is
a
to
the content
structure
of
but
re c o g n i s e
striking
he
the
their fin es t
the audience new
b r a s h , opulent,
be
the
of,
a generic
or a performer
provide
John Fo r d ' s
for
of
lim itations
a u d ie nc e.
sense
is alw ay s
in spite
that
a n ti ci pa ti on ,
his
will
st r u c t u r e
or a crime
time
films
intrinsic
name
spontaneity
Each
that ge nre
that
de sc ri be s
to give
a few
it admits
the c o n v e n t i o n s
way
to make
Audiences
the
be di sc uss ed
for mulae
finally
and
that
generic
rofi ta ble
is not
And
underlying
c o n t r o l l e d , elegant,
always
use
disappoints
M in ne ll i' s
the
genre
wi t hi n
artistry.
is charged
itself.
of
a filmmaker
subject.
reinforce
he never
it
usual ly
ex ci tin g
Astaire's
frame
to
s t ru ct ure
who wo rk s
will
is
and
to the
the whole
their
it
consensus.
if he ca n
an old
which
and
a musi c a l , a gangster
So an
original
that
l i mi tat ion s
o pi ni on w h i c h
western,
into
n e ce ss ary
public
of
it accepts
as
been s u c c e s s f u l .
is defined
according
Furthermore
main ta ins
the
have
long
to do so.
and
of
as
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is
into c e r t a i n
is necessary
viable
intelli­
categor ies
cr i t i c i s m
it
fledged
fall
ge ne ri c
flatly,
to be c o mm e r c i a l l y
proven for mu la e
films
to
loose
its vital
be a n a l y s e d
it here.
studio m o g u l s
of
began
w e s t e r n s , th ri lle rs
a fully
and c o n v e n t i o n s
in C h a p t e r
repeatedly
any
Cne
that H o l l y w o o d
f o r m ul ae
length
points
now
and
r e c o g n i s e d , acc ept ed
individual
at
of
the f r e n c h
visual
by tu rns
and
symbol
of
the
cactus
genre
floer
and
Illustrates
appropriate
Liberty
is dr aw n
and
pr ot e c t i o n
The Ge nr e
the
fo rm ul ae
generic
systems .
devised
to analyse
the
of
m e t h od ol og y
It is
and
that
a series
the
structure
Barthes
as his
examinatlm
p a rt ic ul ar ly
romantic
of
H o r i z o ns
of
does
as
binary
co nflict
of the
are
to one
vital
lend
the
the West.
mhows
that
two o p p o s i n g
and
it can
15
the
be applied
like
like
of
and
"hot/ co ld "
this
socie ti
of reality
as well
of m y t h o l o g i c a l
to this
work.
of
this
r e a l i t y/ fa nt as y
the genre
has
and
done
form
sort
and
part
a s im il ar
the W e s t e r n genre
in
it is a genre which m a n i f e s t s
en vi ro n m e n t s
In C h a p t e r
offer
the world
to an an alysis
Jim Kitzes
s t r uc tu re
by formi ng
of realism,
importance
of
of a
criticism.
that
p e r p e t u at io n
core
basic
the human min
codes
itself
the
It
L e v i - S t r a u s s 1s
de scribe
in
film.
tl • world
another,
be used
part
genre
Claude
ana lysis
oppositions
at
oi
non-literate
of
crit ic is m
of
as
to
up
can
some
maintained
so c i e t y ' s
thematic
East
in detail
w hi ch
st udying
making
used
accept s
in herent
st r u c t u r e .
* ejijt, and
showing how
oi
film
b etween
model
is
are
classifies
objects
by
proved
conflict
and
it
deconstruction
its na r r a t i v e
analysis
that
the need
tne m u s i c a l
cat eg or y
structuralist's
Roland
The music al
broad
Levl-5 trauas
it
the
which
on^y
to use when
model w h i c h
of
the
environment .
of genre
I n co rp or at es
oppositions
process
to prove
have
in
of
or " ra w/ co ok ed ".
systems
am
the h u m a n mina
of binary
Fu r t h e r m o r e
framework
st r u c t u r a l i s m ,
classification
principles
th ematic
the
H o st il e
it re co gn is es
structuring
of H a l l y 1s
c r ea te s
logical method
opposition
with.n
who
a harsh and
b e cau se
model
the moat
i n ai ci ti ve
wilderness
the mo s t
the
01
The Kan who Uhot
la
a binary
relationships
sought
the
s t r u ct ur e
to choose
In
flo we r
t. i t h i n the
structuralist
premise
image.
films
is a s t r u c t u r a l i s t
principles
in
io
mu s i c a l
isolate
I have
ca pa c i t y
can a g ai ns t
ap pr o a c h
dis cu s s i n g
the the ma ti c
cactus
a woman
she
his
un li k e l y
Valance
personality,
fr^m
4 1 shall
one which
to a study
(ideologies)
discu ss
I have
of
the
this
devised,
the m u si ca l
film.
Th e
Mnary
used
it
as a method
le valuab le
the genre
In this
as
opposition
and
Isolates
respect
specific
return
an
to one of
subject
that
it
subject's
examine
2)
as g e n r e ,
3)
as a mu s i c a l
order
and
stand
in
the
Ch apt er
Genre
of
and
wil l
explain
4,
how
3, 6 and
m u si ca l s
its
be drawn
in order
as
To
of
this
from
ana
the
dom inant
is
to
2.
are
Here
to gain
taught
under­
style
all c o n s i d e r e d
fu n c t i o n s
in
as
a
the nature
as a def ini te
na rr ati ve
t. la narr at ive
struc tur e
t e
an example
ueical
four
as a g u i d e .
In ch apt er
a c c o rd in g
Finally
to
3 I
The
film
purpose
how
to the
in Ch ap te r
important
p r a c ti ca ll y
the m a x i m u m
as
into
film as a musical
op po s i t i o n s
dec on st ru ct
to show
be
one must
I c o n s id er
opp os it io n model .
be
film
are ma ni f e s t e d .
and
should
film me taphor,
with the m u s i c a l
the model
will
film
the mu s i c a l
and use
structures
I will
using
studied
be ginning
dissertation
it ope rat es
fo rm ul ae
bi n ar y
7,
four analyses
of film,
into c o n s i d e r a t i o n
of how
hese
dec on str uct
specifically
str uc tu ra li s t
should
symbolism,
in C h ap te r
I will
analyse
the
the m u s i c a l
semiotics.
generic
deal
conflicts.
teaching
characteristics
example
0 1 film
various c o m p o n e n t s
show how
of
for d e c o n s t r u c t i n g
taking
U n d e r s t a n d i n g how
structure.
and
an
examine
is an alysed
genre
its
To
film
1.
aspects
and
concept
film and
vital
that
fi lm genre:
to p r es en t
studied.
at
ine aim of my
the m u s i c a l
I believe
themes and
the
is to be
the genre m u s i c a l .
method
to analy.e,
film
and
the
method
ptints made
patterns.
as film,
for
of film -
fundamental
1)
in
its centr al
a cr it i c a l
it wi s he s
na rr ati ve
it c o n s i d e r s
ap pr opr ia te
the
the musical
an a l y s i s
is helpful
category
introduction,
of
for critical
becau se
it provides
one
model
of
films
these
un de rs ta ndi ng
can
of
be
their
content.
I arc aware
that
in secondary
it very
difficult
ever it
is
to study
po ss i b le
to
schools
films
teach
one
time
li m i ta ti on s
in their e n t i r e t y .
film
in the
course
make
how­
of
the
term
by
br ea ki ng
seq ue n ce s.
it down
..hat way
" s e t - w o r k ” withi n
a t he or e t i c a l
Wh e t h e r
at
institution
a film
the
it can
or twelve m a n a g e a b l e
be
inc orporated
cu rr i c u l u m .
within
school
be
ten
could
school
fr a m e wo rk
seco nd ar y
into
which
level
adapted
I have
to study
or
provided
film.
in a higher
to meet
as a
the needs
education
of
sp ec i f i c
pupils.
Por my
1970
ex amp le s
and
have
attention.
I have
isolated
.he most
drawn upon m us ica l
films
a f
for critical
important
r . k . . R a d i o film Studio,
partnership
of r red
produced
the
by
, specifically
ones
starring
A s ta ir e
Art hu r Preed
and
the
Ginger
unit
1Golden
(1940
the
klnne111.
p a r t ic ul ar ly
those made
song
and
Rogers,
of M e t r o
(M .0 .M . ) during H o l l y w o o d ' s
- I960);
are
from
by
1930
the
dance
those
Go ldw yn M a y e r
& r a ' of mus ica ls
films
directed
by Vin ce nt e
-
NOTES
1.
Siov£,
J.H.J l .
Secondary
2»
ibid.
pg
1978,
3»
pg
by
3
the
1
in
j»_l
ra ne va al
Uni tea
3.
Madsen,
Impact
Through
7.
N e a l e , S t ep he n
8.
Ca'nler du C i n e m a ,founded
abroad.
9•
from
the
latest
publ is hed
pg
: How
in 1976
1
laeas are
and l e l e v l a i o n
Film
pg 306
pg 11
pg 1
and
film
edited
Journal
the m i d - 1 9 5 0 1a it
of Aute ur
F ra n c o i s
of /11m
An
Penre
inf luential
vuring
co nc ep t
film
duri ng
echoole.
figures
Cin em a
Perkins,
an
at six
of a survey
■department
into ? 1 1 m
6.
became
Victor
of Pllm Study
States.
N o ve
.he
resul ts
quotes i n f o r ma ti on
Blues tone , -ieorge
8.1.
Jrractlce
educ at ion
pupils
4.
Communicated
are
f i g u r e s , and
the
and
pg 4
figur es
4 COO
Jrov£
res ea rc h
by C.E .S*
Teaching
These
in vo lvi ng
ibid.
U.K.
S c h ool
12
conducted
The
criticism,
by Andre
both
Bazin,
in France
popularised
first
put
and
the
forward
by
T.-auf faut .
S o l o m o n , Stanley beyond
rormula
: Am e r i c a n
Film
Genres
Pg v
10.
Brecht,
Bertoldt
A Jhort
( rganum
for
the Iheatry
p a r a . 45 - 47
11.
S o l o m o n , Stanley Beyond
Formula
: A m erican
Film
pg 106
lc.
Lev l- St ra ua e,
1?.
Kltzes,
Jim
Claude
H o r l zona
T he Savage Kind
* ea_t
pg 11
pg 263
Genres
CHAPTER
1
TEACHING
' .1
^enlotlCB
The
of
LITERATURE
theory
this
two
of
that
a e o i o t I c q , the
worked
th in kiu v
fundamentally
named
Ferdinand
de Sauesui
Eu ro p e an
p ri nc ipl es
sign
are
the
their m ea ni ng
studie d
issues
their
his
behaviour.
which
are
the
are
1
At
and
the
which
their
li ng ui st
remains
t h e o r et ic al
of signs
and
semiotics
aim
to u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of and
same
special
for
a science which
ana
t i ) what
time,
the
example
f o r mu la ti ng
l it er at ur e
in the
forms
of
to s o c i e t y 1s r i t u a l s ,
the
abound
two
laws gov er n
different
Analyse
which
upon
Peirce was
r e fe re nce
11)
focused
semantic
and
iii)
systems
Decode
in the world
field
of
outside
zoo-semiotics,
bionics.
to use
because
direction,
sing ul ar it y
and
a view
the
the dwiea
study
logy
i) Ob s e r ve
signals
one chooses
Structuralists,
Peirce,
though,
proposed
in art and
behaviour,
u n im po rt an t,
same
*
of
di sc ipl ine s
while
the
ve
Its
on
as a result
semiology,
in society
made
greetings.
prevalent
c y b e r n e t i cs
Whether
icv
-*
of s ig ns
non-1inguistic
of h u m a n
in E u r o p e .
function.
be h a v i o u r with
and
term
systems, %
theory which would:
ceremonies
is
life
C.S.
tics,
is a product
individually,
emerged
In essence
1 9 2 0 1 j de Sa us s u r e
the
and
but
same.
the
an
Bigna"
two c r i t i c al
semi
same
i) a ha t they
social
the
th'
these
and
"hat
the
in s o c i e t y .
to d e c o n s t r u c t
the
hie
of
in A m e r i c a
were
preferen.
systems
./uring
both
s i m u l t a n e o us ly ,
Am erican,
me
Syatemb
"s cience
con tin ent s.
ind ep en de nt
were
: A C O M P A R A T I V E STUDY
: J l ^ n s jina -.eronntlc
respec ti ve
w h i ch
FILM
c e n t u r y » rooted
fo un de rs
their
AND
that
and
Peirce
Am er i c a n
and
both would
there
of me ani ng
the
of
de
or Eu rop ean
Saussure
agree,
is no universal
perception.
Any
terminol ogy
were mo v i n g
along with
realism
act
of
the
in
later
or
comm uni cat ion ,
whether
within
l in g ui st ic
the
se ver al
which
have
larger
mediators
exist
no
re vealed
the
The
in Nel so n
nh a . Goodman
f a ll ac y
l a n g u a g e , thus
reality.
of
the
dispelling
* e bring
present,
of an
eye,the
out
w h ic h
past
human
is
the
notions
to us
the
by
signs
language,
by
the way
rec eiv er
eye
is
statement:
always
to bear
comes
verbal
in no c e nt
eye
upon
affected
classic
here
all
of
t h e m , and
G o o d m a n 1s now
is e m p h a s i z i n g
instance
but are
en co d e s
as e sign
is ac te d
st ructure
meaning
"Th ere ie no in nocent
to the world"
and
hor
l a rg e r
transmitter
them.
system,
of m e a n i n g .
definitive
the
i nt er p r e t s
se ma n t ic
wi th i n
one
in which
or n o n - 1 i n g u i a t i c , f u n c t i o n s
comes
ancie nt
artificiality
of an
upon
obj ec ti ve
our
through
of
in t e r p r e t a t i o n
visual
and
verbal
signs .
The
i n ev it abl e
the
theory
of
question which
se m i o ti cs
is:
arises
in any
* b a t is a sign
a sign
is a s t i m u l u s , or a per ce pt ib le
evokes
a p a r t ic ul ar
re sp ons e.
a film
is
stimulus
men t a l
image
first
the
first
resulting
sti mulus
evokes
communication.
communicate
albeit
unconscious
sign w h i c h
blusher,
but
c o n s c i ou s
systems
or un co n s c i o u s
m e di c a l
of
the
which have
as
signs
sym ptoms
are
mean
illness
of
semantic
and
the
mean
again
S a u a s u r c 1 a concep t
resulted
model. 4
in
the
Through
and
in which
this
-hue
wi t h
the
the e m b a r r a s s m e n t
of fire
se m i o lo gy
as
in which
as
M y t ho lo gy
the various
in
a
the
view
to
to
is a.<
the
is no
•arious
sign
the di ag nos is
a result
themselves
c
there
involved.
narrative
lan gua ge
formulation
s t im ul us.
il u s h ^ n g
manifested
of
sign evokes
or un co ns c i o u s .
intention
in the
wh ich
int en ti on
is co n d u ct ed
systems
This
sti mulus
a sign
illness,
su bs ta nc e
simply#
an in he ren t
s i gn al s
is not
tr e a t m en t
second
have
conscious
smoke
include
or s i g n .
second
A sign mu s t
Quite
of
A p h o t o g r a p h , or a 'shot'
in the
the
discussion
ar. •
of I n t e r p r e t i n g
in
the human
and
Fo lk lo re
signs
ooay
which
are made
to
struc tu re .
as a m e d i a t i n g
of an entirely
m o d e l , lan guage
new
could
IE
structure,
linguistic
be treated
as
2C
.
produced
as a ccnc< juei.ce of t e in e rua • re i at * on nr. ip*.
b e t w e e n the
1 ii.r u i u t ic jl^ns
makes a distinction
r o l e , and
thi
relationship
between
between
law, ua^e
these
th% t 6>'l teru*
th». a c t u u i
» . ster.. si.ic . un
between
two
uue c:
structure
ua u s a u r e
1 au<
c,
e r -1 e . it. 1 -a/ue.
is
essentially
(l a n w u e ) the g r e a t e r
u p the
c o l e s nahin.
with in
cl
tae
sys te m
I agu a & c
o.
and
di;i eience
rules
and
v.i 'w r .._±,
opeccr.
•
» i thout
1 nn<:ue we
as m e a n i n g
c culd
is only
not
lo^lcol.y
transmitted
in
say
terms
me a n * n e.i -.1
anythin;,
of
the
understanding
•
Conversely,
l-.n ur
the
roc es.
.c t - ■. .
a C r which
is
only m e a n i n g f u l
of e < .. <nic
overned
by
the
when
' ion •
rules
it
is r e l a t e d
Like wi se,
and
cols
any
of
to
num. an
its
playing,
.
I
r tie! ?'.t in
>:ue
i
nat ur e
in the
. si.n
.see.
system,
cl signs
by
a no
say in.
le■- lUs^-re
that
every
ela: orates
sign
upon
tr.e
is ma d e
up c:
two
tr. is
tne
■ .
s 1 w ::1 f 1 ■■r
no
difference
between
the
its
in: .:r ■
. ~■ n
, n
inr rir.t of the
.el.
fora
t
unu
Ja sl c a ^ ^ y ,
< ntent.
r i uteri
due
1 • a*
. o u n d , the inj r<
signifier
Iform.
, but tr.e ps .cuciO; ical
si on that
it ■ akes
upon
one's
.
', and
'
L a n f ut: :e, is c -
owed
of
in fi nit e
num i c r o.
iir, u^s.ic
a i r r. o .
The
re l a t i o n e hi;
between
the
rig nil it r and
governed
ty co n v e n t i o n ,
to n , n iter or
Lanruag#
is a c o n s t r u c t
in which
relationship
be t w e e n
concept
( s i g n i f i e d ).
itself,
a small
representation
the
7
it,
image
The word
four-leg
of
sound
ed
furry
w h i c h we
thire
is
its s i t,u i. a.e <i
le.
er ue,;re
.
is an ariltrary
(ci, ni
*d o tV
.coy
is not
c r e a t u r e , it
experience
and
the
>-..e
thing
is cn^y
throu gh
the
a
mediating
structure
un.T.oti vat cu
the
of l a n gu ag e.
sign
thin ■ it
,
refer,
ly
to.
v o the
con ven t!
.he
cai
oj.;>cs ite
••ora doj
i.. an
practice,
m ea ns
to t .. s , a n c t i v a t e u
,
hence
the c o m m o n
indic ate s
that
road si* ni
a sl ip pe ry
r o a : surface
co nd i t i o n s
for
the cotori, t .
'Caution*
The
road
could
Lc
co ul d
mea n
dangerous
Its m es sl ■e is quite
.et anc
s li ppe ry ',
clears
and
is
.
re ass ig n
is
situation,
d i r e c t , :let
, c an
1 .din,
rial
representation
cn a . ct road
of
surface,
the
and
.
Motivated
the
and
..ay in
implicit
or
unmotivated
hlch
explicit
it; to use H C a.
implicit
the
they
aign
language-
of
si, n
iu
also
distinguished
c o m m u n i c a t e me an in
a ref
that
u 1. as are
.
A 'onveationnl
rrr.ee to
only
, and
.u t e r , it
u n de rs t a n d a b l e
Jhemi. tr; ,
are
sign
is a
to
by
eit he r
in C h e m i s t r y
.motivated,
those
wno
ill of whom mu. t tacitly
use
i.<
ree
types
of
.
.
anu
e x p l ic it ,
A d i s t i n c t i o n must
be made
tetwer-n
the d i f f e r e n t
.
sign
1)
au:
Something
r es pe c t
2)
3)
which
u tar. is to ..one body
which
determines
to refer
to an
object
s tend
somethin,
in
some
or c a pa ci ty.
Anything
It
for
b
uom
to which
for s o m e t h i n g
thin • else
itself
to s o m e bo dy
(its
refers
(its
intcrpretant)
(its
object)
in t c r p r e t a n t )
4.
It
s t a n d 3 for
(this
and
respect
goes
on to
ref ers
i.e.
symbolic
Iconic
it
the
re c o g n i s e
l ik e n e s s
either
of
ways,
sign,
signs
the
b e tw ee n
in
w hic h
according
and
exist
relationship
and
to its
to
its
(its
s ig ni fi er ).
the
the
its
signify
to the
object
the
it direct ly
b et wee n
of
to which
signifier
iconic,
that
sign
The
it
and
its
indexical
resembles
in a m i r r o r
and
sign and
of
the
b e ca us e
signified
signifier.
Si mi la rl y,
the
resemblance.
r e ce iv er
su bj ec t.
as
reflection
is one
id en ti fy
sign
or
the
the
sign
impuls e
can
of a de fi ni te
has
ob je c t
an
iconic
is an
to w hich
relationship
object
object
It is a direct
A photograph
the
the
w hi ch
iconic
it refers
be twe en
it
a
reflec ts
is
iconic mode.
Indexical
index
object
Jlgnm
usual ly
and
causal,
the
and
s ig nal s
implie s
sign
the
indexical
sound
index
of
an
index
that
metonymic
the
and
sign
signalling
relationship
actu al
it su gg es ts
de s ir e
wind' s
is
ringin g
to c o m m u n i c a t e .
direction,
is outsi de
eynechdocal
the w h o l e .
signs
and
in de xic al
to
on
is an
Smoke
of fire.
as
the
enter.
indexical,
A crown
is
it
A weathercock
a knock
wi s h i n g
are
de fi ni te .
pos si bi li ty
is also
the
is one w hi ch
and
the
be twe en
as
is
door
is
klost
they use
ina ex ic al
a
sign
royalty .
Signs
which
arbitrary
as
someone
to sugge st
the
(s i g n i f l e r / s i g n l f i e d )
relationship
s o m eo ne 's
Symbolic
that
of a te le ph on e
an
Signs
the
in w hi ch
relationship
part
three
relationship
rep re s e nt s
relationship
The
of
a triad
respect
Signs
w hi ch
is an
about
in some
mode.
icon
An
its g r o u n d ) c
called
be tw e e n
oigns
In an
in
is
in one
the
signified.
to som eb od y
talk
predominantly
relationship
something
are
in the
relationship
sy mbolic
betwee n
mode
the
are
characterised
signifier
and
its
by
an
signified
It
ret; ui z*e - uctiv*
; :.rt ic i pu t i or. o:, the
h a u c s u r e 1 .. 1 i:: -uititic
< » i.
lie , th
art
of the
inter-
t t c re la ticaohi}
.
the
is
a y c b o l i c mo..e , ince
arbitrary
ana
the i-v 1 at i
'.he r e c e i v e r
of
i ; Letv/een the
th
lin
two
u.stic
inter•
51, rs
can
do not
invol ve
al'.ayu
nil
of
belon.
the
to one
o.
these
three g r o u p s
si :nifier/si n i f l e d
but
relationships
to
.
.
,
traffic
tc c nt ln u e
or s t o * ,
n.
according
to ; h' h light
is
,
colour
, .lie
In
signification.
green,
the
b,
'real'
>d in .'lies d a n g e r
in our society,
1C
riles safety.
: Op ul a r c o n c e n s u s ,
orlb,
there
is & c o n n e c t i o n
betv.een icons
and
.
si gn s
and
have
the
no
such
connection
rela ti on sh ip
be t w e e n
as
they
t he ir
function
s^
symbolically
i.ifiers and
si ;nifieds
.
.
.
,
.
ceanln
of
within
the
difference
. vii r, depends
ter:., and
with
upon
its
c o n n e c t ! . n to ot he r
only h . n.e .nir.
other sign,
in terms
constituting
the
signs
of the
sane
se ma n t i c
.
only
signifies
signs
in
conetr
the
ints
sy st em s
nay
whether
by
cul ture,
_ .A .
by
virtue
syste m.
.hie:
be
the
of
me
to bear
transmitter
individuality
relationship
c r o l c , or
i n f lu en ce
1 nought
its
the
tpeech
to
the
act,
has
other
other
nin.-, .and other
r f miotic
u ;on tne
ccnmunic
or r e c e i v e r
or religion.
act
of
of the
message,
tion,
like
Within
a ae mi o t i c
ayatem,
natlc
or
pa r a d l f m a tic
Th ese
relationships
system.
The
de t e r m i n e
p a r a d i g ma ti c
from
the
or absent
possible
been
used
organising
show
By
how
of
the
1The
one
signs
these
units
lingui st ic
the
signs
cat',
o rde r
have
nouns,
to c o m p l e te
cho sen
'hound'.
s u b s t i tu t e d
'moggy'
from
might
the
have
ranfe
and
th* act
the
sy n t a g m at ic
a sign
which
order
be altered,
oo
dog
far,
this
of
cat
signs
discussion
the
each
aignifier
se miotics
meaning.
at'
or
likely
have
or
a choice
is mace
def inite
successful.
one
or even
Thus
d et er mi ne s
n a rr ow s
co mb in ed
dog',
could
'pussy'
axis
If
in
or
become s more
to be
the
one could
'canine'
ince
have.
their
the
chooses
'Siamese',
me an i n g
will
of all
'followed'
'cat'.
sentence:
pa rad igm ati c
of dog
1D o b e r m a n ',
to the
o t h e r and
the sys te m
the
se m i o t i c s
and
and
the
has
of
how
the me ani ng
att empted
to
me an in g would
d e s t r o y e d , 'Cat
ic a sign sy s t e m
aa
system
of
a whole.
its
relationship
it becomes
which
apparent
signs
relationship
meaning.
sign.
is organised
individual
The
constitutes
c on si de re d
a li ng u i s t i c
di sc ip li ne s,
relationship
only
arbi tr ar y
signified
to other
d is ci p l i n e
wi th i n
of
system,
according
signs
is
the
one
place
in a se ntence
chased
axle
of various
ax is c o ns is ts
In
for
of the words,
as a sign
Applying
that
up
or c o m b i n a t i v e / d i a c h r o n i c
place
could
the c h a s e d ' .
language
b e t w e en
'The
an
from which
pos sib il it ie s,
a combination
the
to create
re la ti ons hip ,
'feline',
sufficed
Its
all
sy nt a g m a t i c
horizontal
take
.e made
act.
of c o m m u n i c a t i o n
is used.
change
the
of
involve
ord in ar y
if we
adverbs,
and
the
So
a f t e r ' , 'looked
'chased',
ahowe
c h a n g e , either
1B o x e r 1 , 'Alsatian',
'Ran
The
in order
which
a speech
the
the me an in*’ will
in a c e rt ai n
verbs,
of
They
combinative
arr ang ed
signs
rules
in a r e l a t i o n s h i p wh ich
of a sBO cl a tlv e / selec tlve/ s y n c h r o n i c
possible
axle
a message.
or d r a s t i c al ly .
dog chased
v e rtical
in a aynta»;-
other.
internal
can c h o o s e .
or the
are
ei th e r
to each
the
or
to signify
rearranging
minimally
which
signs,
exiet
relationship
alternatives
have
algns
t'' each
of these
S e m io ti cs
can
be
successfully
li te ra t ur e,
l i t er ar y
the
f il m
and
and
text
its
inherent
in terms
in the
of
us e r
of
the
into
a
sign
of the
ac c o r d in g
ba c k g r o u n d .
the
exist
theory
of
a bunch
sign, who
Signs
are
They
of
The
have
uses
order
roses
to
is the
bunch
of
as a sign.
a sign,
it cea se s
sign which
object.
s ig n i f i c a t i o n
w i sh ed
and
to c o m m u n i c a t e
passion.
signifier
as
and
signifi ed.
It
m ea n i n g
A simple
the
Iconic
the
object
the
framin g which
the
the
the
o b je ct s
them
of wea lt h
of roses
In this
new
is
bunch
and
fu nctions
of roses
of the
is
synonymous
for a specific
making
them signify
co ntext.
Cars
characteristics
we a l t h
and
power are
wh ic h
it
be twe en
represents
it r e c e i v e s
visual
sign
is
is
at
the
hand
its
sign
in
consensus.
image
is given
the
are
the
r e c o g n i s e d , c o n v e n ti on al
public
wi t h
artistic
car
by
-
person who
the
to
as
it is filled
power,
agieed
signi­
- the
and
been
c o nt ex t
the
entity
of roses
belong
de Sa u s s u r e
si g n i f i e r
roses
in a new
context,
they
of
c
intent
of
the
viewe r
a bunch
is a sign,
information,
relationship
and
is why
use
is an easily
has
it
a bunch
them with
signs
by the
passio n
as a simple
"hen
that
a certai n w a y , or framing
used
of how
a bunch
manifests
A f i l m m a k e r may
e n d , by enc o di ng
Once
its
to w m c h
is a totally
to f u n c t i o n
the h o r t i c u l t u r a l
of
and
in t h e m s e l v e s , they
passion.
total
the
pre determined,
leading interpreters
as s o c i a t iv e
they
information
it agains t
culturally
how
be twe en
way,
signification
si gn if y
and
encodes
a ce rta in
e x amp le
considers
signs,
who
no m e a n i n g
the
to r e v e a l ­
relationship
aignlf i e r , while
the
roses
the
organi zin g
Se m i o t i c s
be t w e e n
or
of a sp ec if ic
a view
of the g r e a t e r sys te m
semiotics,
of film
its
with
tex«.
in
afforded
produces
This
that
personal,
fied,
wh ic h
signs,
filmmaker)
one of the
in
i s ola te
i n te rp r e t s
own
in terms
signifi ed.
of ten
to
relationships
to his
be framed
wi th
of
(1. *■ . the
Barthes,
analysis
It e m p h a s i z e s
filmma ke r.
Roland
can
in o r d e r
sign so that its i g n i f i e s
reader
only
and
de c cns t rue t i on
individual
the
in a text.
and
the
meanings
si g n i f y
and
s tu dy
inv olves
or film
p r i nc i pl es
ing
used
on a screen
signification
of
often m i s t a k e n
by
the filmmaker.
for
the
thing
in
26
itself,
and
why
trap
the
visual
of
to explain,
iconic
framed,
a sign
as
understood.
to this
type
signs
stand,
and
theory
of
are
s e mi ot ics
naturally
to sake
The model
which
film,
as
to
any
a tool
to
the
I have
but
fundamentally
seminal
the
dar ras ine
is no
no d e f i n i t i v e
'realistic'
realism,
and
this
tion
of the
that
the novel
works
of
in o the r words
signiflers
In no ce nt
at
visual
the
are
the
of film,
signs
this
in
Barthes
in
and
has
body
also
signs
displa y
appear
of m e a n i n g .
co ntrived
The
work
various
novel
is a c o ns tr uc te d
an
14
of
by a n a t u r a l i z a ­
reader
in any
way.
belie vin g
'Realistic'
pa lp abi lit y
'n a t u r a l 1 objects,
ther ef or e
and
Any
im pre ss io n
in the
a reduced
to be
In his
of a text.
two ways.
been
exclusive,
1o b j e c t i v e 1 text,
is ach ie ve d
results
to clarify
of B al za c' s
no
at length
successfully
to give
in
upon
s t r u ct u r a l i s t
literature
the
tea ching
film mu s i c a l
stage
is con- true ted
which
and
founded
approaches.
reader,
f o rm in g
has not
sort
the
to u n d e r ­
be d i s c u s s e d
deconstruction
d is cou rs e,
this
sem iotics
not n e c e s s a r i l y
cr it ic al
re al is m
conte nt
novel
be
p ar tic ula rly
ana lysis
model
semlotic
are
Holand
His
how
both
two
works
revea ls
-here
the
di f f e r e n t
two.
for
incorporating
the
of
These will
is n e c e s s a r y
of using
cri ti ca l
combined
code.
it
Fi rstly,
can
the s e m i o t i c s
as easy
for a n a l y s i n g
a structuralist
in C h a p t e r
me thods.
of
ip,
signification.
for cri ti ca l
de co di ng
it
sign
at
visual
but not
the cat egory
p ri nci pl es .
implication
is
with
Its
recognising
ne c e s s a r y
Milm
laden
d e vi se d
structuralist
the
and
its
1y
understandable.
stated,
3»
so d i f f ic ul t
that
look
teaching me th o d
p a r t i cu la rl y
I have
as
re co gni se
as
lead
them
val uable
the
signification
before
its meaning.
easy
is
in wh ich
a detailed
are
isolate
be tw ee n
se co nda ry
absorbed
both
texts
th erefore,
"a film
par ti cu la r way
Thus
to
to u n d e r s t a n d " .
1 he
of a n a l y s i s
individual
Visual
is,
of
that
easy
it.
and
is
revelation
and
genre
text
prompted
to a con fu si on
the
be de c o d ed
com plete
suited
by
must
a particular
order
1 a so
understanding
in
ac ce pt ed
will
it
was
say in g
re la t i on ah i o leads
invested
dense
Metz
media
because
a sign and
ol
Christian
purports
of
not
to be
sign,
totall y
among
d e n o t a t i v e.
other
t hings
that
between
objects,
objects
themselves,
which
a n a ly se s
expe riences.
analysis,
systems
r e al it y
exists
and
the
im po rta nt
be
f or mu la te d
into
a cr itical
wh ic h
In turn
the
relationships
the m e a n i n g
the d i s c o u rs e
of
upon
strue tu ra l l s m
a n a ly si ng
of m e a n i n g .
the
its
binary
film
Barthes
the
in concept,
genre's
an alysis
occur
is ex plained
any
cri tical
art
is
and
sign
facets w h i c h ma ke
of
up
signification
explains
that
and
semio-
a r t e f a c t s which ori gi na te s
l i n g u i s t i c s " . 15
its
of
the
visual
its
of meaning,
as n a r r a t i v e
the
the
of
musi ca l
the
co nt e n t ,
film,
of
that
work
upon
signifieos.
isolate
the
the various
thus
is
of a
of
its
sh o u l d
patterns,
genre
focusing
and
discussing
context
text
se m i o t i c s
elgmfiere
the m u si ca l
wi t hi n
of
an al ys is
co n s i d e r
between
c o n v e n t i o ns
ulae which
film
also
d e co n s t r u c t
relationships
Cri t i ca l
met ho d
tiemlo-structuraliat
codes
o p p o s i t i o n model
should
and act ively
two
the
his
of
signs
than
is:
str u ct u r al is t
musical
all
be twe en
"a mode of an al y s is of cul tu ra l
in the m e t h o d s of c o n t e m p o r a r y
Althou gh
that
an a r t w o r k .
of any n a rr a t i v e ,
its c o n v e n t i o n s
r e f l e c ts
as a m e t h o d
presumption
state
relationships
more
art,
concentrates
the
u l t i ma te ly
may
upon
In
which
are
Semlo-structuraliem,
create
a ctiv ity
which
man's
rests
structured
So o t rue t u r a l 1 a t pr in ci pl es ,
form­
the in di v i d u a l
the whole
generic
structure.
Various
visual
film
c o nc ep ts
metap hor ,
(iconic
or
call
to an overall
films
app ea r
mount
up when
the
easy
their
na rr at iv e
the
context
s t r uc tu re s.
in terms
function
1 am
type
of
as
of
th eir
To
of
signs
using,
text
Alt ho ug h
layers
signs
concepts,
a struc tur e
Genre.
the
visual
these
which
specific
of film,
in
other
Teaching
to u n de rst and ,
viewed
and
c on st it ut e
this
in a film n a r r a t i v e ,
ex pl ain ed
examp le
signs
ca te go ry
b ro ad er
be
rec og nis e
and
used
sy m b o l i s m
can all
In
these
the musical,
within
to
form.
film,
are
re la ti o n s h i p s .
le arning
a n a r ra tiv e
musical
visual
index leal)
their ee mlotic
involves
which
in
the
wh ich we
belongs
these
of s i g n i f i c a t i o n
re la ti ons hip s
teach film
adequately,
we must
go
bey 2nd
an
awareness
of
this
that
of,
visual
the
level
and
need
narrative
pupils will
of
initial
to d i s c u s s , t h e
moae.
a c hi e v e
recognition, ana
It
is
underlying
only
an a c c e p t a b l e
by
se m a n t i c s
aoing
sta nda rd
foster
this,
of visual
11teracy.
1*2
To
Comparing
teach
Li te r a r y
propel
Film
es and
must
different
admit
class
the
a novel
to
literary
mode
way.
film
the
of
art
to its
end
setwork
only
And
the
in the
S tu d e n t s
have
even
need
read
the
novel,
presuming
could
ab so r b
the same
period
they
they would
encoded
is net
in a wee k' s
so,
and
to,or
in
is
the
this
at
way,
re pl a c e m e n t
i.e.
pupil,
confusing
because
it falla
lit erary
a visual
wit h
c om es
to
context,
metaphor
throug h
And
moden.
it is
teach
s impl est
in novel.
through
sight
level
the
and
b e ca us e
is
henrlnr,
d a n g e ro us
of m e a n i n g
text
it reduc es
common
to
min ut e
as
that
and
the
this
recep­
of visual
only
dange rou s.
between
cannot
while
It is
visual
d i ff e r e n t l y
directly
the
of
latter
language.
the na r r a t i v e
them both
their
in
be equated
receiver
both,
they
obv iously
is not
st r u c t u r e
to use
other.
Teaching
occur
screen
The form er
the m e d i a t i n g
pote nt ial ly
the other,
on
or
in fo r m a t i o n
us a type
po t e n t i a l l y
Lite -ary d e vic es
subtly
presumes
to d i s c r i m i n a t e
metaphor
our senses,
to us
but
of
screened,
production
film
of, the l i t e ra ry
for the
of
el se wh er e.
using
plot
to the
both media,
in their
length
the
in a ninety
amo un t
in
a li te ra tu re
form
that
schools
change
is
plot,
in a mu t u a l l y
re in f o r c e s
if a film
are
a co m m o n
s ho win g
one
uni qu e
texts
in senior
Th at ,t oo ,
same
the d i f f e r e n c e s
confusing
and
that
Film
share
plot may
from
reaoln,-.
be d i sc us sed
l i t er a tu re
aid
remark ed
in fo r m at io n
tion will
transition
own
A tea chi ng
communicated
of
is m e d i a
its
such.
they
practice
work.
as
te ac he rs
significantly
not
form w i t h
if
literature
their
which
discipline.
even
encoded
common
or dramatic
a meth od
be r e cog ni sed
texts
is
kost
that
we need
an a ut on om ou s
be a p p l i c a b l e
to
e x c l u s i ve
is
needs
each n a r r a t i v e
will
Film C o n c e r te
film su cc es s f u l l y ,
speci fi c.
meth od
and
form
to the
plot.
Even
29
this
may
a novel
ties
a lt er
and
t r ans la tio n,
exclude
of the
variou s
is
that
visual
media,
the
and
pupil
understanding
a film
and
of the
novel,
of
n o v e l , or the
the
The
aim
of
fall
A s + ude nt
he
will
not
visual
li te r a t u r e
or drama.
g r as p
whatever
also
form,
st y l is ti c
and
narrative
d ev ic es .
ing film,
is to
as
literature.
an au to no m o u s
3y
their
comparing
should
be kept
The
problem w h i c h
and
film
the raw m a t e r i a l
been
the
adapted
success
far
kany
or only m o d e r a t e
audience
at te m p t s
the
lit era ry
director
ie not
way.
ia e xp e ct ed
tion
He
is
work
given
regarded
as
the
a sign
hope
obvio us
and
matching
any
is
will
..
. . .
. .. .
subjec ts
Geography.
to
part
works
li ter atu re
have
films
for
which have
ach iev ed
their
the
and
the
in the
The
in any
any d e v i a ­
1 r e a l 1 author.
face
of such
he mi gh t have at
fall
.
R
the
two and
the novel
to
provided
Firstly,
artefact.
spirit,
inevit abl y
of
and h i g h ­
te ac h i n g
and
to change
which
of
it must
modes
between
s u c c es sf ul
attempt
nut
threefold.
to its
of t e a c h ­
an o ffshoot
reason
of d i s r e s p e c t
to be
up to the no vel
..A_
true
aim
a few have
an a rt is ti c
licence
to be
No d i r e c t o r could
p re jud ic e
only
a comparison
an
as
those
The
q u a l it ie s
ir r e c o n c i l a b l e
literary
sources,
success
to evoke
and
who att emp ts
and
novel,
p ar t i cu la r
and not
as History
scripts,
under­
understanding
that
pr ed ec ess ors .
failure,
up ho ld s
apart
film.
unique
two n a r r a t i v e
important
literary
their
form,
readi ng
takes,
film m e d i u m .
obvio us
anyo ne
for film
from
of
as
it
of
complexities
the
its
and
plot
to fo s t e r
the
similarities
become
faces
is clear.
art
the
L i k e w i s e , the
the
these
fundamental
d i f f e r e n c e s , it will
they
of
be
isolate
a recognition
characteristics
be treated
l igh ti ng
promote
and
sign
with his
xorm
consider
as an art
trap of all
literary
must
priori­
visual
of
of
potential
re co gni se
the
teaching,
It must
fhe
basis
plot
to tne
of the
may
the
to the
signification
the w r i t t e n word
unique
prey
recognition
of l it er a tu re
the
a c c o r di ng
in on a o n e - t o - o n e
but
of any
standing
poetry
equate
it.
s u m ma ri se
the d i r ec to r.
will
co nfu se
films
events
s c r i p t w r i t e r and
danger
with
in
short
_____
of
au d i e n c e
about
The
a novel
second
novels
the
expectations.
into
they
basic
the
of
the
He
applicable
filmed
of
narrative
which
a film which
d i r e c t o r must
cin em at ic
way
and
encode
the
do
with
own
s t ru ct ure
not
in ternal
syn on ym ou s
instances
and
the
unlike
the
constraints.
publicity
the
genre
tions
may
and
status
director
The
the
he
to generi c
to meet
of a ' h i g h b r o w 1 art
texts
the
of
status
the
is based
art.
as 'popular culture'
critical
de sc ri be s
as
novel
form
upon
films
by
and
the
as
in a pa rt ic ul ar ly
significance.
communl
a new
based
ate
artwork
u p o n , but
in many
cu lt u r e
med iu m
to nu me ro us
distribution,
act
as m e d i a t o r s
In a p op ul ar
f o r m ul ae
worn
wit hi n
and
upon
cu ltu re mode
these
limita­
conventions.
of
genre
therefore
and
Novels
the
enjoys
the
criticism
of
its
aesthetics
of
taste and
of novels
implication
are
often
unw ort hy
classed
of
serious
attent io n.
♦he openin g
film
and
all
To be
with
subject
to work
The
plot
a popular
requirements
a ud ie nc es .
individual
In
the
des tro ys
fin all y,
production,
is obliged
a filmmaker
cohesitn,
is
work.
the most
which
novel.
reception
around
to
a lit erary
the
where
in a film
f i n a l l y , is
and
work
of
devices
content
wi th i n
his
f i l m m a k e r' s
adhere
of
works
aspec ts
uses
film,
ori ginal
no velist,
film,
be adapted
deman ds
the
an 1 a u d i e n c e
Individual
like
with
the
spe ci fi c
is reduced
an 1 me an in g
or au di bly .
the
of
tran sl at e
the or ig ina l.
visual
it co mp le xi ty
to
orientated
and
rec re at e
visually
its
work
di sc o u r s e ,
the
afford
simply
characterised
in m a k i n g
tries
literary
dif fe re nt .
adaptations
appropriate
literary
root,
:ie must
of so many
uses
are
expectations
i n d i v i d u a l ly
considering
nor
novels
visual
filmmaker
w i th ou t
a de ns e
c om pl e xi ty
its
that
Thus
level
s u c ce ss f ul
is
and
failu re
the cinema.
Vany
plot.
the
directly
are n e i t h e r
context.
for
films,
n ar rat iv e
audiences'
p r e d e t er mi ne d
reason
propert ie s
the
are
The
ch ap te r
of N o vels
the f u nd a m e n t a l
two
"The task
make you
'ways
that
see"
of
I'm
i n to f i l m , G e o r g e
difference
s e e i n g 1 and
tiying
betwee n
quotes
to ac hi ev e
tiluestone
li te r a t u r e
D .W . Gr i ffith:
is above
n.
all
to
and
and J o s e p h
Conrad:
"My taak which I am trying to a c hie ve ia by the power
or the w r i t t e n word, to make y o u hear, to mak e y ou
feel - it ia before all, to make you aee." 16
B lu e at o ne
and
ia e m p h a s i z i n g
the n o v e l i s t
m edi u m
same,
end
are
'see'
to c o m m u n i c a t e
to a r e c e p t i v e
a desire
to d e s c r i b e
speaks
the
vi a u a l
message,
while
process,
one
In his
The
aa
The
it
that
film
sees
the
ignores
into
o;
w hi ch
image
also
the
He
according
which have
sound.
s im il a ri ty
the
term
ia used
Griffith
his
a mental
to those
prose,
wo rd s .
as
well
text.
the
upon
audience
and
been
basis
.resents.
i n f o r m a t i o n can
devices:
the
of
be
by sayi ng
p h ys ic al ly
This
arg um en t
film.
encoded
must
calls
It
1*
ei t h e r
the
transl ate d
for
the
deconstruc-
s y m b o l lam,
analy se
and
a film
of film
thematic
into a film,
is
structure
of
the
text.
text
criticism,
twin ch an n e ls
for c o m p a r i s o n
perceived
re sponse
understanding
methodology
into
tne
particular
metaphors,
s e m io ti cs
encoded
has
viewer
co dified na tu r e
L i t e ra tu re
visual
been
the
point
tiicks.
dependent
film
film c o m m u n i c a t e s
a f o r m a li st
and
fllama-er
of how
r e a d e r / a u d i e n c e decod es
to a specif ic
nee a novel
Conrad's
to ren .e r a co m p l e t e
the
considering
it
this
C o n r a d '^ words
re sp on se
He makes
medium,
various
and m y t h o l o g y
si mil arl y,
but
to d e s c r i b e
ana lys is
visually,
the
or sound
in which
by
the
the
to co nv e y
recr ea te s
'heering*
Blues tone'a
a visual
demanded
tion
of
use
by Co n r a d .
uses
a mental
is i n co mp let e.
are
and Conrad
he
is
to a c h i e v i n g
reception,
reader
the c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ! ,
The ways
the means
own
it.
image
the
aim
'seeing'
uilaa
communicates
Just
m es sa g e
h the
,
problem w.th
la that
not
In wi
is c a p . b l e
'seeing'
the
which
uses
fi l m m a k e r
Alt hou gh
figuratively
image
Con ra d
own mind
re ad e r
and
the
their
their a u d i e n c e
ty G r i f f i t h
both
via
Both G r i f f i t h
literally
by
a message
aud ience.
to commu nic ate ,
dif fe re nt .
or
the d e si re
st ru c t u r e s
of
the
tht. story.
image
and
only
This
is
the
only
must
point
acc ept
entity.
it
of
that
A film
intersection
each
is
text
should
ther ef ore
is a c oh es iv e m e a n i n g f u l
fails
because
film
to
"the
film
it has
the n o v e l , and
is
true
to
by r e m a r k i n g , "the
o ri gi na l
art
none
work"
form.
ia u nde r
no o b l i g a t i o n
or ig i na l
form.
n ov e l i s t
and
raw m a t e r i a l
The
these
spirit
of
a filmmaker
book"
litt le
of
or its
respect
that
successfully
even
it
the
that,
failure,
for
the
a film d i r e c t o r
to the novel
can
and
or
by st at i n g
Be l a
for th ei r work,
work
i.e.
Comparing
theorist
each
film
film as an a u t o n o m o u s
accept
to be f a i t h f u l
film
cin ematic
success
the
showed
°hould
as
q u a l it ie s.
its
d i s co ur se
as a se parate
successful
existence
one
cr itical
regarded
inherently
director
F u rt h e r m o r e
either
of
the
any
be
qualifying
the
denies
and
in
i»s
Balaz .s. note s that
use
the
a
same
though:
"the subject or story, of both w o r k s is i d e n t i c a l , their
c on t e n t is n e v e r t h e l e s s d i f f e r e n t .
* t is this di..erer. i.
conten t that la ad eq ua t e l y e x p r e s s e d in the changed form
re su lt in g from the a d a p t a t i o n . " 1
The
a r t is ti c
conten t
of a work
is
re lia nt
the n o v e l i s t
or tv « f i l m m a k e r m ak es
They
are
not
interdependent
expl a in s
the
n e ce ss ity
narrative
for
of his
their
upon
the
p ar ti cu la r m e d i u m .
success.
for d i s t i n g u i a h i n g
use wh ic h
Bl ue sto ne
between
these
two
modes:
" Vi ewe d in these t e r m s , the co m p l e x re lations between
novel and film emerge in c l ea re r o u t l i n e . Like two
i n t e r s e c t i n g lines, novel and film meet, at a point
then d i v e r g e . At the i n t e r s ec ti on , the book and the
s h o o t i n g script are almost i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e .
But
where the lines a i v e r g e , they not only resist c o n v e r ­
sion, they also lose all r e s e m b l a n c e to each other.
At the furtheres t r e m o v e , novel and film and all
e x e m p l a r y art h a v e , wit hi n the c o n v e n t i o n s that make
them c o m p r e h e n s i b l e to a given audience, made ma xi mu m
use of their m a t e r i a l * . At this r e m o v e , what is
p a r t i c u l a r l y filmic and what is p a r t i c u l a r ly nov el is ti c
cann ot be co nv er te d wi th ou t d e s t r o y i n g an integral part
of e a c n . That is why rroust and Joyce would seem as
absurd on film as C h a p l i n would in print.
And that is
why the great i nn ova to rs of the twen ti eth century, in
film and novel both, have had so little to do with each
other, have gone their ways alone, always '.eeping a
firm but re sp e c t f u l d i s t a n c e ." 10
and
each
emphasizes
which
that
cannot
be
there
are
certain
translated
from
q u a li ti es
one form
pa rt i c u l a r
to the
other.
to
33
fill., is
iconic
analysis
and
of e i t h e r
f or: r 1 d i f f e r e n c e
both
literature
fall
of t h e s e
is lin. u i c t i c .
tvo ...odes should
into a c c o u n t .
into the t r a p
ue stone
Any
take
critical
this
-nd .._c.. -r ...on
c 1 defining: film as a visual .:.ediua
,
fi lm
li te ral ly
m ■; one
1see
1
n
v e , ina inatlvely*
-ut
’
,
de: cri; e<i a.
Y e 'r
d r.ce vt uni ,( rodard 1 s
■t . .v:
■ : for
ex ar
ie \ an
La
ioe Rena is
-■
h i ...
close
ex-.. ...ation
.
.
of
in fe r at ion can be
ea
a c.ally,
t r.e oO un :1 1*.tc r
narrative
cf t h •
The
exists
novel
are
l a n -ua.
.
vital
in a s t r u c t u r e
arc
f rm s the z. •
speech
i
I;, the m u s i c a l
to
.n e
film
: jc »ure
c:..d
.1: .
l i t e r a r y co ncepts
>•h 1 c h
e n cooed.
therefore
. :ta
particularly
urativf
or,
of
entranced
sit. i
noveliotic
1 ir
linjui^tlc
*a .;•' ..r.s
*
sijns
m
the
and
language
^ v .her .^gu:eo
and comprise
-.
figurative
be' . • ‘t n t a n a
.. .n ^ . v ^ >
.
the
difference
meaning)
be tv v n ..hat is a c t u a l l y
and what
is
in fe r r e d
m e a n i n (if tent co n t e n t , .
-f
..inc
■ r i e in *.r.it
said
on a s e c on da ry
. -o ot he r crucial
co nt ex t,
(manifest
level
aspect s
c : ot ■.1 1 n
of
-*
nd c ( nr.< tat i v r. •
,
ir.. Ilf'S the
'’irureti ve
or
3 ttent me >n i r.
.hich
is embed, eo
.
.
.
.
fros
the
n ve 1
■i
r :r. Vie; ■ .utn i:... ^ ro- .A '•
"hie eyes were r jcuccd to ciiinku, and >*i v >.rgin. wr in k l e ^
a p p e a r e d round then., ex ten din
upon his
c oun u n a n c e i i ^
the rays in a r u d i m e n t a r y t,xetc.. o. t:
ricing nun. 1
^.n
34
it
becomes
ap pa re nt
description
will
im ag in a ti on .
rised
but
as
this
devices
precision
ex ac t l y
is not
have
A l th ou gh
through
create
mean
and me a n
must
be a c c e p t e d
again w i t h i n
and
they
in a visual
of
have
follows,
these
it has
the
l i te ra ry
it can never
s leu 1 i and
difference
film
ab ili ty
a subtle
mode.
in
literary
medium.
to si gni fy
images
of
are
to
film.
"hat
necessarily
transformation
In the
will
both
are made
the
the na tu r e
con ce pt s
ot her
in a visual
co ncepts
or aural
own
to detail,
stru ctu re
these
to his
is c h a r a c t e ­
Sim pl e
the
undergone
and
subject
can.
the
soundtracks.
different,
which
attention
the
prose
or no e x i s t e n c e
is that
reads
Thoma s H a r d y ' s
that m e t a p h o r
iconic,
and
image
a ph ot og ra ph
place
in
image
as
person who
a ment al
and
to say
no
film
occur
each
F or a l t h o u g h
by its
signif y
that
discussion
and
be
when
occurence
isolated
and
examined.
k.?tapnor
what
critic s
and
they state
that
'pictures'
its
with
film
/11m
th e o r i s t s
is a 'visual
sibject,
is the
1r e a l i t y ' by virt ue
Rudolf
power
of it,
A r nh el m
in his
"Just as a
appear as
skeleton,
on a film
always at
And r 4 Bazin
essential
of
re in fo rc es
to s o m e n o w
have
c ap tu re
discussion
iconic
belief
1 reality'
of
medium'
connection
its
the
tried
to e m p h a s i z e , when
or
that
which
a film has
resemblance
that
the
by h o l d i n g
film meta pho r.
He
film
to it.
cinema has
the
the ap pea ran ce
explains:
g r in ni ng de at h' s head does not in a film
a symbol but as an actual part of the human
so the c o n n e c t i o n between two objec ts shown
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y never seems m e t a p h o r i c a l but
once real and
ontological.'
sup por ts
Anil ie im in his
characteristic
by de sc r i b i n g
the
is
ont olo gy
belief
its abilit y
of
the
to
that
the cinema
picture
p ho t o g r a p h i c
reality
image:
"The ae st het ic q u a l i t i e s of photogra phy are to be
sought in its power to lay bare the r e a l i t i e s .
It
is not for m e to se p a r a t e off, in the complex tabric
of the objec tiv e world, here a r e f l e c t i o n on a damp
sidewalk, there the g e stu re of a child.
Only the
impassive l e n s , s t r i p p i n g its object of all those
ways of seeing it, those piled up pr eco nce pti ons ,
s
that spi ri tu al dust and grime with w h i c h my eyea
have co ve r e d it, 1 a able to present it in all its
vi rg ina l purity to my a t t e n t i o n and c o n s e q u e n t l y
to my love.
t-y the power of pho tography, the
n at ura l image of a world that we n e i t h e r know nor
can k n o w , nat ur e at last does more than imitate
art, she imitat es the art is t. " 21
B a zi n' s
when
fundamental
it r e cor ds
metaphor
by
the
tue
'true
makes
For
it
prepared
to accept
to
novelist
the
Virginia
wr it te n word
equivalent
the
do,
all
tna t cinema
premise
opinion
by m a i n t a i n i n g
that
and
quest
coh ere nt
visual
is
cinema must
realism.
a d out what
the
for
if one
that
pho tog ra ph ic
her
is
1m a g e , t h e n , says
is only
meaning
of film
c i n e m a 1 is its
of
adds
su cc e s s f u l
discussion
is true
central
no tio ns
is moat
visual
theory
* oolf
film
of the
Bazin 's
to convey
in
of
this
purest
s h u 1 ti not
if
vocation
However,
ard
world,
on to lo gy
realism.
adhere
that
r ed un da nt .
defined
Bazin,
the
belief
power
The
film
can
of the
Imp re ss io ns
has no
the cinema.
"Lven t e si mp l e s t image "my love's like a red, red
r v Ue that's newly sprung in June", presents us with
imp r e s s i on s of m o i s t u r e and warmth and the flow of
crimson and the so ftness of petals i n e x t r i c a b l y
mi ted and str un g upon the lift of a rhyt hm which is
itself the voice of the passion, and the h e s i t a t i o n
of the love.
All this, w h i c h is a c c e s s i b l e to words
and w or ds alone, the cin em a must avoid." 22
* o c 1 f is d e n y i n g
codified
formal
medium
aspect.
the
va li dit y
and
restricting
But
film does
limited way.
Nu me r o u s
ouch
of
as those
actors
and
'reality'
to some
point
the
the
film
space,
and
has
an
cannot
be
always
signi fy
its
as
ignored.
signified.
the actual
so signify
context,
the simple,
iconic
The
It can
object .
when
iconic
and
only
to bear upon
one
should
r e s e m bl an ce
ph ot og r ap hi c
be
its
power'
it ceaoeg
if
image
a shot
A r n h ei m' s
the deman ds
of
subject which
of a car will
is so close
of a car car
it is framed
is lost.
The
manipulated
on a one-to-one
to function
relationship
text.
accept
its
sign if ie r
recogni sed
How ever,
to
of me an in g
cameraman,
the
upon
purely
in this
or m e d i at or s
is de pendent
since
to the
signify
'pic t u r e a ' is al wa y s
image
a car,
'wealth
and
brought
fu nc t i o n
sc rip twr ite r,
N e ve rt h e l e s s ,
that
its
influences,
a film
extent .
film as a c o m m u n ic at lo na l
not
director,
so on are
which
of
to
basis
be made
in a specif ic
as an ordinary
car
S inc e
an
this
discussion
explanation
the
of how
li mi t at io ns
Pr om
of
in what
can
exist
form,
and
l i t e r a tu r e ,
word
and
w ork s
The
the
of
of m e a n i n g
to
is that
ac ce p t e d
'lily
may
like'
suggest
adjectiv es !
perfect,
to
be
the
Yet,
to each
and
delicate,
Meta pi or
reader
of
by
the
of
can
Metaphcr
is sr.
reader
the m e t a p h o r
lily,
whom
rich with
virginai,
the r e a d e r
the
seems
Of
at
tnese
quiet,
perceives
s yn on ym ou s
no ve li st
possible
the w o r d , concept
various
or more
becomes
once
creates.
to be
mea nin g.
'11;y ' is
the h o r t i c u l t u r a l
be
appears
To the
description
i.e.
a w om an
has
the
and
is imp os si bl e
'she',
the woman
the
the
'a lily'
description
«hatever
of
reveals
This
way
or all
it
imparts
woman
some
so on.
simultaneously
vast,
ronn oand
gees
entity
the w <>rd 'lily'.
is a literary
relationship
o p e ra te s
of
it
the an al og ue
lit er atu re .
The
Fi rs t l y
A deconstruction
a lily'
b e a u t i f u l , pure,
pure d e n o t a t i o n
d e s cri be d
the
and
conception
tative m e a n i n g
beyond
of
device.
characteristics
his
exact
c o nte xt
and
referent,
the former.
twofold.
in a f i g u r a t i v e
a combination
of
is a l i l y .
characteristics.
fr agile
with
'she'
of a lily
in the
literary
is
re fe re nt
to the
secondly,
'She was
woaar
s e n s e , but
in terms
appropriate
the
and
has
in which
the n a r r a t i v e .
statement
the
the
applied
is
In
Metaphor
terms
a t r a n s f e re nc e
precise,
if so,
a f i gu ra ti ve
and
t r an s f e r e n c e
in
The r e f e r e n t
described
an al o g u e
is de s c r ib ed
more
ana
a compari so n,
an an al og y.
latter
following!
in a literal
to make
are
of such
whether
medium,
substituting
and
here.
transformations.
the a n a l og ue
the m e t a p h o r i c
analogy
aural
in order
reveal
o e appropriate
to a s c e r t a i n
of
description
a complexity
of
one
of m e t a p h o r ,
in a li te ra ry mo d e
to what
involves
by a process
purpose
ma kes
possibl e
or
concep t
u s a ^ e , would
c o m p o n e n t s , the
characteristics
that
op er at es
su b j e c t
a likeness
essential
the
in a visual,
metaphor
two
so
be
for a literal
ex p r es s
1+
its
t h i s , it will
metaphor
co ns ide rs
c on st ru ct ,
between
a semantic
s l g n i f ier,
in a s e c o n d - o r d e r
signified
semiolo gy.
sy st e m
and
An ordinary
in wh ic h
sign,
sign
1,11 i ;
37
the
woman,
wh ic h
sound
image
(the
ii)
is
framed
or i g i n a l
a lily
1o the
1) and
in a new
sign w om an
and
as
p r i nc ip le
and
associative
a lily.
Instea d
lily
flower,
Another
f.nalogue and
to me t a p h o r
implies
save
that
the
a n al og ue
to the
su gge sts
that
sub tle
to make
not
Meton ymy ,
but
that
re la ti on s
of
an
by
refer
link
the me t o n y m i c
government.
uses
part,
A si mil ar
without
'hands'
using
object.
and
.
metapnor
of
possible.
a lily'
It
the
A
result s
invites
and
in the
the
reaaer
referent
is
s e mi ol og ic al
exploits
based
Thus
institution
"Pr et or ia "
concep t
term,
are
"The
Co a part
a g r ou p
as
h e r e , is
and
its
of an object
Crown"
which
'heads'.
link
is
represent
replaces
is the
Sim ilarly
seat
is eynedoche,
object wi t h
of an
of wo rkm en
the
an ass ociation,
of M o n a r c h y .
the whole
system,
sytagmatic
a name may
to me t o n y m y
repla cin g
the
upon
ao a part
for exampl e
of cattle
./ " X
dhere
ana log ue
it
object.
a name.
ap pli es
was
be
a literal
one.
the
Hence
a group
re l a t i o n w h i c h
of
identical
o c c u r e d , simili
would
as
between
e x p r es si on
the c o n v e n t i o n
the whole
or
is a,most
betwee n
characteristics
that
M e t o n y my
fi gu ra t i v e
Roy a 1 personage
chrysanthemum,
relationship
second-order
latter
or object,
meaning.
synonymous.
to the whole
institution
the
the
language.
ex is t e n t i a l
to
are
chosen
a lily'.
by hi nt in g
they
from
s u b s t i t u t e , the
uned
like
like m e t a p h o r , i c
is differ s
or an
'She was
in
various
to create
the
'She
is
paradigmatic,
adjectives.
already
a t r an s f e r e n c e
a comparison
similar,
have
associative
ot her
the
(iia)
(iiia / wh ic h
di ff er en ce .
of
the m e t a p h o r
Bimilt
have
is 8 imi 1 «•, w h i c h
ref ere nt
in
sign
the
the
s i g ni fi ed
in order
invol vin g
fundamental
woman
In other words,
as easily
tr ans fer enc e
such
change
following
one
8 i g n i ’ ier
s ignif i t-r (la)
to
of
its
conce pt
la g e n e r a l l y
of a host
referent
(the
new
the w r i t e r
co nc ep t
ol
a a the
language.
could
one
literary
is framed
ac co rd in g
of
by
he
or
Its new
Metaphor
re la tio ns
are made
rose,
way.
functions
total
si g n i f i e d
in a c om pl et el y
selections
of
its
(ill)
results
the w o m a n
associative
object,
are
The
of
which
Just
refers
des cribed
a
to
as
syntagm at ic
betwee n
two adjacent
30
p r o pe r t i e s
like
'the
African
South
Pretoria'
or
'The
Queen'
and
government'
'heads'
and
'the
and
crown
'where
'cattle'.
hue
relationship
is c o m b i n a t i v e
rather
al s o
appli es
in the
ay ne do ch e.
Wh a t
needs
exist
to be
in any
case
seen
way
now,
within
the
equivalent
to the m e t a p h o r i c
op e r a t e
li te ra tu re ?
Conventions
individual
tive
and
text
patterns
nas
Concepts
part
of
patterns
of m e a n i n g
as
part
conventions
had
same
form
Be ca us e
is
and
are
their
severe
that
fairly
roots
wh e n
Consequently,
they
for
film.
and
and
for
but
novels
self-defeating
filmic
instan ce
these
are
s i m il ar
a final
to D.H.
to
between
only
specific
and
Many
but
filmic
they have
from one
exist
method
in the
of critical
via d i f fe re nt
There
i d en ti ­
channels
equ iv al en ts
between
are obvious
film
editi ng and
literary
si mil ar
in concept.
bergei
which
impression
J u x t a po se
(thesis
Lawrence's
ch ar acters.
and
do not
isolate
c o n ve nt io ns .
fciaenetein'e e x p e r i m e nt s
to create
communicate
accepted
as a
♦. an sfc rin g
is n e c e s s a r y
probably
women
literature,
mutat ion s
Kuleshov
use
two
images
♦ a n ti th esi s
of fl o w e r
showed
of
un d e r s t a n d a b l e
n ar rat iv e.
an a u t o n o m o u s
pa r a ll e ls
his
in
reader
are
well-established
film
narra­
histo ry
the
of film
c o nv e n t i o n s
why
novellstlc
is
its
each
ex pec tat ion s.
are
em er ge nc e
is
films
metaphor
form,
medium,
and
and
specific
its long
trans­
which
film,
and m e t a p h o r
discourse
the
and
and
con cepts
or aural
systems
the
of
*deas
sy m b o li sm
a de fi nit e
to anothei.
analysis
it
of
have
to u n de rgo
medium
art
to
B e cau se
p r ec on ce iv ed
Despit e
new
novel
as an art ist ic
novelist's
readers.
comparatively
fi ab l e
status
the
which
if so what
a visual
metonymic
according
its mediu m.
certa in
the
and
presides,
lit erary
and
Is there
in both
1 ; <e struc tu re ,
of
to most
ari se n
is d e c o d e d
tr a d i ti on al
a novel
as
have
un dergone.
or
the m e t on ym ic
these
film m e d i u m
they
it
than ass oci at iv e,
is w h e t h e r
formations
in
have
of
she wears'
= synthesis)
imagery
how when
in order
to de sc r i b e
a shot
of an
actor
bed
Is
juxtaposed
or a f Ire
t i r e d n es s
or bed
d es c r i b e
languag e
be tw ee n
inc or por at e
poetic
processes
novel,
the m e s s a g e
is
reader .
au d i e n c e
by the d i r e c t o r
director,
v i ew er
mitt ed
re f e r e n c e
the
it
requires
visual
and
and
a contact,
is worked
onto
the
have
a context
There
must
mes sage,
stood.
and
Both
against
n o n - ve rb al
ever give
L.H.
an
of the
the
beauty.
his
ana
convey s
ill us io n
choice
a ch ar ac te r
of
vivid
are
of
and
be
while
Finally,
that me ssa ge
un derpins
the
and
under­
the
the
the
of his
range
the
so
act ual ly
can
his
linguistic
emotions.
in herent
striking
hy
success­
invokin g
and density
an im pr e s s i o n
1 feel'
quest
His ma ste ry
power ana
pr ec isi on
only
itself.
his writin g he
fine
to
the no ve l i s t ' s
aiscourse,
of h um an
creates
we
of
T h rou gh
through
they
e xp eri enc e
of e x c e e d i n g
poet's
case
characters.
str eng th
convention,
in their desire
each
be
the ad dre sse e.
analysed
L o v r r s reveals
imagery.
he
in
it ,n eve r
a novel
that
which
intent
and
re a l i ti es
reality
feels
uses writing,
of the novel.
a subtle
of words,
the novel
s t r u c tu re
.ions and
this
of
be t r a n s ­
it should
w i t h i n which
can
to
towards
na rr at iv e
It is rich with
metaphors
an
make
so on,
of filmic
exp erience,
inner
and
and
is
other agents,
st r u c t u r e
nov elist
wr it te n word
e vo ca t i o n s
fully
the
be
of
soundt rac ks.
addresser
text
the no v e l i s t
the
impress ion
Lawrence's
to reveal
the
it would
and
The novel
the
film
a film me ss ag e
Secondly,
be a st r u c tu re
which
literature
f i l m ma k e r
convey
both
ther ef or e
In film
in
to
in
and
by
the case
i m a g e , and
soup,
communication
the me ssa ge
in
m e c ha ni ca l.
the
is c o m p r e h e n s i b l e
to us
li ter atu re
edito r
which
the
actor
in i t i a t e d
r or
to a c o d e .
should
is
sound
a c co rd ing
the m e s s a g e
of
of
*ne difference
Si m i l a r l y
com po se d
film
gi ve n
a
hunger,
the
to J a k o b a e n ' s
of viewers.
in film,
of
a combination
camer am an,
or gr ou p
are
shot
Imagery.
In the
the art
ia
descriptions
of soup,
s i g ni fi ed
condition
with
conveye d
the
emotional
a bowl
3 o the
revealed
model.
whose
the
the c o m m u n i c a t i o n
be
shots,
an a result.
L aw ren ce 's
and
vario us
.i< iut 1 s e x p r e s s i o n
or warm th
visua lly .
can
that
with
with her:
ol
of
how
40
" the child, too, me l t e d with her in the mixing pot
of moo nl ig ht , and she rested with the hills and
lilies and houses, all swim t o g e th er in a kind of
swoon." 23
Lawrence's
description
of Mrs M o r e l ' s
her momentary
loss
its
connotations.
em otional
experience
enou gh
al th o u g h
to assume
characteristic
des c r i b e
of all
his
represented
only
traits,
and
the
is
by white
deathlike,
r ea li ty
of
realism.
use
it,
One
of
and
in
of h um an
is
powerful
of his
flower
c h a r ac te rs .
imagery
Mrs Morel
to
is
lilies:
pallid
Miriam
flowers
by
'•
"She lifted her hand im pu ls iv
went forward and touched tb
roses - a white vi r g i n see ♦
i n t e n s e , pure and
is intense
communication
il lusion
the
various w o m e n
ol
His
a shocking
"She touched the big
then shivered" *?4
cold
sense
d is or ie nt at io n,
self
on
their
petals
,o s e s :
,o the f l o w e r s , she
w o r s h i p . . .ivory
s a cr if ic in g,
ana Cl ar a
by chrys an th em um s:
"Clara glanced through the w i nd ow s a f te r him as he
tied up the too heavy flo we r br an ch es to their
stakes. . .she wanted to shriek her h e l p l e s s n e s s . "
strong
is
and
su cc e s s f u l
screen of
in
sensual.
in a novel
novelist's
image.
can
words
anu
and
iihat ever he
it
difficult
must be
is
foregrounded.
and
are
au diences
ob v i o u s l y
with
film.
realis m
of white
rose
the
Returning
works,
his
are
!
he
likely
roses
to Barthes'
be
these
film
most
a shot
visual
re me m b e r e d
rose
as Miria m.
and
of
that
Jit,
it
in j u x t a p o s i n g
so ph i s t i c a t e d
is
so
Juxtap os ed
that M i r i a m
successful
of how
the
providing
a device which
to be
In
comparisons
ontology
sig ni fi es
exposition
re create
of a white
of Miri am
strong
ch a r a c t e r
appropriate
choices
the
the
actively
is more
to accept
too
for
experiments
presum ab ly
is
through a
understands
be mode
as
lio a l t h o u g h
it must
A ____________________
can
today,
sign
f e el i n g
own,
anv m e t a p h o r
to us
properties
fcisenstein's
less
literal.
a shot
is p. white
are
and
ac a rer.ult of
But m e t a p h o r
unacceptable
imagery
reader can
to make
accepted
image.
images
The
believes
visual
not
a mood
choose
of
it comes
to the c h a r a c t e r
is more
this
use
becau se
imag ln at .c n.
be extended
film
subtle
l a n g u a g e , evoki ng
the re ad e r ' s
the
This
a code
1realistic'
in
of
texts
d is pl a y
is
a reduce d
im p o rt a nt
it should
here,
e; oeai
physical
description.
upon
and
the d em and s
of
the
information
exp ressed
occur!ng
the
thus
show
in the
as
of the
for verbal
La wr e n c e
the
also
Clara's
which
exists
a vast
describes
is d e p e n d e n t
visual
aspects
amount
of
c h a r a c t e r me y also
surround
providing
ther ef ore
of
in the a u d i t o r y
her.
bs
Chrysan­
a subtle
the m i o e - e n - s c e n e .
must
frame.
se nsu ali ty
need
what
by
the
in a visual
the
wh ic h
icons,
context
of
c h a r a c t e r Cl ar a
into
d ra wn from
in a film
st ru ct ur e
reduce
concept
be suc ce ss fu l
show Cl a r a ' s
She
signs
to
re le va nt
de fin ed
encoded.
f u n c t i on
is
Inis
bo un d a r i e s
the
dress.
visual
sign.
vi sually
space,
and
be
of her c h a r a c t e r
re
jction
\etapho.
be n a t u r a l i s e d
into
discourse.
express
non-verbal
bittern es s,
more
In Jons
c ha ra ct er 's
spec if ica ll y
poetic
and
importance.
of
La wr e nc e ' s
it
is a specific
finds
film's
must
semantic
of
uses
reader
lan guage
to
the
will
t.hr image
cf
the
and
the
re vealed
objects,
st re ng th
is often
of
these
im pl ic a t i o n s
of
the
image,
but
or into
itself.
to
that
the
the
It is up
specific
the film medium.
convention,^imlli,
and
A fi lm mak er
because
so undtracx
acco rd ing
can
un de r s t a n d s
visual
reveal
they
ana
to u n de rs ta nd
literature.
of
into
the
m e an in g
to co mm u n i c a t e
and m e an i n g
to dec od e
the
are
with
turn accepts
l i t e r a l n e ss
be encoded
s t r uc tur e
literary
in
co mm o n
di ff ic ul t
ico no gra phy
the viewer
latent
upon
rea de r
aevice
photographic
in f o r m at i o n
the
relies
traits
La wr en ce
of fig ur at iv e
description
iconic,
he
these
inhibition
in wh ich
relationships
flowers.
to evoke
sexuality,
a context
Lovers
unconscious
The
use
like
creat es
and
witn
de sc r i p t i o n
r e l a ti ons hi ps ,
their
co nc ep ts
the n o v e l i s t
displayed.
in the
The
the
soundtr ac k,
can
themum s would
to
'he
only
in film
of
m o v e m e n t , gestu re
channel
and
film can
metaphorically,
be
are
with in
presence
the
if a o iyn
of don n a n .i c o v e rs could
and
To
of
<2 w i t h i n
Com par 1 oup
if they
A
be.auee
a p p e a r nntu
d isc ou rse .
sense
pa lp a b i l i t y
redu nda nt
it
it
is
applie d
to film
oource.
by direct
in Tho ma s
extraordinarily
creates
inch
some
like
a subtly
imagines
Hardy's
visual
"It was with
face rising
It would
it
ima*/e
view
rising
that
face
not
even
the
simili
slowly
with
the
be
ap p r o pr ia t e
to encode
of a verbal
Gabri el 's
na rrated
An
face
tion
who
of
verbal
cannot
every
care
and
can
be dra wn
the
in
onto
blind
must
to d e t a i l .
through
from
image
show
it would
as Har ay
the
be
of his
Indeed
terms
used
of so m e t h i n g
it be
sound track
show
bush
this
It is only
like
of a s s o c i a t i o n
explains
can
f r a m e , it would
Nor would
the
by
ba ths heb a.
d ir ec to r
Film can
behind
inch
exactly
and
any
in
how
visual
or
is u n n e c e s s a r y .
setting,
a t t e n ti on
principle
from
* e are
every
reader.
comparison
de s c r i p t i o n .
see.
item,
s e e , he
appear s
point
the
One
which Hardy
of the m o o n .
commentary.
reader.
rising
the a s s o c i a t i o n
to his
this
reinforcement
important
the
Gabriel 1 a mo ve men t
familiar
the
effect
associate
to make
to explain
the
through
appearance
be n e c e s sa ry
form
C r o w d , the
ast on is he d
r or alt ho ug h
ri si n g
of
slowly
of the
any vi ew e r w ou ld
which would
the
face
to re create
creates, cinematlcally.
unlikely
the M adding
in the mind
r o u n d , blank
is in full
face
from
it literary
s ur pr is e that she saw Gabrlg l Cak's
the ;noon behind the hedge" z '
be d i f f i c u l t
Gabriel's
far
from
slmlll:
comic
Ga b r i e l ' s
until
t r a n s la ti on
and
men
be
ne c e s sa ry
in Ha rdy 's
r e cr ea ted
Often
what we
what
regarding
with
the nov eli st
d o not
know
is alre< dy co m m o n
the f u n c ­
for those
world
and
infinite
uses
and
the
cannot
to our
e x p er ie nc e.
The
delineation
reveals
In
and
an important
p r e s e n t at io n
difference
the n o v e l , lit erary
them and
they
ca nn o t
st one
explains
that
when
the
usually
cannot
be
these
fulfil
c ha ra ct er s
betwe en
cha ra ct er s
forms
film
of
exist
the
in
e x te rn al is ed
ch ar ac te rs
our
in each me di u m
novel
and
film.
the lan guage
which
in any way.
Blue­
appear
to us i;i a
expectations:
"Because la nguage has laws of its own and literary
cha ra c t er s are i n s e p a r a b l e from the language which
forma t h e , the e x t e r n a 1 1 sation of such ch aracters
often seems d i s s a t i s f y i n g " 28
and
adds
thf' i ti.ei s is u :
*'d i s t i n c t i o n between the c h a r a c t e r that comee to us
throu gh a screen of la nguage and one who cooes to
us in visual i m a g e s . . . " ' v
Fil m
c ha ra c t e r s
aural
images,
rea d er ' s
c h oo se s
takes
own
but
li te ra ry
the
which
to bear
the
a soundtrack,
m e s s a ge
of
this
medium
meal;a
word,
the
r e c re at es
it in hie
Providing
a visual
na r r a t i v e
comes
of the
the Wessex
in words
i.e.
an
image,
is
ana
;
particular!) easily
nat ur e of
that
and
personal
to reveal
via
the
all
by
its
which
twin
d e c o n s tr uc ts
the
in the novel, which
via one chann el
t,
me ssa ge
and
imagination.
t..e chara ct er s
to
in
between
in film,
: to m e
film.
picture
concept
reinforced
d i ff e r e n c e
reader d e c o n s t r u c t s
for
the
tne writte n word.
it c o m m u n i c a t e s
:• i j ,
by
reader
of
viewer
it,
the
a p p r o pri ate
it c o m m u n i c a t e s
de rs ta nd
can
Law ren ce
brings his
forms
environment
Iconic
do when
be decoaed
the
sound, the
own
la ndscape
and
then,
i.e.
to ''
to the
He
with
image mu s t
two n a r r a t i v e
in order
the w r i t t e n
because
pr esented
sight and
is a m o n o s e m i c
he makes
and
subject
implied
to be
of Clara.
C l ea rl y
these
is a polysemic
cha n n e l s
is
and
latent me an i n g .
'reading'
to him
upon what
v i ew e r
i m ag in at io n.
properties
seem
picture
are
of visual
as a ch ry sa nt he mu m,
associative
a mental
h i s t o ry
Cl ar a
in a series
characters
p e r c e p t i o n and
chiysanthemums
a film
presented
to de sc ri be
all
builds
are
in a
the fi l m m a k e r
A single
that Hardy
shot of
describes
more:
"The hill was covered on its n o r t h e r n side by an
ancient and d e c a y i n g plantation of beeches, whose
uppe; verge forms a line over the crest, fringing
its a r c h e d curve a g a i n s t the sky, like a mane.
T o n i g h t these trees sh eltered the S o u t h e r n slope
from the keenest blasts w hi ch smote the wood and
flo un d e r e d through it with a sound as of grumb lin g
or gushed over its c r o w n i n g boughs in a weakened
moan...
Su dd en ly an u ne xpe ct ed series of sounds
began to be heard in thl i place up against the sky.
They had c l e a r n e s s whic'i was to be found nowhere
in the wind, and a se qu e n c e which was to be found
nowhere in nature.
They were the notes of Farm er
Oak's flute."
Through
his
description,
Hardy
builds
a picture
of the
Wessex
countrytiiat
process
Dental
La
which
coclinatlve
inu. e.
co nt ex t
and
of
visual
1 en har dy
u tret;~ 12
w h i c h he can
the
slip
these
aspect
into
time
ana
only
. tec. he au-.-*
things
hi
cha racter
anc
the
sound:,
u.,ic.
by m a n i p u l a t i n g
the
the
ee..e with
h a r mony.
simultaneously
Oak'.
into
tion: nip with hit;
inh ere nt
Ly addin,,
2ne
r v ..ul t ^ in a coap l e x
fa mi l i a r i t y
it.
c:
new
finally
place,
its
the haunt in.' clarity
by
and
ex prvuties C k 1 . rvi
environment
show all
t rovtv wit., each
and
can
of the
The
time
- iln can
re inforce
wind and
novel
is icund
c in the noveli st
.
principle
in film
to a n o t h e r w i t h i n
give
the
that
this
was
to
and
space
aptly
another
referred
ex amp le
Padding Crowd
be su cc e s s f ul ly
filmmaker
Ianof sky
d if fe re nc e
to
from
these
one area
is able to
first
realises
b et wee n
processes
as
from ..nrdy'a nove l and
scene
reveals
by mov in g
the
of time.
an e s s e n t i a l
the e q u i va l e n t
can
space
that
impression
med ia and
Ta kin
is
in Jo hn
the way
the
the
comparing
dch 1 c 3 i n g 6 r 'a
-r .
n,
me di u m
it
r . r cn tr.e
in wh ic h n o n - v e r ba l
ti .r..;i ■»" eu
two
exp er ie nc e
-o anv -hei •
,
receive .
•
j.
en 1 1 n e
m
.
. .t ....
•
a j his
n e i £,.n h o u i t and
w
he
•
d es cri bekee pin
him as a man
a calm
ociot ions
..hose pa-aiona
ex t e r i o r
in c .v
.i.s the
.
only
run
way he
so deep that
can keep his
...t ...... t■. n iii.- co:: ,c sure at
all
■
Bo ld wo od
of
exists
emo tio ns
r e n d e r h im
"His
in a state
so tenucu:
of
perfect
that any
•
e q u il ib ri um - a balance
up.= p t has
the
pot ential
to
* tar.t«
equii ibriuii. dio tu rb e . he w
in extreme all at
<
him, a feeling not nasterin, him was entirely latent,
u turnant or rapid, it was n e v e r s.ow.
he wan ei ther
hit mo r t a l l y or he was missed. "
1
..chlesinrcr'
l
dir ec ti on
P o l d w o o d 1□ inner
turmoil
A
of the
din in.
room scene
in a p a r t i cu la rl y
ex pr es se s
s u c c e s s .ul
and
all
c in em ati c
at
way.
a large
B o l d w o o d , (Peter P i n c h / , ia
ornate
rs* v n o d i c a l l y .
Pi nc er s
some
who
and
they
lie
and we
side
quietness
poised,
next
lie
is c ha rg ed
the cam er a
still
waiting
cuts
as
listen
to the
loud
ticking which
time
passing
ma r k i n g
the
in ha bi tan ts .
ca pac ity
to destroy
with
presence
its
ticki ng
aurally
the
subti tle s
the
op ini on
ac ces sib le
the
this
The
language
thought
and
what
convey
has
inner
its
poetic
imagery
alone'.
the
of
signs
the
objects
to these
and
visually,
of theue
his
The clock
tension.
on
conve.i^ng
has
the means
since
abs tra ct
co nv ent io ns
of
fi gurative
disposal
Film
so he
can des cri be
reads
can
Thue
by
be
the
mode
the
c h a r ac te r
so
the
that
same
interred
by
infer
the
signals
twitching,
s
they
end
by
signification
the di re ct or .
we can
the m a n t l e
' e d is co ur se s
that
ach ieves
and
to
is not
the visible
su rr oundings,
Li ke wi se
visually
in
object s
signs.
cxock
of them
in space
thought
the
iconic.
in a lirguis*lc
reader.
the
Con tr ar y
Cinema
purely
room
is cr.argea
cf
way.
and
to
it has
power,
is fe el in g
them
the
as a threat
regularity
in
fortn,
a de af en in g
room
a character
by de c o d i n g
and
the
of emotion.
is af fo rd ed
image.
stands
in
this
back and
imp re ss io n
arra nge me nt
the
at his
provoked
as sum es
in a vivid
lack
the
has
on the
in b o l d w o o d 1s mind.
thought
the
c lo ck
the
the
thoughts
words
beyond
by
metaphor
accessi ble
a rr an gem ent
e m ot i o n
energy
so mething.
i n tr ud er
remar ka ble
to convey
recreating
as
is
to go
defined
are
fu nction
the dull
order
and
nov eli st
and
thoughts,
the
"to words
an
cy
co ns ta nt ly
c o nt r o l l i n g
card
like
of V i rg in ia Wool f,
are
for
swings
and
bverything
only
of hu man
It, iL di ff icu lt
world.
and
scene
str eng th
co ncepts
calm,
him.
can m a i n ta in
and
pendulurn
B a t h s h e b a' s
a.'lected
out
to the
and
Doberman
with a n e r v o u s
to the V a l e n t i n e w hi ch
the
str un g
and whine,
then
pr esumably
to B o l d w o o d 1e ex t e r i o r
which
twit ch
a^one
silently
two hig h l y
we w at ch
its
about
slowjy,
and
presence
and
eats
are
d i st ur ba nc e,
the meal
mantlepiece
tension,
his
He
occasionally
T hei r
T hr ou g h o u t
and
by
imaginary
alert.
table.
seated
the spatial
Boldwood
latent
his
:hey
s
content
of
dis tu rb an ce
wh in in g
cogs
refle ct
their m a s t e r ' s
index leal,
the
there
is a cause
si g n if ie r and
the
into
i h 1s is
a description
O the r
which
verbal
concepts
is
body
the
are
visual
they
must
the
are
signs
part
the ch a r a c t e r
and
and
of the
used
Cak's
ah e e p s x i n
order
semiology
rustic
and
refl ec ts
ticki ng
the
using
Cak
sword.
conventional
show his
the d i s co urs e
and
E dit in g
is
devices
and
one
the no vel is t
Hardy
can
ships with Troy
again,
use
the
of flower
strong,
imagery
iconogr ap hy
Boldwood
Troy
nature,
a
Troy
signllles
by
to
to na tur ali se
uses his
an assau lt
and
is a
c o m p ar is on s
necessity
here.
as
second-
character,
and Ser ge an t
to mime
sword
on tiatheheba.
that he
is as
sword.
to
most powerful stylistic
the
same
in m e t a p h o r
and
ii gu ra ti ve
the d i f f er en ce
and bo ld wo od
implies
are
their
imply
re v e a l i n g her
Schleainger
of his
or
crook
d e v i c e s , S c h l e a i n g e r hav
filmmaker'u
be used
couches
ex pl ai ns
each and
of the
the
of
significance.
shepherds
and
m id e his
em ph as iz ed
of his
In . * im
c h a ra ct er
of hie m e n .
Lawrence
li terary
lethal as
and
occupation
cha ra ct er
Once
icons
extensi ons
c h a r a c t e r s ,Schlesingerfe
* he re
ana
significations
Lawrence's
of himself,
is e x p re s si ve
bright
Like
is being
as an e x t e n s i on
It
Jacket
a strong crook,
vi sually.
subject,
a second-order
is as a re fl ec ti on
intri nsi c
clock,
glistening
of his
his w o m e n
iconography
with m e a n i n g •
from
first-order
pastoral.
to describe
ic o n o g r a p h y .
non­
the M a d d i n g Crows
Gabriel
re pr es e n t a t i o n s
to describ e
in far
assuming
visual
use
that
icon,
Their
be
but
to d e s c r i b e
as an
icons.
narration,
e n v i r o n m e n t , or as
func tio ns
also
can
invested
b o l d w o o d 's clock
are
can also
all m a n i f e s t a t i o n s
about a v i s u a l
are
are
which
fi l m m ak er
setting.
C l ea rl y
thought
between
be.
e d iti ng
which
elfins are
relationship
Inner
of thought,
of kn o w l e d g e
occur as
effect
.hese
sound t r a c k , as a v o i c e - o v e r
con cepts
devic es
and
turmoil.
the s ig nif ie d.
encoded
of a b s tr ac t
emoti ona l
be twe en
these
to
the
differences
1 h i .g u n g e .
b a t h s h e b a 's r e l a t i o n ­
by na r r a t i n g
th oughts
in f o r m a t i o n which
the
encounters
rea de r alt
with
rwards.
by jux ta po si ng
these
scenes
ftr.ti c n c O d l o t. their co n v e n t
v.ith ui.N.i: leant
vis ua l
.
B a t h s h e b a weara
her
fee Hr. s for
then
ti t ht
habit
ridln,
hair on
both,
these
wi t h
occ a. ion o
. oldwoo d
and her he i r
she
reflect*
her
is d r es s e d
in a
is t i e d , while wi t h Troy
'
»
foregrounds
the
differences
bet., eon
the t.o aen
ana
the-r
'
The
conclusion
cetavhor
is
hi c k
po ss i b l e
d i f f e r e n t , both
b e c o c c ; ev i c e n t
from
in filn,
is n e c e s s a r i l y
but
it
in ..nvre it occ ur s
thia,
is tnat
,n\ i- appro, riate
am
.
necessity
to
its
to d e s c r i b e
spatial
created
ima
one •
*r. : 1 ,
e , wf.erea.
in the mini
of the
in
tne
u u vJ < v
the neve,
r ader,
fron
that
a»v-c..eo
subject
is
the d e s c r i p t i o n
o:
.
Manifest meanings
l i t e r a l n e s s many
are
so o bv io us
full
prey
in a visual
to the
trap of
Sign
.hai
the
the visual m e d i a
’
to
so meone's nedie.tir.
influence.
Al th oug h
in
.any films the
'
a dee pe r
cany
of
probe
its
into
1 tent
the visual
mean in a.
c ntent
Vi s ua l
of a f i l m will
si as are
isolate
: e e ;Ui va.ci. v
.
It must
and
on
bn
remembered
also
there! ore m e t a p h o r
thn
sou nd tr ac k.
film
»n.i ver ba l
ho.ever
decide v.hether or not
that
H
a polysemic
description
it
is
up to the
it woulu
be
appropr ia te
cun
re
medium
inciuued
: i-.-.muKv-r to
to include
•
the visual
and
image
is capab le
the s o u n d t r a c k
only
of
repeats
conveying
it.
the aarc
Jounu
should
in fo rma tio n
cor:lemont
and
rei nfo rce
therefore
the virtual na r r a t i v e .
communicate
in two ways,
Thus
the u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
this
concept
autonomous
of
the
must
be
and
v i su al ly
consequently
based
and
of c i n e ma ti c
is
can
and aur ally.
the
te ac hi ng
upon an a w a r e n e s s
to the fi l m medium,
stru ctu re
Film m e t a p h o r
that
of
it
an integral
is
part
semantics.
S y m b ol ism
Ac c o r d i n g
which
to Pe ir c e ' s
there
b e tw een
is no n e c e s s a r y
the
oignifier
is a rb it rar y
of
definiti on,
and
or in trinsic
its
and d e pe nd s
instance
or anger
de p e n d i n g
Cu lt u ra l ly
are
the c o l o u r
de te rm in ed
accepted
thoug ht
that
upon
to a large
the
context
sj moo le
at an
have
early
upon
of
the h u m a n mind
links
A d is ti n c t i o n
visual
w h i ch
they are
symbolism
its
should
symbols,
e l g n i f i e r and
to
between
the
be made
form er
formed.
r e l a t i o n s h i p with
the
arbitrary
Time
An
of
meaning,
principles
exp lains
to es ta bl is h
2
linguistic
subje ct
to the
symbols
language
in both
the c l o s e n e s s
in the
has
the
film
tne s i g n i f i e r
ontologies^
world
the d i r e c t o r
in a sym bol ic
cf
an
'real'
cases,
and
in
the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
of a c a r
object
it f u n c t i o n
of
the ways
si gn if ic a ti on .
in wh ic h
must
consider
time
and
forms m a n ip ul at e
states
Image
symbolic
despi te
encodes
into
the
the
mode.
jpnee
analysis
cate
by
and
objects.
is ar b i t r a r y
s i g n i f i c a t i o n whi ch
to make
and
are
is ch ar ac t e r i s e d
An
ana
b e tw ee n
nhile
si g n i f i e d
a l r n i f i fld.
image
clouds
canger
that
am
tries
%
a r b it rar y
s^gn.
our society
ma in tai ns
one
process
it occurs.
perme ate d
age when
the
passion,
in w hi ch
Levi-Strauss
of
r e l a t io ns hi p
an ordinary
is su gg es ti ve
is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
it begins
The
extent
affect s
in
relationship
red
as na tu ra l.
la a sign
signified.
institutionalisation which
For
a symbol
time
The
their
space.
and
novel
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
literature
space
use
the
to encode
communi­
how
the
a n a rr ati ve
internal
pe rc e p t i o n
film
two forma tiv e
In oth er words,
describes
and
of
and
action,
by ap pe ari ng
two
with
dlii er en t
to move
through
time
with
t he
narrative.
etream-of-consciouone'je
novel
can
be
different
in
of
in
a
sense
that
of
internal
Joyce's
proves
consciousness.
B l u e s t o n e , beJ.ieve
represented
technique
creating
modes
James
how
time,
oi
powerful
space
Many,
action
use
like
the
the
and
George
cannot
be
as
well
f * Lm:
" T h e r e n d i t i o n of m e n t a l s t a t e s - m e m o r y , a r e a m ,
i m a g i n a t i o n , c a n n o t be as a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d
by f i l m as by l a n g u a g e .
If f i l m h a s d i f f i c u l t y
p r e s e n t i n g s t r e a m s of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , it h a s e v e n
m o r e d i f f i c u l t y p r e s e n t i n g s t a t e s of m i n d w h i c h
a r e d e f i n e d p r e c i s e l y by t h e i r a b s e n s e in t he
visible world.
C o n c e p t u a l i m a g i n g by d e f i n i t i o n
has
nhat
no
B lue s tone
film.
and
of
existence
It
must
states
mind
power
of
can
of
mind
cates
complex
and
that
conceptual
tion
it
has
definitions
no
a
dialogue,
and
has
the
subject
cope w i t h
them
according
different
states?
the
novel
time
answer
without
is
Film
is
not
even
though
always
to
pant
expression,
of
homen
their
all
appropriate
space,
specific
is
events
to
regarding
we
move
and
slip
the
relating
from
a
acceptable
in c e r t a i n
filmic
films.
these
novel.
back
for
must
and
each must
capabilities.
and
consider
difficult
or
All
So f i l m
other
"hen
by d e f i n i ­
themselves.
end
can
argues
emotions
arises,
and
communi­
either.
d rea m s , memories
easy
Add
and
film
the
lantasy
and
soft
conventions
Usually
two
Quite
to
The
c o n s ci ou s
.orth
film
reality
f l a s h b a c k s , superimpoeitions,
are
film
difficulties
the
the
bluestone
language
the
of
emotions.
t he
in
states
and
one
an
experiences
same
is
do
It
liberty
emotions
of
channels
image,
how
them
opaque.
at
the
two
is
difficulty.
recalling
disso lve s
is
describes
becomes m e r e
it
relate
in
nature
soundtrack.
visual
existence
of
automatically
media
The
to
t he
Although
experiences
both
which
no
has
immediately
existence
are
question
and
descriptions
for
the
range
meaning.
imaging
into
Through
polysemic
film
reveal
subtle
of
the
that
from
to
traits.
web
is
encoded
shot
logical
be m i s t a k e n
novel
be
inferred
car. c o n v e y
music
not
can
be
here,
forgotten
close-up
to t h i s
a
be
strongest
performer
s pac #*. "
ignoring
not
also
the
cinema's
is
in
simply
through
issue
signal
that
sequence.
illusion
locus
and
they
are
a veroai
and
not
50
commen tar y
at
least
ie
re quired
s ug g e st
on
the
a change
in
ch a r a ct er ' s
co ns ci o u s n e s s .
Some
of the
finest
have
been
ex e c u t e d
reason for
this
c h a ra ct e r i s e d
and
by
realism.
built
the
and
dream
the
n ar ra tiv e
is
the
Ballet'
his
the
vision about
m eans
* d vi su al is e
Mi n ne l l i ' s
music
art
the
of his
the vivid
shown
visually
sequence
context
and heard
is a c ce p t a b l e
of
his
the genre
and
of
the
p r es en ta ti on
and
vivid
fulfils
the
which
Kelly's
ex presses
dance
as
about
ihe
of his
framed
and
his
com pl ex it y
im a g i n a t i o n
.his
the
•^n c e n t e
fantas y
in the music.
it is
Gene
b a l l e t ', dance
tor Lise.
beauty
is
film and
using
in
upon
fantasy
two.
film,
of
.c re -
no claim
sequen ce
in Paris
love
because
the med iu m
the
reality
is
to formulae
of the m u s i c a l
Kelly's
and
to
dimila r^y ,
'Am er ica n
the genre
it has
between
fantasy.
car ee r as an artist
and
of
is a m u si ca l
to signi fy
em otions
because
^ he
it c o ns ci ou sl y
suited
capabilities
re ma r k a b l e
used
ideally
easi ly
'Br oa dw ay R h yt h m
accep ts
al th ou gh
st ru ct ur e
can shift
sequences
category.
becau se
or
or the
and a d h e r e n c e
dlhotomy
thematic
explain
fanta sy
genre
readily
s e qu en ces
to
se qu e n c e
Firstly,
stylisation
Danee
Se co ndl y,
into
the m u s i c a l
of exp res sio n,
itself.
of fantasy
its
time
succes sf ul
the a u d i e n c e
as a form
grounds
in
the
is t w o f o l d .
c o n ve nti on ,
dance
and most
soundtrack,
type
o.
within
ex pe ct a ti on s
are
a ream
the
o.
the
audience.
D r e a m s , m em o r i e s
fully
in film
selves,
must
and
While
film
do not
focus
only
must
au t om at ic al ly
without
in
be handled
foreground
the
care­
them­
discourse.
.hey
using
the cllch6d
devic es
past,
present
tuturo,
or a di ss olv e.
has
three
tenses
o n e , a continually
the flux
to refer
sequences
occur na tu ra ll y
q u e n t l y , the d i r e c t o r
render
they
be framed
the novel
has
fanta sy
because
therefore
of soft
and
faces
of time.
to other
un f o l d i n g
a problem when
Through
t e n s e s , and can
dialogue,
recall
m
ana
present.
Co-
he attempts
he has
to mind
,e-
to
the means
the
past
by
co mme nt a ry
at
least
is
re qu i r ea
s ugg es t
on
the
a change
in
c h a r a c t er 's
consciousness.
Some
of
fin es t
have
been
the
reason for
t his
characterised
and
in
is
by
the
the m u s i c a l
twofold.
its
as a f o rm
grounds
of fantasy
realism.
built
and
Dance
d re am
S e c o n d ly ,
into
the
the na ri ati ve
'Br oad wa y
can
Rhythm
m uel c
are
the
ideally
the
tne
of his
em ot i on s
the vivid
context
and heard
is a c c e p t a b l e
cf
the genre
love
in
vivid
and
it in
fulfils
the
is
film and
Gene K e l l y ’s
which
us in g
ex presses
dance
as
b a l l e t 1, dance
and
his
com pl ex it y
im a g i n a t i o n
This
framed
about
Ihe
of his
the
»m c e n t e
fantasy
the music •
upon
fantasy
two.
for Lise.
beauty
because
and
film,
fore­
no claim
sequence
of
p r e se nt at io n
the m u s i c a l
in Paris
Kelly 's
his
the med iu m
to the
the
is
to formulae
S i m i l a r l y , in
'Am er i c a n
and
and
of
the genre
it has
between
fantasy.
as an ar t is t
sequence
of
The
it c o n s c i o u s l y
of reality
c a pa bi li ti es
to signi fy
■ isually
because
easily
ca re er
shown
accepts
suited
st r u c t u r e
sequences
a d h er en ce
B a l l e t 1 is a m us ic al
remarkable
used
because
or
or the
category.
a l th ou gh
di hutomy
shift
to vi s u a l is e
Minnelli's
readily
sequ en ces
thematic
vision a bout
means
is
and
explai n
fantasy
genre
st yl i s a t i o n
to
se qu en ce
firstly,
of exp ression,
itself.
time
suc ce ss fu l
c o n v e n t i o n , the au di e n c e
dance
his
and most
executed
soundtrack,
type
are
o . dream
within
ex pe c t a t i on s
the
Of
the
au dience .
D r e a m s , memories
fully
in film
selves,
must
and
do
While
focus
the
fantasy
be cau se
not
therefore
of soft
and
be
framed
witho ut
in
be handled
foreground
care­
them­
the d i s c o u r s e .
.hey
using
the cllch6d
devices
past,
present
future,
or a dis solve.
novel
has
three
only
quently,
the d i r e c t o r
tenses
o n e , a con ti nu al ly
the flux
to refer
must
au t o m a t i c a l l y
occur n a tu ra lly
film has
render
they
se quences
of
to other
faces
time.
un fo ldi ng
ana
present.
Conse­
a problem when he attempts
Th rou gh
t e n s e s , and
can
dialogue,
recall
he has
to mind
to
the m ea ns
the
past
t>y
51
it
it t u L a ::y
about
talkin
r r e ; cut.
medium ,
Thia
and
it>
ilatinct
v.
..hile an
-tt eLipt to a..:., it al - aj . render a
ima
r may
characteristic
su/j. e.A
of any
it^ h i s t o r y
visual
or even
'•
thn
iaa e conveye
sense
of
past
many
and
of
things
time
simultaneously,
in motion ,
tut
it
it
cr eat es
is only
a
an
,
A distinction
shoul I be
ue,
at
t. is
:ir.t,
between
tne
two
•
Chronclo
leal
c o ns t an t
and
com
upon
in thre*-
:
ur- d in
it
stream.
ay
.hus
unit., - ..ich are
time
real
in fl ex i b l e
time may
^ u ,.evert:.e i v.,. presentee
In
, the
preeiue
. ..yckoio, leal
pe rc ep ti on .
rec, ed , tut
co nt i n u o u s
ti on
e,
unchr-.n. tr. .
is de pe nd e nt
or
ti
of the narrator':;
.u.uti n of
tine an . the
stretched
^n a
.it- : .tur- , e n r o n r l 0 £icu-
actual
ke
and
-ime occurs
the read in,,, the
dura­
upun of the n a r ra ti ve
.
the
span
one
read:, the novel
narrator
of
events
in
the na r ra ti ve
in a ..:ek.
as a story te lle r,
may
..o ..ever
take fifty ye ars while
if " e accept
-c t a cit ly
rec
to
^h e
the conventic.i
•
c h r o n cl o
the
leal
time
v i c .i n r , which
in r a t r and
is
take..
* v . or:..c, the
is u s ua ll y betwee n
subject
to
actual
one
and
or
vie
the r adr r' s
uur ati cn
of
cur hours,
and
er's percep ti on
.
of
tin.,
if it i,
to
pas., more
to v a r i a t i o n
compre
fillc :
slowly.
and
.it:, activ ely .
I h e r c .ore
through
ths
c on se nt
of
the
euair-ncc
purpose
of
the
direc tor .
in div idu al
leal
ph'*c 1 cc 1 use
be tw ee n
fi lmm ake r,
cf the
time
up •.evice,
- low
s u b j 'ct
to
fii;.. may
not io n effect.
style,
and
the unique
earn
is oUl j ec v
or extend
c n be m a n i p u l a t e d
a no ve li s t ' s
are
sdEB
peed
tine up
time
<-. 1st s in unn.ea.ur a k-1 r units.
. ti: r by uoliu; the
° *1 ^ ^
The d i f fe re nc es
psychclc
Un fi lle d
it
n^th
to suit
the
s
the
the
le oi
an
cnernc .erisvxes
52
of the m e d i n
di f f e r e n c e
In w h i c h
between
they
work.
a l i n g u i a tl c
mode.
S t y le
is c o n e t r u c t e d
art! at
m ak es
in the
whether
these
conte nt
a eo e ct a
the
vision
di re c t l y
wo r k
can
of
of
the work
related
to
exist
the
anT
these
two c at eg ori es.
axis.
optio ns
which
d e v i c e s , wh e t h er he
soft
focus,
all
the
have
imply
and
that his
ch o i c e s
on and
ment
the
of
the
l^ony.
use
of editi ng
in a n a r r a t i v e
for
choic es
used
and
choic es
stru ct ur e
the
i.e.
structure
he makes
when
is c o n s tr uc ted
by
of
r e g ar di ng
and
his
He
axis
ol
time.
too,
chooses
the
of
a m e cs ag e
ol
irons
or s y n t a g ­
range
poetic
the na rra tiv e,
the artist
of
has
and
at his
imagery
the no ve li st
events
from
the a r r a n g e ­
the c o m b i n a t i o n
arranging
add
uocn
nov eli st
symbolism,
to
would
pre sen ta ti on
paradigmatic
The
the
These aspects
to co m m u n i c a t e
open
the
frame,
s y n t ag ma ti c
include
d e vi ce s wh ich
example met ap ho r,
sy nt ag ma ti c
the
dependent
in the
in a
For
his m a n i p u l a t i o n
elements
be
units
wh ic h he makes
structure.
ei th e r
can
stylistic
of sentence
So style
exist
and
the
vertical
freeze
of his w o r k .
is also
i'arac ipmatic
of
The
order,
the n o v e l i s t
words w hi ch
a sequence
the
fi lmmakers
axes.
disposal
use
style
of
range
i.e.
or
iconography
choices
the
signs
possible
costumes,
influence
options which
matic
his
from
into
of technical
so
axis
style
cho ic e
signs
fall
signs.
shot,
horizontal
The
as
a w i d e - a n g l ed
setting,
in a se quential
can choose
used
frame­
relation­
artist
or absent
is
that
or s y nt a g m a t i c
been
upon
the
been noted
possible
The
events
in
pa ra digmatic
of a style.
the
of signs
to the
or
of style
in the
bu il di ng
include
d e p e n de nt
posed
to the
f u r th er
subject,
he
the
co mb inative,
all
open
content,
will
are
an
thematic
The m a n i f e s t a t i o n
visual
the
his
of all
uses
ai d-shot
wnich
First
could
this would
of
It has al re a d y
are
r e l a t i o n s h i p which
choiceu
is the
narr ati ve
the forma l,
they
which are
In other w o r d s
filmmaker
to
in a p a ra di gma tic
ship,
alternatives
the
the o r g a n i s a t i o n
of the n a r r a t i ve .
either
an iconic
portrayal
p e rt ai n
the a r ti st .
and
from
d ia ti nc t
choices
In e a e e n e e tnis
ann
are his
the words
which
involves
in a sequence.
t h rou gh
in
the choiv-r
and
a rr an ge men t
ot' aigna
in a semant ic
of style
must
points.
An e x a m i n a t i o n
clarify
by
th e r e fo re
this
point.
the in te nsi ty
to detail
recur
and
concern
his
the
his
as
to express
their
from Sons
Lawrence
displays
of two very
and
characterised
are
passage,
his
imagery.
s t yl is tic
attention
Ce rt a i n
motifs.
images
tils choice
i m p o r t a n t , ec is his
and man's
sexuality.
his
fun dam ent al
novels
uses women' s
L o v ers
two
ana lysis
prose will
par ti cu la rl y
He a l s o
Any
L aw re nc e' s
of his
industrialisation
passages
ing
w or ks
is
env ironm ent.
nature
Lawrence's
vi vi dne ss
imagery
with
of J.H.
these
of hi a d e s c r i p t i v e
t h r ou g h o u t
of flower
co n s i d e r
system.
and
In
relationship
to
relationships
with
the
two
fo llowing
L a cy C h a t t e r le y' s
...iculwv s e n s i t i v i t y
and
Lov er
understand­
d i f f e r e n . women;
"Paul looked into V i r i a m ' s eyes . She was pale and
expectant with wonder, her
lips were parted and her
dark eyes lay open to him.
His look seemed to travel
down into her.
H er soul q u i v e r e d .
It was the
co mmunion she wa nte d. . . Che looked at her roses.
They were white, some incurvea others holy, others
expanded in e c s t a s y . "
4
"He turned a g ai n to loo., at her.
Che was kn eeling
and holding her two hands slowly f o r w a r d , blindly, so
that the c h ic ke n should run in to the m o t h e r - h e n again.
Ana there was so m e t h i n g so
mute and forlor n in her,
c omp as sio n flamed in his bowels
for her." ^
Lawre nce 's
he
style
u s e s , the
he arranges
:11m style
choice
fe elings
can
also
of signs
is
visual
and
aural
by
brilli an ce
mi ae- en - s ce ne ,
he
identified
to
becau se
polys emi c .
by
a balance
be
firstly
film
with which
expresses
available
are marked
its
he
of his
choice
and
of signs,
the
sequence
the
words
in w hi ch
them.
d ifferent.
because
is e result
their
the
directs
and harmon y
the
of
semiotics,
fi l m m a k e r
is
cohesion
A Mi nn e l l i
of colour,
fluid
film
its
but
the
are ne ce s s a r i l y
iconic
and
secondly
Vincente k i n n e l l l 's m us ic al s
internal
co nt en t.
the
in
end
music al
the detail
camera mo ve m e n t
musical
all
the
and
and
se quences.
their cin em ati c
density
of
.heir
is r e c o g ni sa bl e
beauty
of
the
the se ns i t i v i t y
They
are
elements.
always
An
im portant
this
point
di scu ssi on ,
te aching
of
has
wh ich
film.
consider
and
the
made
are
exist
to
in
the
film co nce pts
the
the
s t r uc tu re
exist
sou ndt ra ck .
there for e
mous
characteristics.
two t h i n g s .
h ol din g
which
will
in
be
They
done
the
the a p pe a r a n c e
and
the
Vict or
it,
56
of
film
and
its
a cri tical
methodology
the
cine ma
which
and
takes
logically
arc
encode d
onto
film concepts
p a rt ic ul ar a u t o n o ­
states
that
films
do
'r e a l i t y 1 ty
present an
Perki ns
c ommun ic a t i onal medium.
of
its
they
si gn i f y i n g
on tol ogy
or are
is ordere d
"hat
it is
wr.ich
con cepts
to capture
and
that
of l a n g u a g e , while
Perkins
power
of and
imagin ati on.
iconic nature
of
of
of film
cannot
to u nd ers ta nd
in terms
have
is the subje ct
images
this
con ce pt s
Lit er;ry
artefa ct
attempt
must
The
ana
for
film i.e.
as metaphor,
in visual
Any
of
signs.
form.
course
to the a n a l y s i s
iconic na t u r e
nature
and
the
the
a u di b l e
same
In
h is devise d
firstly
and
cl ear
whi
in l i t e r a t u r e , such
in film
subject
is r e l e v a n t
po lysemic
up of visual
found
itaell
Any me t h o d
puepose mujt
secondly
made
image
by
the fil mm ak er s
is
emp ha si zi ng
art istic
* e must
accoun t
the art ist ic
here,
fun cti on
therefore
ol
as a
ceveiop
the visual
endeavours
of
the
of analysis,
one
filmma ker .
Genre
c r i t i c i sm
which
falls
must
wit hi n
develo p
'classes
s tr uct ure
calis
the
cri te ri a
of texts'
i.e.
w hic h
in the
the
which
Genre.
with
As
the
cat ego ry .
own met ho d
discipline
recognise
confo rm
overall
film
that
texts,
generic
cha pte rs
texts
of film
theory.
there
are
"e
certain
to a co hesive n a r ra ti ve
individual
re ma in in g
individual m u s i c a l
a generic
its
wider
w hi ch
be co nsi ste nt
follows
fcr
genre
system.
of
films must
The a pp ro ac h
this work
both as film,
and
consi der s
as
part
of
NOTES
1.
de
Sauaaure,
F e r d i na nd
Course
in G e n eral
Lir^ uiatica
pg 16
2.
ielrce,
3.
Go odman,
4 .
C .S .
N e ls on
T he
K a w k e s , Terenc e
>,niiin.me -
Jtructu:
/erlotlcs
de Saus su re ,
6.
de S a u a a u r e ,
Ferdinand
op. ci t. pg
16
7.
de S a u a a u r e ,
Ferdinand
op. cit. pg
'3
8.
Peirce,
C.S.
op. cit.
vol
?
9.
Peirce,
C.S.
op. cit.
vol
2
11.
H a w k e a , Terence
H a w k e a , T e re nc e
13.
Monaco, James
op. tit.
op. cit.
How
to
and
SealoticB
pg
pg 130 - 131
Head .a ■~i_lj5
P'
14.
Barthes, Boland
S/Z
15.
B a r t h e s , Hoi and
E l e m e n ts of .Jemiolop'
16.
B l u e a t o n e , George
17.
ibid.
pg 6?
18.
ibid.
pg 6 3
No ve l a
pp 19 -
cit.
Structuralism
de S a u a a u r e , Ferd in an d
12.
op.
ana
3.
10.
F e r di na nd
llsm
;-L'L-
into Film
^ ^
P?
1
PP 129
-
-
56
19.
H a r d y , Tho ma s
K » r from
2 0.
B l u e a t o n e , George
op. clt.
2 1.
Bazin,
Andre
Is C i n e m a ?
22.
woolf,
Virginia
What
1 The
the M a d a l n g
pp 19
Mo v i e s
Cr owd
pg
15
- 20
and
Reality' in JMew r e p u b l i c,
X LV II
23.
Lawrence, D.H.
24.
i b i d . pg 35
25.
ibid.
pg
198
2 6 .
i b i d . pg
393
27.
H a r d y ,Thomas
28.
Sons
and
op. clt.
B l u e a t o n e , George
Lovere
pg 35
pg 27
op. clt.
pg
23
29.
i b i d . pg
23
3 0.
Hardy, Thom as
3 1 .
I b i d . pg
3 2 .
see H a w k e e , T e r e n c e
3 3 .
B l u e a t o n e , Geo rg e
3 4 .
Lawrence,
D.H.
op. cit.
35.
Lawrence,
D.H.
T.eriy Che t t e r l e v ' e Lover
36.
Perkine,
Victor
op. cit.
pg 18
HQ
op.
cit.
op. cit.
pp 54 - 56
pg 4 7
198
Film as Film
PR 119
CHAPTER 2
THE THE ORY
OF GENRE
2*1
Towardr
a C r itical
The
e me rg enc e
of a c o h e s i ve
to
d i s re ga rd ed
film c a t e g o r y , the m a i n s t r e a m
in particular,
sixties
and
important
that
it
early
theory
which
cased
ap pr oa c h
to
unde r l yi ng
I have
of
upon
a specific
auteur and
prove his
and
in
artistic
he was
cultu re
text.
genre
capabilities
the
inherent
Perkins notes
film culture
of
a critical
aesthetics,
as
a
the need
social
and
'high-art1
for an
structures
in tro duc tio n,
the
but focused
industry.
contradictions
in my
str uc tu re s
upon
Many
of a conflict
w o rki ng and
two
of texts.
to analys e
the H o ll yw ood
cinema,
late n in et ee n
fu l f i l l e d
and
the cinema
out
and his
terms
the
the or thodox
i l l u m in at ed
class
pointed
the au th o r
theory
of taste
a hit he rt o
commercial
the rele va nc e
of
it
films,
a bo ut
Dur in g
c o n s id er ed the
attempt
genre
r e l at io n s hi p
the mass
the status
film which
did not
between
c h al l e n g e d
Secondly,
facilitated
1 1m as r i 1 m . ' V i c t o r
the n o tio ns
alread y
various
which
genre
by q u e s t i o n i n g
protected
theory
seventies,
e ff ec tiv ely
institution.
As
film.
In
was
disc ou rse
Hollywood
functions.
e s t ab li s h m e n t
cr it ic al
Theory,
by a desire
and
promote
»enre
betwe en
system.
The
in spite
'Tom Ryall
of
the
and mea ni ng s
saw
this
individual
directo r had
the mediu m
placed
di s c u s s e s
the au t e u r
genre
relat io ns hi p
cr iti cs
restraints
in
the
early
in
upon him
the
ap pr oa ch
to
by
problems
thus:
"One of the major impulses behind genre c r i t i c i s m lies
in the common sense a s s u mp ti on that commercial films
are produced acc or di ng to generic formula, that film
tradition and the hioto ry of the cinema play an
important role in d e t e r m i n i n g the actual sp ec ificity
of any single A m e r i c a n picture.
The 1a u t e u r t h e o r y 1
though important and val uable during the 1 9t>01 s and
1 9 6 0 1s for drawing a t t e n ti on to the importance of the
DO
.ericun
. i
i_ u
,
1 .
.t
... re
dioc—
. ..n tern.,
per.cn' 1 vi t-i c n ,
on."
So
the
15
i.uVeuriut
.eerr.eu in;:
. vatic h
uirt-o tors
t,t;.‘i<
^0
c - . u r n c t e . i-ed t y n r e
; r. 'riot 9
or
11oru 1 r c ul tu r e meat
l ed
ti.fi*
, xn .ividvvti
•
finally
a
c i ..d v «
01
to
tin a c t i v e
or.;
: *l’t
► / i r.in a t i o n
of
j"- - n ,
...tit - o e..*.e:. vXuxlj
.i. *
t he
vk
-oit o c c u r r e d .
i ouu
i
theory
*h.et>
3 j n syo terns
und
.
.i t ’
nir. a s p e c i f i c
1er 1n us
cT. . 3 of
tl.ecretir;
has
c ri ti c io :
t
tv.
rj. ut out
tf-'-r. sketchy
» er.r
a nd
especial*.y
n r
tr.ca
c.
hen col.5 -red
.i - h
6
..-9
•
r:e,vor.d : or: ul a
the
need
for
: 1m
: fir.r rlc
a valid
f et.re
> e n r ea S t a n l e y
dolooon
citeo
theory!
the aukJect still l a v s the kind 0. in tel lec tua l ap p r o a c h
that could .-jU lify the .; --r ■ up p r o eh as a pl au sib le
c o t e . cry of film criti
And
Stephen
*ht
a rt ic le.
-eale
reinforce^
• o t . tl-
th...
..e..ti...ent by
‘-ion
-■t-yir e by
notiry
I cm
that
sx..ce
,iy l . . , and
•
J ir. Kit.-. e*ii
rd
•0
or i .
_ yf ,t
v
. -n ■ c«. rtnui
o —
~
d .u .A . I
"Very
little
has
"0c ■ 11 pu ^ xi ah eu
since
that
has
a o u % ...
,
more
systematic
wori i n 5 ou t
and
a ; plication
01
»he
'
thrcu* h u c o h e r e n t c r i t i q u e
0 t i o n of the s'- c nee:
This
which
in
thesis
have
r< c e n t
f rnr.r
ill
been
examine
raised
year. « an
some
an d
1;n u .:u l s v ;;u e nt
■ -c a . .
tf
the
di.cursed
c o - o r - in* t«
most
1,
transform-
relevant
various
t h i n
concepts
( on re
vr«
1c s
a n viable
.n e o r e
- ou l
exactly
.1 ten r e ;
ork .
Tnitieliy
we m u s t
auk
th
question:
hat
iv
»
,
.
be
very
s i m p l e , it
ral.es
,.n i m p o r t a n t
qu. a ti on.
.ec a u u e
<
although
that
one
they
can g r o u p
share
any
certain
two texts
characteristics,
logic al
or de si rab le
Todorov
therefore
qualifies
cl a s se s
of
by a d d i n g -
texts
to ge t h e r
to re fer
to this
his
It
on
la not
g r o u p i ng
statement
the ground
as a genre.
that
genre s
"those cl asse s
of texte that have beer perceived
such in the course of hi s to ry ." 6
ana
he
cites
the
the h i s t o r i c a l
pr ovided
the
example
ev idence
that
of
by the ex is ten ce
st art in g
point
of
Its
of
the
tragcay
theory
exi s te nc e
of genres.
lodorov
described
in two di f f e r e n t
also notes
they
as
Itself.
is the
that
can
of
the evidence
'tragedy'
of genre
ways;
are
Is a genre because
exi st en ce and
the wora
always
proof
genres
Thus
of
can
the
oe
be "empir ica lly
n
ob s er ve d"
or an alysed
in f o r m a t i o n
brought
result
can
the
patterns.
for m u la e
the
Individual
and
Tom Ryall
be
fr m the
content.
texts
perceived
generic
reinfo rc es
to the
abs tract
theory
way.
In other words
conte nt
A genre
Injtitutionalisation
to the whole
vital
be deduc ed
to bear upon
of
in an
of
or induced,
is
produced as
a
ce rt ai n nar rative
will m a n i f e s t
these
recurring
by the rea de r (audience)
in rel ati on
system.
the
no ti o n
of a class
of texte which
In
of genre:
"The mas te r Image for genre c r i t i c i s m is the triangle
com po se d of a r t i s t / f 1I m / a u d l e n c e . Gen re s may be
d e f i n e d as p a t t e r n s / f o r m s / a t y l e e / e t r u e t u r e s which
t r a n s c e n d individual films and which s u pe rv ise
both
their c o n s t r u c t i o n by the filmmai.er, and their re a d ­
ing by the audienc e." H
and
arguee
that for genre
de co n s t r u c t
the
the
audie nce .
relationship
However,
to analyse
the genre
entity
secondly
does,
and
however,
f un c t i o n
acts
make
of genre
construction
of the
betwee n
Ryall
film
omits
firstly
as
part
an
im portant
by
the
of wr iti ng
text
U
of ex pec ta ti on" .
acting,
as
to be
the
valuable
artist,
to m e n t i o n
a coh esi ve
point
about
supports.
it must
his
individual
system.
It supervises
it inf lu en ce s
in To do rov 's
He
the twofold
d i r e c t o r or as Todorov
and
film and
the ne c e s s i t y
of a larger generic
w h i c h T o do r o v
of a film
as a "model
readi ng
cr it ic is m
says
the
it
the au die nce 's
words,
as a "ho riz on
60
One
of the
that
in
most
genres
demand
the way
which
he
recur
lised.
1C
genres,
in
Hie
and
Gen r es
a narr ati ve
familiar,
the ir
from
one
a new
by
the
to
narrative
how
the
may
also
fi c t i o n
poems
form
Thus
tragedy,
defined
and
are
And
by
all
content
comedy
as a genre
groups
of
de si gne d
appreciation
texts,
Cnee
to make
genre
became
it
once
famixi ar
of
the
drawn.
film
may
theory,
str uc tu re
and
is
depends
romance,
all
genre
to a need
films.
which
particularly
They
science
for generic
of the
two
recurring way.
the def in it io n
a class
the
upon
re x O g i c a x l y
becauac
ot
sonnets,
organised.
synthesis
For
co mm e r c i a l
odes,
raw material
be
port
social
it
and
is an
are defined,
ballads,
in a fa miliar
in re sp ons e
of
genres
bo a genre
is di ff er en t
be
film genre
alone,
they can
it must
conte xt
thus
tr ag icomedy
regard ed
the
and
presented
and
and
is s t r u c t u r e d
finally,
strictly
mu s t examine
times
as definite
Lit er ar y
constitute
la more
cri tical
are no real
practice.
enough
genre
the content
of genre
sp ec if ic al ly
and
or classes of
content
all genres.
Fi l m
In the
is partly
'Westerns' , 1 -angstera
vis ua l
lit erary
as genre.
mode.
and
the
conventions
by common
categorised
of a text
or crime
i.e.
and
of ca te g o r i e s
d i s c u s si on .
be defin ed
categories.
between f i l m ua ke r
bo there
re pe at ed
the d i s c o u r s e
content
in society.
auaieme
for mulae
result.
became
on genre
the next.
needs
and
been
of
r e l a t i o n s h i p which
The
de fin ed
will
betwee n
form of
cf
this
institutiona­
ex istence
code
the
shows
la
properties
been
produced
in dustry.
structures
The d if fe ren ce
issue w hi ch
genre
have
of a genre.
has
films
film
emphasising
usually
icdorov
of disc ou rse
are
of genre
dis cu rs iv e
"an agreed
the cr ea t i o n
are
thematic
gen re s
nam in g
theory
historical
ev id e n c e
film
pattern
'Musical'
the
the bu il d i n g
concerning
texts.
and
the
ce rt ai n
narratives
about
thus
for
cre ati on
rules
11
the
recognition.
for
that
talks
has with
r e s p o n s i b le
the
tne
t e claim
about
how
argument
upon
au dience"
public
public
individual
C o l in M c A r t h u r
and
points
d e s cr ib es
based
su pports
vital
of film
to be
popular culture
theory
was
for greater
Genre
underlies
relevant
theory
certain
to Holly-
wo od
film.
bo genre
type
of film
'g e n r e 1 is
w he re
the
and
theory
not
film
eynon ym ou e
theory
had
is only
in g e n e r a l .
wi t n
its
popular
d is cu s s i o n
gen re s
and
which
co m e d y
and
t r a g i c o m e d y , while
r e je ct s
he
that
says,
dual
it
cannot,
film
point
are
hor ro r
of view.
also not
because
and
So lom on
the c a t e g o r y
nolr text
could
the
c u rr ent
repeat ed
or an
public
neo-realism
exhibit
in films
diagonal
narrative
genre
film.
Genre
film
popul ar
wort hy
ii 'high
the
popular culture
w h e n art
towa rds
that
how
the
began
has
a more
film
support
the
these
categories,
industry
ideology
Italia n
filmma xi ng w h i c h
strange
co nn ect ed
largely
for e x a m p l e ,
ex tabl iahment"
with
of
to the n o t i o n
the
ol
as a subject
recently.
have
sett­
the
properties
ignored
until
is
outlandish
be confused
discursive
media
and
by the ni gh tma re
and
an alysis
-he
tended
entertainment
to be
and
d is ­
In Cultu re .a nd S ociety Raymond
split
away
be twe en
b e tw ee n
about
intellectual
div ision
Firstly,
of
been
of mass
came
to move
persona^
g r o u p of f i l m m a k e r s , not
must not
cr it i c a l
c o n t e m p t uo us
reasons.
style
i n t r i n si ca ll y
film culture
shows
co mm e r c i a l
li gh t i n g
as
Italian n e o - r e a l i s m
the
related
it as escapist.
Williams
and
serious
art'
so me wh at
mi s s e d
is thus
on one's
two
be r ec og ni se d
s ty le
and
to
indivi­
be c a t e go ri se d
and
they
are
because,
each
Both G e r m a n e x p r e s s i o n i s m
can
c u l t u r e , which
of
easily
in f lu en ti al
be l o n g i n g
formulae
genres,
He also
and
for
secondly
a sp ecific
this
is
tragedy,
literary
other genr es
from
unmotivated
c h a r a c t e r s , but
that
1f i l m - n o i r 1 is a genre
genres
one.
German E x p r e s s i o n i s m
ing,
are
film d e p e n d i n g
di vo r c e d
filmmaker
that
be rega ru e d
presentation' .
just as
or w a r
popul ar culture and
the
of
of
exp lains
Ge r ma n E x p r e s s i o n i s m
they are
because
of t11m can
they
too many
co nsi der ed
In a film co nte xt
c u lt ur e
classe s
bu t 'm od es
involves
a ga ngster,
of
of w h i c h
film gen re s
to a ce r t a i n
roots.
In hie
not
ap pli cab le
during
from
its
elite.
'highbrow'
so called
'high-art
the Homant ic
general
period,
aud ience
hd Buscom be notes
and
'mass'
c u lt ur e
62
rests
u p o n the l e v e l o f u n d e r s l a n d i n g w h i c h
the a u d i e n c e
h a s of e a c h :
"The c o n v e n t i o n s of... g e n r e are k n o w n and r e c o g n i s e d
by the a u d i e n c e a n d s u c h a r e c o g n i t i o n ia in i t s e l f
a p l e a s u r e . P o p u l a r a r t , in f a c t , h a s a l w a y s d e p e n ­
d e d on t h i s
1*
P o p u l a r c u l t u r e is to a l a r g e e x t e n t d e t e r m i n e d a n d m o d i f i e d
by v a r i o u s c o n s t r a i n t s .
characterised
films
film
industry
is
by i t s o v e r r i d i n g c o m m e r c i a l i s m and a d h e r e n c e
to c o n v e n t i o n a l
However,
The Hollywood
and
formulaic
patterns
of f i l m m a k i n g .
as a r e s u l t o f t h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e s e v a l u e s , t h e
themselves have
likewise
been rejected:
" . . . r e j e c t i o n of H o l l y w o o d and i - s v a l u e s , t h o u g h
u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a n d e v e n l a u d a b l e , h a s l e d to a
r e j e c t i o n of A m e r i c a n m o v i e s w m c h is n e i t h e r ,
w h e n o n e d i s c u s s e s l i t e r a t u r e a n d to o r p a i n t i n g
a n d u p to a p o i n t , d r a m a , one c a n p l a c e t h e a r t i s t ,
h i s w o r k a n d h i s a u d i e n c e in a v e r y d i r e c t r e l a t i o n ­
ship.
H o w e v e r no s u c h d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p e xi st s
f o r the d i r e c t o r in H o l l y w o o d . T h e r e a r e at w o r k
s e v e r a l m o d i f i e r s of m e a n i n g , f a c t o r s w n i c h c o m p l i ­
c a t e t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . .h e m o s t o b v : o u s a r e the
s t a r s y s t e m a n d t n e s u b j e c t of t h i s boc'c, g e n r e b o t h , of c o u r s e , p a r t l y e x p l i c a b l e in t e r m s of the
o v e r p o w e r 1 n £ ly c o m m e r c i a l b a s i s of H o l l y w o o d p r o ­
duction."
M c A r t h u r ' s p o i n t h e r e is t h a t g e n r e f i l m s h o u l u be a n a l y s e d
as p o p u l a r c u l t u r e
of g e n r e
must
and all
the c o n s t r a i n t s
be c o n s i d e r e d .
ihe
and c o n v e n t i o n s
auteur
r e l a t i o n s h i p is
important
in a l l
it s h o u l f
-tot be u s e d as t h e f o c u s of o n e ' s c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s ­
ion.
of
f i l m s a n d g e n r e f i l m s a r e no e x c e p t i o n b u t
Tnis r e l a t i o n s h i p b e l o n g s m o r e
' h i g h art'
constraints
aesthetics.
Hollywood
of g e n r e , i t s f o r m u l a e ,
b o t h e s e m u s t be of
critical approach
prime
to this
properly
f i l m is m o d i f i e d
and
its n a r r a t i v e
about
two c o n f l i c t i n g
against
the p r o g r e s s
turn of t h i s
century
by t h e i r content,
to a r e c o g n i s a b l e n a r r a t i v e
A Wer t e r n
ideologies,
of
the h a s t ,
somewhere
v Ni
patterns,
p o p u l a r art form.
p a t t e r n of e x p e c t a t i o n .
visual
by the
importance when considering a
G e n r e f i l m c a t e g o r i e s a re a 1 a o partly d e f i n e d
which usually adheres
to t he d i s c o u r s e
in
structure
f i l n is normally
t h e a n a r c h y oi
which takes
the W e s t
place at tne
the A m e r i c a n mid-west.
or
Similarly,
the m u s i c a l
sequences
of s i n g i n g and d a n c i n g .
e l e m e n t s w h i c h act as
audience.
1h o r i z o n s
Other narrative
character
generic
f il:u is a l w a y s
types,
ihese
l o v e and i n c l u d e s
are n a r ra ti ve
of e x p e c t a t i o n 1 .‘ or t h e
elements include
s e t ti ng s , recurring
plot f or mu l a e ,
t h e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e s and
iconography.
T h e r e is a 1 w a y s a n i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y
p a r t of a s p e c i f i c g e n e r i c
definition
between
reaffirm
its limits.
definition which
principles.
Genre
the f i l m s
that are
c a t e g o r y , w h i c h not only lea ds
of t h a t g e n r e b u t c o n t i n u a l l y
new film w ill e i t h e r
define
about
the g e n r e
reassesses
to
it.
Each
ae it s t a n d s o r r e ­
is a s t r u c t u r e , a c c o r d i n g t o l i a g e t ' s
i n c l u d e s the f o l l o w i n g
three f u n d a m e n t a l
16
a)
the
i d e a of
b)
the i d e a of
wholeness
trane.ormation
c) the i d e a of s e l f - r e g u l a t i o n
By w h o l e n e s s r i a g e t m e a n s t h a t a s t r u c t u r e m u s t h a v e c o h e r e n c e .
All the
p a r t s of
g o v e r n it.
different
that s t r u c t u r e
So as a n i n t e g r a l
to w h a t
they would
c o n f o r m to a s e t of l a w s w h i c h
p a r t of
be
structure
if t h e y w e r e s e p a r a t e
Without the e nc om p a s s i n g whole,
individual
meaningful
this concept
existence.
Applying
the f o l l o w i n g b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t .
normal signs are made
within
m e a n i n g of
structure
to g e n r e
the f r a m e w o r k
to m e a n a n d m e a n a g a i n .
Piaget's
next
point
i t to m a i n
continually
flux.
of g e n r e
kcr example
signs,
in
sugges.he
to t h e g o v e r n i n g
they occur.
is t h a t a s t r u c t u r e
always i n c or po ra te s new material,
and adds
film,
r e l a t i o n s h i p to h i s e n v i r o n m e n t .
signs will change acc or di ng
in w h i c h
entities.
p a r t s h a v e nc
t h e w e s t e r n g e n r e h o r s e s f u n c t i o n as I n d e x i c a ^
t i v e of t h e c o w b o y ' s
t h e y are
b o d y of the
s t r u c t u r i n g and
Piaget uses human
is n e v e r s t a t i c
processes
It a c c o r d i n g l y
structure.
therefore
but
Structure
exists
is
in a s t a t e
ol
l a n g u a g e as e v i d e n c e o: a t r a n s f o r m ­
i n g s t r u c t u r e b e c a u s e n e w w o r d s and s o u n d s a r e c o n s t a n t l y
to it.
Similarly,
genre
changes
i n the s t r u c t u r e
structures
itself
adaed
in the s a m e w a y a n a
a r e d i r e c t l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n h o w the
film
are
industry
evolved
perc ei ves
from
formulae w h ic h
make
up the
never
ftructure
and
where
genres
do
a c o m b in at iv e
are
analysis
au di enc e
of
change.
de s i r es
process
static.
a genre
In ans we r
come?"
To do ro v
and
to
^enre
of film m a k i n g
Na rr at iv e
are
needs.
ele me nt s
tlways
the
and
which
u nd er go in g
question:
rrom
responds:
h y , quite s i m p l y , from other g e n r e s . A new genre
is a l w a y s the tr a n s f o r m a t i o n of one or several old
genres: by inversion, by di sp la cem ent , by c o m b i n a ­
tion ." 1 '
Every
text
f or mat ion
arisin g
froi
of other
from an old
one,
a genre
texts.
let
To show how
vs co ns i d e r
and
Elashaance.
Traditionally,
the
pre sentation
of
couch
this
sexuality
sen sitive
m et ap h o r i c a l l y
as
subjec t
the need
to hide
to show
openly.
Jo Sally
lover to go to bed
boasts
the
about
her
protagonist
eexual
in what
indica tio n
of
elements.
A vital
perscnae was
role
the
is reversed
as
It revives
the
dream
1950's,
a popula r
York's Eawby's
bar,
this rather sordid
York Academy
Piaget's
final
has
and
files,
this goal.
structure
point
outside
its
the
bred
the w o m a n
genres
Astaire
asks her
(rlashaance)
a male-dominated
the
Beale
own
invites
also com bi ne s
and
- personified
with
the
hides
and
new
her
much of
ro.e
of
the
that
a struc tur e
rati ona le
internal
the
with
cl
in the
198C's.
setting,
J e n n i f e r aspires
in a cc or da nc e
'feel
spirit
to
the
Jew
rrom
Beaminess.
and with he l p from her
is
This
Hell)
in a totally new
none
is
Gene Kelly
the
of
as
na rr ati ve
lover to
by Gene
spirit
and
by a desire
(C a b a r e t ) openly
of one of
environment,
achieves
and needs no
of
)un cti on
displaced
Having
always
to
In Cabaret
a g g r e s s i ve ne ss .
sentiment
of J a n c i n g
of old musical
which
Beals
was
avoid ed
prefe rin g
her and J e n n i f e r
Jennifer
r l a shdanc e
of
film has
of iov ema kin g.
been
arises
of C a b a r et
way,
in seq ue nc es
trans­
f u nc ti on as the wo ma n' s Svengali.
Am eri can
great
mus ica ls
part
exa mples
overt
Bowles
and
a new genre
the m u si ca l
sex has
in v e r si on
their
the m u s i c 1 .
the
with
the
in an
e x h i b i t i on s
F l a s h d a nce
it
is an ab so r p t i o n
the
New
formulae
friends,
she
is se lf -r e g u l a t i n g
to val id at e
its
laws wh ich have
existence.
no
reliance
A
upon
othei
itself
iyc Leu
wi th ou t
1r e a l i t y 1 or
re fe ri ng
ihus
music
In his
and
stru ct ur e
needs
points
wh ic h
of mo s t
covered
above.
It must
If a film
of
the
be
s t u d i o ’s 'star'
It must
and
the
thl»
were
use
to
the
it valid.
outlined
provide
to genre
a valid
have
been
is a co mm e r c i a l
then
formula
of
the
judged
it dev elo ps
art which
office.
reason
exploited
a genre
for
box
the
of
is c o n s i s ­
ap p r o a c h
file
for
for
therefore,
s t u d i e s , and
the
similarly.
the c i n e m a ’s contact
contact
film
issues wh ich
to make money
pe rfo rme rs
*ne
has
at the
and
without
to make
points
access
The success
rec og ni se
from
l
thorns.
structure,
Jchatz
fi nan cia lly ,
isolat ed
profit.
hese
to
and
system.
critical
filmmaking
tied
s uc ce .s fu l
will
any
as a
n e c es sa ri ly
musical
,nomas
'closed'.
exists
rules
rat io nal e
outside
is
g e n r e , fa mi l i a r
rel eva .t
that
in its cap aci ty
That
Ge nres
own
the
this
he
accept
is
commerc ial
2.
ol
it
leaves
ot her
of
no out side
is in t r i n s i c a l l y
lay
to any
feels
1A
incorporate.
summary
success
to its
re g u l a t e s
upon
w i tho ut
as a closed
feature
book h o i 1y \nod
film must
1.
according
as a st yl ist ic
audience
which
language
exists
on or r e fe re nce
the
'rose'
sense
bloom with green
film
itself
tent with
four
red
the musical
reliance
nglish
anu
to call
In this
in the word
of tr
ex ietu
any n e ce ss ity
'objectiviiy' .
to the
regulates
t, u lure
havin,
P i a g e t ’s example
c o n s t i t u e nt
-
with
the a u d i e n c e .
the formula
for e u b -
ae .uent genre _f i_lms .
Popular cultu re
of which
they
cussion about
uncover the
of t e x t s .
forms
reflect..
ouch
are
Cne
soci ol og ic al
way.
always
of
popular art
the
purposes
forms
is often
Po pul a r cultu re
these myths
rooted
in the soc ieties
of critical
as genre
tilm,
patterns which under.y
Public mo ra l i t y
a my th-like
permeate
art
throug ho ut
reflected
helps
society.
is to
Certa in
by genre
to reveal,
dis­
classes
films
transmit
.hue genre
films
in
and
may
be
re garded
the
Image
Seldon,
bohemian
with
and
3•
charm.
Sally
It a c c e :ts that
neo 1 urn
the Rain
/wenty years
liberated,
o!
to the
women
the
^athy
i19b 2)
later
yet
genre.
co yne ss
(Cabaret ) who
Both c o n f o r m e d
and image
in
innocence,
Bowles
se xu a l l y
hurt.
the status
showing
-a k e tor an example
in the mu si ca l
of bi ng i n g
chori ne
fe min in e
comers*
re flected
the he ro i n e
presented
easily
Id eo logical
of w om en
pert young
tional
as
ie a
and
conven­
au diences
are
is b r a s h »
still
vulner ab le
c u rr en t myths
and
r e g ar di ng
in society.
cinema
is a n a r r a t i v e ( s t o rv-tellingj
tori e s are
dr amatic
but
based
upon c ultural
is es pec ial ly
relevant
to the mu s i c a l
c o n f 1 lets .
Inis
point
for mu la e
are
occ up a t i o n
often
with
based
upon class
seem in gl y
g a m b l e r / h e i r es s,
chorus
g e n er al ly
the
proves
conflicts •
illmat ch ed
g i rl /m ale
sent im en t
lovers
love
Ihere
as
plot
is a pre
poor boy/rich
s t a r 1 and
that
genre
girl
the genre
ov ercomes
social
barriers.
4 .
In
the Ku s l c a l
)enre
artistry
fi lm m a k e r s capacity to worx
la m e a s u r e d
wi t h i n
the
in terms
e s t a b lished
of
the
generic
conventions.
This
re in f or c e s
is not
of
a valuable
M c Ar th u r ' s
supreme
point
impor ta nce
issue.
Any
and
performers
must
the
genre
consideration.
use
the
into
g e n r e , its
ex ci ti ng way
Astaire's
so
are
is Vincen te
marked
narra ti ve
is inoicitive
the
full,
own
'world
to work
within
and
the
of
of all
the
c e rt ai n
al though
ol
the
director/performer
can
in a new and
successful.
type
visual
'high art'
and
films w hi ch
and
sound
film di re ct or who
'individual
popular culture mode
limi ta ti on s.
Bred
of success,
in cr eating
«nich
is
dire ct or s
ana
this
the
it
industry
as
v i s i o n ' and
in
re la ti o n s h i p
of genre
formulae,
brilli an ce
Unlike
those w o r k i n g
the work
regarded
by their harmo ny
indulge his
agree
be
Minnelli's
can
If
conventions
elem en ts .
of
auteur
criticism
the co n st ra in ts
then he may
persona
the
to genre
an al ys is
take
that
style
to
tacitly
is not
to
67
say
that
they must
asp ir a ti on s ,
but
of genre must
?.2
The
In his
impo rt an t
preface
study
and
while
He m a i n t a i n s
the
con ve nt io ns
that
every
adds
two
narra ti ve
theory
words
story
through w hi ch
Of na r r a t iv e
the
be applied
th rou gho ut
the
book.
c o nc ep t
rests
and
are
its
that
dance
every
and
its
^
day.
by a s u b ­
communicates,
d i s c o u r s e , d i s co ur se
atory
c r it ic s
film comic
co nc ept s
’what'
tne
to tne
is uno er pi nn ed
imp or ta nt
to
Literary
and music
its na rr ati ve
its
via
In
In t:.e
of narrat ivity
stories
discipline
s in gl em os t
the
can
consume
how
structure
work
scu lp tu re s,
explai ns
the
of na r r a ti ve
D i s c o u r se he notes
stratum which
its
that
artistic
D i s c o u r se Se y m o u r Ch a t m a n
conce pt
does
they
paintings,
and
t h eo ret ica l
to confine
medium
that
Story
the
of his
to Story
strips,
acknowledge
as Ch a t m a n
inclined
verbal
personal
of Genre
out lines
Much
film m e d i u m
any
be respected.
s u c ce s sf ul l y
are
simply
El em en ts
fiction.
r e li n q u i s h
and
he
upon which
'why'.
being
In other
the m e a n i n g
is t r a n s m i t t e d .
theory C h a t m a n
states
the
following.
It:
"... has no critical axe to grind.
It's objective is^
a crid of po ssibilities, through the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o.
the minim al n a rr at ive c o n s t i t u t i v e features.
It plots
individual texts on the grid and asks w h et h e r their
a c c o m m o d a t i o n requires ad ju st me nt of the grid.
It
does not asse rt that a u th or s should or should not do
so-and-so.
Ra th e r it poses a question:
A hat can we
eay about the s tr uc tu re s like narratives organise t h e m ­
and
selves?"
c
goes on to note
na r ra ti ve
has
a dis co ur se
two
that
parts
(diecouse)
st ru ct u r a l i s t
a story
theory
(histoire)
the m e a n s
states
that
the content,
through which
and
it is c o m m u n ­
icated .
Since
genre
na r r a t i ve
la
a n a rr at ive
th r o u gh
a breakdown
of
the
this
twin
st ru ctu re
c ha nn el s
st r u c t u r e
and
i.e.
it
of story
the way
transmits
and
that
a
discourse,
it is c o mm un -
will
on
of genre.
d raw upon m u s i c a l
oc cas io n
are
For the
to the
appropriate.
show
how
that
constit ute
purpose
genre
films
of
this a n al ys is
and
for examples
este rn and g a n g s t e r
Chatman
a narrative
its
provides
ope rates
and
genres wh er e
isolate
c
a
c
a
♦j
v
XI
3
1o
4->
c
41
c
o <M o
ft. o o
2
41
O
G
ed
*»
tn
0
c
&
c
O
o
■H
CO
(0
4>
G
CX
K
1)
a
k
o
0
H
M
to
4)
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re;e r
tney
the el em en ts
structure.
4)
:
the fol lo wi ng mode i to
of
el eme nt s
f-i
a>
m
G
cx
K
4'
C le a r l y
each
the musical
film a story
genre
is a n a r r a t i v e
structure
via
By d e c o n s t r u c t i n g
the
C h a t m a n 1 a m o d e l , one can
get
e s s en ti al
closer
eye tern.
a round
are
to the
Chatman
a struc tu re
organised
narrative,
of the
which
explai ns
while
plot
the
and
create
can
be
are
that while
the
plot,
placed .
of
and
ne calls
events,
or
's a t e l l i t e s ' form
and add
various
the course
also
of
event
(action)
as
had
The narrative
elements
of
of
in the musica l
all
The most common
musicals
though,
boy meets girl,
Around
this
identified
involves
loses
the
the
and notes
advancement
only
These
of
of
provide
secondary
the narrative
to it.
The major
^n a spe cific
event
way,
and
mo ments.
deciding
hvents
may
'h a p p e n i n g s 1 depending
direct
control
over
the
of external
forces
( h a p p e n i n g ).
the musical
of
genre will
na tu ral ly
are
core,
one
can
underly ing
f o l lo wi ng
girl,
include
coy
nu me ro us
the most
familiar
plot
by Timot hy
ocheurer
in an
a discuss ion
of
of
all
events;
song and gets
variat io ns
for mul ae
essay
several
the genre .
almost
sequence
sings
Under
isolate
ch a r a c t e r i s t i c
pattern
the
be analysed
events and ex i s t e n t s .
film genre
of wh ich
one generic
e v o l v e d , and
had
one must
na rr ati ve
boy
a plot
it was a result
c at ego ri es
'events'
formulae,
acti on
against
i to which
to the
at climatic
no control
the heading
plot
form
to the main
p r ot ago nis t
over which he
plot and
the
of a
a f u rt he r dis tin cti on
Subtext
'a c t i o n s ' or
or w h e t h e r
under Ch at man 's
set tin gs
of s i g n i f i c a t i o n
the na rr ati ve
the
the
plot
'ex i s t e n t s ' are
re a d e r / v i e we r.
pe rt ai ni ng
be classi fi ed
upon w h et her
for the
advance
raising q u e sti ons
J o the
which
fnvents 1
env ir onm ent
'k e r n e l s ' . others
i ntercut
or kernels
the
up
physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n s
esse nti al
incidental
events
form
are
the
is built
1e x i s te n t s 1 .
they
medium.
narr ati ve
narrative
Ch a t m a n makes
are
layers
of this
a sp ec if ic
'events'
some events
these
tnot
unfolded.
characters
types
any
'exIstents'
of a na r r a t i v e
the
that
a way
characters
between
el em ent s
'events 1 and
in such
content
the
of
using
specific
in
is c o mm un ic at ed
genre
the
and
have
have
girl.
been
been
entitled
"The
A esth eti cs
The
of
*'orn. nnri c o n v e n t i o n
ex istents
el em en t s
length
tion
of
the music al
of c h a r a c t e r
and
the
secti on
of the co nc ep t
about
a virtual
Events
1.
A il-Star nevue
Be rkeley
was
a string
the m aj or
of
'ha]
the um br e l l a
of a huge
de scribed
the
revue
as
of
1929,
of
credit
that he
tional
gaze
inventions
studio
lavish
included
and what
appeared
the
into any
film of
to
it
and The
of Busby
at
type
the
Berkeley.
re pu tations
mel od y
of
of
largest
credit
never
the
but
exhibit
films
cinematic
before.
be tr ans lat ed
cinematic.
as such
of
these
been seen
not
a
staircase
for his
the
In each
text
s t u d i o ’s star
1 9 Z 9 i Pa ramount
191k ail
His
gallons
tha . could
plot
quest
water over a
sp ec if i c a l l y
was no
s
of cho rin es
ribbon.
out ra ge ou s
Berkeley
and
pumped
the
in a way
the H o l l y w o o d
crowds
as
Ho w e v er
be
insatiable
to t yp ew ri te r
of w hi ch had
Br oa dw ay V.elody
vast
under
c a m e r a ’s undirec-
be regarded
there
arcadway
the
20 000
it was
to ge t h e r
to rer keiey
In his
which
formula
extr ava gan t
of
film me d i u m
form,
from
in the
Z a n u c k , releases
rate
Busby
plot
logically
It was
he used
the
time .
likes
joined
each more
to m o v t .
har p' s
give
perpetuate
performers .
of knowl edg e
of this
could
last.
an a q u a c a d e
that
the
other
this
.n e x a m i n a ­
B e g in ni ng with
the ci ne m a
could
one must
innovations,
He used
at
the
se qu en ce s
from human
in the world
at
fo rmu lae
pr oducer Dar ry l P.
that
allowed
plot
were
simil ar m u s i c a ls
built wa t e r fa ll
minute,
served
'event' .
released
and
as an ything
include
proponent
e tings
under
in de s ig n
for dr am at ic
be di a cu ia ed
si>
r< •u e , which
only
he,
a vast num be r
am b i ti ou s
the n a r r a t i v e
i c o n o g r a p h y , the body
the f o l l o w i n g
film g e n r e :
in which
s e tt in g *111
.
fo rmulae
musical
Busby
i.e.
on s e tti ng will
of
identi fi es
The
genre
the i».ovie Ii.usicaj.
subject.
: ‘lot
Sche urer
and
in
the
on I a r & i * - A 2 j 0
indulgent
style
2.
.he
Thie
B a r k a t a r e ku s i r a l
type
Revue,
of music al
except
that
in
story.
It was not
within
a plot which
the
the
just
who
fina nci al
try
cho rus
girl
fam il ia r
P re di ct ab ly
events
of
the chor us
the
held by the
theatre
numbers
ge n e r al ly
part
of the
reflect
not
the
Berkeley
exc e ll ed
to his credit
the
show
lover
the
can
faces
an
D lr ge ra
of
Po o t ll gh t
Rogers
chorine
of
this
be
listed
otregt
co nf lic t
a leg
be offered
to
Also
D l/gers
in the
in type
and
fe at ur es
difficulties.
all
showi ng
fear of u n e m p l o y m e n t
films were
all
and
un a n i mo us
as a result
u ne mpl oy ed
The
forever.
of
w hi ch
the
same
concern
in the ir
poverty
problems,
for
refuses
optimism.
In the musical
it and
and
were
Gold
of
as
and
the
one was
and
typical
the usual
were c h a r a c t e r ­
lack
the future,
and no
upon
irantic
beset with
J e p r e s e i o n years
of
her
starred Astaire
Rogers
is
and
the star
The
who
are
busby
to decide
Fashions
is s i mi l a r
may
as well,
same mould
1935,
are
they
the most de serving
of
a show
and
cho osi ng
fracture.
Fleet which
to stage
: un ct io ns
g e n r e , tney
forces her
Annie
«..e
the musicai
in w hi ch
the
trying
films
between
place.
gir.s,
structure.
Follow
by films
starved
4 2nd
ill
Satellite
of film musical
to A ny ti me
girls.
fall
lavish
the musical
Circumstance
1 G ? ; , Gold
-inti the
thematic
type
internal
the
should
the chorus
P a rade.
financial
ised
at
role
it should
uno b tr u si ve
film's
there
A n ot he r
Although
the
s uggests
actor.
in rehearsal.
of
with
to take her
these
oi
the ne g l e c t e d
narrative
suffe rs
offers
beset
to the
she
d ir e c t o r
is
in
a gr ou p
success .
of
In
i n c i de nt al
the
or her c a r e e r .
former when
lives
con cer ns
with
lady
is au dit ion ed
management.
the matic
leading
conflicts,
is
arouna
Set
demand s that
a r e s o un di ng
and
show which
integrated
the
by a
but a show
usually
leading
t r a um at ic
came raderie
are
the
she ac hi eve s
involve
backstage
that
of
and
framed
Iormula.
which
necessity
told,
the hea rt
'e v e n t ' is
a member
be
revue,
revolved
a revue
to tne Ai l-otar
revue was
filmed
story
Generic
to
the
to a typical
to stage
story
wine
another
the
problems.
is also a love
former
ad ner ed
de pre ss ion years,
ch ar ac t e r s
and
aau aim 1 1 nr In co nce pt
o.
money,
but musical
No one ever
victimises
film aid always
cane
or
to
the
deserving •
of V i n ce nt e
the
story
Mention
Minnelli's
of a
a h o u 1d be maae
film
on Bro adw ay
has q ui ck ly
f o r g o t t e n his
talent.
is cu st om ar y
and
As
dance
the matic
sequences
w hi ch
mu si c a l s
is to be
the R a in,
and
the
the
Stanley
bu siness
grouped
is
involves
vehic le
B on en 's
for
the
f.u :ng
reveals
true nature
overri di ng
commercialism
which
essence
are
it reveals
a them* which
formulae
simple
can
love
studio's
3•
fed
the
first
ra g c - to - n c h e s
rests
narra ti ve
unfolds
a y ou ng girl
achieves w o m a n h o o d .
upon
the
In each
potential
ably
the hero
is the
catalyst
because
of her
love
guidance,
Bady
that
story
shows
g i r l , rises
social
Gjgl
into a woman
adoles ce nt
composure.
among
tale
the
and
con structed
web
aui.ence.
In
and
of
illusion,
films.
iwo
the
plot
the
Oak ley 's
in the
working
until
she
reaches
her
French
and
plot
clas.
Tft.L E
and
the
flow er
and
girl who blo ssoms
rrom a clumsy,
her natural
rise
In
*incente M i n n e l l i
the hero.
met eo ri c
Invari­
growth,
sophisticatioi
classes •
to reveal
the
under his s e n si ti ve
to attain
of
as she
remarkable
a lowly
upper
refined
As
awKwaraness.
is entre nc hed
love
allegory.
self-awareness.
of a young
t ra ns fo rm s
Annie
this
to full
stati on
she
i n d u s t r y , its
the sh ooting of
we watch
for him,
above
and wins
and
P y gm al ion
for
joolittle
simple
be
in the h a L o , the
off her girlish
al le gor y
her
also
often hi larious
reality
is gradually
how k l i z a
accept an ce
is the
casts
she m a t u r e s
the P y gm al ion
industry
story^.
case
true
is
in
film.
fomrula
it
b e tw ee n
otner
B in gi ng
could
the movie
be lieving
as
s
t h • snow
film
tnis
in r i ng in g
plot
and
of
of Bon and Cathy,
sound
the
in many musical
be d i s t i n g u i s h e d
story
of
its ca re ful ly
dicotooy
trie film
same
comeback.
Through
to a willing,
is m a ni f e s t e d
The C i n d erella
This
and
into
the
il lusions
film Bonen
the s^ng
lehears ng ol
.onv's
musical.
the
cuslca.,
basically
e x a m i n a t io n
of manuf ^
and enormous
integrated
a b a ck st age
myths
as
fully
plot
A s t a i r e ) trying
success
in a Mi n n e l l i
ihe
and
(Fred
to a the at ri ca l world which
previous
ore all
st ructure.
back stare
The .band v & s o n , which nai ra ^e s
1h a s - b e e n 1 p e r fo rm er
to make a co ne ba ck
in this category
to fame
elegance
and
(in Annie _ge_t
s
73
Ycur
iun)
.s u uu pe rt
her con ra e ha b it j
need
to
■ <* t t ,
v . a Lcar^n
be fe mi n i n e
..hen
nr.
.
ahe
f ,n .
^nfluencr
<; o l
only realise.,
in love and
tne
ue.,ireu
1.
A c: or us r.irl ..ho a c h i e v e and
be cot • . .. '
plot
formul a
.erke le y' u
r co,;i.iticn for h e r talents
: ' in '.n. t.. r . a! ty e of the
an.
an thiu
Gi .a ■:
er fil
ca te go ry
,
cun
cor e
overall
be clay, eu husLy
Jux .r 1
^ - tur
.n
,
.
This ca te g o r y
made
for
rise
to fane
of
tie
fil::
:..u ic 1 13 r< fert> s p e c i f i c a l l y
lie T o r p o r s -:
of
a chorus
n
in t h <1 9 3 C 1. ct ar ri ng the
girl,
tr m s f o r m a t i o n
.
the
love story
to those
f roc girl
•
is na r k e d
:y the
•
chequered
fe el in gs
•
of the
.
asae character
type. , Aat
r e 1s
Sauve nusxc-... in an . 1.
.
con s i s t e n c y
nr... th** succe. . of
extent
th
upon
Usually
the
~ n t e r p 1 y o:
i*o.
n f r their
these
; -l...s relie s
c uflict end
to
re so lution, tne
c .n f , »ct is because
o:
a lack
of
.
.
in tneir files
*n
every
dance
revealu
their i n h e r e n t
sense
.
honesty
only
and
si n c e r i t y
re solved
when
in u reli tionuhi;
they allow
ana
t!i e conflict
is
th e.aselvec to ex pro. -• their
.
the levers and
he
go somethin.- 1 .ke
events w h i c h make
thiol
affection.
wi th e r he
The
is
one who
a secret
Astaire
or
betr ot hc u
for fear
that
________
n'
court,
. oyer,
tie is betrothed
lose his
and
usually
..ins her
to a this ; party.
(f - r ex nr p i e , estaire,'
he 1 ill
.
up the n a r r a t i v e
new
keeps
love.
t .is
-hen Ho. e r s
dis c ov er s
breaks
why
off
her
return
found
that her
the
love
s om e o n e
claim
her
and
Tor Hat
Ih e
A s ta ir e
altered,
cannot
but
accepts
that he must
In the m e a n t i m e
the
else
this allows
to return
and
for himself.
all
conform
owing
to this
him
fianc6 has
T i m e , .he
simple
else and
understand
plot
lay
to Rogers
divorcee
formula.
was H o l l y w o o d ' s
attempt
to
'h i g h b r o w 1 art
form of
the ( pera
into
industry with
the aim
of m a k i n g
a profit.
succeeded
in this
films
escape
their
two most
important
and
vehicles
des ig ne d
star
Eu rop ean
story
notacly
nddy,
Grayson.
lo ca l e s ,
(plot)
in f l u e n t i a l
ov er wh elm in g
are Lu bi t s c h ' u
of
their
fun and
.he Kerry
of
the
are
the
set
studio's
M a ur ic e
in
colour
enjoym en t.
Lanza
exotic
The love
the songs
o e s t , tneae
* l d o w and
-rnst
usually
costume.
and
ol
of
later Ma rio
s e tt i n g and
and m a g m f i c e n c
sense
and
h e a r t r e n d i n g,
At
of
films were
u.ac^onald,
N o r m a l l y , they
in flavour.
some
directors,
talents
Je anette
in period
opu len ce
ihese
the
hey
is to the credit
urace M o o r e
is usually
q u a oi -po et ic
a lavish
to display
Nel so n
Kathryn
and
which
incorporate
the c o mm er ci al
miraculously
Ro u be n Kamoulian.
performers,
C hevalier,
v e n t u r e , an.
senti me nta li ty,
Lu bit sch
ful
to someone
( ne re tt a
film
and
oetrothed
f i a n c 6.
The Sc re en ( peretta
the
is
relati on sh ip.
for him has
to his
and
lover
Of
are
films
display
and m ai nt ai n
the most
an
success­
» a m c u l i a n 1o ^ove me
Ton:ght.
A subtype
formula
ie
the
the charac te rs
inhabit a world
of
'm a k e - b e l i e v e '.
the
is the most
Minnelli's
examples
The hunlcal
One
this
love story
film.
best
of
of
of
plot
vital
Hriga doo n and
the
fan ta sy /r om an ce
thread
Joshua
fantasy/romance
which
runs
in which
Cnee
again
through
Logan's Camelot
are
category.
biography
the most
s u c c es sf ul
plot
f o r m u l a e , in terms oi
its
the
the
capacity
w hi ch
to make m o n e y , was
the
career
unfolded.
musical
works
b io g r a p h i e s
career were
w ri t er s
in order
these
were
usuall y
tampered
to make
the
career
second.
came
love
The J o l s o n
of
to
life
Story
film u n f o r t u n a t e l y
revels
in his
relationship
careers
of
Dancing
for them
of
the C a s t l e ' s
is not
ment
as a display
life
of J o h a n S t r a u s s
which
a apts
of
the work
conventions
of the
is
when
age
improved
and
of how music
the
-.
presence
St ra us s
He
The
«hile
receives
and does
so there
exhibits
an
the
and
engaging
of the musical
genre.
has
Treat
and how
plot
centred
with his
and
the
two
the
pe r s rr.a ^
Irene,,_Castle
with
of
unity
form.
and love.
of The
this
how
"altz
i.he
Great— * a 1 t_z
co mposer
artistic
a loving
the
s u p e rf ic ia ll y.
of gaini ng e m p l o y ­
partner
to the
endea vou r
to e n c o u r ­
shows a romantic
ar tistic
In sp ira tio n
a b s o r b e d , processed
impulse
through
i n s p ir at io n
to write
Al though
simpli ci ty
In Gotta
the
view
is
is iound
in
and m an if es te d
through which music makes
drivi ng
then.
The
'b.anmy1 but
dealt
It shows
is a vessel
felt.
only
career
artist
script­
is h i g h l i g h t e d , w:.ile the
is the subject
and
and
and allow
unsuccessful
essential
into a c o n c r e te
and
and
actual
contains
so much a means
their
is w r i t t e n
environment,
the artist.
are
be kn own
of Vernon
lovers
genre.
the
inspire
c ha nn el le d
Story
the
studio
the genre.
(1946)
Showers'
the
the
thf
lile
and dealt
'April
In The
from
of his
by
songs
re l a t i o n sh i p s .
in these
it more m a r k e t a b l e ,
they
c h ar a c t e r ' s
great J o l s o n
with
in
or ca n c e r was
drawn
story
c o n ve nt io ns
1b i o p l c s 1 as
around
the
biography,
co ntained
usually
but
to the
composer
seque nce s
composer
it to co nf o r m
of
of a famous
The music al
of the
%he musical
by
its
park one day
his Great Waltz
inaccurate,
which ad her es
the
to the
Sing Gotta Dance
film
spirit
John Kobal
writes of it:
"The Great W a l t z is an i n t o x i c a t i n g flow of heady images
dedicated to the spirit of Strauas, while letting the
facts take care of t h em se lv es .
It is not so much a
bi ography as gl orious musical imagery in waltz time.
Ex iatentG
With in
: C h h r a c t •*r h
the
fr amework
been c a t eg o r i s e d
functioning
of
as
the
level
fu l f il l ed
'stars'
for
at which
the
and also
total
formula
the
public
has
for c ha rac te rs
who
they could
and
I have
will
Id ent ifi ed
discuss
the
them und er
repeti­
Is
due
them.
for
to
ihey
Its
relate
foll owi ng
to on
groups
two hea din gs
male
Characters
In this
appears
I'h* A n at omy
in
id en t i fi ed
by the
five
cr itical
'
which
can
apply
equal ly
well
This
where
the
gods
and
could
envi ro nme nt.
His
being and
might
power
even
of a god.
the
legends
laws
are
he
of Modes
modes,
to his
are
five
works,
Is su pe r i or
which
defined
fellow man and
types
of hero
these
their
the hero
He
in kind
five
in classical
envi ron men t
is s u p e r i o r
is capable
of
performing
is usually
Invested
in him
Is a prince
In fi cti on
of nature
in
of this
may
be
reversed.
the
Romantic
mode.
to man
mar ve ll ou s
to his
fellow
by a su pe ri or
or a king,
sort,
Is a
ureek m y t h o l o g y
in degree
In station
he
He
and
and m an ip ul at e
superior
though
to man
being.
is only
writt en
each
and
as a divine
is found
defy
Hornantic mode,
although
there
in literary
of hero
*n the
man.
p r o t ag on is t
Is classed
beings.
feats,
the
the he:o
lesser
the
Theory
to film.
mode,
tyoj
Ihe
of fi ct io na l
Consequently
environment
god.
of
be identi fi ed
In the Ky t h l c
essay
of C r i t i c i s m . N o r t h r o p Frye has
c a t e go ri es
relationship
en v ir on men t.
and
the
which
basis.
'horizon's
'.heir succes sfu l
with
need
thus
and
I de nt if ie s
The H e r o :
and
of
'types',
have
female.
Vale
his
part
ch ar a c t e r s
proper ti es
audience.
as
genre,
recognised
the a u d i e n c e
a specific
ch ara ct e r s
and
easily
the genre
a on e-t o- on e
of
Into
the muBlcu l
r e c u r r i n g n a r ra ti ve
expectation'
tion w i t h i n
of
belief
hoik
he has
the
Is su s p e n d e d
tales
and
1 ;k
hi,, h • ni;:i■ Lie moae
ie.t
hero
.ho
i;
i -perior in a e, ree
.
r
u
:
: i:
serin
in
<1 chcrnft
ant; upaetting
.
.
.o -
,
St
th.
hro
i.
ak i n
to h < .. feilo.
a an
.
xth oth er s
but
is
i d e n t if ia bl e
as a htr o
because
of a
•
A hero
cast
ir. the
ironic
: - .e i- inf erior to sun and his
e n v i r o n m e n t , usually
in
in te ll ig en ce
rr,.
- of his
us \ e
its o c c a s io na ll y
. e i.
snie
st ati on
.■ r . ecuteu
> .
c :,
but
cut sometime ...
by
t;.e community
.e often reveals
•
• ,
.
-.enoible to moot
In the mu si c a l
node
as he
is
of th«
genre
akin
community.
tht
here
to his
is generi -^.y of the
fel lo w man and
also
lo .-cl&etic
to his
env iro n-
t«
.
.
i're t •r s i t hero
•arene
of the mu sic al
n : conviction
film
t .an his
} ecro •
ill al s o l o w r himself
- he
into the
,
in.
He
is not
aver; e to ni se rin,
in alien s u r r o u n d ! <. a
■it.
.
Yet
to
the
.here
audienc e
inf' rior or u n co mf or ta bl e
people
he
rr f r ■m a h i . her sociuu
al. ays m a i n t a i n s a self
assui-
.
i
the
just
a performance.
lUeicnl
. li.
cinematic
g e n :e becaui •• the h.ro's
_^
irony
me s s a g e
is successful
i:
in
n ■ - dogmatic.
It cannot
th r e a t e n
behaviour.
-hen
ing
he
Astaire
inferiority
and
ex presee o our
fears
and all ow s
hero has
alised
and
assured,
he
is
his
he
all
His
and
his
loyal
be
quest
the
to risk
aining
one.
have
also a woman's
eve ry th in g
and
care,
He shows
emphasizes
feelin gs
the
of
ment al
harm' ny w h ic h
they
wit hi n
this s e c t l n ,
Thomas
persona should
he makes
mark
it clear
in the
created
be
raised
achieve
ana
genre
an i d en ti fia bl e
girl,
rather
as a lover he
is
and with his
from a giri
a. ukens
union,
her
and
aone
'4
lovemaking
pnyeicai
ana
.overt,.
o t trie generic
In n oily wood
who have made
oo
of
to new
the
tog ether as
ano
beauty
This m et ap ho ri c
actors
persona.
r.s
to
power ana
analysed .
have
ana
com mi tt me nt
u c h a t z 'u concept
that ce rta in
various
ana
their
.Ives,
he would
assurance
the
in her b o i y .
intensity
and
changes
her
dance as an explor itory medium,
a huge
guilt.
his
she
it
of improving
co urting
a l t h o u gh
love
Under
whicn
thj
to amass
how he
a previous
pure
reflects
the hope
when
aside,
renounce
Svengali.
ac hi ev es w o m a n h o o d .
rhythms and
in
leaving nim
occ up at io ns
seen
of
is an
to gambling,
to gemcle
is n e v e r
ne
self-
paint.n< , ga.. i i -
regaro
an ex te nsi on
and
implication,
t h i s , also
with
to live with his
truth
by
Dancing,
instinct
is
hit
as a whole.
convictions.
f u lf i l m e n t *
than
guidan ce
the genre
all ap pr o p r i a t e
in.
responsibility
is for
sensitive
to m e
are
involved
that
wit hi n
reflects
loved
service
her forever,
and
anr
too.
as a c t e l c l ^ n and
His ga mb li ng
preparea
a no th er
can
of the hero and he
casts
lose
them.
id en ti f ia bl e
occupation
be noted
and
our own d i f f i cu lt ie s
are c o n v e n t i o n ­
pursue
life
aociaiitet
wh ic h
hero mi.*nt
fortune.
of
a n u m b e r of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
surely we
is talented
personality
presence
Le -1tir‘'
can admit
ing and na ti o n a l
should
.arty,
if he
a r t i s t , and his
the
the
accf-;j vahie
c>;
at a society
in
to ac ce p t
order,
ror
se n s i ti ve
freedom to
arriveu
di scomfort
us
easily
F i r s t l y , he
of uncial
own reserv at io ns ,
own s h o rt co mi ng s,
The
our Benue
Decause
Ce r t a in ly
enr ejs
their
they have
mucn
ot
the
s uc ce ss
of many
perform er s.
men
can
Ana
Fred
musi cal
s u c c e s s , but
if
to
Not
they
that
sv s tern both
Astai re
accepted
public,
coping.
felt
Astaire
audience,
mak in g
dancing.
He
ensured
verre
self
that h:
artistry
en ca psulated
are
cane and
Astaire
his
dancing
persona.
and
Go
sli ghtly
too is
balding
His
is
Kobal
in its
wri te s
the
that
at
especially
tr.e generic
ground,
audience.
of
least
living
he was
poised
on the
His
phjt.i^al
him.
nis \ i , elegance
the
was
as his
clear,
around
someone
own char ac te r
sensitive,
world
the Am er i c a n
is as easy as
his
01
always
and
anc
sheer
'ami liar
top hat
They
synonymous with
slim,
nead .
and
cannot
it is always
the needs
that
as bre ath ta ki ng
brilliance.
one
same con cerns
shoes.
in the audience
time lens
it met
in tne
e xp ec ta tio n
dancing
that
always
creaking ne^
because
bo un d a r i e s
iconic,
the
as a choreogra phe r.
to see
to the
become
smile
let witrin
belie ve
presence has
his
or Kelly.
share
the
of
one's name,
belly
of
form ila for
if
ge ne r o u s
wise
the
r e s p o n s i b il it y
-lives were
assure
of dance,
create
the
respons­
success
the a a m i r a t 1 on ol his
couia
created
the
c ntinuaily
of
largely
even
reassured
them
are
:orce
realised
de pr es s i o n years
who
p a r t i c u l a r , two
life
and
they
is s uc ce ss !u i
inspires
in
to their
They
genre,
them were
persona
the
the
Kelly
the
formula.
is Aotaire
of
fa mil iar and
always
and Gene
as a pe rformer and
As t air e' s
Duri n g
being
only did
liberties with
one's name
and
out as
film
s h a p e , the art is tr y
film.
ad he r i n g
be at tr i b u t e d
the musical
Astaire
for the
take
in
be singled
genre.
ible
,*enre filr.s can
he
are
dapper
He arouses
never
today
In uotta
as
an.
1 igu e,
Ia i ▲ s ,
eatj
a certain
tails
it was
to fulfil
in the
it.
1930's,
d ing Gotta Dance v ohn
of Astaire:
"None have been able to make dancin g appe ar as e f f o r t ­
less and natural as breathing, one o* the normal
fun ctions of life as does Astaire.
Chore ogra ph i ca 1 1,» ,
there is nothing anyone has done that Astaire could nt
do,but his dancing has n ev er succumbed to a display ol
athletic prowess... Astai re was and is the essence o.
the grace and beauty of the dance... -ihe reason lor
his large appeal over the years, is in part, a ver^
00
lovable per son al it y.
He possesses a dignity combined
with m o d e s t y , and i n t e l l i g e n c e ao out himself, about
production, and the entire film b u s i n e s s . He also
has a perfect knowledge of the beauty of m o ve me nt and
an abs olu te sur et y of what he does.
nis dancing
creates a s u c c e s s i o n of images infinite:/ flexible,
sometimes a preci se statement, as often a vague
evocation, e x p r e s s i n g feeling s that ran e 1 rom the
most simple to the subli me. "
Gene
Kelly's
boundless
persona
energy.
1950's,
and
genre.
Like
Ame rican
the
old
top hat
out mod ed
and
tap
and
sighted
shirts
zest
respect
and
always
his
have
sight
strive
The Heroi ne' s
to be found
of
their
to achieve
duitor:
of
genre
He
faithful
to his
one g oi ng
that
one
even on
day
the
rebound.
deeper
than words
cannot
love.
feeling
ne
and
cannot
In his
she will
He
suffers
but
is
presume
like A s t i a r e 's
i rank
open
the ankle
and
laris,
and
the
clear­
o :r.r-ir.£— ^n
He
challenges
or
-iblic and
the he r o i n e ' s
the
them
to
the
love
in
so far as
love
suitor,
the extreme
a
hope,
requite
is the
pain w hi cn he
as a mar ty r
derive
and
to be regarded
kind
he
his
passions,
which goes
hie
imagines
suffers
as
imagines
al though he declares
that he will
types
upon whom we are allowed
to him and
sighs,
his
the
’orcmon character
se lf -in dul gen t
turn
enjoys
is
signal li ng
in
personal
is sentimental
rut his
and
He
idealism
or H r l ga do on have won him
untalented,msn
no s y m p a t h y .
stock.
o: his
His ho n e s ty
the most
to waste
a laughing
tailor­
American
bocy.
icons
ana
them.
One
adored
the
with
above
audiences.
goals
in the musical
weak-willed,usually
cropped
visual
.own
of his
what
Dream ana
in An American
the
the musical
identify
athletic
performer.
:i r at e. in
oi tne
the st re ng th
strong
become
of this
idealism
the new A m e r i c a .
s m i l e , pants
ad mi ra t i o n
to lone
with
for
c o n v i c t i o n wh e t h e r
the R a i n . The
not
shoes,
and his
n e e d s . Kelly's
of the A m e r ic an
its large
op en -n eck ed
values
dy na m i s m
in
he knew
in and
theoe
in and hope
e mb od im en t
face with
energy
to meet
and
presented
believed
believe
by his
the hope
op t i m i s m
Kelly
would
belief
physical
expresses
Astaire,
ed his c h a r a ct er
and his
He
natural
public
shatters
is c h a r a c t e r i s e d
he
love
no
he
is
persecution.
the same ma s o c h i s t i c
61
le
cure
fr (
t< ■ . • *
. •■
■ • u. * - . .
’
his
to
tendency
■■l
11 ow
i iii<" <$ ur: , tu* u i
id V<
in
r*
.±
■
as R i c a r d o R o m e r o
y Fair
Ln d;y
doe
they
n^.vln,-
•:pre s a no
,-ive a pe r f o r ma nc e
of
their
in:e and Fred dy
re;. . . • ..t i::-it.,
love.
uov«
doen in
t:.ey only
io object!i ieu
ant:
,
the
v.omnn
but
The H e r o 1
or
the
.gj -V' , .
e.t .• r i e n d / • urro
t
.a t h r r :
- his ch r-ct- r can
.
neces sa ry
in
t..e -uuir ..
y o u n f; man ..ho shares
u n de rs t a nd s
a in
the
same
hi.; v.o ti v t _ . lue
and P r a n k
acre
nre.
viuatra
experienced
in
father
• e is either an
filter.-^ts as
- os-.o
.. ;
figure
the hero anu
ro in ^
.(.oietx
— — — ^2.
( 19 56 ) or
..no a c c e p t s
enc. ■ etic
t h at
an
older
t he h e r o
is
.
*
The
fr i e n d / f a t h e r
the
lovers
f i. a r c , ci.i
;.ct a.
m e d i a t o r re tween
should a m i a u n d t r u t a n d i n occ ur aa ha
youn,~ man w h o has
be
with
iver. i*
Ron thr ,uf:,
su pe rst ar
aloe
n Ron's
..tatus Cosmo
( k c i i y 1.
test
an I .iucc*
keeps hi::
•
is
rr
friend anu
■■ u
dven whe n
in c n V ct '-it:, tne
ected
con-
acr.xvvee
aim vac
.
prevents
Ron
kelievin,
in
ii«
:■
y t h -.no
cceptin
tne
to
»
He
,
knows
that
Lucky
full
into
bad
ally
to g a m b l e
.
coulu
company
and
easily
since
make
enou
l os e
1-c n .u
hi s
L,one
L money
..en. e of
to i.e.
to a l l o w
perspective
:ork
him
to
or
specif re­
marry
62
sor.ev.hut port ly 2 i :uro
i.
-
ux.
-» t.
.
reati.: th<
rcu
rn . . pajv-r,
of the
a i. a r - . e t -
u ozen
c ha ra ct er s
types
rto
.re usuall y
'u i
anc
.hey
lancer;.'
.1
can be
be inf specif icall
The
a certain
r.-
of w o m e n
audi nee.
to
p o pu la tio n.
.. : . : . e n
c c un ter
imlnxical »1 e r e n c e a
a . i
oul a; a in ate
;. a a r v<
ide..ti.ied
eneric
and
tc
-heir
; i.c*
r< . • * c nc u :• a « -- i ua
in tae zausica. .
recogr.-s-ble
aa
to the
ire:
:aive
re i:.e:
in thi;
role the
• oman is
m-
.
.
*
become
hero,
woman
-n his
t oge th er ana
*r..i
.ore
is ^ven
expre...;in
he r to e x p e ri en ce
usually
4C..ieve
oc cu p i e s
h er
pote-.tia-
... i wokei.
tneir
the beauty
u job
fall
love
oi
in which
she needs
*he
her inner feelings
and
in son
;era he
r..ythm ana harmony
h- r talents
ana
-eac. es
^n a
potential
are
.
escape
impetus
from her social
to achieve
in u st re am
rut
this.
f caustic
but has n e i t h e r
her
vulnerability
ir
rtee,
r.s the
c. oru:
Liie .-can s nc r -he
is oiten couchca
v.‘ ich uc co rd in
to , citric
,
.
,
emotional
stiflin,
of n cl ois ter ed
up b ri ng in g.
girl,
cr need
tut hcio
of
love
is the r* suit
.:.d iulfiis.ent
ure
just
as strong
to realise
(S in gi ng
love
and
pursue
Dale
too
<r dependant
provides
a ca re e r
the film
a soci al ite
from her
class
who moves
girl whose
and
courage
industry.
physical
and
And
in closed
u pb ri ng in g
ana
the hero
Cathy be I d e n
chorus
all her emoti ona x
her with enough
in
upon
to womanhood.
R a i n ) is a pert y ou ng
sa t i s fi es
Tremont
released
she
transformation
in the
for Don
needs,
to
her
and
co nv i c t i o n
in _-_2J£— LULt t
circles,
taught
the
is
value
of
love .
In The Sound
Maria,
o r M u s ic this
a woman
of great
her
experience
and
un de rs t a n d i n g
and
it is of
a desire
types,
The
of music
purest
is the most
a 'vamp'.
dubious mor al s
wo ma n' s
ling
evil
to his
Dance
greed
she
provides
ohe
and
and
is
by
living marx her as a
of feeling.
evolved
one.
" hen
she
from genuine
vi
is a worldly,
a*i
:mas
caring
ihe woman
it
she
to arouse
her
is intense
partners
to display
Her fu nc ti on
the hero
genre
experienced woman
tempts her man,
Her beauty
means
the mu sic al
c h a r a c t e r whicr. illumina tes
Like kve
from J i ngi ng
so
charms.
in
herseli
he can
and
s.ie
of the film
provt
In the
an -
senses.
in the context
that
appeai-
his
strength
1-roadway
the h a i n , the danc er
Rhythm
(Cyd
tmbodii
C u n n i n g , erotic
inexp eri enc e
(1951)
Al th ou gh
her a pp re ci at io n
to the heroine,
resi st ing her
sequence
Ch ar ie st )
sort,
a shady
a welcome
to tempt
of ch ar act e r
Ballet
depth
lust.
uses
it powerfully.
musical
joy and
into
complete.
qualities.
p h y s i c a l , and
uses
the
and
evolved
conviction.
is small,
and
As a c o un te rp ar t
often uses
with
love
type has
and
to ch er is h her loved
X a r ia
Vamp:
strength
of men and
person wi t h c o nf id en ce
love,
ch a r a c t e r
and
and
) exhibits
sensual,
trust.
past
sins,
The
Unrefined
evokes
Coarse
of
exploits Kelly 's
Ava G a r d n e r ' s
the strength
charm c h a r a c t e ri st ic
for
she
of
the vamp,
the sympathy
Heroine:
Kiss . ulie
personality
and
sexual
W h o w b o at
sensual
but her ultimate
of
s u i 1 ering
the audience.
In this category
the woman
84
trcns *re. jeu
h a v i o u r for
thv rules
ov< rain,
the fem al e
a chi ev eme nt s,
ut tally
places tt. im po r t a n c e
ex
and
sccial*.
i.
c e. table
loudly
proud
o.
:.er
in a :.iale-doiuinate • sphere.
on her looks,
scoff,
be­
uLe
femininity
and
.
self
in z. refined
i, .nner,
she
i, .tort,
conv, nti
non:
,
.
she
car. dc
anythin,- they
can,
a:.v ccn.ie
cnt^y no nee a c.
.
thus
s at is fy in g a deep
e g o t ..tical
tie need.
A coarse
■
her combine,
strength
Theae
of c h a r a c t e r
at ti tu des
and fulfil
film
gr ud g i n g a d m i r a t i o n
the
reflects
are
ex i
as
and
wants
if she
till fca. ed upon
ttuticn.
o:
doffiii. -nt public
th«
role mod el s
unlovable.
to
su ccesses
and
:i • ui t it •- 'r -.nre ^nec
society',
is branded
for her
r hero
be equal
nee.
«r"«
opinio n
The musical
and thus a coarse
,,-oman
r c £ iruu ;.er as a partner
to him
he treats her
like a men,
•
Genre films
help
to entrenc..
the
lominunt
ideology
and
..o not
■
3he ucc
pted
the r t . onulbi.ity
of being feminine
*n hei
.
to unaerg o
tr: .o 1 ore tier: in vrfcr
tt v.in her man am.
«.ne »'«. »-
.
destroy in,
the
and
finally
and
de
1 :;tin,
his
ego
a.
same time.
CL arieee no
awe
her chant - . of m a r r i a g e , and
the
ir o lan cot..mi-.~..i|' in .,. .x
fe'.r by r e p r e s s i n g her feminine
released when
in a sensual
she
puts
t o-
inspires
instincts.
on u pair of
darce un le as he s
-
*he
are
r.ilk Blockings,
her sexuality.
vigi,
in
1
.
A •
rises
from her w o r k i n g
scenes
of the film,
she
is a lady
ful
object
class
beg inn in, a to
become
h e r m e n t o r r.iggind fails
of benrii
that he
nnd
plucked
e l e g a n c e , not
off
the
a ..o_un
to notice
that
just a d i s t a s t e ­
street.
-
m o t h er
replaces
the h e r o i n e ' s
natural m o t h e r and wa.cr.e~
■
the matrons
of society
and
•
have staunc h
c on vie
- ^.«s
»c..
1
She
controls
oversees
the
the
impulsive,
lovers'
irrati on al
courtship,
acting
d e si re s
of youth
and
as a ch a p e r o n e when
.
model
3f re
same mould
Fair
and
traint,
are
rs
chi. atity
. earue
L a d y ) H e rm oi ne
had
e Hurd ■ick
talented
sound advice.
la ay:. « . r u
(..y hair
Oingold
(l i . i ) La be l
aIso
in the
r.x £ t ins
Ana erson
(~v.in~ li me;
(Top H a t ).
A few g e n e r a . : oints
mu si ca l ly
and
should
and hove
te m.de
about
the a b i l i t y
the
vui-i ous nus-cax
to sing
and
dance
.
potential
and
the
implications
that
it ..as upon
.heir
.
,
■
of musical
they have
films
the
are
also always
p o te nt ial to be
physically
ind realise
attractive,
this
or
potential
at
.
m a t e r i al
believe.
for c r e a t i ng her oi ne a
.Joe 1 ety
ex ternal beauty
unfortunately
im pli es
industry always h n u , and
belief
au
long as
it
in whom
clings
inner beauty
probably
prevails.
the audienc e
to
ana
the n; t ion
can
taut
the commer cia l
still will
crn^ irm
.ilm
..'.is
axis tents
Jett ings
: Se tt ing s
are
re latively
in a sp ecific
in any
n s e , because
locat
. w hi ch
im p or ta nt
1 ' the
sys te m of
re
n a r ra tiv e
s tr uct ur e.
the
problem
field
un i mp or ta nt
urring
tne
its
of
^hat
occurs
f>ea 1 e has
concept
oe unfolded
ic o no gr ap hy
signs whicn
exp la in in g
can
appropriate.
is
w t ep he n
of using
of cin em a
film
visual
the musica l genre
the n a r r a t i v e
is deemed
m u sic al
to
drawn
is
i.e.
the
in the
at te nti on
ic on og ra ph y
to
in the
that:
"The problem with the concept of ico no gra phy - and with
the uses to w hi ch it has been put - is not that it
does not fully correspond to the concept specified by
the term in the field of art histor y from whi ch it
derives.
It is rather that it is loosely and i m p r e ­
cisely defined within the field of cinema.
Ed
Bus combe for Instance, uses the term simply as a
synonym for 'visual conven ti on s' , th emselves u n s p e c i ­
fied in gen-ral t e r m s , and Colin M c A r t h u r similiarly
refers to ico nog rap hy simply as 'patterns of visual
imagery . '
„hat Neale
is objec tin g
many
theorists
genre
for t h a term
to
It
lanofsky
and
chows
the
same
while
legs
is a body of
uses
the
iconography
that
term
diffe ren t
event.
^omc
them
As a di sci pli ne in the
of how
visual
.aken
i co n og r ap hy
of the cr uc ifixion.
of
th^ genre
images
pe rtaining
to the
Before
d i s cu ss in g
this
film
it would
images may
paint
He may
the
film
visual
concept
all
Is
be
built
subject
Images
const!
the;e
with
up o
i.e.
regard
to
to co ns i d er
the Western
genre,
in which
structure
is i n tr in sic all y
to the
Getting.
the
ultimately
setti ng
and
various
the musica l
revealing
between
It is the
the setting.
ana
linked
crossed
with
cruci fix ion .
is
to signify
pictured
app rop ria te
r el a t i o n s h i p
field
presented,
feet
be more
of the
calls
subject.
be used
Christ's
to ge t h er
about
a visual
c r u ci fi xi on
by side.
of kno wl ed ge
iconography
about
the
artists
tute a body
The
i m pr eci sio n with which
has m e a m n ; in a very definite
side
or straight.
the
'i c o n o g r a p h y ' and he
knowl edg e
the example
otheru paint
bent
use
is
be clarified.
of art h i s t o r y ,
sense.
to here
more
the
themetic
An an alysis
the various
recurr
ing
vi util wi&nw v-ill cluri-'y
and
its a p p l i c a t i o n
film
is at ta c h ed
genre
to
to
of co nflict
the
±ta
the c nee pt of
theory
o:
lo ca tio n and
played
out
iccno^rujhj
genre.
-he
..eetern
e s se n t i a l l y
it is a
in two oppos in
meetings
each
.
,
brutal
rules.
E d e n ’ which
i.
lerr
And
on
the
r e p r es en ts
justic
-nri lav
other iu the last,
the
> rc res* and char re.
1daruen
of
en.b03 ies
>r.f ore ei.ent, education,
in --hurt
'.
,
,
,
,
,
icons, occur not
repeated
only
thr u hout
in
t ac
the
individual
enre.
..or tern f i - —
-ut r ep eti ti on
-- -
e
ci a visual
•
has
used a single
for that
genre.
inage
iita, e once
to be added
:1., cnctu.
flover
is indexical, ref lectin,
th<
and made a strong enough
to t:.c ic on ography
in ll.c 1. r. who
beauty
of the
inpact
.»astern
^nct.. l^.b; rty— "
of a v.oman,
A.ri.££.
••a-.iie, - ..eatu
.
'
Kid
is .-.Iq o indexiral ,g
surtr.nrises
. icture
the e ss enc e
of the
of the
cnan
e tern's
in
t.crld to wnich
con: lie t anu
c c ni ^ r.....
*
An
e x a mi na ti on
de nce
upon
the
of
the
vi: ual
wungrt
as.act:
r genre
oi
reveals a strong
: fitting.
-his
seitin
depen­
,
,
war ped
psychi.
si nister
ing sense
shadow,
of dan
nit. e n v i r o n m e n t
never
or and
io
place
J i ht enough
it.pending
of
to remove
doom.
.turnnet . ana
tne alr-ect. r ac ­
ns in werrnan
Expression)st
internal
flics,
a i 1 emma of
pe rception
of
the
He
is a victim
of hi s
enemy who grad ual ly
di s to rt ed
angles,
The
reality
ic on og ra ph y
but
shocking,
str iking
horse' s
icon
head
riv et in g
Decone
is r r a n d s
placed
one
it occurs
of
it
once
so
of genre
th «» cinema with
some
The
of
Ico no gr ap hy
Isolate
because
b icause
the musical
the musical
not
reality modes f se tt i n g s
cr-ated
ana
usea
by
are
thematic
structure
lighting
or the use
of the
by
if it is vis ua ll y
of
subject.
In J l ngi ng
sense
of t h e a t r ic al it y
meant
for me',
and
D i r ec to rs
the
from
fantasy
setting w i t h i n which he can
and
but
are
to vi su al is e
a specific
adas
their
the
type
of
be called
to the meani ng
evokes
in the sequence
sound
either
to reflect
colour could
by t r a n s f o r m i n g a bare
to
the s e t t i n g .
in the .tain bene kcily
ill usion
provided
diff ic ul t
locatable
and
and
imagery.
.he re fore
sig nif ica nt
and
the years,
themselves
of a partic ul ar
iconic
over
the dir ec to r
film.
theme
Although
the confines
of
often not
.his
images.
is more
out
of a severed
of the m a f i a has
naturally
the characters
realitie , or used
fantasy
arise
and
particularly
producer.
visual
genre
conven­
'moll'
vivid way.
within
in and
interr.el
its
gr ue s o m e l y
of its finest
slips
iln
have
cam er a
framing.
the
image
violence
filmmaking,
it does
One
a recurrent
su cc essfully
of a
occur often makes
signifi ca nt
it embodies
un kno wn
of unusual
they
to a
power and
in a new and
who have worked
cons tr ai nt s
the
sense
limousines,
r'ord Co p p o l a ' s
Lea next
truly
is fa miliar and
terrifying.
the genre 's most
only
visualises
in
by an
unnatural
in w hi ch
of
or tne a u d ie nc e.
His
genre
g u n s , black
ti:.es
eye
th e use
by a maze
the uns ee n faces
pursues
lighting ana
context
some
of
by
as a
is n e v e r
by
in on h i m .
the ga ng st er
the
symbol
paranoia,
is mi rrored
of
ca tacomLed
watched,
the
aistortei
'the city'
om n i p r e s en t
closes
incl ud in g
telephones,
them
own
nis
ihe g a n g s t e r
be in,
ex preasionis tic
tionalised
shapes
the camera's
ana
presents
alleys.
is co nst ant ly
in buildinru,
It
of me na cin g
dark cl au st r o p h o b i c
setting m a g n i f i e s
pro tag oni st
the w o r l d .
conglomeration
a l o n e , he
the ^ a n f s t e r
stage
a e c 1 are his
a
'You were
into a
love
l or vathy .
89
i<
■
•m atrnou pherl<
breeze
for-:
the
o t a t e , ann
beauty
theit
vincente
piece
visually
visual
elements
of colour
camera
angle,
ol
dance.
He
and
focus
adds
All
these
of
Kelly's i m a g in at ion
as
a lover and
arly
iconic
am
too,
is the
overt
he
recreated
Century
of
the
in
firework
elements
ettir.g,
ror
in
quently
its
of
Ast aire's
visually
c h a rac te r
code
relates
top hat,
the
tail
s i g n if ica nt
of the
is anoth er
and
of
used
is
of his
So
sett­
In ligi
19th
and
in
the aspect
the
visual
structure.
convention­
realis m and
category
which
the
shoes,
bears
persona,
cane
conse­
/red
are all
the generic
S i m i l a r l y , Gene Kelly's
system which
by
discussion
persona.
ana
of
his natural
tne hig hl y
vast.
his
p ar ti cu l­
genre.
thematic
and
tap
iconography
is c h a r a c t e r i s e d
of
that
a brash display
It defies
reflect
ic onogra phic
.
and
iconography
coat,
the
disp lay ed
part
both
argue
the early
the deep er
is complex
performer.
also
foreg ro und ed
Minnelli
genre, la
icono gr aph ic
in
symoolic-
reality
inspiration,
which Kelly
balance
iconography
technique.
he created
stylisation.
to
tne
and
s t yl i s a t i o n
as his
presentation,
i c o n og ra ph y
rich
of colour
of laris
illuminate
ana
in the musical
and
athl et ici sm.
and
use
once again
1 irate
against
to
create
fo re grounding
style
pos sib ili tie s
nis internal
His
artist&c
ex ores a i oni s m , thus
One could
often
drawings
.he
its
is anothe r
this
the
the musical
theatri ca li ty
and
of
strong
al ised mode
There
repeated
tne
of rrench
presents us with
style.
t a r ln he
of film
signs
artist.
ballet
styles
and
and reflect
visual
colours
and
calm
is a m a s t e r ­
uni leu
is visually
t h ea tr ica lit y
use
painting.
energy
is
using Jem's
in Am eri can
whicn
a confused
in laris
his
ana
ana the grace
caries. ure
visual
of Vincente M i n n e l l i ' s
and
harmony
the cine ma ti c
to this tha various
a mise-en-scene
ings,
gentle
t el ly 's mental
ballet
powerfully
and framing
creat ing
American
inherent
lorm with
imp ressionism,
the
de ucribes
in laris
which
cainters
ienee.
the
Am erican
ha rmo ny
of
aliy
o j our and
r ■ lationship.
innelli'
of
o
i c o n o g r a p h y w hi ch
reflect
of
lighting,
dress
is m e ani ngf ul
in
the context
of this
genre.
es indexes s i g n i f y i n g
the
His
boater
exuberance
and
ana
blazer
function
idealise, of an
A m e r i c a n youth.
To
return
any
to C h a t m a n ' s
na rrative
story
can
which
up of
of the
be divided
and disco ur se .
is made
model
into
Chatman
its
.he content
two c om po ne nt s
describes
the
str ucture
of
the
the headin g
of <
si
formulae
isol te
the
m us ic al
cussed
this
to
film.
chc
events
pnrtic
di st i nc ti o n
which
the
actual
tive
and
structure,
settings.
the
an:
form and
The
various
performers
all
encodj
of visual
from
more.
fuse
and
A film
together
In this
then,
structure,
to the
focused
upon
and
e x i s t e n t : , in
the
and
context
the
of genre
of the genre
to plot
ol
a certain
cnoose his
elements
own artistic
the content
ana
oi
film,
still
of meaning
clarity.
of
its content
theory.
the narrative
structure
rilmmaxers
' s t o r y 1 part
substance
of
its me ani ng
stylistic
cohesion
examined
a
c ha ra ct er s
it.
these media tor s
it internal
th a 'what'
and de te rm in e
whe n
the form
or de r
i.e.
the v ubstu.nce ol
I have
sp ec if ic
has
genre
change
in
in the n a r r a ­
plots,
ndd his
dis­
consists
content with
ana
the actor will
to afford
of
of the
the content
Vhe dir ec to r will
technical
is successful
secti on
narrative
related
thus
of
a. ents w o r k i n g upon
the various
And
also make:
content
tne na r r a t i v e
plot
functi':
occur
types
Under
I have
the content
they
of the
sig ni fi ca nc e.
at his disposal.
performance
substance
as
the
patterns
ex istents
C h atm an
in other v.ords the
.:he substance
various
appear and
form of
existents
the
semiotics
of
they
the
by
of genre.
narr at iv e
structure.
by
•mount
or story,
the existenta,
preprocessed
out lined
ob servable
nere.
events
is mediated
and
between
is relevant
have
setting as
ar g e ner ic
and
is a result
1.. the category
ter and
elements
as:
'^eprocessing
And
two essential
the narrative,
"The people and things as they are
author's cu ltural codes."
In this case
of narrative,
its
Analysis
events
element s
that content.
of
91
•!CTE.j
,
.
no
17
pe 2 ti
.
PC 1
4.
N e a le ,
■■ L e : n e n
'e.. r c
i?
.
h istory
VIII
6 .
ibid.
7.
ibid . F " 162
6.
R y & l l , lom
9.
Todcrov,
no 1 pj 161
F-' 162
o p . cit.
:zvetan
P£
op.
cit.
p
1'
.
PC 21
.
1 2
.
.
.
in
^ c r c
<■n ,
Vol
11,
“ O
, P
4
.
16.
Piaget,
Jean
-it rue t u r a i i - .l
)' 5 “ lb
__
■
/
92
.
.
19.
Chatm an f Se y m o ur
2C.
ibid.
Fg 16 -
i o c o u r :>jc
. tor.' ana
?
19
.
in the Lovie husic
Grant,
Barry
1'
in film
^nrc
: .neary_anc:
r • (ed,
.
23.
. rye,
•■ort'. r c ,
24.
Jchatz ,
25.
Kobal,
John
26.
Neale,
Steph en
.-i1.a t c
-ho::.f. --:olly-L . ,_____
op.
cit.
pt> 137
Genre
P6
1C
,
26.
Chatman,
—
eymo ur
op.
cit.
p-
-
-
C r i t i c i sm
C HAP TE R
3
A STRUCTURALIST
3.1
ANA LY SI S
Structuralism
The
structuralist
relat es
and
the
dis cou rs e
n ar r at iv e
neturning
the
d et er mi ne s
takes.
The
into a fr am ew or k
st ru c tu ra l is t
of
again
content
analysis
plane
the
of its
1h o w 1 component
to C h a t m a n 1t di st in cti on
the a r r a n g e m e n t
the
binary
film g e n r e ,
1h o w 1 of na r r a t i v e
1h o w 1 involv es
T h i s , in turn,
the music al
It co nsiders
1w h a t 1 and
or
of
to the di sc our se
structure.
of the nar ra ti ve .
between
; i1m
an al y s is
spe cif ic al ly
narrative
Or ' HL K U o l U A L
overall
of the
the
content.
structure wh ich
of a music al
oppositions,
of this genre
fora,
film is
and
the
encoded
therefore
a
is both appropriate
and
revealing.
Structuralism
is
rooted
in tie
individual
between
upon
at the ways
assumed
and
the
are
and
its
the
about
does
but
soci et ie s
patterns
ex istence
every
to something
three
Jtrueturalism
and
as a r e s u l t .
is
relationships,
and
in adherence
F u r t h e r m o r e , an object
isolated
to a no th er
only
else.
themselves,
phenomenon
structural
is th erefore
centred
to liaget's
organise
as a separate,
it relates
has
w h o l e n e s s , continually
wh ic h arise
thinking,
in
structures wh ic h comprise
a c c o r di ng
ol
which
in the rel ationships
act ivity
of a g o v e r n i n g c o n s t r u c t .
r el at io ns hi p
not exist
tr an sfo rmi ng within,
An object
the world,
be s e l f - r e g u l a t o r y .
:.any s i mu lt an eo us
only has m e a n i n g when
of
of
u sense
in which
co n t i nu al ly
has no ob jective
structure.
study
to s t r u c t ur al is t
to the rules
or ideas,
t h e o re ti ca l
display
structu ral
to nave
reality
struct ure s must,
themselves
Ac co rd i ng
which
These
definition,
examines
that
Its main
perception
transform
of thinking
e v e n t s , objects
our world.
looks
premise
them. '
the
point
is a met ho d
object
entity.
within a
ob ser vab le
This
leads
It
in terms
us to
a not he r
ships
important
between
objects
concept,
that
objects which are
t he m sel ve s.
1he aim
01
it
is only
visible
the
to us,
relation­
not the
the s t r u c t ur al is t
is
to create
as full a p er ce pt io n
by
is olating
and
of the world
ex am in in g
the
rel ati ons hip s
m ov em en t
can
be traced
who
in his
as
activity
possible,
which maze
up
the world.
The
st ru c tu r a l i st
Italian
J i a m b a t ti at a
proposed
and
that man
in doing
this
co ns t r u c t s
so he
str ucturing
inherent
d veloped
the
theory
a ’ong
am
st ruc tu r a l is ts
and
objects
are
governed
have
to
structures
lines
and
the
- rom this,
thems el ve s
which
and
are
is
thi nki ng
in
a n t h r o p o l o g y , and
and
literary
appare nt ly
later
critic is m.
random
b e h a v i o u r and human
str uc tu ri ng
them.
of,
that
been infl uen tia l
psychiatry
up human
it,
Vico m a i n t a i n e d
and has
shown how
by certa in
perceives
s t r u c t ur al is t
of lin gu is ti cs
which make
accor din g
Mo de r n
philosophy,
The
as he
*
the
ihe New s c i e n c e ,
is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
these
study
in the fte.ldu of
the
creates: himself.
process
book
the world
in the human mind.
has
ised
Vico,
back as far as
items
artifacts
principles and are
organ­
they
it is
the
conduce
that
fabric which
comp ri se s
our w o r l d .
If we accept
invent
the
s t ru ct ura lis t
the world
we
inhabit"
foste r of an objective,
are
immediately
reality
if each
person
is
The word
itself
is only
in terms
of
place
Also,
it must
de fin i ti on
the
thing
of what
or
itself.
A word
to and
If it
or invents
determines
his
vast
the
that
his
reality,
of reality,
own
and
reality,
and
the
derives
word
are
not
'reality'
each
is
to define
language.
and
the
for
r e p r es en ta ti on
between
the two
constructs
his
is
own
understanding
impossible.
person
own?
to be mi s t a k e n
a universal
realism
reality
its meani ng
of human
a linguistic
person
"we
which we might
reinventing his
stru ctu re
each
and
that
or a de finitive
relationship
is true
own
notions
and
'reality'
is only
states
do we even begin
inventing
the
of the concept
perception
r or how
a construct,
in
which
ex istence
be r e m e m b e r e d , that
it refer
arbitrary.
world,
its
then any
pure
di spelled.
legacy,
brings his
Ev er yo ne
past
history,
his
inte gri ty
of
the
cultural
to bear
world.
is d e f e r e n t
cu ltu ra.
al ong
to c on ti nua l
of
objects
tend
things
cultural
hich
can
static
say
complete,
like
or society
mean
as signs within
and
its social
our
experiences
perception
in a state
s t r u c t u ri ng
simply
exa mined
certain
significance.
of that
structures.
the
or
structure•
are
invested
the\
culture
can
only
or s o c i e t y .
culture
visible
-n J ub cu lt ure
explains
of
themselves,
But
that
of
processes.
events
in
objects
signs makes
ing of S t y l e , Dick Hedid ge
and
our
is subject
a larger m e d i a t i n g
the context
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e twe en
and
1realities1
but
always
unending
and
process
the struc tu ra li st s,
but are
isolated
un ae rs tan din g
their
informat ion
to man's
partic ul ar meanin g
n at u r a l i s e s
interpret
as signs w i t h i n
a culture
and
personal
but societies
p h e n o m e n a , are not
be
own
or or gan isi ng
Str uc tu re s
with
The
to
is n ev er
to us.
subject
fu nct ion
# i thin
individual,
finally,
are never
Soc ia l end
c o n s tr uc ti on
re vision as new
always
and his
p a t t e r n - m a k i ng
lines.
app ar en t
the world,
but
This
groups will
understanding
flux,
upon his
for each
s im il ar
become
background
function
: .he
and
j.e a r ­
of signs
in
a cultures
"All aspects of culture possess a seniotic v a l u e , and
the most ta xe n- fo r- gr an te d phe nomena can function as
signs : as elements in c o mm un i c a t i o n systems governed
by semantic rules and codes w h i c h are not themselves
directly app re he nd ed in experience.
These signs are,
then, as onaque as the social relations which produce
them, and which they represent."
This
point has
semi oti cs
val ua bl e
of film.
The
f i l mm ak er
in a
certain w a y , m a ki ng
in a
shot
a meeting,
wea lt h
and
power.
of whic h
recognise
the
of wealth and
clothing,
These
it fun ction
the h el ico pt er
If that
signify
sign
the man's
fo rm ati on
power.
Oth er
forms
weal th
part
and
might
a briefcase
the
ar object
.-or instance
from a hel ic op te r
is a sign
signs
a code
to frame
us a s 1 g n .
of a code which
his wrlstwa tc h,
signs c on sti tu te
when we con sider
chooses
of a bu si n e s s m a n al i gh ti ng
attend
all
implications
of the
to
businessman's
of a system of signs,
power then we can
describes
include
or his
the
his
car,
nome ami
of " being wealthy
and
concepts
his
office.
powerlul
.
When
these
sirns
vi s i bl e
and
pattern
a
it would
and
as
be
a genre
The
body
subject now
so many
making
its signs
st ru ctu re
Rola nd
to show how
c ar efu ll y
reveals
an
cater
Novelists
and
confirm
preva le nt
style
to
film,
discourse
a house
rea.ism
by
the
a certain
attitude
Film
messages
easy r e co gni tio n
is
a coae
and
are
and
through
to
a
be
of
to be real.
the
dominant
He
presented
of realism
entrench
carriers
as
being
succes sfu l
because
Ci
it
is, and
o;
serious
in carry
t.’.e iconic
to rec ognise
to a lack
and •' <ia.irth oi
in this
society's
the world
for what
r i* h t ,
an d i •s * e o 1 v ^
ideological
about
led
hence
itscl.
It is easy
which has
the v i s u a 1 media,
perceives
parti cu la rl y
or a dress
oarrasir.e
the concept
reinforce
about
in this way
image.
in the
reality.
ideology
Their works
or a horse
purport
as natural
present
dom ina nt
of the visual
to
of
who
correct.
is conveyed
for whom he was writing.
im pression
of
reali sm
d a l z a c 1 s novel
surrounding
served
artists
ideological
about
pertai ni ng
ite
literary
rea de r
state me nts
beliefs.
and
the
certain
the
promote
what
society
a code
mak es
of
» orks w h i c h
to the mythology
them with a me di at ed
this
and
na rr at iv e
'r e a l i s t i c 1 within
of re al is m
code.
of the
a c c e p t in*
the fallacy
im pr es si on
id eol og y
of
ana
n ere ,
iconography.
n a t u r a l i se s
he dec ons tr uc ts
1 realistic'
na tu r e
generic
the genre 's
appear natural
Bal za c' s
ing
as
used
businessmen
or the code
they en tr e n c h
n a t ur a l
powerful
of visual
realism,
w h i ch
example
that
constru ct ed
realistic,
w a y,
as a n a r r at iv e
the
icons
them
of the narrative.
Barthes
societv
to make
fun cti on wit hi n
disciplines,
book 3 / 7 . in wh ic h
By
wealthy
functions
other
times
au di enc e
To extend
about
would
eno ur h
to an
en r e results*
icons.
like
repeated
re co g n i s a b l e
the signs
the
are
an image
it is
un de r s t a n d i n g
ex a m i n a t i o n
their c o n t e n t .
Roland
by
Barthes
society
id eology
ex pl ai ns
in his
how myth
classic
is n a tu r a l i s e d
is created
and
work M y t h o l o g i e s , and
by the media
and
fed
perpetuated
shows how
to a willing
o.
97
accept in#: aud ie nc e .
picul
o ui r
carrit r in t h i
ay,
cul t ur-f
an.
ur.ct on.
>•.e :: ivc
.Ire
as at. iueolo-
y ween no.,
"-he
•
to e x ; In in ho.
it
my tho art
is nec ee ua ry
created
iziu tr a ns mi tt ed
to dec nstruc t the :.e a n -n
of
.n .locioty
narthes1
•
In u "first
tween
the
order seaiolo." icui
sif.nifier and
the
ays ten"
oir;nified
the
re la ti on sh ip
results
be ­
in the ; orau-
.
■ •
.
becomes a w i p n i f i e r with
a n c •• wi pni.ied
uno
a ne
t .&n - -
.
f o l i o - i.n.
..'.el,
... cn in
no; :
"Svery thing h a pp en s as
if myth
shiften
the formal
tnis lateral shift is es sential for the analysis
Of
, I snail re present it in the f o ll ow ing
,
,
,
spa ti a ln za ti on of the r tt«rn is here only u
nets' he rs " ®
2. Signified
.
Language
5. bipn
ii Signified
^i gnifier
1
Myth
ill Sign
l.yth ..orka
in film
.
by systematic
re .n ter p re ta ti on and re-represen-
.
.
code
of reali nm involves
tion of the
discourse,
palpability
of
reference
to
detect iv es
robbery
and
which
the si/ n»
the
the
private
in
process
turn results
.hi.; cun
letective
are we n solving
egpoinagc.
twofold
crimes
of a n a t u r a l i s a ­
in a reducer,
be shown witn
. i 1n
• •-vt , in wnich
involving
A comi.ion sign
particular
murder,
( j • Jigx*;
pziva.e
rape,
become.; a
seconu
crJer sirn
(iii
uit-n ) or -.yth -..her. i u io . r&i-fcd -i*
;
u i ! i.
of
solver
of
.u i~j o r c ^ c i,.
t h i s , is that
in :.is np, roach
-hf
t e private
second try
de t e c t i v e
» icut *oi.
i.. botl
;,rof e ..a i^j-x
..ork zt-. : u 11 1 : t r I.•■•
to his
.
.
■rivutc
invt . ti. iLora
. olvi' crime:-, o:
-.ur-fr.
viii
3i^n
or
Ky t h ) .
to our vie'
of
the world f
in ve st ig at or operate
.
n<i our v 1 o.. o: hov. a private
■ 1 r i v a l c in ve st i g a t or
*i
pcrtru,, eu
*
:;y th therefore
le rl tlc is es
the i d e o l o g y
that
: t re pre sen ts
ty
.
agre
that uuc h
adu lt er ou s
of t h e i r
spouses
and
ork
involve s t ra il in g the ir cxient's
;hot o< rt. ph in ; tneai in eoaprccis ing
situations.
C ne
of the c o r n e r s t o n e s
in Cluuae
of str uc tu ra li st
L e v i - d t r a u a e 1n ?reals*
structures his world
ac cordin
— e th c d ou og,» ■'•i} root eu
that can
to u serieu
perceives
oi
and
binary
oppos i-
.
to devise
cost
and
a theory
of ho
the huaan cind functions
nn tu r 1 utat< , and
lc ■ tudyin
e x pan •e . his theories
in its
'•ne non - - 1 ^e
about v.hat he t eraed
i
»
sa »age
1.
.
bus
been
subjected
accultur ati on,
For
in studying
fund ame nta l
and
vi a,
to the
..itr
these
processes
the
aocietie
st ru ct uri ng
which
organise
pervades
the world
which
o-c u i 1 p u primitive
, hr
processes
behaviours 1 patte rni .
peoples
e
t he ms el ve s
their social
.hie)
in terms
system,
and analyse
socic kj.es.
t-Ira 1 to discover
Hr believed
by cre ating m y t h ol og ic al
to un der sta nd
of sya tealsation and
govern i.an's actions
‘ r. 1 1 non-literate
of u
and
tr.e
'poetic
they make
me ta - s t r u c t u r e s
sing 1-2 events.
wiBdoi..'
spusl
u*
against
The lull
99
i m p l i ca ti o n
of this
concept,
structuralists' beliefs
Th ro u g h
or
his
of a series
' n a t u r a l ' state
has
is
there
integral
L ev i - S t r a u s s
world
tends
of binary
that
oppositions.
r,ven in
are
a few
basic
thinking,
that
nature.
the
and
primitive
along
the
from
ana
principles
this
ev idence
organising
ihe h u m a n mind,
for c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
lines
its a.ost
org an is in g
s t r u c t u r i ng
in man's
passion
found
the
own reality.
the world
concludes
a natura l
his
to organise
to man's
inherent
it supports
that man creates
research, Levi-Strauss
1s a v a g e ' mind
w hi ch are
is that
trie
hf
says,
that:
"builds mental s t r u c t u r e s which fa ci l i t a t e an unaers tan di n g of the world in as much as they resemble
it.
In this sense savage thought can re defined as
a nal o g ic a l thought" 6
Prom
and
this
original
org an is in g
of a pattern
which are
being,
to man
state man
such as
the
as
"cold".
±t is
'reality'
that
and
detail,' ritI nc
that
up
constitute
his
to L e v i - S t r a u s s 'a study
"raw"
explains
is made
rel ationships
that
a few fundamental
between
a structuring
society
these
he maint ain s
Terence Hawkes
in more
.
Re t u r ni ng
perceives
differences
. is by nature
th • ’.neory
societies,
natural
thought
grew
of the w o r l d .
of n on -l it e r a te
and
tha
of r e la ti on sh ip
visible
p erc ept io n
premise
and
in
the most
re la tionships
"cooked",
the notion
and
"hot"
of analogical
it:
"works by imposing on the world, a series of structural
"contra st s" or "o pp os i t i o n s " to which all members of
the culture tacitly assent and then proposi ng that
these opp ositions are a n a l o g i c a l l y related in that
♦heir differences are felt to resemble each o t h e r . -a
a result, the analysis of the analogical re la tionship
between the oppositions of 1up' and
down , hot
ami
'cold'
'raw' and 'cooked', will offer insights into
that nature of the p a r t i c u l a r reality that each culture
perceives" '
Ha wke s ma intains
irjlste
and
examine
particularly
themsel ves
that
apt
using
common
culturally
thinks
is edible
"Analogical
in order
its g o v e r n i n g
examplo
the
st ru ctures.
of how diff er ent
an al og ic al
defined
and
to underst ana
one must
He gives a
societies
re la ti on sh ip
o p p o si ti on
a society
between
regarding what
perceive
the
a society
inedible:
thought will move
a culture
to distinguish
a 1 f o r e i g n 1 culture from itself on this basis, so
that the o pp os it io n 1 e d i b l e - i n e d i b l e 1 will become
an alo g ic al l y related to the o n p o s i t i o n 'native foreign'.
Thit, m e a n that ' t " inuf orma t i ons '
between the two sets -f 'similar differences'
become possible : ''..it which is i n e d i b l e '
becomes a me to p}. ^ of ' that w hi ch is f o r e i g n ’ .
do one of the persistent English me t a p ho rs for
the French occurs because frogs' legs, placed under
the headin g 'edible' i n ; ranee, find th emselves
under the h e a d i n g 'i n e d i b l e ' in England."
Each
society
rules,
org an ise s
a st r u c t u r e
existed
e.
is not
aie
learned
is shown
may
in
pattern
as
the
same and
actual
upon
is
binary
agency
perceptible
of the
capsble
worts which
he
the
by
pr ocedures which
principles
s t r u c tur al ist
cipline
critical
of literar y
thrust
literary works
already
of na rrative
S/Z.
process
These
an encoding
basic
culture
art
principles have
expressions.
to the
All
and
upon
an analysis
Barthes
ond s i n g u l a r i t y
w o r k , carries
to isolate
acc or di ng
into
of
to
.hus
the d i s ­
st ru ctu ra li st s
c o n s ci ou sl y mediated
shown how h o 1 ana
indulges
behaviour.
incor po rat ed
an 1 the
of the
str uct uri ng and
is structured
thought
been
based
of c o mm un ic at io n which man
subject
all
centred
vocation
relationships
the h u m a n nina n a t u r a l l y
govern
realism
s
as e d i b l e - i n ­
reveals
E true turalis t critics hove
are
different
is f u n d a me nt al ly
an nlogcus
act
crit ic ism
has
An au thor's
the critic's
is defined
artistic
thinking has
of literature.
have
then,
which
the a n a ­
differently,
of crratin,- a whole
produces are
i m p l ic at ion
So al th ou gh
human mind
into every
incl ud ing his
in.
since
r e l a t i on sh ip s
the
organi sin g
o p po si ti on s.
undertakes,
encoding
these
its own
in the human m i n d , it
older.
of what
of given
legitimi zes
that
inherent
relationships.
been incorporated
to a set
society,
structu ri ng
Levi-J t n - u s s 'a study
st ru cturing
in every
revolves around
between certain
and
maintains
these
example
ac c o r d i n g
defines
one grows
perceive
edible , their
the
constant
thought
societies
which
Le vi -S t r a u s s
principles
logical
itself
main
the structures
revealed
how all
by their a u t h o r s .
uncovered
of m ea nin g
ideology,
and
the
I
fallacy
in his book
therefore
these myths w h e r e v e r
it is
they
are
ound
and show
critic
is a m e t h o d
st ru ct u r a l i s t s
understanding
our world.
reveals
the
hold
+hat
or not
a n at ura l
itself
the
theory and
cr i t i ci sm
-he
principles
of
-hat
for
vision and
Str u ct u r al is t
its
principles
end
structu re
Structuralism
and
the
sing
all
and
art
and
of
his narrative
the
of a text,
one
can grasp its
genre
ca te g o ry
films
its
relevant
broad
therefore
of the genre
t - and
co ns id er
in applying
theory
re la t i on sh ip s
tne
can
between
presents a certain
these
s tru ctu ra li st
analysis
isolating and
exam in in g
A St ru ct ura lis t
view
fundamental
serves
the
form,
of
individual
be gleaned
its
of
purpose
of the
of a
firstly
and
by a n a l y ­
primary
opposi­
so on.
the world which
rel ationships.
content
Analysis
book H o r i z o n s West,
the
internal
*ny a nalysis
' r<-ali ty -fantnsy 1 , ' talented-un talented 1 anc
film
of genre
a structure.
respect
as a narr at ive
in,
latent meanings.
two factors.
film
he
re la ti on sh ip s
to the
structure.
of a musical
to the
is by d ef in it io n
adhere
of any
in a certain way.
an alysing
pa rt icularly
into an
the artist,
and
is
media,
analysis
is subje ct
background
for
visual
be i n c or po ra te d
to a work
corresponds with
In his
art
because
the analagcus
A musical
j ,2
can
imp lic at io ns
important
ihe me an in g
tions,
is its
which
is ul tim ate ly
is
film should
text.
/orld,
je construetion
organise
m e t ho do lo gy
rules which govern
the structure
for c la ss if ic at io n,
literature,
cultural
comprise
Levi-d t r a u u s 1 a c-elief
oraer his
Because
criticism, as a generic
successful
of
for
systems w h i c h
one accepts
is important
structure.
structure
genre
tne
ov ertones •
oniy a met ho d
semantic
s t ru ct u r a l i s m
appropr ia te method
personal
it i»
in the way he
important.
All
In ti.is way
ide ol ogi cal
passion
not
narrative
with
si.-ns and
wh e t h e r
that man has
will
meanings.
oe-myr tif ie a hie w o r l d .
tru et u r a l i s m
he
their cultural
The
of de co ns tructing,
genre
film.
the w estern
Jim Kitzes
has
devised
a binary
_Hir.a r v— C p: oa lti ons
j e s e r t / A i l d e rnet;s
a)
Individual
:n
the
extern
.Civilization/Garden
a)
freedom
illusion
in tegrity
co mpromise
a el f- int er ea t
social
soli ps iam
purity
ex perience
emp ir ic i s m
pragmati sm
bru tal is at ion
savagery
c)
West
fro ntier
equality
agr ar ia ni sm
trad ition
the
r e s c o n a i b i 1 ity
dem ocracy
b)
Culture
co rr up ti on
knowledge
legal ism
idealism
refinement
hum anity
East
Ameri ca
the
C o mm un ity
inatituti ona
ael f -k no w ledge
Nature
past
g,aen
re st ric ti on
hon our
b)
ol
Europe
America
class
i nd us tr ia li sm
change
the
future
104
i
l
i
P
s
m
Testament
B
s
E
'
t
ethic
of "an
eve
11 ,
17"
r
ror an p v » M
according
d 4
to the
old
104
bu re au c ra cy
federal
that
and c o rr up t i o n
la., and
the he.
practiced
it
1„
than
in
of ju.tlce
the old
the harah,
Instituted
this
i-y
becomes su bm erg ed
a.e
upheld
c h ar ac te ri se d
by
justice
an
Ju st ic e
"Alst.nce,
of "an eye
reliant
and
the dominant
the shifts
and
on both
theme
str iki ng
the
liberty
no s t a l g i c a l l y
west.
a.e
hum anity,
He
Marvin )
■car and dread.
live .ith,
this
cacti
and
.hlch
of
to
the
the
the clt ls. ns
comes
l a.ayer
o<
Hi,
people
only
and
part of
the
lifestyle
archetypal
personal
assaults
integ rit y
Liberty
purpose
society.
inspiring
they must
env ironment.
all
Into
scrubland,
(James S t e . a r t )
acting as a m is si on ar y
is to bring
of the . 1 1 . . m e s s .
for
upon
of Shi nbo ne
ty its stark
this
and
and
fello. men.
hostil e
the East
aho.s
presents
Images
Hansom Stoddard
fro.
the
Isolates
in . profound
sporadic
the h.r.h
» ne.ly qualified
the
.ages
old
in each.
of his
is c h ar ac te ri se d
thornbuahes,
civil,cation.
a.e
to the
environment,
..del
Is yet an ot he r h a rd sh ip .hlch
a product
setting,
and
and
threat
He
plays
conviction
is the out la. .ho has no respect
or decency,
is a constant
recalling
their
a natural
of the oonfliot,
a man of h o n o u r and
CC" “ “ ndl‘ ,h* respect
■ilar.ee
Kit*.,'
ideologies
John W a n e
W e s t e r n e r To. Conof.n,
Being
prevailed,
apparent
.as
according
V a l a n c e , John Pord
of con fl ic ti ng
.ay,
old
sides
contradiction.-
In j h e . llan ,„o shot
generic
survived.
la
in div iduals
to a hosti le
la., of nature
the fittest
foro.s
subje ct
of
a railroad,
ho n ou r and
for an eye".
upon and
A ten
inhabitants,
albeit
but
perso nal -
fro nti er
government,
out,
ia
Institution:
schools,
Integrity,
carried
the fund ame nta l
strongest
Of
Personal
.as g e ne ra lly
ethic
of its
their anarchic
.hlch
of the Weet,
.orth.
good
or
the str uc tu re ,
the old We st er n
the bru tality
of
m o r a l it y
Identity.
of so ci ety 's
it has
ethica l
the indiv idu al
the c o m m un it y
Alt hou gh
a sens,
Te st ame nt
on. of
in
to -h e, he r
or a courthouse.
d ev elo ped
too complex,
as the measur e
according
. hen
education,
in no g u a r a n t e e
en v ir on me nt
Ahd
„ith
fair,
'ey. for an eye'
hoetile
become
There
1. acre
ne ve rt hel ess .
order'
judged
in hand
i hd u. tr la ii aat io n.
ay st e a
ap pr o p r i a t e
com- hand
Ran som ',
Justice and
c h a ra ct er
progress
contr ast s
sharply with
those
around
ance.
He is defined
belief
in the
refinec
of
and
physical
even when
Ha n s o m
town's
Such
o:
the
as
fitting male a t t r i b u t e s .
he refuses
mart) r,
10m
is
ly turns
physically
uses a gun
he wears
is
boots
to
and
the old way
and
other c h e e k ,
Hansom
justice
Tom
he
is always
like a true
wears a suit and
be.
in tegrity and sing ula rit y
It
out
wins
the respect
is to Ford's
succeed
But finally
to tame
the
the fruits
s c h o o l h o u s e , the
tragedy
there
like
-om D o n ' f a n
be expected
come
to an end
destroyed
Day
Ford
in the new civilizes
to change
like him have
tamed
and
equals
because
and
he
respect
provide
day with
the
the
way
for
interesting
and
is
efforts
refined
Hart
place
life,
He
of
but their
cannot
others
time has
Tom
upon which he
ia
thrives.
in this film,
while night
the
for
he and
progress.
cont ra st s
justice
sees
He
society.
frontier
barren wast el an d
light
is no
is the ola
they must make
along with
and night
is that
about
it is Ransom
railway,
of justice.
Weste rn genre
be u p ­
and
of his
-astern cl othing and baste in metho ds
of
credit
is good
in the w i l d e r n e s s .
as a s e na to r and we witne ss
d e s e r t , a new
that
of n e c es si ty
out.
he
uses a book and
always
ex presses all
elected
men
and
is an intellectual,
he finally
carried
the new order which
of the
courage
By direct contrast,
if need
is strong
work­
scorn
are shown as c ha ra ct er s who can
citizens.
of life,
and
strength and
while H a n s o m
even Tom h i m s e l f .
as model
an aprca and
ana
p e rs ev er an ce
held
is socially
to pressure
spurs while Hans om
both of these men
of what
their insults
justice,
that
to
Yet despite
put on an apron
by
system
in the
the disgust
physical
strong where
and
to wnsfolk and
that
inspire
portrays Ra n s o m as a man of deep
of purpose
the
the
to achieve
prepared
rord
to succumb
by others
by do nn in g
citizens w..o see
a just
to submit
the no r m
actions
appear­
Idealistic,
to in stitute
threatened
t r an sg res se s
and
showing an inherent
He refus es
be ha vi ou r for a man,
ing as a v.alter.
jibes,
values,
he attempts
in Shinbone.
violence
ac ce p t a b l e
in attitude
sys te m which he rep res ent s.
order
community.
both
by r.at, tern
learned,
law and
him,
and
symbolizes
1C6
the
and
folk
uncerta in ty
in h h i n b o n e .
e mbo di men t
reflec ts
Liberty
of all
the
that
inherent
assaults
s c o r ni n g all
'devil'
*he
good
of Ford's
black and
cruelty
liberty
era
l ord
H e brings
preys
'light'
is
always makes
c o m mu ni ty and
upon
presentation
self
of evil,
a
the c o m m u n i t y .
shows
interest.
progress and
and
all he
in which
Liberty
insults
to the
On the
ridding
stands
for,
respon ds with
co mm uni ty
and
town
of
symbolizes
to feel
as a C h r i s t - l ik e
ana
other
the
men do not need
portrays him
m a r t y r who accepts
Liberty
He
the
is an
tVhile Tom
is the force
and
and
Valance
day a new
threatened.
society,
the
car ry in g a silver whip, indexrs
R a n s o m , by bri nging
the new
this
Liberty
weari ng
the outlaw,
and d a n g e r o u s .
goodness
threate n
the A e s t .
decency.
who shuns
the evil
in
which
in
victimising
re fl ec ti ng his
hand
Valance,
at night,
iconography
always
a n ar ch y
is evil
s a v a g e , b r u t a l , lawless
his
and
figure,
a
compassion.
dri-es
out
the d a r k ­
ness .
Caught
between
these
and
the
who
by accepting
valance
other of
signals
t hi s, pro gre ss
have
protected
de s t r o y e d , i o m
He
progress
the
the way
would
his
Ki_d
reworks
of
thp
classic
skilled
Butch and
criminals who
avoid harmin g
en orm ou sl y
in
left
in
past
and
the
Hutch
the
he roes
and
hill
the
caught
and
the
are
Jundanre
conflicts
entertain­
extremely
professional
them as
characters,
1 it e which
victim
him.
striking and
their
been
between
ideological
presents
likeable
to escape
a true
Cassidy
of
would
the community.
destroy
and
dene
outlaw has
two outlaws
the cou rs e
anyone.
charismatic
by their inability
place
in a par tic ul ar ly
outdance,
and Libert'
the
finally
film
Had he not
that
the my th ol og ic al
Acotern genre
ing way.
lives
ili's
shooting Liberty
now
by
and
is Tom Donofan,
society.
other m y th ic
threaten
r.
Hut
haunted
of
to a halt
he has no
ioa is like
C-'Orgc xoy
(1969)
come
domain.
finds
forces which
for a new
have
of evil destruct ion
and c i vi li sat ion ,
re sp on si bi li ty
ia a -onely here,
o- change.
two
two f o r c e s , one
who
two
are
they have
trapped
created
for
themselves.
futility,
as even
criminal
lot.
criminal
past,
They
must
men,
and
The
keep
are
ology
become
no
of
place
the
Miling
old
ideology
which must
society
as
needs
part
by
the
before
and
acc ording
hutch
forces
has
ways
as
are
in the m y t h ­
let
them escape
of d e st ro yi ng
the
proces.
can be introduced,
proof
that
the
be located
define
passing.
demands
be forced
killed,
and
old West
in h i st or y
that
era and
In the Gre ek
that
to
he must
Justice
be carried
pay for his
be killed
c l a ss ic al
cr im in al
and
if he
to the old ways,
he must
die
and
pursued
re le nt l e s s l y
Sun dan ce
of order and
their ult imate
re qui rem ent s
part
test,
Is a 'cleansing'
new
its
they are
and S u n d a n c e
cannot
their characters
d e c 1are
If he
too.
eacapln g
it
Bolivian
own cha racters.
entrenched
Su nd anc e must
the criminal must
lived
them
the West,
are hunted
of the old
society
the W e ste rn genre
a ct iv iti es.
to
and
are
or their
to them.
la that
Butch
la a n e r e a s a r y
of an era,
and
They
la*'
their
soldiers.
their
legend
is changing,
in it.
hutch
tradition,
has
of the
their corpses
ultimately
out
pert
upon
in an obscure
of
of
their
open
police and
the myth
them
option
Butch and S un da nc e
old world
of
of
'the
and Su ndance
sla ugh ter ed
from
be done
died.
will
Butch
facing
it.
has
running.
in
to improve
from
no other
that world
allowed
seem
wh e t h e r
force
by a sense
successful
they have
to retire
al though
are
never
the run,
‘y a massed
They have
are marked
they
they
finally
tragedy
unable
on
lives
when
a ct iv i t i e s
Always
village
Their
are
civiliz ati on.
d e s tr uc ti on
There
because
acc or di ng
is no
it fulfils
the
of the mythology.
’n the sequence
of
'tiaindrops
makes
a strong
statement
place
In the mid-west.
bicycle temporarily
of the song:
keep falling
showing
As
Butch
ignoring
on my head'
the changes
and
their
Ktta
fate,
«<a lnd ro ps keep falling on my head
and Just like the guy whose feet are
nothing seems to fit..."
Hill
which are
ride
around
we hear
too big
the
taking
on a
lyrics
for his
bed
108
and
realise
the
c h a n g i n g world.
Old
.a s t e r n my th ol og y.
this
that
feeli ng
the
outlaws will n e v e r
They
are
sy mb ol ic
Ironic all y
be c o m f o r t a b l e
of and
tied
they attempt
in
to the
to alleviate
of exclusion:
"because
N o t h i n g ' a w o r r y i n g me .i,-thing's w o rr yi ng me."
and
maintain
society
hinds
could n e v e r
they
co m m u n i t y
:. "
The
t h e i r comic
believe
. a pp or t
allow
them
opp os i ti on model
for a n a l y s i n g
the st r u c t u r e
three
-art
reality and
:n vario us
fantasy
in the
fantasy and
fantasy
the stylistic
the n a r ra tiv e
film
as
generic
to
which
to them.
example,
is usually
Part
accepts
(c) shows how
so
that
reality
co nsidered
not have
the chara ct ers
and
expressed
the
(b) deals
shows how
of
the
while
same
isolates
the frame wor k
of
values which are
in a song for
the same
effect.
conviction
emotion
Generic
and
who are generlcally
those who do not,
the
Ideologically
and
the moral
that singing i m pl ie s
settings
Part
to be
This secti on
wit hi n
sincere,
a process
sequences
ones.
An emotio n w hi ch
into
between
is revealed
musical
of
as a basis
undergoes
reality.
oppo sit ion s
tion
c ha ra c ter is ed
of the
of this re la ti on sh ip
con cep ts
in the
l e n r . n , Thomas Sch .t z
stable
eyes
is divided
opposition
of the musical,
as a result
does
films,
p r es en ta ti on
In H o llywood
cally
the
the n o n - m u s i c a l
i.e. those who have talent
selves and their emotions.
between
but in the
of m u si c a l
these
elementj
in speech
c o n v e n ti on
In t he ir own
I have devised
is u lt ima te ly
convention,
expressed
of
genre
become
attached
but
;.r.e musical
which
the
is e x pr es sed
opposed
ant in o m ie s
and
Each
of re versal
"ith
cf
(a) consi der s
films.
are killed,
condemned.
N_o.t_ruc_tural ist Analysii
parts.
the,
to be free.
in their freedom,
they are
binary
until
truth.
opposed
express
them-
makes
an Important
distinc­
co ntested
settings and
Ideologi­
of genre films.
by a settin g which
Is
15
The ..eetern genre
ideologically contested.
la
.his
Ide ol og i ca l
films.
New
ones,
sad
and
and
values
the
inly
the code
and
and
class
of socially
U933),
he
s i t uat io n wi t h
miee
m
c o nfi de nce
threat
a way which goes
against
/ene K 5 l l y '8 8 i n eing and
of
-he
oppositions wh ic h
therefore,
a l th ou gh
one ,
the musical
in society,
it does
e ti quette
adapts
in
the
the
and
rain
his
what
is not.
embodies
the
It
opposit io ns
An ex am ina tio n
and
is this
cultural
of the
imp lications
obvious
suggested
relationships
of the musical
Vor
prevalent
In dev ising a model
and
formal
by
are not,
conflicts
is between what
fundamental
original
or the setting.
flim genre,
ca tegory
is a joyful
genre
of the musical
this generic
to a part-
the
for the d e c n nu tr uc tl on
in
rather like
in response
way.
ship
legiti-
is a classic
in a my th -li ke
The most
and
lau ghed at.
in the musical
the
position
other, need
norm,
in favour of
ideology
social
ch ar ac te rs may act
so
into cons ide rat ion .
to the
of his
that
threatens no one,
are found
come
and
Jo wh en fred
to rationalise
b e ha vi our
reflects
in
to ai,
realises
behavioural
argument
concern ing
it
identity.
to tr anscend
talented
dancing
Kelly
a persuasive
but
transthen
places
in jest.
taken ligutly
u n c o nv en ti ona l
icular ci rcu ms ta nc e.
expression,
res ponse .
the
can be
but
in Flvln,
He
Ku s lc al ly
Jester who
e xpo si tio n
u n iv er sa ll y
an
take advantage
their myths
their existe nc e.
is
talented,
to their
allows him
to society.
and
both
As a fu ll y-r ea li se d kusi c-
But he does not
institutions
the court
and
behaviour
initially,
ease.
is
film
to express
event
disco mf ort
relative
inherent
restrictions.
tneir
is f table
it is always
at a society
feigns
poses no
the musical
adhere
of old
attitudes
the mu si cal ly
chara ct ers
di sti nct io ns,
arrives
and
old
merely
„ester n
the expense
a c c e pt ab le
conflict,
of most
although, the he r o may mock social
Astaire
i':an, his
" these
or
core
at
In c ntrast,
the hero,
talented
society,
introduced
ideology which
r.e/er to evoke
the
is at the
destruction
by an
accepted.
°ven
are
inevitable.
u nd er pi nn ed
gress
con flict
ot her elements
vital
is musica l
and
difference which
the narrative
between,
relation­
and
ard non -musical
the
content.
content
modes,
will
lie
B i n a r y
positions
in the Aiuaicai
Non Vualral
a)
Mua ical
Reality
b)
reflection
interpretation
growth
stasis
emotions
re p r e s u e d
Jtriet social
emotions expressed
social freedom
institutions
illusion
self-awareness
Reality
Fantasy
b)
fantasy
Naturalism
b)
dramatic
Stylisation
theatrical
speech
lyric
soliloquy
song
dialogue
harmony
sentence
melody
rhythm improvised
walking
rhythm metered
dancing
Conflict
re-* - <n
c)
Resolution
instinct
senses
emotions
rationality
suspicion
imagine tion
trust
compromise
risk
physical fulfilment
emotional fulfilment
Ill
reveal
the essence
of this genre' s
' e fo r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e m o d e l
Illuminate
the i m p l i c a t i o n s
primary modes
acceptable
to t h e a u d i e n c e .
of c o m m u n i c a t i o n
rir a w s
In d e t a i l
It is n e c e s s a r y to
It is u s e d
in a c c o r d a n c e
is t h e r e f o r e
f a m i l i a r a nd
As a n o n - n a t u r a l i s t i c
it c o n s c i o u s l y f o r e g r o u n d s
a t t e n t i o n to i ts o w n a r t e f a c t .
d i s c u s s i o n of H o m a n J a k o b a e n ' s
form
itself and
An e x a m i n a t i o n
a nd
c o m m u n i c a t i o n model will
reveal
the w a y in w h i c h m u s i c w o r k s .
uishes
b e t w e e n six d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s
^
Jakobsen disting­
of c o m m u n i c a t i o n
w h i c h a d o p t t he c h a r a c t e r of w h a t e v e r f u n c t i o n
in tile c o m m u n i c a t i o n e v e n t .
.Jakobsen 1s r a t e ^ n n .s
and leaning.
of u s i n c m u s i c as o n e of the
of e x p r e s s i o n .
w i t h g e n e r i c c o n v e n t i o n a nd
stru ctu re
is d o m i n a n t
of C o m m u n ic at io n
referential
(context)
(addresser)
emotive
(addressee)
conative
poetic
(message)
phatic
(contact)
mctalingual
(code)
If c o m m u n i c a t i o n
is o r i e n t a t e d
t o w a r d s the c o n t e x t , the
r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n d o m i n a t e s a nd t h e m e s s a g e w i l l c o n t a i n
objec ti ve i n f o r ma ti on about about an event.
If t h e
communi­
c a t i o n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t he a d d r e s s e r , the e m o t i v e
function
d o m i n a t e s and
the c o m m u n i c a t i o n m a k e s a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t he
emotional state
of i t s a g e n t .
C o m m u n i c a t i o n a i m e d at the
. a d d r e s s e e h a s a c o n a t i v e f u n c t i o n a n d s h o w s a n e c e s s i t y to
f o r c e h i m i n t o an a w a r e n e s s
If t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n
the
vha
wishes
that the m e s s a g e
is o r i e n t a t e d
t j c f u n c t i o n la d o m i n a n t a n d
towards
the c w
to c o m m u n i c a t e f o r i ts o w n s a k e .
.
is a i m e d at h i m .
the c o n t a c t
then
.unicator simply
Communication events
112
aomlnant
m
In
th ,
m
of o n m n . u n l n . t l j a .
m
m
.
s ip
s ia i
115
:l'a i v
'
m
“
m a i c a t ta-ent
.U
;a 1 o n 1. i m p l i e s
morally
charac
. s en s it iv e
onf i d e n t ,
ana
that
m e t a p h o r "I c a n n o t s i n g "
oame
was
tic
those
of
sincere.
»1 c a n s i n g ' ,
implies
characterises
lene
Conversely,
a
the p e r s o n
s h a l l o w a nd
is " g o o d " w h e r e a s
la a l s o c o n v e n t i o n b o u n d ,
the " n o t s o g o o d "
characters.
e x p r e s s e d as "I c a n d a n c e " / " !
apply
lo ve h a s
cannot dance".
of d a r
u n i o n of a l l
ny, a r t i s t r y ,
balance,
These
to t h e m u s i c a l
p a r t of
at its f i n e s t .
the w ^ e n t s
form and
physical
d e m o n s t r a t e s its beauty ana c o m p l e x i t y
It
of d a n c i n g ,
i)ance is a v i s u a l e x p r e s s i o n of t h e c o n c e p t
vivid way.
the
" K y l o v e is a d a n c e " m e a n s
the q u a l i t i e s
ahe -i a perfect
and
Exactly
g e n r e w h e r e they are e as il y r e c o g n i s a b l e and f or m
int er na l logic.
the
if t h e m e t a p h o r
m e t a p h o r s a re o n l y v a l i d a n d a p p l i c a b l e
hat
l a c k of
a c c o r d i n g to g e n e r i c
p r o c e s s of t r a n s f e r e n c e w o u l d
its cohesive
ti0
ere loyal,
wno
t h a t a p e r s o n is i n s e n s i t i v e ,
flawed.
convention,
self-realisation ana
-0 '•v levii
interaction.
of l o v e a n d
in a p a r t i c u l a r l y
k i l n is e s p e c i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l in t h i s k i n d of
-'jsuai c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h i c h c o n v e y s n o n - v e r b a l c o n c e p t s .
The other a e . a p h o r f requently
my music
e uses
allows
in
is m y i m a g i n a t i o n "
shows
in m u s i c a l f i l m s
s o n g a nd d a n c e c a n
how
tc e x p r e s s a na r e v e a l a c h a r a c t e r s
inner life.
the c h a r a c t e r to e x p l o r e h i s i m a g i n a t i o n a nd
the t r a n s l a t i o n of
aur .1 s i g n .
is
repeated
The
to f o r e g r o u n d
i subconscious
tnought
i n t o a v i 8 U al or
the p o e t i c or a e s t h e t i c
while simultaneously
f u n c t i o n of the
r e i n f o r c i n g t he
i hc o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t a l e n t e d a n d u n t u l e n t e d
are
of t h e i r t ru e
in s o c i e t y w i t h o u t
message.
internal
characters
is
by the f a c t t h a t m a n y of the t a l e n t e d c h a r a c t e r s
unaware
expression
results
e f f e c t of u s i n g s o n g a n d d a n c e as m e t a p h o r s
com mu ni ca ti on event,
m e s s a * <* .
complicated
Lusic
potential
question.
Music
and a c c e p t
is an a c c e p t a b l e m o d e
for a n y o n e who has a g e n u i n e need
d o a l t h o u g h a c h a r a c t e r m a y be
c or. ;.ivni t y , and m a y a l s o a d h e r e
that s o c i e t y
their places
of
to c o m m u n i c a t e a
m e m b e r of the f i l m ' s
to the v a l u e s w h i c h
u p h o l d s , generic c o n v e n t i o n a l l o w s f o r th a t person
to express
nuns
in
his m e ss ag e
ihe .:ound
thoug ht
oi .-usic,
and reason.
They
so ci et y w hic h makes
and
or ga ni s es
a l th o ug h
no rm al
live
ritual
genuinely
epitome
flouts
the rules ,
are
forced
to ask
By using
of
every
lives
of
its members.
is unable
existence,
to conform
Laria,
to the
in tne convent.
h o we ve r u n c o n s c i o u s l y
jibbet?^
will
the nuns
and
the nuns
a "cloud"
are
able
that
to sense
regimen,
it is because
by her
im ag ina tio n
Ma ri a
cannot
be
needs
to be close
pinned
through her love
com munity
she
she
and her
down
by
of music
using
encoded
o'
and
con ve nti ons
of
charac ter s
n e ce ss ar il y
come
apparent
orderly
chorus
ch ara c t er s
does not
provides
musical
into
therefore
of spiritual
them
hero
'Ascot
rules,
she
it
life
there
insight
into
the
Gavotte'
is no indication
"hat wl11
content.
musical
For example
The
characters
their situation,
as
it only
expression.
of the musically
A d i r e c t o r may choose
a thematic
from
be ~
co mmunity which the
pre ro ga ti ve
to reinforce
their
is foreg ro un de d
generic
of
the film's
a problem like Maria"
truly
or heroine.
sequence
remarkable
not
for freedom.
from
’good'.
of that
do you solve
are not
give
to tr.eir
experiences
the n a r r a t i v e
an a c c e p t a b l e means
are
talented
are
other aspects
pattern
.hey
of genre without
thoee
of "How
and
singers
that
in the sequence
lyrics.
and singing.
C o ns eq uen tly ,
encode
the
is to° influ­
desire
insti tu ti on s
implications.
di rector will
She
essen tia l
m e ta pho ri c
are
into
the wisp".
cannot.
use a chorus
the
to the metapho ric
does not confo rm
to her en v ir on me nt
films w hi ch
are
been
and a "will
although
enced
of the
the wi sp ? A clown?"
of b’
.arla w h ic n have
is a "clown",
strict
o'
draw a t t e n t i o n
She
Songs
day
in desperation:
a song,
de scr ip t i on s
music
st ruc tur ed
do you solve a problem like f aria
do you catch a cloud and pin it down
A°f li bb er ty
the
of rational
in a str ict ly
beha vi our ex pe ct ed
She
Any
tne
^he singin,
a part
devout,
of
or a oance.
are
the s p i r i t u a l
standards
"How
How
in a song
point.
to use a
ueorge C uk or s
the music al My ^ l r
L a djr shows
the
class
structure
part ic u l a rl y
sense
has
way.
been su bmerged
C uk o r
en tir ely
in unison,
any
real
we have
ardent
with
been
led
pose and
ality,
r e nd er ing
so lavish
cloying
si ncerity
only
of Astaire.
it well
will
achieve
true musical
is
feel
kind
of his
Ca pta in
ev erything
on heart
no
to his
and
He
aucience.
any e x p r e ­
so as a n e c e s s a r y
That
express ion
beauty
love,
of
for him.
the
talent
but
is also
indulgent
sympathy
song,
no r m ­
the a n a .
it is so
real
the
ofcsessea
own performance.
simple
that
Hicardo Romero,
is articulate,
his
suitor
only
His
in­
and sincerity
those who
strength as an expressive medium,
of se lf -aw are nes s
character ist ic
of
the
Things"
to her lack of
in T h e o o und_of
pretension and ma terial
f o r her, the va luable things in life are the simplest,
and her ce le bra ti on
ling.
ardent
their
persona.
draws a t te nt ion
wants.
the
reinforces
K a r l a ’s rendition of "My fa vourite
K usl c
to sing despite
when
can use
its
is here".
in E w l n ^ l ime, is
to amplify
respect
the
protocol
is done
Any ch a ra ct er
and
that all
he
is like
c e can
serves
and without
ia
summoned
the
sings
race
it insincere.
of music
and
the
sings hand
it destroys
that
emotion
about him.
incorporated
that
R i c a r d o ’s use
use
are
is that he
is
costumes wnich
who s h o u l d ’ve been here
perfec ti on
ssion which
and
is
setting,
*ho wins
per sonalities.
concern
thus
uses
withou t
suitor to Gin ge r Rogers
primary
individual
-he chorus moves
in this way,
the techn ica l
the
their
of the Ascot
and
event.
to believe
strikes a stiff
His
shows how
iconography
characters
himse lf
highlig hts
into a group consciousness.
is important
egocentric
expresses
the
"e veryone
certain
shallow,
and
expression,
in
in a s i n n i n g ,
effectively
black and white.
wi th ou t
and
England
avoids na tu r a l i s m
i m m a t e r i a l , what
Often,
by the
interest
ob served
He
identity,
< s emphasized
in w h i ch
are
visua
of comm un ity
at titude
This
cf E d w a r d i a n
Karla's
of these
simple
things
Is both sincere and
joy co ntrasts with
compel­
the oour attitudes
of
v o n Trapp w h o me life is filled with all the trappings
of wealth
and
is a barren
wasteland
of emotion.
His childr en
116
h av e grown up w it h o u t
love or gentleness,
and L a n a
a b l e to i n s t i l l In t h e m a l o v e of
special things
are
not
beautiful for t he i r own sakes
..i'ch
for theo u et ar y
v a l u e a t t a c h e d to t he m:
" R a i n d r o p s on r o s e s and w h i s k e r s on k i t t e n s
Bright copper k et tl es and warm w o o l l e n m ittens
B r o w n p a p e r p a c k a g e s t i e d up w i t h s t r i n g
T h e s e are a f ew of my f a v o u r i t e t h i n g s . . .
..hen the d og b i t e . , w h e n the b ee s t i n g s
W h e n I 'm f e e l i n g s a d
I s i m p l y r e m e m b e r my f a v o u r i t e trim. l.
a nd t h e n I d o n ' t f e e l so ba d ."
T o c h e e r h e r w h e n s h e is d e p r e s s e d , L a r i a o n l y n e e u s
r e m e m b e r t h a t the w o r l d
is a g a i n s t all h e r
simple
The musical film
philosophy which
talented characters;
dance about,
place.
there
by a l l
things.
to e x p e r i e n c e it a nd d e r i v e
thought
ssive medium,
L a r i a and o thers like
ana s..own h o w
oi
it f u n c t i o n s as a m e t a p h o r w i t h i n
between
in the m u s i c a l f i l m w i l l
provide
category.
whi ch have been isolated
in the m o d e l
i n t e r e s t i n g in-
-hese binary o pp os it io ns
c a n be f o u n d in m o s t
f i l m s and it is t h e r e f o r e o f f e r e d as an a p p r o p r i a t e
framework within which
The
a discussion concerning
t he b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n s
s i g h t e i n t o this g e n e r i c
3.3.1
fust ieing
is e n o u g h to b r i n g h a p p i n e s s .
the g e n r e ,
the a n a l o g o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s
musical
they simply wish
i m p l i c a t i o n s of u s i n g m u s i c as an e x p r e ­
the n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e
manifested
to s i n g a n d
t h a t the w o r l d
p l e a s u r e f r o m it.
of a d m i r i n g t h e w o r l d
the
its t r u l y
is a l w a y s s o m e t h i n g
h a v e n o d e s i r e to p o s s e s s w h a t t h e y l o v e ,
Having explained
Self-pity
u n d e r p i n n e d by a
is
is s h a r e d
e v e n if it is o n l y the
contains many beautiful
capable
to
p r i n c i p l e s and m a t e r i a l g i f t s a r e of no
r e a l v a l u e to h e r .
very
a beautiful
is
s
to d e c o n s t r u c t
the i n d i v i d u a l
film.
R e a l it y/ Fa nt as y
o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n r e a l i t y and f a n t a s y
thematic
s t r u c t u r e of t h e m u s i c a l
in e a c h of its i n d i v i d u a l
me d i u m w h i c h
foreground.
films.
is I n t e g r a l
to the
f e n r e , a n d c a n be I s o l a t e d
Music
is a n o n - n a t u r a 1 i s t i c
I t s e l f in t w o w a y s .
firstly,
as a
m et a p h o r
for self
device w h i ch
mode
expression,
defan.il inrioes
of e xp re ss io n
reality,
seems
that
that
fantasy.
Society,
a view
the world w hi ch
and
of
hence
this
imaginary
which
se t t i ng where
evolve
as the
they
the generic
Any
to define
attempt
futile,
it
refers
can
'reality'
'invent
world w h i c h
two
is
things.
» e must
presented
society and
two,
that
that
able
society.
hi ms el f has
in
this
semio log lca l
Barthes
code
shown how
is famili ar
to the au dience.
ing
its
to
Applying
own
this
the musical,
ideology
erecting
necessary
and
uphold
emotionally
barriers
collective
w h i c h reveals
certain
is
of the
real
reveals
presented
in
as a
in oruer to be a c c e p t ­
of it,
a code which
in each genre
the audience
is
characters
it as
'real'
and
accept
Myth
about
or
accord­
'life-like' .
.hey are
o.
by
cl as s- conscious,
community
and
is an ideological
the
and
the dominant
socially
their specific
identity.
decodes
film,
to the structure
'natural'.
Inhibited
things
concun-
an impres si on of reality
s p ec if ic al ly
to define
is
of realism working
(myth)
of what
the untalc nt cd
easily
implication,
more
iilm as
Likewise ,
system w hi ch
concept
in the
An exa mi na ti on
an impression
p er cep ti on
the actual
the aut ho r always med iates
presents us with
a semantic
repre­
that reality
individual
of realism
sys te m
only create
creates
clari­
a linguistic
re: ember also,
is a code
can
di rector
are
to the s t r u c t u r ­
rel at io ns hi p to
the musica^
reality and
the
'reality'
is only
by each
there
se c o n d - o rd e r
to that
The
of reversal
ac c o r d i n g
our own reality'.
One,
their dreams.
and
is,
d e f i n i t io n
a c o n st ruc t which is create d
ity - we
:rom
to a fantastical,
the stages
an ar bi tra ry
to.
objective
charac ter s
indulge
'fantasy'
, perpetuates
context.
because
se ntation w h i c h has
lifts
irom
deal with
as natural,
them
isolates
terms
fied wi th i n
concept
content must
is accepted
a
its content
in the mus ic a
tr an s p o r t s
op po ri ti on model
alists,
that
portrayed
and
Conseq uen tly ,
to remove
!r e a l i s t i c ' , while music
1r e a l 1 world
binary
s e c o n d l y , as a stylistic
the a c t i o n .
appears
to imply
as
and
culture which
their
carrier
accepts
.
ana
for'., u
structure
wr. j.c»
ovi. n. u
it-
tent.v + ou,
.
mirrors
'
■ society
to whoa
it communi ca te s,
a numccr
=1
.
'
George Cukor's
struct ure s
class
fv
in S a w a r u l a n
structures
result
fair :,..y
:l: nd)
should
of hir. worxir.
(a film v,hici
be rigid,
examine-
pe rp et ua te s
cla.s
the n y t a that
and shows what
happens
cl :,,_etn.ic_a bein ■ acceite_d_a.s_a
.
.oolittle's
Alfred
rise
in status
Jo ol it tl e' s
dse
is t- t:
see ms
.Ifred
to prove
has
that
become m i s e r a b le,
clas»
structu res
.
p re se nta ti on
of E l iza 's
rise
from her h u mb le
b eg in ni ng s as a
.
she
prover
that
bein,
a member
of any
class
is not
a necessary
.
In p.n in,: in A h ^ . h a i n
good
speech
co ns i s ts
u tan ley
of
bonen
unravels
proper ar ti cu la ti on
the myth that
and
precise
,
sign:
A film
secondary
ftlls
at
the
signification
wreak correctly,
fax office
iv tnat*
he r.unt,
is
The
rtxcuL
raced
"hones
eu pos es hio
'
.
to communicate.
the f c ^ c “
performer mu.t
una
toescs are
learn „to
a v e ^ n,.v;va r e ^ . ^ _ c%
»
quence
in
rot e.,
119
Tho dc
who
dance
should
properly
be
and
Kelly
Singing
room
d a n c i ng
He
of correct
Song and
dance must
abnormal
to sing
Because
such myths
appea ran ce
of
whi ch make
up the
being
of a community
reality
and
have
For
that Kelly's
that he feels ana
expect
to a stronc
in
inner
they
he
They
own
They have
recognition
recognise what Keliy
is dancing,
are
only
they
m e mb er
of
and agrees
realise
that man has
can be changed,
lor
accepts
to abide
by
they
its
his
to
invent
he can
the fallacy
of man's
for aim exists
sur.ace
discover
that
myths
beyond
^nto t.,e
Although
to see
+. at
signification.
to bols.er
order
belongs
hut
rigid
is easy,
their
each
to a class
they
lail
01
to
and institutions
or static.
reinvent his
The
own reality,
to all who are
the
..e
it is beyond
fallen
own world
and
of the joy
is responding
see
rules.
c.
is raining.
is easy
they are not n e c es sa ri ly
Truth
it
social
the ability
to listen.
beyond
Knows
that he
constructed
as facts
t:.e a r u e . a c *
lies
it
the
uctalen ted members
.he deep er
m u s i c- m an has
reveal
The
u n d e rs ta nd ing .
of the
it is
and have
are acc ept ed
u n w it ti ng ly
of using what
the community
society
he
decode
R e c o g n i t io n
occasion
that he
is doing,
cannot
capable
ideology.
because
anq ._in
rain.
that
to un der sta nd
as:
anti-social.
is a c e l e b r a t i o n
matter
the sign:
the est a b ­
th e n they would
the rain
impulse
their c om pr ehe ns io n.
trap of m i s t a k i n g
could,
it doesn't
anyone
against
to tra ns cen d
truth w h i c h
if they
singing
they
So
w r o n g, _time
proper
the
used for
r a i n , is framed
teing
of reality.
no means
or in
who sings or
to be natural,
'life-like'
fabric
and
or
presumed
d i sc ov er the
ap pea rances.
doesn't
are
the
going
for the
in the streets
theatre
conventionally
plage,
beh vlour
be kept
the
in
is therefore
song and
it is
a n ti -s oc ia l.
and dancing
in the wrong
where
Anyone
or at a tine not
is s i ng in g
norm,;
in
considered
that
in socie ty v/.^.^ci. is
or at the Opera.
wrong conditions.
lished
the my t h
p e rf or man ce s
it is acceptable
d a nc in g, is
and
for
in
L.usic has a place
in a place,
singing
believe
reserved
defined,
living
dances
Gene
untalcn ted
framed.
rigidly
one's
are
prepared
common-place world.
•he
se tt in g
a crc nt ir n
the
o 1 the mus ic-ir. 'in1e world
ol
his
ch a r a c t e r
re l a t i o n
re ali ty
ov.n imagination,
forms
a true
to the world.
define
it univ ers all y
a 1wayg
subjective.
fined.
.he
definition
if he
is
fant asv
his
existence
o.. the w o r . d
it
is not
rea.ity
i.e.
real,
examine
his
fe eli ng he does not
and
of this
has
totally
By creating a
visually
in it,
to describe
to our
natural
is
or
u nd ers ta nd
of
- like
concept.
'realistic*
the nature
can
to be
of a
the love he feels
their emotional,
is achieved
with all
its vital
because
The
correct,
existence.
their
physical
as a result
da nci ng
they
relationships
seem
in
invent
and
reality
been created
and
serves
of the
by t h e m ­
to justify
It art ears natural,
knowledge
ch ara cte rs
be ha vio ur - singing ana
but
clear.
is one which has
as obj ec ti ve ly
ihe musical
vention,
become
their dally
it corresponds
about
and
' r e a l it y1 as a
to indulge
the street s
in
'unnatural*
defies all c o n ­
their own world and explore
structures,
their grasp upon
is far stronger.
The model
and each
a
perception
perceived
or explore
-rue aw ar ene ss
characters
reinforce
cussed
function
n o n - n a t u r a l i s t i c ) a character
strength
therefore
accepted
reality
because
sea rching self-anal ysi s.
no n-m usical
and
fully
fulfilment.
A reversal
selves,
place
of realism
life
used here
the cons tr uc t which
partner and the
sexual
cannot
l i e — like",
and
nis
norm.
does not co rr es po nd
transcend
for his
nalise
is
is
out never de­
n» vds no ccoe
rati
in
of
his vioion
is exp er ien ce d
ana
self
to try and
since
by an establishea
t n e a t r i c a . , stylised
and
no at tem pt
vthe term fantasy
i.e.
.vithin that world
un d e r s t a n d i n g
1 ir,i l a t i o n , ana he
retricted
set tin
his
c h ar ac ter
fantastical,
of self and
or obj ec ti ve ly
Reality
implies
situ ati on which
but
he m ak e#
true mu sic al
to objec tif y
but
awa reness
Although
is incomplete,
is often
isolates
of the
the
binary
stages
of this
op pos iti on
re versal horizontally,
re lat ion shi ps
will
be d i s ­
in turn.
C har act ers
who
are not
talented,
and who cannot
use music
to
121
express
themselves,
subject
to its
events
and
events
appe ar
which
they
she
true musica l
The ir
not allow
vision.
He
needs
and
not content
seen
and
to understand
with surface
own
comment
them all"
in b in din g, m
about
that he should.
films
to be himself,
ol
to cloud his
ol
the
his world and
"hen Lon begins
is prompted
the
A
the world
latent m e an in g
"Once you've
not
her concerns
experience
which comprise
he
studio has
in her own mind.
illusions
the
image,
the
become
fantasy
appearances.
'star'
Lon and make
demands
his
tne
as a Holly woo d
have
values and
r el ati on shi ps
in his
pertinent
concerns
interprets
false
ideology
to possess
public
tuese
to question
the myth which
reality
ch ar ac te r
and will
of the
Lina Lanort
the
since
1 eel no re .1 urge
believes
she has con fus ed
believe
in their lives.
in terms
the
and are
rel 1 ec.t upon
about her status
Decause
around her.
structure
only
l o o k s , and her desire
In other words,
and
they
conce rne d
for her,
created
occur
their m e a n i n g s .
her
him care
to,
to their societ y
1hey
to be mot iv at ed
adhere
is only
'star',
bound
co nst rai nts .
issues which
or examine
Rain
remain
is
to
by Cathy's
seen one, you've
image
created
by the
studio s y s t e m .
similarly,
in .he uound
ch ar act er who rea lise:
one's
own desires
make his
and her
wife.
choices.
love
position
and
Her
senses his
love.
his
and
for
of A u s^L,
that
the comforts
is not
that she will
gentleness
to Maria,
who
and
for him or them.
out noticing
immediately
that
aware
it
person
nor
enters
lacks
families
being hie
person,
ability
to him
or his
inclina ti on
rtefact,
the warmth,
should
share.
,n.
she
to
is a woman from
while
child­
to truly
Von Trapp's household
is a loveless
it
the
things,
from
his
Elsa
to
by his social
to his
restores
is ol no real value
-hr
that
happiness which all
derive
the Baroness
ren as she has n e i t h e r the means
care
that
Influenced
grown out of a response
rep ressed
own background
to allow
sacrificing
does not lust after m at er ia l
the Captain
In con trast
is an interpret ati ve
loving a person means
oeing willing
-he
love has
karia
M ar ia
loughte- and
with­
is
As a result
tation of
allow
of
their
their
will
in
be.
pr ejudices
their
The
people
f ortu nate
to the
social
does
not
bound
by
by
it,
unlike
the hero
not
genre,
the
the.
reveal
its
c o n d e m n a t i o n for his
and
vigorous
the music al
others
succumb
of
modes,
dong
is both
Consider
the Ca pt ain 's
continual
issues which
falls
also
fearing
questioning,
confront
into
stagnate.
easily
him
the trap wh^ch
».usic a : : ords him the
med iu m which
to a musica,
is something which he
envey
in society.
enables
him
an, reinvent his world.
and
sincere
characters, a n
and
dance.
the
of exp re ss io n within
performer
talented
Throu gh
an e xp res si ve
emotion comes
the
place
and al though
structural, w e a k n e s s e s w it ho ut
Ex pre ss i on
able mode
i-
que stion nis
invent
articulates.
ideolo
cr
genre may
to constan tl y
readily
in the w e st er n
or
of the m u sic al
he cannot
emotion
are
of the gan gs te r
opinions.
because
characters
anti -h er o
to g r o w , providing
of
truths v e r w.
film is uncontesteu,
ch aracter nev er
to.
as
or the
ex p l o r a t io n
daily,
means
th<
it always
them as a menace
^nlike
and
'estern
protagonist
society and
regard
trey
leave no room
usica.
the hero accepts his
of
it is as
are ac ce pte d
structure.
the musical
characters
created
them.
the ga ng s t e r g e n r e , the sett m ,
percetueted
been
beliefs
society
ar..1 i n t e r p r e ­
their v i s i o n , and
believiny
to qu es t i o n
be cau se
a threat
to cloud
systems which have
attem pt
percep tio n
the n o n - m u s i c a l
environ me nt
for c h a n g e , becaus e when
few
true
surroundings,
personal
st agnate
lac/, o:
dance
understands,
the genre,
and
the dif fe re nc es
in The. J j . u n d ^ _ L u s i c .
and
accept­
that
Consequently,
in these
either
between
and
it implies
and committed.
emotions
ter,
accepts
is a conveni ent
most a rt ic ul at e
their true
chara
the
two expressive
in a song
cr a
aria's chara cte r
He repres ses
ana
all fee lings
•
to allow his
angered
children
when h'.aria makes
sing and
romp around.
is app rop ria te
warmth
capable
to
or love,
indulge
them
in 'normal'
pliyclothes,
Alt ho ug h his
socially,
their
of exp re ss in g her
and
engagement
relati ons hip
k a r i e , by contrast,
child
play and
teaches
joys and her fears.
to
to the Bar on es e
lacks any
is vital,
them
is
real
exuberant
In " I have
and
123
c onf idence",
she
a n a lya infi whet
need
to be
questions
lies
her
ahead
she
four
of the
realises
future
that
and
by
she has no
afraid:
"A Captai n with seven children, what's so !ears one
about that?
Ch I must stop these doubts all these worries
If I don't I just know I'll turn back
I must dream
of the things I am seeking
I am s e ek ing
the courage I lack
The coura ge to serve them with reliance
Pace my m i s t a k e s without defiance
Show them I'm worry and while : show them I 11
show me so
Let them bring on all their problems
I'll do better than my best
I have c o n f i d e n c e they'll put me to the test
But I ’ll make them see I have co nfluence in me."
ny
singing,
able
and
readily
to ex orcise
release
One
of the
musical
years
for what
deep emotions
vital
of H o l l y w o o d ' s
to A m e r i c a n
a popular culture
are drawn fro m
allow
upon
love
even
ignores
musical
his
film
transgress
is
kuuic
the
and
of feeling.
examined
genre's
Song
As
themes
an i dance
imposed
jlots may match
and
in ^outh
bar wh e n a young white
one
the
this.
res trictions
versa,
and man has
in the
Luring
reflects
of the musical
a P ol yne si an
leads
i~.e,
the
dis tin ct io ns were
island
a subtle m e ssa ge which
orderings
them.
does
the music al
or vice
in love with
own social
K ar la
structure.
definitions.
girl
and
it represents.
the colour
bears
is raised
to transcend
social
in his
is capable
social
many
tr.e society
a rich
soldier falls
and
life and
mode,
rigid
poor boy with
that he
"Golden Lra",
the c h a r ac te rs
them by
ic mi s s i n g
issues wh ic h
g e n r e , is class
central
emotion,
the Von Tra pp household, she inspires
search
the
her
any feelings of reserve and discomfort.
When she ente rs
Captain to
ex pr es si ng
a
;aci:_ic
American
girl.
The
is that man creates
the means
to recognise
to change
myths
or
for what
they a r e .
Astai re' s her oe s
to adapt
The
to any
Astaire
have what
level
each man
of society
strives
at any
persona has no de finite
:or,
time,
the ability
in any
place.
class affil iation,
nor
is
124
it s p e c i f i c a l l y
of m us ic al
his
films
ape
but
porary
located
in a p ar ti cu la r era.
"Everyman".
have
exciting and
audienc es .
which
delies
any
it in film history.
easily
located
of the
his world
Ameri ca
be
he will remain
at
elegance
sen sitive
the ...( vies M i ch ae l
none
to,
of the
195u's,
Dream".
He nas
to make him secure.
and
always
confident.
Wooa
it or
persona is mere
"Ame ri can
and
and
to catego ris e
he needs
aware
they don t
even to c o n t e m ­
vital A m e r i c a n
no class a f f i l i a t i o n because
is a kind
reason why
them,
uene K e l l y ' s
proverbial
can always
the
has a rich
attem pt
as the young,
em bod i me nt
Pro vid in g he
probably
un de rs t a n d a b l e
His da n c i n g
locate
the
is
a timeless q u a l i t y a bo ut
rem ai n
versatility
rhie
He
explains
explore
In his
ooos.
that:
"Fred As ta ir e is a style, but uene nelly is a state
of mind, almost an ideology.
Astai re is our enduring
dream of th» effortless c o n q u e s t of recalcitrant
( ^
circumstance; Kelly is the in de fa tig abl e A m e r i c a n . ..
In the m u si cal
and heroine
share
The
the
vital
genre
come
it is not
from simil ar
same desires
issue
boy gets his
dau ghter of
is
In High
a wealthy
is a 'ne'er-do-well'
way
into h er
upon
view
that
either
from
a lower
se riously
m ixed
and
challe nge s
was killed
regret
social
mixed m a r r i a g e s
attitude was
Ultimately,
engagement
were
itself
the
the
who croons his
left
to marry
the enemy
unaccepted
of Couth
that
The
to feel
a person
sense
war,
the
film never
racially
to marry
second world
ending
presents an
the musical
unable
which
(Bing Crosby)
In accordance with
a dist or te d
in the myths
the
is the
is never
ideology.
again st
in the
creates
one
de cision
class.
still wi d el y
reflected
society
and
were
and
the bl es s i n g of her family
in society,
Pacific
in action during
the hero
fi l m usually
the dom inant
in S outh
in a heroic
m an if est s
final ly wins
culture
emotional needs.
differences
of average means,
The music al
or high er
as long as they
other's
any
that the hero
S o c i e t y , the heroine
of re l at io ns hi ps
popular
lovers
resolve
suitor,
partner will
func ti on of
each
b u s i n e s s m a n while
their ma rriage.
optimistic
ing
heart
important
backgrounds,
and fulfil
that they
girl.
really
as
the hero
while
perform­
forces.
Kacially
in 1956,
and this
lac.ifi c.
of reality
society holds
which
to be
ru.; .
.< ..ivb
u n d e r t.oe8 >
ix
ove vaa
nuaical chai r.cter
3
of
•>:■ - i
■ i’uc'i.-,
..eun:; i«
..nven
. hiu
Vecc ie
von
iu !ity
j
refeil -y
antesy.
*
'-'he
by o^ ae rv in * unu
'
visi on
ani: p e r c e p t i o n
r
en ti re ly
lui.eciive,
as
t>av
«...o
'
Ne v e r t h e l e s s
of
his
jrawp
the co mmunity
'objectivity',
of reality
because
' sin. ul
is far de e p e r
it dec pe ls any
rity
of ne an i n
than
ia 1 1 a c 1 • 8
and ..
tnat
o-
Pu:'r‘
xistence’.
,.3 .
Na tu r al is e/
tyl isation
'..is theo retical
Cinema?
'eallty
ork cone
Andre Bazin
ani
makes
rninr
the nature
of
file,
hat__is
a d i s t i n c t i o n between draaat.c
the itrical reality,
ate tint
that:
"Drama is the soul of the theater but tnis soul s o m e ­
times inhabits o t h e r bod ie . A sonnet, a i a r *.e a La Fontaine , a novel, a film can o.. e their e i ; e c t - ••e ne s> to what nenri douhier calls "fae aromatic cutey o r i e e " . -•roo this point of view it is useless to
claim autonomy for the t h e a t e r . ••
inat i. to say a
play cannot be dra ma ti c - n le a novel i-: : ree to be
concede its immense influence and ~loO that the cinet.a
is the lea. t
. cely of the arts to ( scape this in­
fluence."
Th eat ri c al
reality
aspects
perf or man ce .
o
implies
recorded a.-. dra...atic,
in the t h e a t r e .
not
exclusive
a co nscious
of
In other -vorus theatrical
,v virtue
Bazin admits
to the
awareness
theatre
of i ti
thouyh
and may
the formal
reali *y
c o m n u n i c 1 in f a
thf t dramatic r e a l - V
be
found
is
in different
•
reality may also
director
uses
he visual
and
to tin musical
but
the
the
be
seen
techniq--
thematic
film
song and
in film,
it
dance
e.. pec: .1 1 ; • eu
hr
of f orcy round in., to def.mil i a n s e
content.
Applying
this dis tinction
is evident
th t the
plot
s e q u e n c e ; are
theatrical.
is dramatic,
cve.it
in which
the
Similarly,
or w h i c h
any
draw
An analysis
hark'
form
is conscio us ly
visual
settings
att en ti on
which
to their
b e t w e e n t he d r a m a t i c ,
is
iconography,
rand " a g o n
theatrical.
are n o n -n at ur al is ti c,
of V i n c e n t e M i n n e l l i ' s s e q u e n c e
from the film The
a visual
fo re grounded
are
theatrical.
'Jancing
illustrate:
in the
the d i f i e r e n c
and t h e a t r i c a l rea li ty .
The
oallet
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w h i c h s h o w s h o w the t w o p e r f o r m e r s
i n t e r a c t on a n e m o t i o n a l
level.
They explore
the p o s s i b i l i ­
t i e s of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p by t e s t i n g e a c h o t h e r in the n a n c e .
E a c h o n e ' s s u b - c o n s c i o u s r e s e r v a t i o n s and c o n e r n s a re
g r a d u a l l y r e v e a l e d as t h e i r m o v e m e n t s b e c o m e m o r e e x p r e s s i v e .
Minnelli's
s e t t i n g is N e w Y o r k ' s C e n t r a l
p ar k,
it in a n o n - n a t u r a 1 i a t i c w a y , e m p h a s i s i n g
and
the f o r m a l a s p e c t s
of d a n c e .
but he p r e s e n t s
the t h e a t r i c a l i t y
H i s c o n t r a s t of l i g h t a r c
d a r k is b o t h s p e c t a c u l a r a n d i n c i s i v e .
Cne cannot hexp
n o t i c i n g t he b r i l l i a n c e of G a b y ' s w h i t e d r e s s o f f s e t by t he
r i c h d e e p b l u e s a n d g r e e n s of c e n t r a l
p a r k at n i g h t .
The
i m a g e f o r e g r o u n d s i t s e l f b e c a u s e it is so s t r i k i n g ,
message unfolds effortlessly.
a non-naturalistic
are
important
Tony
(Fred
that he
ties
has
been
He
is
selected
is not
a dancer who
'only'
up to her standards,
perfect example
the s t o w ,
of
popul ar culture.
In the final
to.
styles
as
she
lower their
standards,
the
rhythms
While
driving
disastrous
and
but each of
respect
through central
reh ea rs al
provided
session,
with a
proves
they
allow them
in
Tony
and Gaby
or
be sensitive
individua l
park
that
artistically.
their artistry
them must
their
As a result.,
clashing with
technically and
to compromise
convinced
of his a b i l i ­
presented
analysis Astaire
of danci-% can merge
Neither of them needs
other's
is,
in the
in turn,
and disinterest.
aesth et ic is m
show-
is unsure
is di sdainful
and here we are
'high art'
is as co mpetent
is trained
Gaby,
e al .
in a new
a tap dancer and
and treats him with coldness
T h e i r two
e m e r g e f r o m it
to perform
can m at ch her ca pa bilities.
they argue about
he
t he a t t i t u d e s w h i c h
(Cyd Charisse)
ballet.
w h e t h e r he
A l t h o u g h it is a d a n c e s e q u e n c e ,
to the t w o p e r f o r m e r s and a r e I n h e r e n t l y
Astaire)
opposite Gaby
classical
form,
and t h e
to
capabilities.
the evening alter a
come upon a gr ou p
of young
ccuplea
They wait
to
join
movement
the
until
improvise
they
dancing
they
a few
to thr music
are alone,
steps.
and dance
they can achieve
Sty 1 isat ion and
Kinn el li
out
m u s i c a l , even
and
it
after
original
style
where
sequences
In e v e r y d a y
practice,
m us ic al genre,
c
is
t.
th*
any
played
style,
era,
Lasis
that Gigi was
pictured
in the musical
dramatic
for
filmed
Colette's
found
in va r y ­
sequences
by the
formal aspects
is also true,
and
the non
than theatrical.
one g e n e r a l l y c o m m u n i c a t e s v e r b a l l y
C o m m u n i c a t i o n is a l s o u s u a l l y
In the c o n t e x t
reveals
literal m e a ni ng while
to s u g g e s t n a t u r a l
is a c o n v e n t i o n a l
which signals character revelation.
the c h a n c e
of the
c o n n o t a t i o n s a nd l a t e n t m e a n ­
u se d i a l o g u e
d i s c o u r s e and t h e s o l i l o q u y
conflicting emotions
as
therefore
The converse
speech normally
the character has
o,
can coexist.
a specific
is used
than c o n n o t a t i v e .
Dramatic works
pretensions
Cecil Beaton's
is re inforced
a s o n g is e n c o d e d w i t h c o m p l e x
ings.
'high a r t 1 and
its he ightened
essence
t h r o u g h t he m e d i u m of s p e e c h .
more denotative
Through
passages are
Ki nn e l l i wrote
are more
of
It is no n - n a t u r al is ti c
which
content
this unity
imurxs
spectacle.
It is core marked
of singing and dancing.
music al
the ha
Styliaation
the narrative
by
that they
by
teg.ii>
partnership.
of the oem drawings wnich
characters.
ing degrees.
are
the
aspect
aesign concept.
the
proving
charm.
upon
it is this vital
a whole
and
band.
1 c e 1 a confident
the cultural
is mar ke d
visual
is based
that
the no n -m us ic al
(1958)
col our and
because
away
of colour and
design for Girl
them
«.inne 3 1 i unites
th ea tricality
in an arena
vivid
status,
proving
outdoor
tentatively
ol
a h ar mo ni ou s
1 popular c u l t u i e 1 stri pp ing
ae s t h e t i c is m and
an
then
'then each
together,
sty 1 i sat ion of dunce,
and
o:
verbal
poetic form
By u s i n g t ne s o l i l o q u y ,
to r e v e a l h i s i n n e r m o t i v e s a n a
to the a u d i e n c e .
S i m i l a r l y , d i a l o g u e is
a s t y l i s t i c c o n s t r u c t w h i c h s e r v e s to s h o w the c h a r a c - e r a
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a c o m m u n i c a t i o n e v e n t .
A song can replace
eith er of these
two dramatic
forms,
and
is
126
usually
employed
to re inforce
strand,
or as a vehicle
express
his
through which
feelings.
is Billy Bi g e l o w ' s
w hic h he
is due
and
take action.
Billy
he
imagines
does,
and
President
to him
proudly
that
sirable
to the
The
thought
instincts
teach him
moral ly
sex and
the
son will
be a girl,
tr.irn s
become
occurs
and
r.e
as her mother,
be sotted with h er
to his
so he re solves
and
angles
is a boy,
It suddenly
of ha vi n g a girl appea ls
ego,
possible
or "marry his boss's
child will
opposite
His
responsibility,
to do all
she will be as beau ti fu l
and his
financially,
the
proul emi.
If the child
for a c a r o u s e l " .
perhaps
expects
from all
States,
the
a parent.
ponders w h e t h e r his
United
or "bark
that
issue
that he will
of the
daughter",
to
into
scon have an addea
the
can
the musical
becomes
prompts him to analyse
resolve
the ch aracter
ex p lo ra ti on
to face when he
that he will
finally
or a thematic
's o l i l o q u y 1 from
Carousel
r e a l i s a ti on
an a c t i o n
emo ti ona ll y
e-
fatner.
protective
to prepare
for the
himself
birth
f ms
daughter:
"I've gotta get ready before she comes,
I've gotta make certain that she
Won't be aragged up in slums with a lot oi bums like me.
She's gotta be sheltered and fed and dressed
in the best that money can buy
I never knew how to make money
but I ’ll try, by Ood, I'll try
„
I'll go out and make it, or b o r r o w it, or taxe it, or aie.
El iz a Do ol ittle's
Higgins'
'Just you wait
'I've grown
accustomed
'enry
'iggina'
to h < r lace'
(tty fair L_a_dv) ,
n I r— D a ^ )
and M a r i a 's 'I have
c o n f i d e n c e ' (The Jound of M u s i c )
more
many
of the genre's
ch a ra ct er
M us ic
meter
structure.
and
in that
the formal
which are
not d r a w
appea ra nc e
less
Meaning
the means :or
elements
organised
attention
of rhythm,
into a Definite
but it difiors
to its
of being na tu ralistic
adherence
three
soliloquy.
is also a c o n st ru ct
it does
displaying
communication.
by
harmony
Language
Spee ch has the
like',
in a musical
is c ha ra ct er is ed
melody,
music
revelation
songs which provide
are
to the
is created
by
formal
.non
own arti.ace.
and
'life­
aspects
the syntagmatic
of
and
usually
emvloyed
to re i n l o r c e
strand,
or as a vehicle
express
his
through which
feelings.
Carousel
is Billy
which he
is due
realisation
an act io n
'soliloquy'
B i g e l ow 's
to face
from the musical
soon have
and
take action.
Billy
he
imagines
does,
and
President
proudly
or "bark
that
that
sirable
to the
thought
instincts
financially,
It
teach him
Jtates,
the
of hav in g a girl
ego,
morally
so he
and
possible
angles
child
to do all
is a boy,
the
son will
things
become
It sudden.y
be a girl,
be as bea utiful
sex and
His
or "marry his boss's
child will
opposite
problems
responsibility,
the
ponders w h e t h e r his
she will
and his
from all
for a c a ~ous el".
perhaps
expects
The
that he will
of the United
daughter",
to him
to
issue
the
a parent.
an addea
the
resolve
into
becomes
prompts him to analyse
finally
the c h ar ac te r can
exp loration
when he
that he will
or a thematic
r.e
resolves
de­
* - th r.er tatner.
to hit
e m o t io na ll y
and
as her mother,
besotted
appeals
occurs
protective
to prepare
for the
himsexf
birth
of his
daughter:
"I've gotta get ready before she comes,
I've gotta make certa in that she
fion't be iragged up in slums with a lot of bums like me.
dhe's gotta be shel te re d and fed and dressed
in the best that
money can buy
I never knew how
to make money
but I'll try, by Cod, I'll try
„
I'll go out and make it, or borrow it, or taxe it, or oie.
Eliza Doolittle's
Higgins'
'I've grown
and Maria's
more
'Just you wait
'I have
of the genre's
ch aracter
Music
structure.
in that
in a musical
communication.
(My rair L a d j ),
ILY. J R,ir “ V-.V-JL'
by
the form al
which
not
a pp ea ra nc e
leas
are
elements
Meaning
of being
of
organised
draw at t e n t i o n
adherence
themeans i or
soliloquy.
is also a con struct
it does
displaying
to h< r face'
songs which provide
and harmony
Language
Spee ch has the
like',
many
revelation
meter
'iggins'
c o n f i d e n c e ' IThe bound of Music ) are three
is ch ar a c t e ri se d
melody,
music
accust om ed
'enry
but
into a definite
it differs
naturalistic
by
the
from
to its own art: ace.
to the formal
is created
rhythm,
and
life­
aspects
syntagmatic
of
and
paradigmatic
of
words
gives
combinations
ia
the
improvised
and
relationship
there
of
speech
and
mutual
distrust
are
ences
while
their
love
meant
for
have
content
*ho
but
through
song
I ’m
by
is
minimum
of
contrivance •
* ‘if'
a
is
reflected
modes.
while
u a by
and
Central
other
in
the
their
music
Tony
Park
by
opeech
in
von
musical
all
a
use
a
framed
of
songs
in
ravourite
You'll
the
the
moral
their
is
of
values
primary
to
emotions
who
which
means
rely
converse
you
Without
expressing
of
were
and
repertoire
is
upon
the
Rain
Uinring
( . he
Sound
in
of
the
* a 1k
Alone
,,anc e
Rain)
lusic)
(C a r o u s e l )
( .j w i n g
1e n ry
.> a i t
. ime ■
you
(r..y r'air
confidence
Like L y u e i f
Rhythm
lady.)
Lady)
in
oneself:
(it's A l w a y s
(An American
Confidence
Uiy r u i r
'iggins
(The
rair „ e a t h e r )
in r a rl_s)
und
of
M u B i c .)
love:
something
I Could've
Good
(T h e
Danced
Sound
of N.u a i c )
All Night
can
vast.
(My Fair Ladjy)
this
each
of
feelings
stylistic
in
about
anrer:
I Have
reveal
"You
all
oppositions
those
used
g e n r e ’s
Things
Never
Gonna
I Got
differ­
sentence/
are
parting:
I
their
sequence
rnythm
binary
while
^ peech
myriad
as
as
sincere,
and
Singing
Just
to
^athy
Joy:
Never
of
their
and
of h o p e :
of
use
leads
resolve
and
rhythm/metered
because
impact.
subject*.,
of
is
in
art
extension
less
songs
which
communication
solil< quy/son, , d i a l o g u e / h a r m o n y ,
which
Characters
by
emphasis
of
improvi.-ed
antinomies
are
1low
the
act
suspicion
each
and
and
me.
and
generic
and
signs,
the
expressive
dancing
for
inflection
lovers
as
linguistic
that
resolved.
Spcech/lyric,
melody
the
music
conflicts
by
highlighted
impression
of
implies.
discourse
speech
everyday
be
revealed
There
are
Gigi
(G i r l )
You were aeunt, lor
and
of exuberance
and
I.:a k e 'em Laugh
Good Mo rni ng
Be a Clown
Th er e
are
(The
m
the .-ain)
P i r a te)
of conflict:
A Fine Homance
I can do
(Swing
cele bra tin g
songs
to cheer
,Vhat
do the Simple
walking
takes
(Swing
in the
antinomy
meanings.
context
the narra tiv e
function,
ihe hero
co m m u n i c a t i o n
of
which
song and
If
rhythms
in
In
film he elegantly
sub conscious
embodiment
its musica l
soc iety's
Th ro ug h
noise
strolls,
visions
tions
and
its structu ral
and
that music
affords
the
Fred
todance.
O'
w:th
his
his world.
reality
is subject
the world
the streets,
of
he
in
terms
channels
st ructured music.
invented
among
rhythms
of
body.
hand in pocket,
and
of
means
own
a
or aestnetic
the potential
the
serves
conscious
of song and dance,
a world which
its latent
vital
and hie
of reality
finds music
city,
who's
is a
thereby
wa lki ng
Sub con sc io us ly
into a tangible
create
itseli
revealing
perceives his
rel ationships.
the expressive mo des
c har act ers
of
y res non in,' to
dance
serves a poetic
film,
between
communi cat ion
genre.
categories,
dance
is that
how
d a n c e , is always
In a similar way Gene Kelly
of
and
the e n v i ro nm en t
the visual
again,
fore gro und s
content
the mu sic al
is
body
once
of the musical
while
Astair e
each
to be considered
App lyi ng Ja xob sen 's
ref er en ti al
inherent
(Csmelot ,
It shows
form of movement
r e i nf or ci ng
Time)
Folk ao
and dancing.
sty U s e d
one.
Up
stylistic
place
(Sw. ng T i m e )
the depressed:
Yourself
final
(/ n,n 1 e -<e t : our— J.un i
beauty:
Pick
The
better
ii m e y
The way you look Tonigh t
and
th e r.qinj
(J i n ,:in/ in the rtain)
(dinging
songs
in
zeat:
A n y t h i n g you can do
songs
(d inging
qc
in response
the musicai
to their own
to
their
relationships.
cars and
turmoil
ol
him a strong awareness
pe rc e p ­
Astaire
a disco rd an t
of self
and
-V
-
131
environment.
In the
from
place
The
place
to
hero discovers
it through his
itself
into a
city
Jun.
rhythm amonpst
i m a g in at io n
pattern.
and
dunce
to his
emotions
Viith in
the formal
rarely
rendered
w hich
The
results
latent
a is world
One
speech.
the
purpose
ardent
to declare his
love
a simple
lilting
sympathy
of his
with
uses
meloay
to c om ple me nt
to
the i c o n i c , fornal
actding complexity
techniques.
aspects
contained
in
to
of the songs
lyrics
are
of ordinary
r or
audience
for
instance,
bj
the
phrases
evoking
the he r o i n e ' s
to win
of
His
techniques
performance
the film,
their
praises
respect
in
and
the
its
while
visual
tracking camera.
The
is enhanced
almost
'Dancing
by
like
in the Dark'
an eavesdropper,
se nsitive
editing,
intense
content.
while
a
emotion,
by a slow
sequence
the subtle m ov em en t
of
of c i n e ­
and aural
is reflected
content.
capacity
is always
by b r i s k , sharp
of ballet
s i m ul ta ne ou sl y
powerful
of a c h a r a c t e r can c o m m u ni ca te
lyricism
of a song add
a vast array
use of tne camera
emphasizes
incorporated
to the na r r a t i v e
and display
is com plemented
poised
the
illust ra te
med iu m
situation and
the me lodious
camera,
are
aspect.
as opposed
po it.
his
and s i g n i f i c a t i o n
film as an artistic
Band " agon
revealed
q u a s i - p o e t i c , lavish
the cinem ati c
Vincente k i n n e l l i ' 8 films
and
vent
audience.
the directo r
close-up shot
to give
is speci fi cal ly
is g ua ran te ed
by
A tap dance
it
The hero who sings
enre,
to the
tightly
their
a thematic
suitor
find
performance
that
u nf ami li ar
will
is an a li en at in g device
the audien ce
is
in s p i r a t i o n
an acc ep ta bl e medium.
our experi enc e
In the musical
matic
into
its
and alienates
and disgust.
ch a r a c t e r
is very
by
films
of re in for ci ng
the heroine's
scorn
are
of
listen
of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
c or res po nd
- he n they
of
son*
decoded
for the mu si c a l
fa mil ia r and
to look and
them
oi noise.
to st ructure
is a source
Jong
in an awa reness
merely accepted.
it
rush
by fi l t e r i n g
of m u s i c , emotions
sen timental.
of the
cac ophony
discord
the musical
struc tur e
be
writt en
ho cares
allow
its form and must
the
and a l l o w i n g
by c h a nn el li ng
conten t
at r a n d o m , people
a , a i n . t a ba ckg rou nd
for m u s i c , an i anyone
it.
car^ move
of ~ he
of M i n n e l l i 1s
acutely
aware
ol
.
by
L.cre stylistic
cup
hvirccny o:
this
cler-ent . iiich :.uds to
tr.
v i u ,,i
scene.
Jcnf i ic t/:.' . olution
An
in t e re st ing
opposition
k^co:..e.
the v.aye in . hie:, dif ferent
to s i t ua ti o n s
to ve rbalise
appsrvnt
cate. orie..
.ind es.oti ... •
one
cons ide rs
ch ara cte rs
of
•he n o n — m u sic al
feel in.,3 in o r d e r
his
v.hen
chare
respond
ter st temp * 3
rational!. ■ them
to
in
terms
.
1
or ignore an event v.hich f .11- out.: ice cf nio
perceptions
of
» selfch a r a c t er
q range
of com lex
/.ill net
them.
interprets
ignore
and
learns
(The
•.n
and
into
impulse,
in order
tnroupn
d a n c e , .me.,
f 0 cu 0 .
»»ie ...u^ica^
feel in 3 , but
to rain expression*
imagination
world
re 1 ity
emotions
these
Instincts
allowed
his
.re never
facets
used
• ven
objects
\
) , do battle
ianci
o:
'•* fence,
that h#1 can tr a n s f o r m a hats tar.
~ ■.n d
but
are
to feed
tr.e li mi tations
of h u m a n er -
..nar-Cwei
and experiences
repressed
..motions are
to tran sc en d
di sc o v e r new
ex plores
brings
the
t;.e visible
- red .-.staire
dancing
ilk ball"
partner
>center t r. ra,d_e;
n
can be mode
to have ne
meanin,.. ard need not
be
.
each
phenomena
,.hlch make., up our reality,
has svveral different
•
partner,
live., on the
the capacity
dancer.
as his
perfect
...ti’enrt
to tr a n s f o r m
Without
partner,
it
o
»•.;>t.•irt
n
from
Antairt , the hatut
it is th<
balance,
essence
- o. ;. < i.vr< .. , he has
inanimate object,
m.
o:
a ..irror c t A . tairv
into
a
is only a h a t s t a n d ,but
, race,
elegance
and
hiurt 1 . •
Rea on an 1 rat io na li ty
churncterii. e the untalent, u cuai -c *• .s
who attar pt to explain
the
experience,
and what
will create
order
they
present
perceive
m
terms
01
their
to b •
. 1natural
in their exis te nc e
even where
.
it is
pus*,
-he^
in­
i;3
app ropriate.
The
Sound
house
a barracks
a mi litary
outfit.
march
whistl e
where
and
in a
dare
extremity
All
treats
not
speak
of this
of life,
back
stylised.
creating
snifts
to the
In direct
to the Captain,
impulse
Unlike
rigid
contrast
and
lifestyle
characters
into wh ic h
identity and c o mp ro mi se
is subject
pared
has
only
to take
even
been heard
demands
the quiet
Trapp's
children
that
The
they have
instincts
'sing
heard
sacrificing what
His
a result
of his
personal
by
with what
is common
and
film
the
She
' rea 1 ^t
is pre­
She
teaches von
is shocked
to find
governed
of
involved when
some­
hesit at io n
experience
the future.
are
better
they will
they
content
Characters
o
partly
xoo many
they alreaay have.
to their ex pe rience.
b.v
to improve his life,
If he believes
and as a result
out
to sing.
bet without
with
..aria
an institution which
risks
possesses.
gamble
to 1 arm a
is a gamlier,
a desire
his
of
'late for chapel' .
or learned
for som et hi ng
thing and gain notning,
when
instincts.
Maria's
perception.
to part with what
by striving
the wor-d
values,
growth and wealth
courageous
people are reluctant
fear that
music
songs
is worth g a ini ng he makes
regret.
of
submerge their individual
and
to co ns id er
he already
led by her
inhabitants.
of a music al
wait
fantastical
in the abbey',
of its
and moti vat ed
does not always
thing
they must
to appreciate
nevei
sense
is a creature
is
is repeatedly
respect
hero or h e ro in e
keen
He
to
she
their personal
and
as a simple
to make
Maria
who use
to her own vision
risks,
in its a p p e a r ­
..hat begins
ana
*ne
limits.
in c o nd uc t i n g her life
the untal en ted
proclaiming
results
bizarre
fu rthest
they announce
into the line.
patterns
it is taker. t% its
in sailor
j-n the sequence
loudly
behaviour'
i.e.
runs his
dressed
them to L a n a
a pace
highly
to
are hailed with a
turn.
a step forward,
'ra tional
ana
existence,
von Tra pp
them are
out of
introd uc es
reference
his ch il dr en as he would
seven of
retreating
theatrical
one's
and
by taking
t hei r name and
or de ri ng
ex em pl if ie d with
'c r o c o d i l e ' formation,
the C a pta in
t he ms elv es
ing
is best
of ...usic in w hi ch C a pt ai n
like
suits,
This
They
xose e v e r y ­
themselves
stagnate
when
they
believe
th t they
!.«ve ..c *«. ved
the
.t that
.
frcn this
refuoal
to believe
to offer n per., ii.
troti
that
n of myths
society
The Lovers'
re elution
tion
uug
1
* f e h a a a OLie tLln.,
Lac >■ of t . eriencc
t hr ou gh ou t
hos no i..e
of re j ectin
in tne musical
tares
the
rer.re.
society,
.erpe-
because
tnem.
for:., of conflict
Ac ordin.
and di.tru. t resolver
better
gene ra te t h e
levels of
*11
discour, e often
pic i v
th:»t
to
,eneric
i'. .elf wrthrn
the
and
conven­
two
•
in the love
ation from
relati nship
naivity
woman ho od .
The
etandinrs,
ana
the w o m a n undergoes
to a a r e n e s s , in other words
love
dance
in which
characteristically
ritual
in w h i c h
the
reveal
the
aepth
true
partners
ot
In
storm and
taae
shelter in n covered
"A Lovely
vtiy" .
by conflict
advances.
and
.__y .
tneir em otions
, ..ale and Jerry
Until no.
mle
..hen he
to t *r.
court sh.p
responses
fe*. -ing
bandotaud
fcr
and
i.. a slew
are caught
-n a j.a*.r.
the sequence
their rel .ticnahip has
has shunn ed
begins
and
to
any n a s un de r-
with a complex
each other's
trusting way.
girlhood
they resolve
begin;
test
a transform­
been marked
all Jerry's heavy -h an de d
to ;.er,
she softens
and
•
listen ..hen he c urt
become
“hey
so engrossed
Jo yfully
her an a invite.
in their dancin..
release
r to dance .
and
the;.ae Ive *. n m
soon
in encn other
accept
they
*hat
the possibilities
.
•
won and C a t h y ’s initial meeting t, have
need
tc impre..a each
of t h e m s e l v e s .
other ana they
..'hen they
finally
i m p r e a s icne are cast eu inc una
truthfully
and
film
making
presented
of
the genre
expression.
create
dance
they
clouded
by their
false
impreesione
togethei
these false
re. P o n ci to o n e unot.aei
sensitively.
In the m u si cal
overtly
been
make
there
is
very
little
in the narrutiv. > but
dance an acc ep ta bl e
Gene Ielly'n
embracint
love-
the conventions
equivalent
dance with vyd
u*
vharisse
of sexual
in the
* 3 road v/uy ,iiiy tho B u l l e t ’ uucwt;
the
who
naive
ravishes
hio,
and
the
irexp rienceu
cmun
in
and
Kelly
is a., a Hyiabol o i
her sec n.l role
• ± . . e .e n v
^o
then ab andons
purity
and
.
ant view
unaware
of v/one r<•
o...* n
crea tu res who
their desires
an.
physical aspect
the
lover's
cation,
truly
need
fulfil
the
cl
3
fulfilment
m a x i m u n ci nematic
do not
im-
>.
•• ■ u s. uc.i s : ivy sex >*■•-.
strong a'-le partner to aw&*en
•
their sexual ne e s c •
xml
and
cxjarieuce
unity
ct.
express
unders ta nd
re or.
in a syntolic
is he ig h t e n e d
nose
who uo not
■ orid.
a- nee,
Consequently
dance,
and afforded
their total characters,
their
couching
j
by
nor do
tney
impli­
-hey
car.no>, ae
.
sense
will
of
physical fulfilment,
achieve
cooplete
in their
musical
genre c el eb ra te s
Although
relati on shi ps
the
with
purest
it; character!, ed by carir.
to another's
physical
opposite s e x .
i orr. of
^ u .—
Ihe
love ana shews
, respect
• sensitivity
films
that
in r . p o n s e to a certain need
society'
are marked
cultural
\y n dense
inherent
in the narrative
the formulae
and
mode.
The st ru c t u r a l i s t
a grid
rf
possibilities
conventions
model
the
c o m ;iex
the structural
c o n t e n t , as v.ell as
of
is valuabl
upon which
attitudes,
and
.'hio e x a m in at io n h *3 focu. cd upon
relationship,
isolating
provided
r nd reflect
the finest genre
narrative .
the
and
talented
needo.
mu si ca ls were
in society,
those who are
e.n,otionu* , spiritual,
filment
that love
while
this
y u pular
because
narrative
it
culture
provides
content
can
,
and how meani ng has
I y ex amining the
medium,
and
been
encoded
iiuwlicutiono
real is in
found
in the musical
music
and
th.-t the
genre
into
of us in
binary
re. sit from
'natural' discourse,
it.
music
ae an expressive
oppositions w;iic;> are
the juxtaposition
we can finally
strike
of
at tne
NOTES
1.
2.
C h a t m a n , S e ym ou r
Hawke s , Terence
Story
ibid.
pg 18
4.
ibid.
pp 11 - 15
Hrd idge,
uIck
6.
Hawkes,
7.
ibid.
8.
Levi-Strauss,
9.
Hawkes,
Discourse PR 19
Structuralism
3.
5 .
and
subculture
Terence
op.
cii.
and -,emiotic_s
PR I7
: :he k e a n i nR of Style
pg 13
pg 131 - 132
pp 52 - 53
C
The Savage Lind
Terence
10.
ibid.
11.
Kitzes,
12.
Solomon,
13.
Schatz,
14.
H a w k e s , Terence
15.
flood, Michael
16.
Bazin,
op. c i t .
p 26 3
p 52
pp 52 - 5 3
Jim
S
Horizons
Beyond
Thomas
Anare
"cst
Formula
Hollywood
op. cit.
p 11
American Hilm Genres
Genres
pp M
- 8b
America attn? Movies.
flhat is C l n e u a ?
p 81
P !«.
CHAPTER
4
SWING TIME
Conflict
: CO NF L I C T AND R E S O L U T I O N
and
re solution a n
Rogers musica l
displays
this
It adheres
lovers
about
vital
to
the
become
each
films
ch'ir.ic teriutic
and M a r k Sand rich's
generic
love/hate,
involved
other and
the c a s e , conflict
and Ginger Rogers
tion
duo
were
made
they have
to grace
are m u t u a l l y
arises
have
.ne
resulted
the screen.
and
individual
physical
as
and Rog er s
ccess
talents.
is not
Astaire
They
iheir
success
of movement.
together
two artists
as a combit.—*
song and
dance
artistically
films,
helped
they
to lay
elegance,
voices.
The
the
they combine
on all
their
levels,
other peri ecti,\
grace,
is a result
one
ol
wit a m
energy
and
.luid-
the sum oI
exciting
shocked
genre
to compromise
was a perfectionist,
that
and each
interact
each
the musical
of his w o r k .
in a way
Doth
their
which
perfectly m a t c h e d .
of Astaire,
Astaire
to define.
than Rogers,
Regers
co mm un ic at e
turn, as he was not
the sheer genius
responded
they
so
complement
ity
standards.
and
films
their ca pa b i l i t ie s as solo
and
joined
artistic
the greate st
ease with whi ch
their
With the arrival
an-
ex ce pt i o n a l, si ng in g
none have matched
flows from
and resolves
successful
is difficult
more
tne e ff ort le ss
and mental.
parts and
is usually
of the genre.
their
but
extremely
Com mer ci al ly
a d e q u a t e , although not
artists,
living,
as
partners ni p of Fred Astaire
in nine
,,uperb d a n c e r s , Astaire
for
the
of confused aitituaec
their 1 9 3 C 1s musical
ic of Astaire
reason
strongly.
formula,
distrustful.
in everyday
been accl ai me d
the foundations
a,
identity
for the r.aaio Corporation,
a success,
The
mi st a k e n
..wing ^ ice. (1D36 / ,
particularly
in a complex web
•.self in song and dance.
which were
oppos it io n
of the Astaire/
He was
suddenly
his
personal
and nc one wixl
inspired
the Hollywood
took an
dispute
and his audience
film i n d u s t r y .
/
139
Quick
tage
to jump
on the
bandwagon,
they
of this
new
success
formula
to Astaire's
and
Roger's
credit
films was art istic
The Astaire
and
found
merit
persona was
enormo us
In each film he
blonde.
cast
the
is always
Asta ire 's
hero
He
take
risks and will
be lived.
he makes
anyone
us
believe
live
s y n o n y m o u s , and
to the
Lucky
(Astaire)
to gain
sacrifice,
are most
casual
good
.re gi.t
c.
of a situation,
does.
from
can
if they care
or an out­
a sensitive,
and
i.
He is prepared
to
In a
others how
life
effortless
breathing,
d a n c e , anyone
to listen,
lives.
in­
the unfamiliar.
to him as
dances,
ger re,
debona.r
an innovator,
w a y , he shows
relevant
He
takes
cugh„
can sing,
anyone,
^n
-iving and dancing are
by implication,
proves
This
films and
I4 ' message
depression.
upon
c
their
nces with hi*
one must be
thn*
have.
fate
one
lives
life
idealistic
struck
lives,
but
life and
prepared
attitude
to risk
are
that
those who
is cha racteristic
a sympathetic
those
shows us
If one does make
chord
and hope was
people who were
Those who
the comraon-place
always supports
of fulfil me nt
their true feelings
rewarding
but not with
one might already
to the Am erican
a national
improve
is a gambler,
ceserving.
audiences.
The
away
like Astaire
Astaire
of most musical
more
their
the pert-wisecracki rv
aspect
true happiness,
what happiness
allow
plays
that anyone
if one
.s
full.
material w o r l d .
that
familiar,
it until he
as eary
can hear music
s h o r t , can
the
not shy
It is
it
tne American cineragc* r s .
but simply
very g e n t l e , persuasive
to
with
every
explores
ol
the musical
ordinary man who has
understa nds
he doesn't he
in none
of
is never
or a social misfit,
sight.
that
first
Rogers
h u m o u r e d , e s se nti all y
p o s s i b l e , and
ever c o m p r o m i s e d .
sympathy
m a n - a b o u t - t o w n , while
as
took as much ad va n­
caught
in the
particularly
in the grip of
untalented will never
who sing and dance,
to be expressed,
will
enjoy
and
a richer
life.
name Lucky Garnett
is obviously
signified
in the film,
and
in terms
end .
his
of the Astaire
Although
inherent
finally his
he
he may
luck
will
his
rather than have
When
their love
The
of a powerful
correct
visual
York
as
as
time
Lucky
impression
daughter.
his fortune
He
takes his
father Lr Cardetti
steadying
attracted
to h e r .
later,
amends he decides
prove
that he
friend
along with him,
in Lew
:ork,he
instructress
one
balance
and
left
completely
expertly
t i
mis ju dg e
and
fall
that
dance,
over.
wh at ev er
■et
u on Penny
and
applies
that she
pretends
stumble
The only
and Astaire
respects
Penny grows
impatient with him
played,
own persona
but
enough
lose his
the.
we
is fooled
that Astaire
in whateve r
to know
perseveres
"Nothing's impossible I have found
For when my chin is on the ground
I pick myself up, dust myself off
start all over again."
to watch
sc elegant!),
person who
never accept
that he
over the
finally
tr.is ii
becomes
ironic
absorbing
and
J
1
there can be no mi staking
could
of F u r n e s s 1e
is inn. * d 1 a
t overtly
right,
c h a ra ct er he
his
to go to Lew
chances
Astaire
ironic
his
to be
as a companion and
insists
> timing
a performance.
is P e n n y , we the audience,
cannot
whe
1 1
foot with
executed
are witne ss in g
and
of the mo
genre,
has
^;.e
and c o n f i d a n t e , or surrogate
.'he follows
to d a n c e .
Unfo rt­
Lucky spends
is worthy
In order to meet her again,
is unable
guilt,
to the daughter
the wedding ceremony
nhile
of the musical
by past
Betty F u r n e s s .
leaves his
his
steps,
tainted
fortunately,
lessons and
most simple
and
bride waiting at
good
sequences
as
losing her
to be married
for dancing
him confuse his
is aptly named
risks
to the studio
teacher.
that
that he
and
(Singer Hope r e ), a dance
ensure
to create
('lop'),
influence.
senny,
adjusting his suit
In order to make
to make
too,
businessman,
and
is cirl,
fulfilling.
it transpires
preening
in the
claim her withou t
is about
for too lonr and
abandoned.
Penny
and
r
wins
in himself
love com premised
pure
always
be loainr
for her and
and wealthy
so much
the altar
their
Lurky
belief
turn.
love
remains
but
to
he can eventua lly
film opens
unately,
appear
opt imi sm and
even gambles
events.
persona.
film
this.
singing.
By
statin#- t n 1 s , -enny
own
character.
ties
but
Jhe
too,
overcvzney
like Astaire,
them.
ch a r a c t e r and
appealin'
to the
her
father
and
in life.
Finally
loses all
though,
ineptitude
exchange
and
sends
attempts
Lucky
The
she
capabilities.
start
felt
He
invites
their re 1 a t i o n s h i : is
complex.
est and
Lucky allows
shows what
she
as soon as they
desirable
He m an ip ul at es
..ar. .rich's
So without
the generic
caused
this
to a
and
baiancea,
dis ­
pent-up
true
with him and
that
from the
harmonious
talent
use
their
ana
to its full ­
pa rtnership
of film irony
and fa mi l i ar
"e
is
is ex ce p­
of the genre.
formula,
that conven tio n
structure,
complete
overhears
all the
as a c o ns eq uen ce
the c nv en tio n
upon others
of ac hieving as a dancer.
to dunce
to seem to allow
relies
is a splendid
to exhibit her
and works
in upper class
repress nis
to aance
is capable
and natural.
tionally successful
a dancer,
Penny
start
him
perfectly
who
the manag er es s how much
fo llowing dance
Penny
far
. etty,
unwittingly
by showing
while watching
she,
rude and unhelpful
of A s t a i r e 1r talents which a ll evi at es
tension we have
than
Her m a n a g e r e s s
realises what he has
taught him.
that
patience with ^ucky's
her for being
to rectify matte rs
Fenny has
know
him away.
and dismisses
customer.
play
i enny
dif fi cu l­
ly ex tension
refuse
i.; her str ength anu
like him to guide her
realise
audience
takes
about her
who accepts
3 1 ra iph t away we
from d i sa ppo int me nt
society.
a ,;reat deal
is an optimist,
is a talented
stro nr er and more
shelters
i o revealinf
Aytaire
as
to be transgressed.
that specific
irony could not
work as successfully.
This
sequence
of conflict
result
also m a n if es ts
and
resolution.
and while
they
be resolved.
Immediately
fa 1 1 away
they
and
know
that e v e n i n g ,
apartment,
he
amuses
when
start
Himself
dance,
the
jenny
by playing
they
lovers
all
belon.
are alone
the
in this film
is a
through which
their conflict
to dunce,
ultimately
Lucky and
of
expressive mode
cannot
they
that
op position
.he conflict
of them using a naturalistic
to communicate
Later
the central
other
cannot
problems
together.
in lenny's
piano and singing
while
shr* shnmpoos her hair "The way you
clearl y a celebration
of
way
that he
It
of cl arifying al
is also
and
obvious
not. Betty,
as dancers
that
since
in s h a m p o o ,
the
about
enters
but he
nist
ideally
snampoo
beautiful.
and mi staken
the
The
conflict which
so-called
intensifies
song on;
results
dance,
indifference
that
she
circulation.
insisting
from
that
cannot
groomed
sings
covered
this
paradoxea
are
by conventional
in her hair a m
but she
even then
reinforce
the sense
essential
repertoire.
the
In
be singing
to a lover,
illusions
accepting
to this
The
pr ot ag o­
which u n d e r ­
this
Lucky
to resolve
romance.
to her
try
the
situation
He has
been both
himself
leads
in
best
in
to conflict
re la tio nsh ip with Penny
.nd refuses
remarks
the
the wrong medium
expresses
nis
as real,
is suffering
c om mu ni ca ti on
to break
.then she
to respond
to her
that she
is cold,
he
fla:ping her arms
to speed
up her
Jhe moves
closer
they walk around
fathom his
new
tn err. his
should
app ea ran ces
wh e n Lucky, who
but he chooses
In order
sugrests
to taunt
Penny
cn ce ,at te mpt s
without
overtures.
Penny
to Penny.
fmm
the crisis.
romantic
blood
to change,
paradoxes which
should
reveal.,
day
deceitful,
and u n h a p p i n e s s .
he feigns
not
1r e a l ' world .
of a guilty c c n s r
to resolve
compatible
nead
Lucky
ouc h
and
the following
and
a
appeara nc es which are
extricate himself
which
are
song
a sublime c h a r m .
of strange
still
her.
the room entranced.
in the Antaire/Ro.-ers
lie
unfaithful
about
begs Penny
enters
is
is Lucky's
of his
jenny
si t u a t i o n of having
is also an ironist,
pangs
she
is singi ng
room with
film and others
and
else,
should appear c o r re ct ly
of irony
He
of broken co nv ent ion s.
the
remains
Lucky and
there are a numb er
Betty,
practice
feels
the subject
linger rtogers maintains
then,
result
is
and
looks nor her char ac te r and while he
in the unglamorous
scene
jenny
ideal m a t e . .
obliv iou s to anyone
2ven
loveliness
knows and
because
they are
n e i t h e r her
ienny'a
look Tonight"
sudden
to him
vigorously.
change
him singings
"A fine romance with no kisses
fine romance my friend this is
and he moves
away
Un erstandably,
of attitude and
begins
„ e should be like a couple of hot toaatoes
But you're as cold as yes te rd ay 's mashed potatoes..."
and
leaves
s it ua tio n
Lucky's
feeling
hurt
to her and
deceit.
and
she
confused .
feels
losing her,
that
he decides
she has learned
to
the
still m o r e .
Penny
and
that he has
presumes
ings
lie
reversal
and
ends with
Each
the
'r e a l ' and
discourse.
While
rel ationship will
to a climax
of the use
via
that
deceives her
really
does
renny's
about
love her
true
feel­
sudden
to
are
taikin,
resolution
. his
cinematic
the twin
again shows
and not
"A
and
are
is primarily
both
it is
ol
i.e.
that
extent
song
l e v e l s , physical,
the sequence
mental,
emotional
Although
striking
because
therefore
directly
referent hnve
object has
-*•u also
been
become
g e n r e , dancing and
visua.
an a a u ii b a.e ,
audible,
have
As an ex f reisive medium,
and subconscious.
they appear
it
ket aph or
and hearing.
one
of
examples
to occur simult aneously
"Never Gonna unnc e " music
discourse.
ultimately
generic.
vrirarily
synonymous with co mmunication*
this co mm u n i c a t i o n
it
si>ht
the musical
and
their
suspicion.
successful
ludible and
to some
visual
lancing
and
purticulirly
channels
of
realism
in the r usical sequence
and
to the analogue,
been
that
line Romance",
the cn racteriet ics of the
which
the other's motives
ia one of the most
and
suspicious
:e found in n o n - n a t u r a 1 i .tic
ea -1 ier scene
and
and
appearances have
once
are
In the context
music allows
loveis
the genre
is both visual
transferred
become
surface
of film metaphor,
is specifically
dance
ol
to sing:
be clou,, ed by conf.ict
"Never donna .,ance".
singing,
turn
been mi st ake n
they
si* u;.1 1 jr. in the
another.
u n wi tti ngl y
that he
thought
’•e is unaware
of them distrustful
truth.
un d e rs tan din g
implies
further,
trifled with her while his
both
has
and
perceived
accept
love.
ol
romance with no clinches
romance with no pinches..."
as
in film,
truth and
even
the true
because
to bear tne
it is his
neither know
leads
ieel are his
cannot
accepted
I he
unable
of attitude
other.
true
and
situ at io n
r’ailln.- to u n der st and
sequence
of the
the
alienated
elsewhere.
"A fine
A fine
The
even more
To complicate
Lucky has a chan-’e of heart
-top's explains
is a metaphor
to be
on many
u ° 1n
‘or tne
just danc.ng,
,
,
co mmitment
because
and c o m p a t ib il it y
their dune in
as luv etm,.
reveals
1 hey
the e ..ential
fceion
beauty
together
r.f their
relationship.
respite Lucky 1 .
to accept
to
that
v-etty, and
understand
ouli l ...
he
-a morall y
end his
tnat
ucn oi' h.s
love for l e n n y , he iu force-
bound
to fulfil
re la ti o n s h i p
with
his
com-itrnent
1enny.
their loving ...ust end because
Loth of them
as a musical
•
deep sense of c n v i c t i o n and l o y a l t y , so he is bound
by his word
even
if he must
happiness.
Ienny al.o
to stand
risk sa cr if ici ng h.s own and
real..::
and accepts
1e n n y 1s
L u c k y ’s dec ision and
•
fully,
her,
Lucky
replies
Penny qua lifies
that
the
she
.oe
,
nd
sensing that he means
question by ad di n g
"the girl
that you
.
Asking
if a man',
strange
-action,
logical
myriad
Does
future wife
one.
but
Underlying
share his
ship successful?
tive
the
person?
they
it
la an acceptable
.ctual mam if eo t me nin.
-hich
con vic tio ns
Are
beau tif ull y may seem a
ithin the genre
of other quest ion s
she
dances
e im; lied
an.
.cyalty?
are a
by the first
-
Is their r e l a t i o n ­
sexually com; atitle?
..ill she fulfil his
and
Is she a s en si ­
emotional needs?
I enny is all
•
but the rel ationshi
strengths.
between
I enny can
Lucky
and
rutty has none
bt> r.-ttiafie . in kn< .in
of these
that Lucky
love.
,
Taking
the metc. 1. r a ote;
furth
r Lucky
sings "Never donna
Lance"
a c o m i c /tra, ic oon<
in which he declares
that he
.ill
•
iu hi., vital means
fice amounts
ing will
of his
of < prune ion,
to emotional
be devoid
impendin
and good-hum our
of all
uuirid..
b.
c force-, such a sa cri ­
\ ill be a ive,
true mcanin, .
t ra, euy and
ainringi
his 11
ut w e n
but
liv­
in the face
l o s s , he main vuins his dignity
"To Groucho l-.orx I'll rive ir.y cravut
Io Harpo goes my s* iny s ’lk hat."
H o w e v e r , the
amplify
its
comic
un derlying
ar d sym pathetic
climax
to this
be
last
the
implications
of
sequence
time,
is
pure and
Dance has
and
they
confusion
each
their f u t u r e .
other with
they are
living
The
perfect
da nci ng
embrace
and Rogers
dance
success
perform
one
dances had
Th»
lay
and
1 n rt'.'rfo
("The
in Ilyin/
can
provide
sense,
perfect
the viewers
musical
and
life
is immediately
bombastic
and Lucky
needs
lightening.
tempos
realised
and
After
each
the
repeated
Tor
resolves
and
vital
steps,
that
'*hey ask
and
1 iccolino" )
sounds
in this
waltz
son*
the atmosph ere
the band
to
to be
excit­
and make
reuking away
performing
in
the contra di ct io n
absorbing.
tr.an the
After
it
from
zest
listening
an Italian
ana
ordinarily
requires,
of
the
res tnurant
play a waltz
is eventually
of their combined
Although
formula
they move with a joy and
a waltz
display
set the
impact which
the
itself
rhythm.
the
of their
a t ("The
riogers tan e a simple
sentiment
protests
of exuberance.
to Rio
in t e r m s , but
infectious
decide
is a stunning
talents.
"--altz in Jwing Time"
Ricard o Romero
Penny
film a u d i e n c e , is
R.K.C.
Astaire
ing Ricardo's
aow:
which Astaire
c’ancin/.
Yam").
injected with mon*
ings
effectively
production number which
conventional wa ltz
dance
and
cease
by implication,
of their c o m b .ned
of a co ntr adi cti on
'..wing', with new
to the
they
in the deepest
internal
("The Continental"),
different
dunre.
which
of their situation.
such huge
upon
..ivorcec
something
the
.ueir r e l a t i o n ­
"><altz in owing Time"
before a large
Am eri can audiences
ing
conflict,
. enr.y ana Lucky
j irtners and
of "The Carioca"
included
of two
believe will
previous
and when
alive
aware
the
they
their lives
to stay
duet
a breathtaking display
these
end
to
partners.
impressive
films
all
reality
. ogether,
the means
provide
is resolved.
the
a parting
To
serve
acutely
for what
in their dance
tr.-n:.cenus
replaced
become
loss.
dunce
danc in,-, they meta fh c ricallj
destroy
and we
their mutual
m is u n d e r s t a n d i n g ana
ship
pathos
of the son.-, only
played.
talents
and s t i f l ­
.heir
and f e e l ­
they have a captive audience,
unl ike
music
Ricardo,
and
it
is unnecest try, all
each other.
out
being
and
deep sense
of non-ver bal
reveals
the
sets
and easy
each
of us su bc ons ci ou sl y
places
rationalise
our
constraints
can be b r o k e n .
technically
co mpetent
stand
and
lives,
artistic
this
and
it
try.
is
are
around
isolated
there
are characters
juxtaposed with
elegant,
of his
talent,
and
life ani
by
of the dance
its
and a w a r e n e s s «
films
like
is
prove
that
be as
the
is stunned
fail
these
point
is
at their
to under­
living will allow
are
them
similar in structure
revealing
text.
talent
and
these are
persona
formulaic
and
of true,
completely
can be
Consequently,
Astaire's
o;
extent he
by his
to ccm-
m .ny other genre musicals
is indicative
reflective
is able
but
to define and
oppositions which
true
dc not .
res trictions
He
to dance,
as t.*e
remains
pure
his
in control
command
o
constant
::usical
ot
o ? excellent m o r n • convictions.
rut to a certa in
from
oy their
dance seem ef f o r t ­
interesting and
implication,
a character
living.
removed
is,
Yet
also.
exhibit
He
to.
but they
content of each
who
f 1ms.
Lucky
to life and
sauve Husic-t-.an is highly
in each
command
those
who
as no one else
one will never
of binary
in the n a rr at ive
is a visual
and L u c k y .
and H o - e r s , but
Iney,
a series
some-
limits upon what we will
Their audience
both
of the.ie films.
able
s a y , is able
ac hi evements,
P .re some
built
;enny
they mako
1 erhaps
as Astaire
fulfilment
and
between
jenny and
I,:any of the other As ta ire /Ho ger s
to Swing Time
i nis
our constraints
that an open attitude
to achieve
step they learn
the me ta r.nor of aance
they are
they
e impose
the risk and
tneir mutual harmony
other.
and
fluidity
Everyo ne
try and a c h i e v e .
each
is the
conce ntr ate d w i t h ­
them apart from society,
os walking.
physical
and
feelings
less
to take
in every new
of performing what
grace
expresses
attitudes,
underlying
F u r t h e r m o r e , it
elegance,
and
themselves
display
is capable
.'he dance
of unity,
about
they need
It is fu lf i l l i n g and
indulgent.
thinr new
that
r.is
nis
daily
is an outsider
to society,
extraordinary
sensitivity
to mock social
ap pearing
bitter or a g g r e s s i v e .
In g wing
c ontrasts
sharply with Ricardo Romero's
institutions without
1me his own
stiff
talent
posturing.
And
upon
entr rin.’ a socie ty
d i s c o m f o r t , pretending
top hat
and
cane.
persona as an
top hat with
only
his
of
This sequence
to
once
in at home
again
n e w spa pe r
displays
he
of mtn's
is not
loud
and
atmosphere.
the
easily
any
exhibition
are
expected
surroundings.
is noisy
.his
angered
are
and
bold
any
and
Oa
of individual
r.is
In -_q2
for social norms
* o tre
iolds
irritation
obnoxious.
totally
-hen as he
destroys
the
calm,
jab at the status and
and
illuminating.
there
In this
Heal
peace
-he
of calmness.
to be sociable,
rarefied
ex pression
to normal
prestige
quiet and c o m p o s u r e .
impre ss io n
presumably
upset.
to conform
that he is
benefit
obvious m a nn e r •
destroys
patrons
are
* e know
h e r e , only a false
imbalance
the Astaire
uses his care and
d is re sp ec t
both humourous
to be found
Alt hough
nis
a place for his
for the
in any
to tap dance and
c l u b s , is
sli gh te st
normally
f e i< n s
an exclusive m e n 1 l c 1 -ib and
p a t r o n s , hr
starts
sa nctified
enters
in a
elderly
leaves,
he
find
r ei nfo rc es
be uncomf or ta bl e
as u e r r y , he
the
--ay J l v o r c e e , he
eleganc e an i dexterity.
a u d i e n c e , Astaire
when,
.he
thnt he cannot
i r o n i s t , since
pretending
H a t , he
pi-rty in
atmosphere,
is frowned
standards
they
upon.
Patrons
of quiet and discrete
cehaviour.
Jerry's
pursuit
of vale Tremont
evokes her ann oyance
of sctr.c social
eh ip is both u n f a mi li ar and
to conflict
holds
her
vigil.
But Jerry
resolved
when he
prisoner
at first
dances
in a taxi and
is not
in the canoe
was mutual
mistrust
similarly
unconven ti on al
rather than her afl ection.
a wealthy young w o m a n
leads
is
standing 3 , his
unwelcome.
noisily
she
brash
coui t-
ner by his
constant
of "A lovely vay"
there
and
is
where
their f i l m s , dinger hogerc
Ei th e r
she
girl.
Each
is a f r ust ra ted
of these
v u l ne ra bi lit y which
iVhile she appears
plays
socialite
characters
one
of
two c h a r a c t e r s .
or a vulnerable
is marked
chorus
oy her essential
is hidden beneath a caustic
conf id en t
there
is not. al lection and
trust.
In
it
in the room abo^e hers,
irritates
suspicion,
i.-
Inevitably
dauntc i, their initial conflict
sequence
and
aince
ana
and sell-assured,
repartee.
she
lac its the
143
zero's
a e ’th of awareness and needs him
realise her
he allows
To g e t h e r
full
full
potential.
bhe
embody
life and
all
express
that
in Swing T i m e , .
•enny
does
use
medium.
the
Lucky
full
what
and
truly
is
of aance
inherent
enjoy
life.
for living a
the medium
is a dance
potential
reveal,
him to love while
is neces sar y
it t h r o u g h
Although
not
teaches
her to unleash her feelings
they
to awaken and
of dance.
instructress
she
as an expressive
in her,
but not
exploited.
Penny's
opposite
businessman.
extension
is Betty rurne
Lucxy's
shallow,
accepts
it w ithout
in her eyes
Astaire's
ardent
suitor who
in any
real
and
moving.
existence
extreme.
He
of his desires.
lover and
on the
rebound
and when
it
that
in his
of
Other musica l
and Penny,
that
she
scenes
their
of comic
ow.. mutual
their love
bickering.
However,
Lixewise,
Penny's
but lacking
it is with a voice
that
oi
it is
with pe r­
expression so
as breathing and
is both excessive and
itself
in his
could
..hei
never
into
on him.
being late
He
is late
importance.
not quite
Anderson
the
Although
ho seizes Penny
be happy with him,
kicardo
of
than the object
position as a svurned
sympathy
by mirro rin g
fulfilment.
compatible
for her,
is synonymous
love
sense
and babel
relief
successful.
sings,
tricks
characters who are
'Pops'
himself
ially
Penny
belongs
is to prove
own suffering.
own vanity and
are
Bhe
but sht
prai.e
with
claims her and
of his
and is by
prejudiced
is as natural
for the weddi nr we can waste no
because
ana
is a means
it
in love
we know
Lucxy
insensitive.
Son,: for him
Ricardo wallows
delights
talent
iir-.e is Ricardo Romero,
courtship
is mere
of a wealthy
laden with sentiment,
for Astaire
Ricardo's
usical
If Lucky
Although he
insincere.
to his
ana
lavish with
smooth and
formance while
no
be finan
in Bw in/
emotion.
immediately
vital
question.
i.
the daughter
is restrictive
then he must
orjcsite
so honeyed
fianc£ has
pretentious
to a co mmunity which
s,
.10 obvious
who
as Lucky
provide various
lovers and achieving
they
are blissful
is fraught with domestic
they are completely
and
squabbling
at ease with
each
and
other end de li ght ful ly
and a w k w a r a , but
with
this
loving
th*y are
la t e - f 1 owe r m g
The no n- mu s i ca l
Yheir c a n c i n t: is c 1 uir.sy
obviously
characters
are
ma jor ity
of characters who ne ith er
appe ara nce s
in the
For to
base one's
blurs
seek
knowledge
truths,
is not
' * ose who
lives
because
a secure
in terms
belonging
a part
'r e a l 1 have
of the world
but dangerous
and what
other ard
the
is in their interests
this as
own ex is t
Individuals make sense
it fulfils
As uilre and
rely
life
on the
characters
to live
collective
identity which
hegers
strength
fully.
proper
e end
provides
of their
have a sense
of
their desire
to be
only need
to belong
of their individual
They do not
panders
as it
to do so.
identity.
and
upon
powerful
their
structure
been
is f a n t a s y .
are clearl y defined,
of a larger s t r u c t u r e , they
to that
in
it defines
of s o m e t h i n g .
to each
and
perception
is real
if it
and t h e r e ­
believe
belong to the upper classes accept
■ right,
them with
them
dance
Those who
only misgu ide d
iml institutions
to reinforce
3in,- nor
the vast
re co gnition with u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
and
between what
of the film's
comprises
them as natural,
trap of equating
' edges
nhere
'reality'.
and accept
caught
so-called
ihis commu nit y
in false
contenteu
± oreser. tative
community.
believe
and
love .
internal
fore
happy
require
to itself
that
by creating
rules
for living.
Astaire
can
demystifies
be stronger
to be
found
through
for greater
the means
his
exploration
to achieving
he creates
proving
this
and
there
and
only respond
with his w o r l d , and always
When arriving
reality,
turmoil
strives
recep tiv e
Ast aire's
provides
zy filtering
and chaos.
one might
fly dancing he
in New Y o r k , Lucky
for music.
He
questioning imagin." t ioz.
cf
to dance whe rever
it.
individual
is a deeper reality
discovery.
personal
through an active,
and accept
that the
fulfilment and music
order and meanin g out
invitation
inspiration
by
society and
self-awareness
perceptions
is an
than
his world
and
one must
is always
in touch
to whet
finds
world
be,
Thert
it might
offer.
the city's mayhem
an
is never silent and
he allows a bounce
to escape his
Perhaps
to slip into his s trice and
lips.
Astaire's most
in s t i t ut io nal iz ati on
from the
a very
film
in which he
society
twenty male dancers who
invitation
attack upon society and
is to be found
■'o r Hat
prestigious
si gn ificant
as an item in a show and
the
to his
The
sequence
Initially he appears
the thought
of society's
play his
the action.
as an
i jciety.
the main
plot,
destr oy in g
Although
for
who would
expose:
The notion
The Gay
trying
all
that
believe
that
By shooting
judgement
the
upon
invitee,
then becomes
on the c h o r u s ,
gun and
shoots
identity
is supposedly
the
earlier scene
vitally
twenty
ana
strong c h o r u s , Astaire
demands adherence
regular meetings
which
entrench a certain
meets Astaire
aauaintances
and
falls
and members
behaviour
ideology.
its m e s s a g e .
is also examined
in
is an unhappy wife
husband.
.n the
in love with him.
of the
its own existence
reinforces
Ginger hogers
to divorce her fait hl es s
to
play wit hi n a film effectively
simultan eo usl y
in which
deified
to its
to redefine
Jivorcee
unrelated
the ill-at-ease
necessary
a society which
social
which
as a sanctified,
needs
of acceptable
them
in the men's
practices and
the event and
to
that Astaire has advocated
are
of the
but
is framed as a play within
institution
they
song:
is expected
- lie dancing
which
to mind
The foreground ing device
alienates
in which he
the n a r r o w m i n d e d , the wealthy
conventional
by having
of the film,
It recalls
existence.
pronounces
event
'reads'
is but another one
the collective
this
it reinforces
club where he
this
turns
of
it's formal,
to have b e e n
that
theatres
He
'improvised'
as if it were a machine
structure
throughout.
centre
upon him
sinister as finally he
symbolically
to the
pleased
part and don his costume.
raises his cane
forms
dawns
self-erected
increasingly
all,
rather
is framed
dances with a chorus
reinforce
audience
sequence
receives an invitation to
event.
Astaire
in a memorable
"Your presence is requested this evening,
A top hat, white tie and tails..."
slowly
a whistle
upper class
process
Various
she
triends,
pass judgement
upon her because
indulges
in
she
is still
1 i m m o r a l 1 behaviour.
her husband
agrees
a d u l t e r y , and
it finally
for a number
hidden
truth
scene
for while he would
Society
himself
finds
Astaire's
of years
the
see
of the file
abounds
unjustly
^his
in society,
accused he tries
of a just
acceptable
Ho, e r a ' honest
successfully
their friends.
hypocrisy wich
the h u mi lia tio n
of
that he has been
but has
ana
his wife
adultery
and
the end
c o m e ; tc light
from his wife
aptly uncovers
to spare
At
w o m a n , and opanly
to divorce her on the grounds
unfaithful
the
a married
public
as long as
relaticnshii
trial.
it is discreet,
is frowned
upon and
cendecned .
In an analysis
of the m u s i c a : sequences
Time an important
to
provide
vital
a climax
oppositions
illusion and
the
point
lovers
in
which
conflict
dance
are central
and
because
that
true
of all musical
which
numbers
content.
factors
Considering
the
are apparent.
ism in the
c o m m un ica tio n
nc n- na turaliotie modes
facts,
and
content.
others
physical
or not they are
revealed
"The
in which
and
compatible
Using
impact and meaning.
although
are
of the narrative
each testing
indicating whether
*h e latent
content
is
of expression.
is framed
the content
i,hen Lucky celebrates
his song
thematic
a number of
follows,
responses,
lovers.
in
out a deliberate
is a soliloquy which
in "A Fine Romance"
those
replaced n a t u r a l ­
impact
she
This
to their own a r t e ­
plays
this medium gives
both physical and mental,
modes
Song and dance
attention
he leads and
and
between
with the main
stylisaticn has
via a ncn-nat u r a 1 io t i r mode
song.
especially
Up" Astaire
no
reality
opposition model,
emotional
Way You Look Tonight"
its form,
films,
draw
the
can be experienced.
afford maximum
In "Fie/ Yo urself
embodies
conflict
the d i s c o u r s e .
which
sim ultaneously
courtship ritual
the
binary
of
each
All
integrated
Firstly
them is used,
it is in the expressive
reality
are
of
to the film,
resolution.
is characteristic
the musical
Each
the narrative and
is rc.olved
of song and
is revealed.
of the film dv. ing
lenny's
by
greater
loveliness,
is sincere and truthful.
he appears
not
to care about her
And
and
evokes her suspicion and
belong
together.
because
they
]ove and
and
Ess ent ial ly
sing
need
distrust
th^
same
of music.
they
diffi cul ti es wh ic h neither
when
they do control
conflict
their
are
affords many
ment
to each
must
part.
levels
discourse.
other although
Luc«y
dance,
is complete
the symbolic
and
all
been
prepared
each other rather than compromise
Swing Time
is a fine
film
fulfils
many
of the
it
its .eneric
in the
repeats what
it uses
and
striking
The
every
sequence
wrote
the
Astaire's
is different
following
be applied
to any of
Although
resolved
in
of this genre
dancing
lines about
persona.
the r e s o l u ­
ce . ere.
tisk
nosing
purity.
acceptable
and
film
it adheres
sheer artistry.
the con ve nt io ns to create
new work of a r t .
they
the Astaire/Rogers musical
world are
is fa miliar and
commit­
to
conventional narrative
its
strength
the
their love and
obligations.
'real'
'f a n t a s t i c a l ' .
know that
of what r.as gone
its
of how
formulae
is always
occur
summarises
example
familiar
their total
the end of the dance
at the close of
to sacrifice
,
ana m e a n ­
dent . of their me ta -phyeical
is made more m ea nin gf ul in terms
They have
of complexity
ana Penny
tion
easily
and
dut
in ".'ever sonna -/ance
^t implies
they finally reunite
that
from cir cum sta nce s
in song
of expression
when
the
by their
of them can c o n t r o l .
different
Their union
constitutes
which
they
sace harmony
united
results
situation,
as the mode
ing to the narra tiv e
patterns
the
that
is r e s o l v e d .
By using music
Sandrich
share
song and
Conflict
wp know
each
Conflicts
Ihe world
is not
of
that
it
to an a u d i e n c e , but
an exciting
is timeless
and wholly
in
on^ m a g i c a l •
its beauty,
Arlene Cioce
"A Lovely Jay" which could as
the Astaire/riogers dances,
and aptly
the metaphors
"the point isn't tap dancing, it's r o m a n c e :
- if this isn't perfect dancing it is the perfect
that dancing like this aims for and a shining
moment in the history of the musical film.
4
joy
153
NCTES
1.
Groce,
Arlene
pp 6C - 6 ?
'
%
The
Fred Artalre
and
<in,-c r l-tc.'ers
ook
CHAPTER 5
A" AM E R I C A N
Cne
IN RARIJ
of the cost
: NATURALISM AND 3 T Y L IS AT ICN
obvious
recurring
£•e n r e , is the t the mode
i'(•qtures
of expression
is often overtly
foregrounded.
'Ihe musical
sequences
of naturalism,
both
organisation
c o n t e n t , and
the formal
sequ enc es are
more
often
naturalistic
stru ctu re
coexist,
of one
generic
aspects
code,
successfully,
action and
opposition
to be
construct
style,
the narrative
This
interplay
in a particularly
the medium
within
of
the musical's
in order to show
how
Vincente
i nt er ­
w a y , ana to
to examine how
to juxt ap ose
elements which
this
striking
one needs
In other word.-,
the various
of presentation
in ; a is manifests
successfully,
incompatible.
in a
is fa: iliar to its audience.
film ^ r. American
has used
~uch
those which are
is acceptable
M inn ell i's
Mi nnelli
of the narrative
presentation.
so that within
and st yl is at io n
the film
display an avoidance
file two o.posing styles
s t r u c t u r e , and
discuss
of
juxtaposed with
easily ana
n at ur al i sn
in the
of tno cusical
styles which appear
one must
isolate
constitute his
the narrative
has been
and de ­
individual
encoded with
meaning.
The
notion
of film
and
in the specific
is even more
adhered
Hollywood
personal
placed
of
the
to,
film style goes
and
must
include
technicians.
marriage
auteur
A
of all
the
of important
film analysis
days
principle
was
both
generic
beyond
vision
visual,
and
that
a definite
constraints and
the individual
when
fashionable
the studio system and
influences
the question
to be true
Of exhibltinr
the rigid
issues,
of ,-cnre theory,
renerally held
successful
the
of genre
were capable
style despite
upon them by
a number
In the early
it was
directors
But
raises
context
opaque.
an acceptance
widely
style
limitations
convention.
of the director
of any number of artists and
film is
aural
the
and
proauct
thematic
of a harmonious
elements which
are
presented.
However,
none
bear
stamp of his
are
the
will
different,
films
style
and
is without
resides
unique
in the
doubt
en-scene,
his
choice
'beyond
and
of actor,
of
this film will
Paris Pallet,
and will
only
structurally,
to any musical
genre
its
its songs
'heavies',
courtship,
film,
parting and
in Paris
artistic
for
of his
Kelly.
ambitions.
its
generic
and energetic,
with
^ene K e l y ' e
not
a manife st at io n
of his
character
outset
of the
internal
the
brash,
patronage
judgement,
untl]
He Is a
of an older
in order to further
of Milo
is
insensitive,
but
upon him.
it is
It would
liberties with
are
the genre.
artist,
is Gerry's
enthusiastic,
delightful
the
ideal­
purest
rendition
of
on the bar.KG of the river Geine,
sincerity
is the Kelly we know and
and
go
the situation becomes
the desperate
His
in
film Gerry
a hero who's motives
take
and
'all-
conflict.
is the Kelly who exhibits
"I Got Rhythm"
and of
in most musicals,
Judgement
as a singer and dancer.
Gershwin's
This
he
characters and
confident,
the
to have
be reserved
Contracted
in similar ways
of it being otherwise,
doet
of the
of self-questioning
torn by
better
convention
and Minnelli
down
alter ego whom we cannot help but admire.
talent
ic on o­
the Ame rican in
'good*
persona
At
to pronounce
So Judgement must
istic
the mise-
the remainder
His treatment
pretence
up
upon
,t breaxs
painter who accepts
and he makes no
clearer.
the means at his
use of music and
centre
of love,
wealthy woman against his
clouded,
of framing,
it has
as a character
grasping young
against
choice
he is the same
idealistic
is portrayed
difficult
complex­
Minnelli's
of
reconciliation.
is indicative
An American
his
a visual
choice
examine
film briefly.
American',
strictly with
formula'.
the
they
mark his worx as distinct.
Discussion
of Gerry
they have
That
of the genre's
they adhere most
conscious
the camera angle
and artistry.
superior to many
formulae
disposal,
graphy all
vision
for although
conventions
ity which
that Vincente Mi nnelli's musicals
and usually
is clear,
generic
deny
uninhibited
identify
with,
is
joy
in living.
and his
simplicity
and
zest
with
restore our belief in
the
conventions of
expres si on and
carrle
the ,-enre,
and conviction.
that Kil o
in seme way
her.
is the
deeper
of sincerity,
„ c can only
to blame
foi
st rength
surmise
Jerry's
therefore,
treatment
of
dinging;
"I got rhythm
I got music
1 got my girl who could
is an admi ssi on
has music,
ness.
of what
conviction an.
person.
ask for anything more"
is truly
rhythm an-, a girl,
tion as a painter
but
music
connotations
of chara cte r
is
hio character. Concurrent
Gerry
because
potential.
love,
im:ortant
ana
to him.
by implication s e l f - a w a r e ­
so although he would
it is secondary
is insecure about
He already
to his
enjoy
fulfilment
his abilities
of
his musical talent we
are
sure
In
the musical genre it follows
recogni­
as a
as an
artist,
that he must have
that one
influences
the other.
et the
fact
ble
to the
hero.
He
knows
that
essence
of his
the
remains
audience,
she
is enraged
ind
talent we arc
o: circumstance.
successful
lie
as a painter anc
than to accept
is marked
he is answerable
lover and
ilo'e
although he
to Kilo.
a parasite,
willing
to believe
needs to
prove
that
patronage.
are
In
but
because
that he
that he can
there is no
is in
be
other
Althoug h unsavory,
the most acceptable
as a person of convict!
into the category
of
talented
the
for Lise
deepens.
It amplifies
his character and
he comer
to understand
love,
and
himself
recognition
n because he
characters.
sincerity become more apparent an
his love
Kilo
for a conventional
owing
to
position.
Gerry
and
questionable
believes
the choices which he has made
his
-erry's motives are accept-
a young shop assistant
is both a cheating
enormous
option
although
they are
pursues Lise,
he
grip
that
Hie
falls
imagination
film progresses
all
that is good
what he truly
as a painter without having to
and
in
wants,
prostitute
or his work.
by contrast,
is characteristic
of the untalented members
of the
com: unity ana
ulthou h perhap-
u e r r y 11» insensitive
to blare
bought
many
for believing
for a
price.
an
rtiot as somewhat
credit.
cnic,
It ,ives her a aense
participated
her sexual
believes
oi
it is
-ut her
interest
that
she
a If-s^ti^facticn,
interest
in 3 e r r y , and
is o..ed not
p at ro ni s­
to ner social
in the cultural aesthetic ism
ever vicariously.
a r t i s t s , it
..ilo considers
ana
be
..yatea provides
uniucopnised
vanity.
ueocrve
car in,; can
patronage
for talented
society's
oe- not
un e on^y nut, herself
that loyalty ana
••hi. 1 e the
opportu nit ies
also reinforces
ing
tre .tmer.t of her,
she
of
in art
by hir
to have
'hi.jh a r t 1 h o w ­
is subordinate
patronage,
only his gratitude
to
she
but his
love
and affection.
The heroine
u 1s e , is aloO no t i c a b l y talented
taurht
in the
rigid
simple
innocence
conventions
is attractive
o' his
Gerry
to release he r from everyday
beyond
engaged
quandary
'realistic'
the classical
appe
uhe needs
experience
ranees.
are
small.
-hi.
. trong,
^nd
com}lex
to grew ana m t u r e
hood.
uid nee
Under
assured .
Jerry's
It is obvious
subsequent
desertion
ti.at they
show her
,m
1 red
favourably,
n . his
to realise
tnat Lise
lover.
is responsible
-u no ion
ic tacly
enraged to.
belong
the finned
escenti.-i v.•
ii
c : t:u
slip; in
she
ana
xs
deep
love for Gerry
from a girl
seconer
oi her f l a n e 6 . ult
is Gerry and not r.im who
Of her character.
.he
in the
.-or although
affords her the means
Her
the contact with
to another m a n , her kno led e of true love
relationships
worthy
ballet.
to d e r r y , especia lly
light
things
own moral
of
as a dancer,
to wo ma n­
poised and selftogether.
be condoned
for the
ycun
is act
Lise's
since
it
transformation
girl who he was
.-ortrayed altogether
ne; a f coniiuea with his failure
froi.. hie
. <• is character ist ic
grasp make him an un­
oi a specific generic
. '
love with
love
oh racter
is
difficult
for us to feel
One
of the
itself,
than with
index ical and
i.iost salient
th<
object
of his d e s i r e . .
fa iiiar to the a u d i e n c e , -,o it is
ny:.,:a the tic to his
features
of Ai:
11 h t .
r-ic: a i:. •a r i, is
n
-he
156
Mi nn e l li 's
juxtaposition
of America
in this case,
oi rranee).
environments,
but more
being.
Gene
amidst
Kelly
a foreign
is
am.
- -ro:e (particularly,
It refers not
importantly,
the
American
culture.
only
to
two
to two opposing
in laris,
For a l t h o u g h he
often
cultural
pretension.
1 hey all
language
but
use
they
artist.
it cleverly,
Gerry
appreciate
:<enoi r and M a n e t , and
believe
and
that he Js not
participate
situation and attitude,
fe station
style,
of culture.
In his book uubcul
explains
that
a style wnich defines and
is a visiole
style
subculture
tity.
Ctje
cuild
it
rationalises
style
this
is a m a n i ­
to that
visible
by adopting
their existence.
.here
or a R a s t a f a r i a n , which
but which
is vital
to that
them with a definite sense of iden­
provides
tbrought
a refusal
that
to truly
not conform
themselves
seem outlandish,
They function
signal
enough
ts become a form of st igmata wnich are made
up a style
them.
and
as
to
of J t y l e , Jick nejldge
of being a Te ddyboy
to the onlooker may
belongs
culture.
: caning
subcultures make
of art",
Underpinning
that
.ho coe.
Ide of that
e : Inr
towards
there is a sense
art.
is the not io n
places himself
whicn
French
in French
d " anyone
leans
among
the conviction of a true
is an ousider in the world
Toulouse-Lautrec,
other artists
without
of
residing
is an artist
with his co lleagues
"the
states
an alien
artists his discourse
speak
.ifferent
imparting
as part
of
to conform
a symbolic
that
to
to
significance
to
s u b c u l t u r e 1s iconography,
the dominant
ideologyi
"...this process begins with a crime against the natural
order, though in this case the deviation may seem slight
indeed - the cultiva ti on of a quiff, the aquisition of
a scooter or a record, or a certain type of suit.
But
it ends in the construction of a style, in n gesture of
defiance or c o n t e m p t , in a smile or a sneer.
It signals
a refusal." I
Hedidge
his
is emphasising
point can
the
be anplied
way
impart
significance
create a style
of style
in s u b c u l t u r e , but
to larger cultural
style aoes not necessarily
also
role
signal a r e f u s a l .
to various
of existence.
objects,
Roland
groups
in which
Dominant
and
Barthes'
cultures
in their own
classic
V ytholo/.les exposes
the ways
in which
world
live and
shows how a certain view of the
in which
they
society's mystify
work
.n.
the
world
is
purported
realistic.
code
Barthes
of realism
in s h o r t ,
to be natural,
shows how
in which
t exhibits
Amcilcar,
style
of b e in,- American,
these ar^
in
certain
two diametrically
them as juxtapo.sir. - worlds
portrayinr
with
of
estern genre
opposing cultures
The
East
" est
is
symbolises all
is indicative
In An American
significance,
Min ne ll i' s
original
and yet
and what
visual
styles.
Gerry's
and Minnelli's
and
that
thit
to it:
is new
He
masterfully
fhe
established
stru
Prom
to be French
elements
define
is a result
of American
the
He haa
public
could
synonymous with K e l l y '
.hat
is most
ov er whelming
striking
zest and
idealism
i nd
inner strength,
shifts as
'Mr Average',
genr^,and
co ns idering
hopes
and
1 9 b 0 's American
of flux,
going
searching
beyond
who suffers
and who has
insurmo .ntuble.
this cha racter
ing all America's
form,
society.
of conviction
culture mode,
new
is his
music
v r o v e r b i a 1 "American Jream",
the musical
a state
to be
the . e n r c .
or American,
the
they arc never
the
also had
Minnelli
of
s a m Q moral
During
ideology.
of Gershwin's
persona within
although
the
their different
developing
character
and
iral opposition.
it means
This
is the embodiment
structure.
this worx,
identify.
He
juxtaposition
was George Gershwin'a
of cre ating a char ac ter with whom
American
similarities
progressive
to be sure
about Minnell i' s
and
add., an oth er layer of vital
e examination
character
is a
presents
narrative
ana
mere
score.
char ac ter
do
states.
for the film,
aural
there
of being french,
interaction.
integral
of whet
that
obviously here as the
in Paris
draws his notions
us
another important
inspiration
Amerlean
snows
opposed
o : an older,
.n Paris
style.
of experience,
are
its own
function as o i g n s ,
visual
a style
their conflict ana
the
objects
i a r i s , Mi nn el li
ana
and hence
any society creates
a specific
In
1 life-like'
its
a
the
problems,
ftithin the context
of
function as a popular
is enormously
successful, express­
belief:, for a bright f u t u r e .
style was
relatively n e w , yet
for direction.
old dimensions
Art was
m
taking u
of experience,
and music
! -: 'Orteti to be n a t u r a l ,
:ea iii tic.
;e <
1
arthes
realism
iort,
In
1'
shows how
In which
certain
in laris.
and hence
any society creates
exhibit!, a specific
American
life-like'
objects
visual
Minnelli
its
own
function as signs,
style.
snows
us
that
there
is a
■
"'1
" ''
tneir a.
tw0 d iame trica .ly opposed
juxtaposir.
worlds
portrayinr their conflict
•'■ith the
..'estern genre
states.
of experience,
and
He
presents
masterfully
interaction.
The
similarities
are obviously here as the
Juxtap os it io n
.
The
-a: t symbolises all
that
is new and
■ t iv. indicative of an older,
ir‘ A£2—
ricar. in laris
oi. nit i c a n c e , and yet
Ag-grlcan
draws hie notions
and
vnat
lerry's
and
the
i d e o l o Ly.
this adds another layer of vital
for the film,
in Paris
score.
of what
structural
From
this work,
elements define
ch ar act er
opposition.
was George Gershwin's
it means to be French
visual and aural
styles.
established
another Important
i n n e l l i 1s inspiration
orlglna
more
progressive
,
is a result
Linnelli
or American,
their different
of Gershwin's music
.
to be :iure of cr eating a ch aracter with whom the
er.‘ .-y,
his
developing
about
ch aracter
pcrrona within
innelli'a
American
ie in the embodiment
character
o'
name moral
although
new
overwhelming
vroverbial
conviction
and
inner strength,
'Mr Average',
never
thl
■o r m , going
searching
beyond
old
idealism
a
the
problems,
Aithin the context
of
its function as a popular
successful,
express-
belisfe for a bright future.
's Am erican style was
of flux,
zest and
who suffers
and who has
this char ac te r is enormously
and
striking
"American Jream",
insurmountable.
genre, and c o n s id er in g
a 1 America'., hopes
a state
/.hat is moot
th-
shifts an
culture mode,
uurin,
the genre.
is his
could
to be synonymous with Kelly'
of
they ar<
the musical
also had
public
relatively
for direction.
dimensions
new, yet
Art was
in
taking a
of experience,
and music
began
to be
people.
blues,
and
indigenous
sounding with
A mericans were
party
from the now vocal
specific
tonal
white mu s i c ia ns
Kern.
r r a n e e , on the
e x n i pi ted
to the
qualities were
like Gershwin,
other hand,
vazz,
it was
expectations.
a gentle
without
easy
established
the
its rhythms
by popular
and
culture
polished ana
the
and
restrained.
indigenous music
be in. anti-establish.nent.
of
Unlike
to, and aid not assault our
had a flowing melody,
harmony,
of jazz .inti
incorporated
elegant,
to listen
It
rise
of its
Irving Berlin and Jerome
was an
u s i c a i forms we. e classical,
charm,
voice
hlack m i n o r i t y , and
a style which was
Prance had
the
which was
played
a regular rhythm
on avery solid
and
piano
acc era ;on by a smiling Fr enchman with
a moustache- wearing
Stripe:
was also a young girl,
.. shirt
s-'.y, r.mve and
moraiity
trays
and
and
flirtatious;
courtship
upon by
timeless charm,
paintings.
is
and
has
the most
he gives
us a picture
our dreams.
onion sellers,
pianos
glorious
The
small
working
immortalised
all
of the generic
which
cake
shops,
. tyle
is the
mere
painted
vivid
of old garretts,
exhibit
in which
-hey also display a marked
U v i n c and
the kind
of style
of subcultures.
to acceptable
artistic
in Minnelli's
predictably
is charu :teristic
of the
dames,
than life.
dress m a i n l y , and the artists generally
index ical
to
grande
tyle of fantasy,
of artist s who are
to confora
categories,
f l o r i s t ' , butchers,
all
explains
of what
is exactly faithful
servants
community
a
by Henoir in his
discreet
in s variety
presumably
It exudes
grand mansions,
his
por­
ing is visible
of our expectations
bound
of F a n s
is brighter and
a 'ere t .
cour
of
taken no liberties with our f a n t a s i e s .
are minia tur e
represents a refusal
and
Minnelli
sellers,
and
which Hebidg e
Inevitably,
vegetable
colour.
everything
by a strict coae
wiser I irisians.
and
conven ti on
There
guarded
p a r a d i s e , where
L.innelli fulfils
In this,
vast
but
the older,
captured
about,
France
-ccedure.
-aris as the lov.-rs'
smiled
raris
and a beret.
a
standards
It
of
wear a shapeless
smock
untidiness which
imagination,
His own
is
appearance
ar..: ;ivin,™ cend i t i < ne ceun very
little
to him,
.
,
.>0 . t..i> st;, lc o: an artist
C j.
v
m
s
film,
its domin ant
*he
cannot
be read as
one
and in the context
m a r c h ic or
threatening
to
culture.
'Americ an
masterpiece,
is a gentle
in laris
B a l l e t ’ , which many
provides
the climax
to V'is
regard
complex
as
i n n e l 11'
film ana
.
innelli wrote:
'The ballet had to be true to the spirit of the Gershwin
music.
rhe different sections were to be in the style
of different painters who had painted P a r i s , b e c a u e *
this boy was a painter.
Also it had to be a mental
••.'i^
iia
ithin rim — a time when he was verv upset
emotionally, not only bis love affair, but the storv
of -nris
here he meets the rirl, loses her and rets
mixed up
ith the ralntera.
uo the ballet had to keep
y ou out of the line of the story and also help the
story pr og r e s s , because when the ballet was over the
pic - -re '.as over.
-1 was quite a mental e x e r c i s e ."
The v.hole ballet
is a brilliant
narrative,
is juxtaposed wit!, the more naturalistic
which
sequences showing
lifestyle.
the
ecause
setting and
'reality'
iconography are
sequence begins
hands
and
o:
intr
with
t) eir o w n e r s .
up and
intc
view,
the
.c an:
the
At
fra;
confident
towards
image
, an t th
streets
camera.
The
posed
in an exaggerated
creused
lead.
He dances around
at this
her
led
in the style
cone
of
blazers,
pale
is u el i cerate .ly
fiel
.ere.
point,
open:
in the
by Kelly,
brightly coloured
an,, gay f 1
ballet
raised
starts they move f 01 ward
dancers,
of green
frame
aspects of
ant. the deeper
of five hats
.he m ;se-en -scene
ana aggressive
the
the Parisian
revealed.
the music
i a landscape
c o t t a g e s , cobbled
it
*ho tthe r s are
boaters.
t h e a t r i c a l , /.
of laris and
foregrounded,
French middle class young men,
l rr users and
of overtly stylised
it is a f a n t a s y , the visual
reality of > » U y 's imagination
The
piece
s decorative
Kelly
i
both
and moves quickly
to reveal
position waiting
in mock courtship,
Lite,
who is
to follow
alternately
his
■
, lvJ
J 0 1 ‘‘S" -
eheru-
0*
6 --eeru, a n d aeet .,1th
.
■
■
■
.n;
epicure
'-r—
thv t
xu
>*
"
fr°E“>•
dorai.unt.
“, e W e e 6f th6 b,l,' t 13 • rl.ual d i s p l a y
.
.
.
procedure
lar*
is also st ri ct ly
16 C ° t0 6 re et
patterned,
and a man must
1 ' " ' ‘h. to ecrrt . girl.
He
be pro-
should
also
expect
rejection
arlections.
initially,
As well as this,
If an outsider wishes
he must
conform
m ann er ism s
language
and
invested
m ea n i n g
to be accept ab le
society,
as one of
signified
on many
genre film.
short
space
vital
to the genre,
camera and
of time,
cm
that
is indicative
above
the ankle
Use
dance,
we
complete
costume.
bright
l i n e
and
shape and
been
emphasizes
of the
Above
List
the
transformed
black,
tight
and
the
trousers
cropped
shirt with a V-neck and
dress with a flowing
in design.
from a girl
a
skirt
From this moment
to a woman,
of their total absorption
balletic,
one
colours and candy
He wears
harmony as dancers/lovers.
is essentially
has
persona,
wears a simple white
is transformed
setting,
fleeing the others at
Their dress
and a cotton-knit
form
to create
beginning as Gerry and
or the Kelly
become aware
performers,
is
sequenc- s of the <'ir.ema.
is particularly American
watch as Lise
the different
element which
perfectly
after
of
in a comparatively
dance,
of French style,
into an ordinary
and
only one
Music,
of love,
style
and
song.
is to my
stunning sequences
together all
it excludes
section.
f-om a caricature
which
of this
in Paris Pallet,
signification,
they are alone,
of the first
collar.
l e v e l s , v i s u a l , aural,
visually
beautiful
it is a dance
stripes,
and
director all combine
most harmonious
end
in
web of latent
the densi ty and quantity
It brings
of meaning and
realise
semiotics
A natu ra lis tic mode of expression
of the American
the most monumental
levels
the visual
subtext.
-’he middle section
musical
its
s ty 1 Leati on of the n a r r a t i v e , . innelli has
•'r.ich communicates
not have
community,
them.
the dance sequence with a complex
narrative
mind
He must use
in other woras,its
indexical and m e t a p h o r i c .
could
to that
of rules
culture ana adopt
idiosyncrasies.
of that
a c nscicus
there are a number
to the dominant
order tn communicate
-
before he finally wins he,;
Although
as they
in one another
the aance
it incorporates a softness
the relationship
we
of
between the
164
careers*
:he re is a rr eat er
men e of the conveyance
el.c,t ions t t a n in the a r tic ul ati on
of an aesthetic*
/•.ien looking at the m i a e - e n — ae.ne which
to this
\
\isual
his
section ol
the dance,
complexity and mood
use
style
is without
doubt
wnich Minnelli
lezanne
and
been
and his followers.
Cezanne's
incorporated
into his
its
own internal
source of light,
imposed from the
Light,
therefore,
bear out
truly,
•hey
this
light
theory and
seems
ballet
a ,most,
by the work of
internally.
translucent
is translucent
f a n t a s y , u seen" which would
disappear if one
of its delicate
perpetua t in.-.
of fire.
ana
-1 begins
Not a burning,
clone*
a hen
There
elements
least connected
two
the sense
participants,
brilliant
which
use
to dance,
dancers,
camera
and
set gives
various
reflecting and
is ne
of blues and
world.
It watches as we watch,
ful not
to disturb the
is warm
greens which
fire and water,
And there are
forms are
the ii
like shadows
poses.
it invade
quietly
and
all
only
Minnelli's
- overs an Infinite
nor does
self-
interplay of the three
their world.
shadowing
>*' intrusive,
too
suggestive
one which
unfolding.
the
in
of reality
smoke,
but
r ■ ility, air,
overs ana
the
of yellow
The
of a f a n t a s y
the
of his
with
breathed
is no sense
tr a haze
dark enveloping water.
reinforce
It is the ultimate
consuming fire,
are like
in the
inner life as if it were
in a haze
It changes
them to life.
and almost t r a n s i e n t , as
essence.
but we are aware
quality,
echoes this
if one could never grasp its
too b o l d l y .
paintings
their own s h a d o w s , and
Mi nnelli
deeply or stared
His
them bringing
of casting
which
that light should not
to the a r t i s t .
to rad 3 ->te from
setting which
through
was that a canvas has
show a vague
to be a l i v e •
the
fhe artistic
discovered
itself
at
major belief,
and
o u t s i d e , but
seem to be capable
appear,
painting,
reveals
backdrop
of the impressionist
influenced
was
be
the
achieves
camera.
reminiscent
m o v e m e n t , and must have
forms
one can only marvel
of lighting, propertiei
of
Also,
their
space
in
of the
his
private
u n o b s e r v e d , car e­
perfect harmony.
G e r s h w i n 1s score changes
here.
although hesitant
at first,
a
165
new sound
is introduced,
the sound
and
are aware
that
to his
feeling
elly
style.
^he
t h ■.t
the saxophone,
&:
of American Jazz.
loaediatel^
is in hia element and
piece
idiom.
e s s e n c e , for it allows
tc be held
followed
by
syncopated
a note
buile .nt; in
haunting,
rhythm makes
listening
as it only
-..e must
to
we
adapt
is a s l o w , rousing melody which
is encoded with a stron.j Jazz
possible moment,
vital
.iruing is of the
the
last
intensity and falling a- .y,
« rinding melodic
it strange
seems
until
and
to fulfil
phrase.
It's
disquieting
its formal
obligations
at the very e n d .
Ihe lover's
dance
is one of discovery,
p h y s i c a l , emotional
•
openly
express
genre,
the truest
the theatrical
deepest,
would
themselves.
re.lity
setting
ii. found
allows
the levers
be aware of,
everyday hu man
events
experience.
oecomes a p a r e n t , which
important
revelation,
their imaginations,
t ey have danced
Use
not
one to the other.
to impress
to share
their
tiee:ly and
m d
totally absorbs
by
ance she becomes
a woman capable
this
from
r.erry dance
is their most
They dance
one another.
strongly,
r i viz..
they
using
Until now
display
ror the
first
of a a n c l n r .
time,
up her Frenchness and
c o q u e t l ; h n e . ., allowing ncrself
the event
them­
to become
Under Jerry's guid ­
cf feeling stiong emotions
desires.
Their dunce
is overtly
The tenderness
sexual
reinforce
partner as the a g g r es so r and
score also unaerlines
leading
up to a series
arousing.
and
is a metaphor for l e v e m u k i n g .
of the tr loving and
masters his love,
and
their
things that
partner and
steps out of her environment,
thus her naivit
end
of
Paradoxically,
far removed
*s that
acutely aware
in the
to indulge
As Lise and
one thing
selves,
.n f a n t a s y .
innermost fantasies ana explore
not normally
normal
And as is conventional
Yet
the
the rase with which Kelly
the conventional
roles
of the male
the ferule as passive.
the sexual
si, .ificance
Gershwin's
of the d a n c e , by
of crescendoes,
simultaneously
coupling
lovers must
of
the
A.
carresoing
be seen in
terms
it
of their entire
is also spiritual
union.
and
which
understanding
their reality
each
in turn lends
of each
learned
his
the most
life.
but
ised,
self
thing,
to achieve
not can talent
concrete
form,
of
in terms
cannot
be imposed
and
Cne
they have
transformed
to
ana has
of the meaning
of
has to be prepared
success.
fills
so aptly
it will
to
Art cannot be ra ti on al ­
is the articulation
as Cezanne
upon a work,
leave
of self or a r t , only comes
the inspiration which
is 1 -ke light,
that
setting,
They
grown as a man,
be b o u g h t , it
Talent
to t h e m .
If Lise has
True a w a r e n e s s , wheth er
of one's
this fantasy
Knowing
through exploration and s a c r i f i c e •
give
expression of their
Amidst
too has
valuable
physical
Their interpretation
apparent
given of their deepest selves.
then Gerry
being
to greater self-awareness
other.
becomes ever more
a woman,
as
to the mutual
other not on y fulfilled,
become
well
and e m o t i o n a l .
of the m u s i c , leads them
inner beings,
As
reveal
in a
a receptive m i n d .
p e r c e i v e d , it
itself through
that w o r k .
This
second secti-n
of what
the musical
medium.
rest
and
of ilirnelli's
ball
is capable
showing as an
Its intense theatricality
of thp
film.
Yet despite
obviously foregrounded
revelation
'real'.
of true
The
choreography
and
colour,
camera angle and
achievements
Section three
The
in cinematic
the most difficult
outlandish
becomes
of the
this ballet,
attention to
lighting,
precision is clearly
is one of the finest
harmony.
one
in Paris Ballet,
to decode,
amidst a turmoil
of
and
in it,
we see how
scenery.
characters
is lost and
is symbolic
is without
people dancing in strange
changing
illusory
s e t t i n g , Lise
this
this
the
it as vitally
cinematography,
iconography
involved with these
Clearly,
from the
and musically,
imagination mark
costumes and constantly
expreasionistic
expressive
so strongly staged
shows V i nn el li 's close
of tha American
Gerry loses Lise
grusp.
result,
is the embodiment
it apart
being
visually
in every aspect
in e v i d e n c e .
sets
its
emotions and
detail,
doubt
of
t,
slips
while he
in this
out of his
of his infatuation with the
French
and
n a i n t e r s , and
shews his co u r t sh ip with exp ressionism
other artistic mover.f-nts.
c aricatures
deformed
quite
of
Tou.
pattern
real,
but
use-Lautrec, fill
of decadence
consume him,
by alien
ielated
bereavement.
na
and
to his
state
physical
Gersh
Using
likewise,
the score,
and
takes
harsh and uneasy.
in ­
of this nature,
is
of
of the mental
>erry1e dilemaa
-nese imaginary
device
is
from
characters,
visually
communication
ab
or aurally.
iconic
in
particularly
especially
Jerry's mental
representation
of a n o n ­
the sound,
and
the
tonal
discordant music.
also create
characterised
conventional harmony
turn and
only are we disturbed
uenre
quality
percussion
rf
loud,
visually,
but
of string
t::c siund,
for them as
instruments
results
instruments,
adaed
p h r a s e . , and
l.near,
the second
it
to
in an eerie,
at random
continual cyclic motion.
of tr.e first sequence was
by short
becomes
is as uncomfortable
of
falls
appear to be at odds with
le rshwin'.• use
the effect
line
calm and
:he characters
is for the audience.
the
o:
isecraant melodic line into
a threatening
Not
musically as well.
melodic
this
i n t n iucen a
all s e m e
The music
dominate
His
tne employment of figures
context,
through the
e r ry
concept.
in,
away.
if
are representative
either visually
is revealed
It is as
and nis sense
tic Furies.
effective within a filmic
resented
oranges
upon their victim and function
as a sign of suffering.
be
reds and
to engulf and
...innelli presents
ireek theatre,
torture
art
the
dancing a
perspective.
loss of Lise,
visual w a y , through
inflict mental
must
threatening.
of
like
.'hey are never
of fiery
particularly
anguish w • ich he feels.
classical
setting,
illusion.
all sense
he characters
a striking,
the
forces which attempt
destroyin
volvement with art,
directly
and
in their costumes
are constantly ex plosive
is surrounded
..trance characters,
»here
the
brisit and
likewise was
,
upon itself rather like
and Gtrry himself who
Finally,
amidol the
the
scenery,
in hounied
and
its frenzied
pursued
tu: .oil and confusion
of
characters
ly his
own torm
the dance,
Gerry
it.
and
- ier
around
world
find
one another and
th j m .
and
It i a their final
the
to the scene
Kelly alone
deserted
of their
and
only
can be h e a r d .
it
In th-
and
to pick
slowly
only
its si: pie
This
conveys
beauty
second
climax.
and deepest
iconic
reinforcement,
memorable and
The final
Lise's
the audience,
and
the camera
inwards
impression
is of
b u l l e . provides
of the
its symbolic
l o v e r s , which
effectively
is marked
As a love symbol
and
used
transferred
It needs
complete
still while
He bends
section
of truth
but with
feet.
Cur lasting
it
turns to face
the lighting fades
.he rote with
impact.
that
repetition of the love
significance
impression
lover,
in
and Gershwin*s
realism.
is brilliantly
strong visua.
to rise
emphasizes
at his
it completely
idealism,
by using
of colour in an otherwise monochrome
ists
the music
once again
rose left
is visible.
perfection,
which has been
imagination,
realism.
sketch
and when Kelly
the unity of the
its
Minnelli
i or L i s e , while Gershwin
by allowing
in to a close-up,
the connotations
grounds
searches
is
in the action,
into Gerry's
truth and
black ana white
the rose
final musical
place
of Gershwin's music
into f r a m e , confronts
not-ces a red
phrase f: cm the
all
intrinsic
it up ana holds
tracks
leaving
h 1% the
break
ballet
.
• elly
vanishes
to find a backdrop of a black and white Paris! ;u
an illusion,
the camera h*
-'hey return again
All around
strains
1r e a l 1
the other characters,
the whole
shot he rushes
scene.
is still
an:
frantic movements
then turns
until
of Lise
places
final
street
stage.
the haunting
reconciliation,
In the
of the
love-dance and Lise
is lodged as
echoes his
crov.ds v.ho clacour
rejection
Ihus by this complete
the dis appearance
where
the
pa eudo-nea th e t ic isn. of art.
on the bare
effectively
ercnpe
and i.innelli f o r e ­
only splash
This
poets
symbol
ana
novel­
film medium and makes
no explanation,
its single
by its harmony,
the rose evokes
netting.
to the
perfection
it as the
t y countless
the
image,
a
no verbal
the film has a
ending.
is not
of Gerry
but Gene Kelly,
the
the pointer,
or Gerry,
persona who steps
out of the
confines
the
of character and
idealistic,
choreograph
with
energetic American.
d and filmed
outstretched
ath le ti c. sm ana
sense
In this
the
remarkable
elements
the genre,
genre
but
only
image
inspired
ting each
if
but
indulging
its own
formal mode
straints
to the
. 1g n i f i c a n c e .
caring.
fullest.
ana
form,
definite
dance can be uned
indulged
to the fullest
is
Minnelli's
final
of its
in the
talent are celebrated
shows
o tylisat ion is
that the s t r o n g ­
one's
fantasies
in the
same film,
and
of
each
Lanoc , although an explicitly
the most
Minnelli
'n t u r a l 1 emotions
the limitations
hat
the mu: ioal
ex panned
and con­
imagination
film is governed
by
for: u l a e , fantasy has no limits.
expressively an.: visual artistry
1real i s m 1 if the setting
ation.
for the
two contrasting styles
Jo within
r or although
To
of c l o s u r e , incorpora
by exploring
The
to
vision which
the a r t i s t .
and Minnelli
side by side
of the genre
conventions
Here
from within
of presentation reveals
love sincerity and
respect
America and France are united
imagination.
exhibiting
sense
Art and
that
to each
themes t_na reconciling all
can be discovered
can exist
strik­
the ability
attention
enormous
a perfect
and
of
simultaneously.
strongly a r t i c u l a t e a .
with naturalism,
expression
levels
as a personal
of Gerry and L i s e .
one's
in
all
on the fact
have
requires minute
rose creates
unites
is both complex
it requires
they are manifested
est reality
1 he
fulfilled
conventions
is founded
different
this
oppositions.
contrasted
is so familiar.
successfully
tne musical,
of the films m aj or
relationship
unmistakable
the structuralist
of genre as well
of the
central
like
he appears
is ultimately
Minnelli
Its complexity
to create
conventions
not
ballet,
on so many
decode a work
are all
rose.
and especially
communicate
detail,
evokes
to create a work which
films
that
energy which
that he
of film and
ingly b e a u t i f u l .
i s movements
i
displaying
restrained
of the
the t he means,
for maximum impact and
limbs,
of ex pe ctation
the discovery
presents ut, v.ith all
extent.
There
is somewhere
is no necessity
in a character's
can be
for
imagin­
er
1
CHr.rTZa 6
* • ^ T
• •>
**<
U 1 i* ’ 1 *• u
“•.11
J.n
»•'
* .*Zi
*t a.*i
rtEnL-vY
J tur.lcy vonet.1&. oln^in.and
a complex
cor. non plot
f
genre
omul
to
a i :u
in the
i^Uoic;;
"ain
Til;... Jicple,
f
a
et
bo;
girl,
(ly?2) 1.. both
)i
because it uses
r.t "tin
irl,
elngln.*
. or.*
a ad con
density
of . igr.i-'ic to. n ..hich D o n e n
1
os .n
lex as a
,
tn<
irl
result
affords
oftht
the narrativ
.
,
wood not i n picture
truths
industry and
about th<* m t u r e
of reality.
a r e c r e a t e d , r ,tur U s e d
cy
. urtherni
uncovers zany in,ortant
:» shows ho., illusions
throu h s o c i e t y as
and transmitted
r r , he n a n i p u l a t e s
the
to re v ea l how
plot
p e o p l e c r ate t h e i r o r. p -r: r.al m y t h s as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n 'or
t h e i r b e n a v i o u r a n d life. t. L e „ . ..in in, ^ n the ..ain is an
arc: e t y p e or the : u s i c a i < e nr e a s ivonen s n o w s e n o r n o u s r e s p e
f o r a n d adhere., to its s t r u c t u r a l fcr. u l a e a m
generic
plot
.
ter.; a re g e n e r i c
t y p e * a n d the sin. in
a n d d au ci n.
is part o'
an e a & i l y - r e c f , r . .!<: n a r r a t i v e co.. e , the :ii.., ..ever exhsu.
.
i.i a 1 ■ • y
vi
:.u t e r i
The
.-i I . e c i t i
c '.'
..e
,
• ve 1...,
n tl
r
«. ..c .1 ... of e n c o d e d
t• .
t • .t .
is one
opposition but een r- tli t.v a n d fantasy
of the most
.
,
definitive
presented
meanin
s
eneric
in
a musical
hei
they
m u s i c , f intas.y
d i s c u used
inversi
i.
are
becomes
! h a pte r 3
r. ta ke s
opposition
because
in
:-rinci pit ■>.
pl.ee,
vitally
fin-in,
in
when
filir. we
; in a
reality.
and
in
an
itneos
express©
shown
reality
t he
he
important
inversion
different
binary
stages
. i n ■~in r
and f a n t a s y
:n
of
thei
m ed i uc ,
so i
opouition
through which
t i.c
ar
f.i r. tht
mode1
this
them
to the film's structure,
.he dr.in is about
reality an.
llluslo
.
'2
c.ouel Co- the f
o r k for cl. e U o s i o n .
* ;lc c n a l y a i t
c o n s i d e r the- t». o c o n t e x t * in ..r.. cn vr.nen use., tne r c i i t y /
fantasy opposition,
th
in *...e . ti n
re l e t i o n s h i ; .e t w e t n th
Kollyv. oou
is notorious
of society's ».hi -o
and
eneruted
real need
ica.-e of a
iodu*tr;-
n
ie * i rtc •
’ i«. irable'
in
no exploitation
ut these are
only
~o t .e ;lie a., ula
lifestyle v.hich is
cultivated
p- rceivea is a
to ■•hat the in .us try
society.
a nc
^ ovt r. .
i'oj its oOj.. .erci&lian
in response
in that
icture
promote
the
lecad- n t , alanorous
•
syste.. is rc lly
' st ar s'
re. .: ,
t hl
a i r ...cnuf ac t ur«
t o - . . a y c a-: u ni c a t i o n ...ct,
.accord nr to s o c i e t y ' s
i d e a l i s e d an 1 i d o l i s e d ty t h e i r a u u l e n c e s .
see the m y t h ,
a
t a s t e s ana are
ut a u d i e n c e s only
n e v e r the r e a l .ty a nd J c n e n e x p o s e s the t r u t h in
ay t ha t is c o r e k i n d th
c r u e l , a: ; hu.. c r o u s rath r t ha n
.
lifestyle
to te
industry',
y n o R y o c u s w i t h an i d e a l one a n d u n e a r t h s t he
ove^rldin.
w i l l in t'ly s u p p o r t
co.. crciulis:...
th
ic she., e th a t the p u b l i c
m y t h s t h e y a re fed and d e s i r e
to b e l i e v e
•
t h e s e sc re n i cl. .
1 .y .•o ' ■ an., its p u 1 1 c a r e — ut uttxly
e t e n •-r.t .
,
(1
ne
hr
lly)
■■
.St
i n d u s t r y a n i t..e
r • r tn r, the
rc.
*
ty;
u; lie, nr. ; ■
1
oroui
I.
*1
ac....
hr
ro,
by the
r. ». i t n his s u l t r y s c r e e n
L .zr.cnt (Jt :n Hn
t
n ) d r a p e d on h i s
-
..uite .
c.up]. ,
i d pr« .it
lookin, , co«. . i ..• n t ,
. . ••vtiv-
in vui t v .
.; m
hi le .it is t ood-
s h o r t ' th*
, ..rf-ct n a n ' ,
,
nr rratci
h is l i f e
t o r y , tell inf t he s.iuienci
ti it it w a s a
i
who succeeds without ever beeomin
corrupted
or tainted with
174
motives.
Icpure
success
to Don's
how his
parents'
all went
Jonen snows
queueing
the iool
to see
' The
accurate
different
room
he relates
as we watch Don
by his
in
of him and how they
father,
./angers of Dracula"
early career
his
but d i g n i f i e d .
to watch -ih uv and 1 oliere's
is somewhat
thrown out oi
. ov ever,
us scenes from ^on's
friends made a fuss
to the theatre
The reality
plays.
being
and see him
at the c i n e m a .
in showbusiness he
is equally i n ­
calling a bar room
the
in
slapstick,
experience
dance hell
performances with
role
his
story,
which are anything
life
About
Ideology ^ that
is a j .st rev.ard for tn«- d e s e r v i n g •
contrast
early
It expreesou u simple
'amateur night'
drama academy
exclusive
and
icnaervatory
of F:ne A r t s ,
at an
.
audience
that
adored
o f f i c e , and
unemployment
try
was
cated
The
a stuntman.
as
managers
are
more
when
relationship
with
Dina.
war
kicked
viciously
the
are
we
behind
den: nd;
that
and
public
always
Don
at
film
says h e w a s
"dignity
uni
the
indus­
sophisti­
dignity".
and
his
they l o s e
credi­
nature
of
to t h e
public
that
toward him,
cut i n
truV.
the
i.en he refused h e r f i r s t
hi
the
true
shown
Ie prcfea.es
as they are out of
soon
into t h e
illusion
and helpful
hi
• » jealously
ar
As
been
was
motto
for their
creating
still
al. a y s
initiation
At all times h e
contrasts w i t h
reality
has
his
s a u v e , and hi.
and
bility
them while we see him and C o s m o
^on'a
she
advances,
vide . attention and h i s
public
eye
she
love.
they b i c k e r a n d
squabble.
■■ i n g m g
had
in
Just
come
rany
vation
von
upon
hi:
assuming
her
to
.n a i ut i
to the cinema.
important
is
justifiably
are raii.id.
issue,
worried
about
that
ing as trivial as
unaware
satisfy
froi
an
that
uhe
a public
the
by comparison,
adoring
is
a
:eric c when sOUli:
he producers
inno­
are
public will accept a soundtrack
Lira
not
, the
ith the ua vent of t h i s new
career.
adulation
fully
set
about whether the
concerned
and
r: i:
f.e
n e e d , and
cculd
it
could
have
is u n c o n c e r n e d , n a i v e l y
sound c o u l d
public.
creation
effect
Unlike
of
be
the
v o n , she
film
quickly
*
interfere
with
is
bliss­
industry,
destroyed
if
nude
she
failed
which
her
to
in
position
needs
fad
t va y .
snail e
Hollywood
this
in
the
i
fusions
a
realises
that
he
is
nythiciseo
they
she
won
portrayed
grown
Reynolds)
you've
maintains
to
..hen h e
she
them
all'.
her
in
theatre.
Her
no
understanding
cultural
of
the
upon
it.
.he: tr e,
while
film
on:y
caterr
these
film
by
Donen
the
the
is
cynics
Cathy's
in
a
hall
the
to
chorus
shattered
ego
away
for
equals
and
In
following
the
industry,
an
and
were
explore
n
its
bare
their
needs
sequencer,,
nvoke
mood
for
using
va,~uely
It
teaches
axe
as
an
evocative
wonen
artistic
lighting
at
ana
medium.
her
and
Cathy
are
of
.a t h y
aoout
the
and
its
charming
the
film
mode.
bun
a
few
fantasy.
film
capacity
power t o
the
of
are
snell
its
L.uch
dancing
humiliation
a
end
genre
inviting
illusions
by
uuco
judge­
nightclub/music
the
Jon
in
have
establishment.
capabilities
atmosphere
who
interesting
discovers
suffer
protected
is
works
a history,
and
levelled
seamy
Now
she
of t h o s e
culture
^on
one,
a c t r e s s and
tradition
popular
be
Here
when
maxes inane
critical
demonstrate.!
ana
me".
a
see.
won
an
she
to
it:
He
capabilities
stage,
to
comes
(webbie
hero,
typical
culture
both
though
It
because
self-perpetuated
other
medium.
meant
its
they
limitations,
artistic
reality
"You
neither
a
is
audience.
distress
in
Hollywood,
s to t h e m o v i e s
his
and
who
system
even
Cathy
criticisms
this
and
line,
the
to
has
own
person
persona.
she
is
film
hi:;
at
Thus
when
of
art,
closer
establishment.
stripped
as
high
embarrassment
burlesque
mass
kind
grinding
look
that
says,
’s t a r 1
'once y o u ' v e s e e n
medium
a
person
screen
cf
sensitive
from
if s h e g
prejudice
for
away
that
tne
superior
. :.e
exact
orthodox
cleverly
to
a
ar■
as
and
a
Hollywood
’s t a r ’
because
film
ments
that
own
adds
is
tne
liveable
asks h e r
Che
craft
by
realise
to
doesn't
that
that
him
a
studio,
recognise h i m
meet.
seen
tae
in h i s
believe
doesn't
replies
of
an e x t r e m e l y
as
to
reinforced
outside
surprise
first
as
and
meet
gr?at
and
aware
survive.
as
.tuff
more
to
has
manufactured
the
is
order
he
of
on
constantly
is
nart
tenuous.
be
he
are
is
is
to
■■hen w e
.,he
suspend
sequence
medium
to
transforms
.,1.. p i e
proper-
ties,
the
setting
cen
be
what
wind
.or
as
in
real
into
the
a
v.nv
which
Cathy.
can
be
found
stylised
mode
emotions
and
inforce
dance
of
has
n
to
dance
gether
t
"I
and
in
acutely
can
see
they m e a n t
reveal
nis
feelings
trash,
it
enough
to
her
o:
n
to
a
period
to
her
and
and
cannot
a
as
toll
the a n g e l s m u s t h n / e
y o u just f or me".
true
an
sent
to
type
re­
with
won
at
until
Don
of
ard
instincts
hen
they
she
her
explor-
she
teacher/svengali,
her
a
a
experience
hall
copies
As
her
uses
stylistic
1t e s t i n g 1 D o n
supports
he
only
dance
follow
of
he
as
the
music
him.
awareness
foregrounded
individuality.
after
..hut
o
join
allow.3 h e r
dance
Cathy's
difficult
her
of
are
vulgar
true
expressing
aware
which
fantasy
setting
is
value
content.
finds
feelings.
the
dance,
the
deutroy
emotions
alien
see
become
ana
wishing
new
can
Don
ont-
the
Although
presentation,
the
In
fantasy.
She ' p r a c t i c e s 1 on
patient
to
depict
in
she
he
can
film
transform
Despite
tangible.
is a b l e
can
indulging
of
confident
it
perfect
that
that
r m t ive
been
shown
recognise
»e
feels
is
i m a g e , film
almost
tau
Cathy
consequently
first.
fantastical.
a
to
song
the
effectively
somethin/*
it
into
ht
of
ned:um.
elements
as
ladder,
tneatre, and
is
by
step
are
c r e a t e d , ^ on
u ue
a
tne
makes
ha.
for
ato.y
•> e
photographed
that
he
and
dance.
theatrical
olor;
in
u
machme
finally
unleashes
experiences
y e t , Don
you
not
sings:
and
.
scene
love
marks
for
the
each
beginning
other.
of
loner,
their
growing
reveal
the
awareness
harr.ony
and
implicit
in
.
is
and
a
visual
dance.
dependent,
metaphor
implying
Visually
i.e.
r ippor t .v e
relationship
with
i n t e re: tin,
point.
setting
and
their
ing
illusions.
and
though
their
Although
they
meant
arc
the
t
in
the
. iov n
one
.-on
that
Den
and
Don
of
and
.
h
0
is
Cathy
expression
still
unsure
lovers
aancc,
Lina
relationship
a
of
discourse
is
song
they
are
mutually
Comparing
Don
ana
with
were
Lina
reveals
presented
in
Catr.y1a
an
a
1r e a l 1
clouded
with
misunderstand­
have
ouch
illusions
is
no
stylised
and
t h e m s e l v e s , the
even
'unnatural
scene
is
.
m irkpd
by
its ainplir ity and
Cne
of the
basic narrative
the
incidence
of musical
enra^in,- h o n e s t y .
elements
talent
Consequently
categories,
those with talent ana
strong and
true
In oin ,in.; in
talent
industry.
she
her innocuous
usually fall
are
sn a 11 o v., vain
the sain J e n , Cosno and now C a t h y ,
of cha racter while Lina x.amcnt
that
is ban about
to obtain
be l e a r n e d , only
into two
by i n }.1 ica* j.on sensitive,
is f r i v o l o u s , insensitive
attempts
is
those lr c kin-_ talent,
the tint a 1 ented
and aeptn
is an incarnation of all
it cai
are
self-a.-are while
and deluded.
reveal
character,
the talented
genre
as a crit er io n for ass essing
character.
predictably,
of the musical
serve
the motion
picture
and arrogant,
end
t lent, and her belief
to amplify what
in the
that
others
is ingrained.
The character
of Cosmo Brown
of how a generic
afford
stereotype
provides
can be used
it greater complexity
often demands
mentor who
realised,
successful
character
in hi
no illusions
mode and allows
us to lnu.-h at h i m .
'Kake
of
at ourselves
the
primary
escapism,
He
function
our
him and be assured
t ic notion and
the
laugh".
us
to laugh
protective myths.
industry',
It should:
the
invites
then be able
is to entertain
"Make cm laugh make em laugh
all the world wants to do is
entitled
in such nigh esteem
illusions and
echoes
ol films
ironic
oebunks himself and
as in so d o m , , we will
at.If tic display
in the
or the
In a hilarious routine
ridicules
and do away with
Cosmo is a
the ...edievil court
the vorId around
take o f f e n c e .
industry.
to laugh at him,
This comic
Like
personal dignity whic:; is held
by the film
In Cosmo
ac out himself
puts himself
'em Lau -h1 Cosmo en erg eti cal ly
concept
it.
o/.n right.
He del iberately
that no one will
and offers
present us with a fully-
film industry.
can ridicule
convention
rash decisions
ana company v,hen he needs
actor who ha.
jester Cosmo
Generic
to
« beut f r i e n d , companion or
Jonald C ’C o n n o r
talented
example
in aginatively,
value.
the hero ma k in g
advice
-oner, and
and
the here have
prevents
him valuable
Brown,
that
an interesting
and
belie*
provide
that
He is repeatedly
studio,
workers
of a flie,
attempts
is that
interupted
are
b> what
bu..ily involved
they are
or himse lf
ir
the
15.
in the
r.ufi.cturintT
"cakin;-" entert ai nm en t while Courao
to tell us hov. vital
Cosmo
is happening
is providing
being aware
this
is.
.he
ubt le irony
entertainment without
of it.
He
the
studio
is a human embodiment
of
the w o r d , he
is enterta .nment without
bein': self-con sci ous ly
so.
performance
and he
Cosmo's
by subjecting himself
repeatedly hit
to a variety
by wo o de n
orcperties
to make his
te 11 i n u s
that we
a brick wall
face
exciting
rlanke and
should
all
it
t
be
like
being
then using them as
effective.
while
routine
dummy
into
an open door and has
to continue
of this
transforms a dressmaker'-
us l a u g h 1
laugh he walks straight
in order
part
'cakes
of accidents
r utine even more
believing
'r e a r r a n g e 1 his
the most
is hi larious
the
to
song.
ierhaps
occurs when Cosmo
into a partner by flirting
.
-Ihen
'she'
adopts
returns his compliment he feigns
the stock
e:ture.
of
coyness,
to
unusually
ing his h t over his
ear.
manages
the most
life.
to give
even
Finally,
embarrassment
hiding his face
and
comic e f f e c t .
clic..6d gestures
and
pull­
Cosmo
& new lease
the aummy/v.onnn seduces him and
pulls him
of
behind
.
ends with
,0 jao r u n n m -
to emphasi ze his
this action he
oint - m? / e om l a u g h .
‘alls
emphasizin g the
up the walls and somersaulting
through
illusion
Cr. the
n constructed
of film and
third
flat
crawling
backwards
repeat
of
onec again
to his
feet
sings
.
everything he possibly
could
10
tea chin.- us about lau ght er and
thing
to laugh a b o u t .
funny,
that
true
itself
of
The
0
while
in every area
character's
juxtaposing
lessons
1
reveal
entertainment,
*.-)t >ve ■ have
inherent
of that
to make
to try.
person's
and
life.
thin
ivcnen is
1
0
soy in c
ill manifest
It is a measure
the difference
Lina have
In
us som e­
conviction.
in which von and
once more
he gives
it: -. character and
seIf-awareness
scenes
reach his audience.
The studio contrives
Co • 0 don.
talent
try and
elocution
between a char ac te r
who has a nusical
interests
talent
and
of Ivon's and
tives have
aavised
.ike
regardin'
that
it
sque
be riven .
her deaf
it has
entirely
believes
she
uently
culation
ooe.; net
she
which
she must
class
only
way.
Logic; 11y , * ,na cannot
in her own mind
improvement.
a, t i v*
tea;
The scene
r i.
be r m s
in her mind
undergone
is unwilling
;up.l
rt.c;
equally
with him
for it.
sounds
of the
in a parrot-like
to improve
there
because
is no room for
requirements for learning
ui.succe. sf ul but
tongue
is
can be gained
in the education
reading
Her
as a trial
the requirements
be expected
that
to learn ar t i ­
the exercise
th t knowledge
tn.i
end
tne necessity
as she repeats
by the
so far from
between
fulfils
believes
renders
"the distinction
see
ne of tht. bas.c
a reco -nition
Lon's
she
is an
persona so unequivocally
but Lina regards
inasmuch
her v i c e
is synonymous with her own
illusion.., an;: c.nse
suffer ana
.he i r concern
uhe has fc en led
ruth
their
o;-in ion of hersel f
blurred
a c cm ale t e inversion.
teacher is patient
ex ec u­
re cents criti cis m it must
her reality.
she
i uars .
in her star
illusion has
becautf
In the
jrity with
justified,
own faults.
become
reality and
t a r e ...
popu
ut i ina *a inflated
the truth and
that
losino
k and although
to her
not.
cot., of to or. tar.« speech clauses
so many other silent
m
abrasive
.vho hat
i n a 1s career:., the stuaio
as a precaution against
audiences
on
process .
in a different w a y .
twisters from an
'
pupil
Lc:
i:
teacher has
additional
willing
to learn and
superior k n o w l e d g e , but he
stimulation.
immediately
seen that
the
dry,
uni nteresting “ ay.
ness
by
gesture,
imitating him
clearly
the
boring to be of any
because
and
passively accepts
loemo enters
1enson
teacher1
value
the
method s
of the tutor' i, narrow-minded
practice
the anarchic
of speaking.
'moses
with
supposes his
this
and neeas
carried
out
in a
teacher1u grim se ri ou s­
buck,
to Don and
the
the classroom and
is bein.
lie mocks
lehind his
is re tless
that
in a typical
schoolboy
are too staid
the class
is unsuccessful
approach
to tne
in mind,
Cosmo
tosses
ana
are roses'
teaching
triggers
routine
which
Don
nrnp.'rly deflates
cultural
pretension.
to join him in tin exuberant,
un inhibited
celebrates
r h y t h m , rhyme and sound
pletely unfamiliar
p e d a n t i c , and his
and
articulate
destroys
sheer enjoyment w hi ch
that
the
provokes
c ince which
in a way which
to the teacher.
demand
He
His use
of speech
it should always
leauty
is c o m ­
be
precise
of language and
car. be got from
it.
is
the
In tneir dance,
Don and Cosmo re.ease a . treac of pent-up emotions as a
mock
protest against
exuberance
silence.
dance
He
can only
and show each
p h r a s e , speaking
upon
teacher and his methods.
and co nv i c t i o n contrast
abandoning a 1'
tables
the
it,
sit
and watch
c not m i n t .
other
the
n ngir.
The
like
the
ised
by the
pover of
teacher,
Moses
they drape
scene
into another
fee t and
try
talent.
As
books
an'
as they
leap on chairs
era.
with
to copy
they arag the teacher
them only
understand
expression
they can detect
in common speech
man ot
learning and
for:;
,
ana meaning.
the
hi 1c
experience has
like his
of real
icon w i t h
picture
Of
people,
he ha.
sounds.
diagrams an
a mouth
the thi
form in
inherent
the
only
But his
tne
of his
diagrams,
/owe 11.
rhythms
ever used
them as aids
the mistake
bound
mke
to a diagram and hang
•hey
two-dimensional
is not
too many
to do this and
it on a w a l l .
of
a
other
pleasure of hearing
are still able
they
and
speech aefects.
He has made
itself.
Becau se
in
teach r , a superior
pictures,
for, ot ten the simple
Don a -d C o s m o
to limit speech
objects.
the
They have succeeded
to improving ar ti cu la ti on and overcoming
confusing an
them.
of
to his
of their rejection
on his head.
are
po*3try
and
emphasizes his lack of
phrase with life
so imaginative
and
ana force
Don and Cosmo seat him and heap his
paraphernalia
re presentations
life
In an imitation
the curtains
finally
the ultimate
become
improvising
injected with
exploring.
injecting a simple
have
of the simple
d ncir. ■ it,
it is
ana
.era is only able to watch m e s m e r ­
two minds
themselves
teaching methods,
in bewilderment
possibilities
to make him dance and
wooden attempts
shocked
the imagination is empnasized here
v o n e n 1s <
nower of
with his
-hey
it,
its rhythms and meanings,
feeling.
sharply
Iheir
new
refuse
A great
deal
nature and
will
can be learned from
function
regard
of poetry.
analysis.
than the work
the act
itself.
endeavour is being confused
self
but a means
of criticism is more
The
function of critical
h e r e , it
is not an end
discourse about a w o r k .
have a method w^ich
does
They become absorbed
in its structures
poetry
the
letter,
by the
and
text,
;y being
of sound
and
albeit
unconventional.
participate
real meanings which are
sensitive and a w a r e , they
the latent
beauty
in s p e e c h .
Poetic devices
like meter assonance and rhythm are
understandable
because
The
phrase
they
"Mooes supposes
sensical until
knowledge
while Lina's
is clear,
ature
involved
is borne
and appreciation
rejection
ignorance and
understand why
valuable for
out of a greater und er st an d­
of s p e e d
work
literary
and
Art
and a p p r o p r i a t e .
should not
it should be used,
of active
of her own
two sequences
iilm concerts arc ..ot artefacts
their own s a k e s , but aids
is a result
as
to any punil studying liter­
maker who can use ther where he feels
meaningful
Jon's and Cosmo's
The message of these
and can be of benefit
or film.
in it.
is n o n ­
of her teacher is a result
stubbornness.
real and
they are used.
his toeses are roses"
one becomes
rejection of the teacher
ing,
in it­
Don and Cosmo
improvise and
discover the
in the work.
reveal the
critical
to achieving greater understanding and
promoting valuable
inherent
the
be analysed
p r o c e d u r e , called
In other words
nonut
An insensitive reader
it as a structure which must
according to a specific
important
this scene
to the
poet
they will
or film­
be effective,
True understanding of an artistic
participation and
be objectified
or mystified,
enjoyment
of it.
but absorbed
and
loved .
The
film's
framing device
of n film within a film is effective
as a method
of f ore ground in,’ the s u b j e c t .
of the film
industry
five years
aptly
before dinging
shows
the advantage
actors huddled
around
of the new audition
of hindsight we
strategically
discussion
industry as it was
In the an 1n was released,
the studio's clumsy handling
Having
the
Donen's
are able
placed
twenty
and we note
to film technology.
to chuckle
at the
pot plants concealing
microphones,
afraid
s peaking directly
to move
out
of r a n g e .
to the f olit. ,-e and
*t is easy
new innovation could have net with
the
studio
movement
thanks
personnel
and
fur
action,
successes nnd
ities
and
it undoubtedly
it, and
embraces
it readily,
In the "Broadway Rh yt h m Pallet"
be possible
capabilities.
hopeful young actor,
various
theatre..
the theatre
he goes
scene
he
mode.
arrives
ing the real
cept
ucnen has
finding work
on
pert
mode.
to maximise
its effect.
Despite his
repeated
in the same
structure
prominent
translated
re present­
feature
example
and
of e v e r y ­
of cinematic
suggestive
a literary
of
con­
By implication and c o n v e n t i o n ,
is a case
of "knocking
setting means that
but reinforced
aisposition ana
inherent
belief
though he faces disappointment.
ness or resignation
of this
on d o o r s " .
the action
is
at the same tine
rejection from the theatre ::nna. ements,
a cheerful
s e a r c h , showing his
out
-/on uses mime
is answered
is a fine
successfully
roadway
in his face
is representative and
from the audience
Don maintains
as a
routine when the
I he effect
theatricality,
This
Cre ting a non-realistIc
alienated
the goor slams
is a two-dimensional
the
into the visual
to its full
in h a n d , knocks on
tap canee
e s t a b l i s h m e n t , and the
in which
the whole.
ultcase
of expression and
one is its stage door.
metonymy
the studio what
sound
one u n p e r t u r b e d .
oy its
Bach theatre
pos sibil­
to the m o v i e s .
.<on shows
does a short
on to the next
dance as his means
music
begins with non uressea
Inevitably
is heightened
in the
attempting to fine work on Broadway at
door ana
manager appears.
of sound
thinking about the
if they used
The sequence
of all their
those who refuses
prospect
it could h ve for bring in
effects would
allowing future film
Ion is one o:
by t h > daunting
restricted
that we o e them
to renp the benefits
failures.
to be depressed
to see how this
such resistance from
yet Jonen admits
perseverinr with
ere v. s and audiences
cinema
because
being
in his
in his own abilities
There
in his movements
perseveres
is no trace
even
of bitter­
only un overriding
optinisr
and desire
attitude might
to succeed.
te misco ns tru ed
but in the musical,
In ei. ' other ( en-e
'
s
us e foolish and naive hope,
generic convention
dcmanus
that
tno
’
maintain our respect ho must not hesitate in nis convictions
.
tho instinct
to do well
and
the desire
to grow by constantly
reinventing his r e a l i t y .
t nee again,
Donen debunks
superior art form to film,
tradition and history
more
that the
and deconstructs
arc necessary
valid artistic medium.
an older,
.ho notion
is a
the myth that a
pre-requisites
while he admits
established mode
theatre
for a
that the theatre
of entertainment
is
than film
,
our respect.
one you've
Cathy's curlier remark that 'once you've
seen them ell'
tho theatre as
in the
coulc
it is to film.
tion is very much
like
just as easily be applied to
Theatre
type of plays which are
is often repetetlve
staged and one theatre
the next.
been exposed and no* Broadway
seen
Cathy's
'reality*
is examined for
Each theatre building and each manager
instltu-
has alreau:,
the same
is similar,
the
;^:a:.oe anc attitude.
film
(H ol ly w oo d) and theatre
former
:^tr.
(Broadway) are concerned with
commercial aspects of the entertainment
ability of th,
products to society.
fact
rely on success at
that they
purpose.
business and
the
the market-
Lelther can escape the
the box office for their
.
petuatea ana generated under the guise
Donen
refuses
to spare
theatre
of culture
and
art,
or film from his incisive
critic i s m .
After completing ht= vipito
ing that non.
to theatre manager, and dlacover-
of them con.leer him viable box office material
(a subtle Irony considering Gene -elly'" brilliance oe a
dancer) Don 1. shown
into bad company".
In the familiar scenario of '•fulling
At this
and conventions which are
point Donen draws
upon formulae
part of the gangster genre,
.on
164
finds himself
locale,
shady
in Ihe alien environment o/ the gangster
typified
characters
by a sleazy nightclub whose
of
the underworld .
e presume
decent young American he has had no
this
boater and
strined
tap dancing shoes
among
the pin striped
force
the view that he
are
that as '■
prior experience
tyre of situation and his dress,
trousers,
patrons
of
jacket,
is oddly
suits and two-tone spats,
is uncomfortable here.
lirnt
out of place
which rein­
Ihe nightclub
i v a m p 1 (Cyd C h a r i s s e ) summons him to dance witn ner ana
1ravishes'
she
him in an overtly
is representative
found
of a generic
both in gangster films as
musical,
have
physical
dhe
is indexical
cunning,
Their dance
is explicitly
sexual
.
t. ,
is completely
more
'the m o l l 1 , ana in the
and materialism wr.icn
lifestyle,
and although intensely
erotic with the
woman
bewildered.
scene
experience.
aance
in therole oi
is used as a visual
It is Don's first encounter
type and her cunning
seduction leaves
Wealthy men are signified by their casual
exhibition of money,
they flip coins
attention,
to her greed and
appealing
to attract the woman's
lust for power.
is a typical gangster genre
Don's adventure
icon,
of
'taken',
the ballet
both
ends with two gangsters holding
exhibiting warped
rich and the
physically and financially.
is a strong
index
his boyish naivety,
and yet he manages
of the Broadway way
prey upon innocent citizens.
has been overwhelmed
to escape
He
has
-his section
values and corrupt characters.
powerful
The
used to signal
him upside down to shake money out of his rockets.
been
sexual.
she abandons him to join wea + tr.ier,
In this
with a woman of this
a rambler.
is
-.
powerful men.
tossing coin
'vamp'
Don's attraction for her is only
satisfied
met ap ho r for sexual
him
As the
character type which
of the evil
infiltrated the Broadway
alluring and
way.
of life,
::ere, the
Don,
in
by the unierwnrld
relatively unscathed.
His
natural capacity for interpreting and reflecting upon life
a0 he finds
it, allows him
an illusion created
the
people
by the
it attracts.
victims of a warped
to realise
powerful
that this world
is just
who seek to manipulate
The woman and the gangsters arc all
society
in which money
is all-powerful
and violence
i:< an acceptable
that money and
pov.^r cannot
self-f ulf i Icent
and
envy which
material
which
scene
the
He
true
an:; honesty.
which f o l l o w s , won fantasises about the woman
the
evil lifestyle
of which she is a
in a flowing white
She
is submissive
is a gentle
and sensitive
one.
and
staircase
providing
in soft focus
impart a gentle
times
to reinforce the
transience
a fantasy wi thin a film,
his character,
setting with a
to it.
The scene
impression of fantasy
Although
it ic four
a dance within a fantasy within
^on/Kelly
reveals
s e l f - a w a r e , sensitive and
the
1t r u t h 1 of
unrestricted.
e
to mind his < arlier dance with Cathy and find that
once a.-ain he takes
the
role of sv engali and
fantasy setting in which
partner's character.
medium in which
This
He respects her
the only definition.
removed from reality,
recall
and
her innocence as she did his.
Donen uses a pale blue and white abstract
is shot
robe with
they dance and although he is the dominant
purity and does not violate
white
greed
by each successive
in the destruction of purity
her hair loose and her feet bare.
partner he
ihey evoke
wealth are addictive desires
imagines her dressed
passive when
^ cn understands
satisfact ion and
illusion ol' it.
i ov.er and
and removes her from
part.
brin,
is temporarily quelled
gain.
re s ul t
In the
only
expressi ,n.
~ance
incorporates
a
truth about his
is highlighted
can
traditional
as an exploratory
be realised.
ballet m o v e m e n t s ,
of understanding which contrasts with
shallow eroticism of what went
woman from Broadway
places her back
the
imagination and emotion
d a n c e , which
exhibits a depth
to reveal
creates
b e f o r e .
and its web
in her context,
felly
releases
of false values
the
the
before he
enriched by the intensity
of their d a n c e .
At
the close
of the sequence,
for all hie experiences.
been used and
recognise
rejected
Jon
He has
by it, and
it's false values
The music man is triumphant
is a changed man,
travelled
in his
wiser
through /roadway,
turn learned
to
so that he finally can reject
because
on his
journey he has
it.
166
pained
true experience
Bent.
„hat he rain, merely
far outweighs what
He e xp a n d ,
and knowledge of an a ien envi-or.
the other,
as a character
to change,
processes
while Broadway's
existence,
the web of materialism and
structure of
know a, inhaoitanta of it.
through
interpretation and growth,
rationalise their
by passing through this "orr,,
of perception,
characters
compromise and stagnate
in
self perpetuating greed,
the music man's
'reality'
is always
subject
incorporating all bis new experiences and gain.
knowledge.
of his artistry.
—
Apart from being superbly
execute-
a..-
pzn.
r
apartment,
and finding that it is raining.
But
in.tea
allowing it to dampen his exalted feelings he uses
mirror his inner self.
loses all sense of adult
V
He
is childlike
responsibility,
it
in his abandon,
-aught
of
us in
and
167
it from a functional
object
of protection to
object which cocpleuentw hia.
multiplies
in strength as belly
in gay abandon,
continually
-he effect
proceeds
thrilling himself
doing
rain,
of th.a s c i e n c e
to splash about
and his uuuitnce
the unexpected,
in life:
"I'm sin, in.- in the
aesthetic
uy
and sin, ing out his joy
just singing in tne r a m
I'll walk do.vn the lane v.ith a nappy .e^iain
cos I'm singing and dancing m
the r a m .
It ...a. odd
eyeo"
perhaps,
that he should
hut ret aphorlcally thl
the rain as others are
remark "*he our.'s in ajr
Is true.
Jon 1= == happy
in the sunshine.
o him It is as i.
the aun ■ere
dees.
With engaging simplicity and , ithout
sentimentality
the musical genre oho.vs that love is the means
>• n
the world throws at h i m ana
height
of hia
enjoyment,
censor this strange
I"
1 DVC *
invites
to true
'
the rain to 'come on
n th. tecs,
at
a policeman arrive-
to witness ana
performance and Jen unwitting.y
-urns
'
he merely
turns and sings "I'm singing ana dancing
policeman confused and be lidered,
and
..
in tne r a m
f leaving the
in a final gesture
of
'
Junen makes a strong comparison between society,
bv the
policeman who
conventional
is indexical
of order,
represented
rationality
behaviour and belly who transgresses
and
the bounuurlee
■
an adult apparently
indulging in childish
of public reaction,
reaultin,
judice.
what
in the
from their
they do not understand
rain has been a vital
practices,
is typical
ignorance ana
they don.enn.
exciting
pre­
..elly .
experience,
which
we
the audience
have
Jinflnr
in the
min
discuss
the concepts
the structuralists'
reality
order
been lucky
is D o n e n 1 a attempt
of reality
patterns
is a construc ted
to make
is generally
structured
through society
nature
of Hollywood
the
and conviction.
actress
of
and
urouna
values whic.i
Jatny
is revealed as wh t sne
with only her looks
illusion.
ne follows
shows how
is naturalised
to s o c i e t y .
Jonen shows
film
industry ana
not
r.ully
and
the
in
to re: >mmena
code
trans­
true
its
place
sincerity
to become a successful
simply Lina's
is,
jn
Vhis
Jca. and Cathy reflect,
is ces tinea
to conter t w i t h .
to deconst ru ct and
m y t h s , generated
as truths.
the
in.
think in?: and
code which
in her own right,
illusions
and
it readily acceptable
mitted
he upholds
to share
a vain,
her,
voice.
shallow
and a heap
And -ina
woman
of shattered
CHAPTER 7
Toe
often,
the
;-a. * ■ of
ccutit lit i;
y
ir
.v that
it is
’
while
E h a w ’s undoubtedly
status
cf a c l a s s i c ,
.uj-erb dra:^ . has
crner and
achieved
the
Loe ■e ’3 musical film is
.
the prejudice
and d o e;ma of
dominate,
serious
judgement
upon nil
orien tatei. an:
attitude,
'hi h art'
film the ory an.
criticism,
popular cu]tu:e modes
escapist.
towar.o
ues tk et ic iaci which
film
novels and dramatic
ana
as entertainment
It is also typical
of critical
which have their roofs
works.
Literature
..uoo es
in successful
as the claer narrative
.
art medium.
industry,
C ing
film,
to the constraints
.n :
specially
as a subject for critical
However,
ccm m r it ons
films
are
ation
the autor.rm^ uc
narrative
cated
self
form.
according
different
ii.
situations
L a d y . share
only
The
differ,
if t h e y
1 me
cc.
f rm,
1.
and
to d i f f e r e n t
lay
on
cf
.y-.;
.enomiuator,
the
t r a m Inti; n f r om
development
-nd
practical application
discipline
common
be determined
it ct-eks to analyse.
practice
method for an alysing
one
In the
each p a r t i c u l a r
e nc o de d
the film ned .um,
and
perceived
eruditions
the
their
in
by
film
,lot,
their
.y
ana
-air
even
of a critical
of the
t, it has. been
criticism methods
of u suitable
ana
communi­
: or::, to a n o t h e r .
litar^r,,
.he absence
and
take i nt o c o n s i d e r ­
by the nature
to use conventional
for discuss!'n purpose..
and plays
liom ana
in
m e t h o d o l o g y » should
been neglected
novels
do not
1 t.edium
>e ific
a u 1 j - ct
udience. .
one
s and
characteristics
respective
this
f 11
,.n i n l i v i d u
to
re:.re film has
tnalys i s .
betv/e
defeatin'
of the commercial film
theoretical
in p m ticulur genre
film,
h&s
led
to a grpv.t ae^l
Films
hich share
nrvel
or dramatic
of prejudice
the faame root
ork,
tend
of this cross-pol li na to ry
inu confusion.
uource as a successful
to suffer ...Ost as a result
critical.;,, and most are
Judged
inferior to their lit r-ry c o u n t e r p a r t s .
y : .i r L a d y , ha_
intrinsically
tneir common
ha a
the unfortunate problem of Lein,
connect-d
:lot,
una
to S h a w 1s
falling
t ;; ,.i.n:
bo Lh
i o n , uy virtue of
within the category
of genre
.
teen o v e r l o o k e d , and any d is cu ss io n ha., led t u the
same
conclusion,
o;
cation
which is that as
inferior t
Of lily fair lady
autonomous
„ne
to be
"or-
should
larger generic
structure.
focus
film as
ted to reveal
the
.ork.
one
central
particular case,
be
be discussed
coe
is
im pl i­
tea as an
as part of a
this examination
of a genre and it will
oppositions
as
it is
i-ut for any analysis
Consequently,
A structural!, t analysis,
in this
snal *
eunls ;f a l , i .. must
film text and
upon the
po.rulrr culture
at its
will
bedecons tru c­
core.
both Interesting and
it sho s the adherence
revealing
of hr fair
.
.
The
letter if, dealt with
in , re ctdetail
the
overall
the genre
•
to
makes about class as a
.
. hlblti
toy
points which
and contributes
the
conventional
lose. rirl
it is tht
: y sin.a
female
plot
s m.
partner who
.etc r: inant.,, bey meets
an . get;
brings
:*rl.
irl,
Interestingly,
self-awareness and releases
.
though,
that
dominator ana
In its
ip. ins,
:11 i z a 's
of the
theme of class,
oppositions wh .ch occur
working cl as;; so ore juxtaposed with
s-condly,
the
.tor, always
remains
the
she the dominated.
presentation
3tjuctur.;l
n.
individual
.ids by
there are
i..e .
two
'i rstly the
the u,,pcr clas.es and
is juxtapotx I with the c o m m u n i t y .
As an i n d i v i d u a l , hliza is fre
from social
..ft.
restriction,
her
talent
and self-tiwcreneas
identity and
own being.
encodes
into
oeauty
o;
icons.
ihe
all
emphasis
their form,
* 1c e a... n g c t h • r s like
ironic
-hat ow,r first
sli ould
be th':
are
they
her
cultivated,
they need
while
them alive.
'he
fact
oppose
"Why cai 1 t the En, lish" .
linguistic:;,
society
ladies,
like
than tht?r beautiful
imcge of Clara and L'.rs
who is discovered
of bedraggled
and
violets.
and
all
in the
violet
on
Like
*v-= n food
flourishing.
Eliza's
as a necessary
is expanded
which diametrically
and
the
hliza,
delicate
enough to wxthstan.
of life,
who are hound­
into the m u d , by an overzealouv.
of class
an d in »e e a
her flowers need nothing more
of her character,
theme
their
continual nurturing and cossetting to
after a minor cleaning.
but strong
society
they are well-bred and careiully
to keep them alive
even be trodden
tive
a taxi.
the abrasive
the working classes,
s of
into the upper class woman
corner selling bunches
sunlight
to take
-1 is *nt ere., tin;
Cukor contrasts
A ins i ord - 1.i 1 j. . ith
survive
the
shad
represent the
eaucateu
often nothing more
exteriors.
and
them.
of beauti-
the delicacy and
petulant Clara and her mother,
flowers
a street
by using
in various
is upon
and
Insight
ing r reddy into finding
keep
or the film,
he shov.s a host
l a d i e s , c u l t u r e d , c u l t i v a t e ; and
society
sequence
the visual narrative
g r o ,,n blooms,
pink and a p r i c o t .
of
the difference between tne working
to function as
* u- conser vatory
sense
ordering to confirm her
In the opening montage
and upper classes
subtle
her a definite
she needs no social
cukor subtly
flowers
afford
.-an
, and
indica­
inherently vu ln e r a b l e ,
of life's
difficulties.
but somewhat
distasteful
first of many sequences
th - upper and workin g classes,
henry
upon hetrin,
..i gg ins , professor of language
Eliza't, wuilin
and c a t e r w a u l i n g ,
implores:
">Yhy cnr.'t the English teach their children how to speak
this verbal clasn a 1 ti net! c-n by now should be antique...
why if you spoke us ahr docs sir instead of the way you uo
why you might be selling flowers too...
An Englishman's way of speaking absolutely clas ii'ies him
the minute he talks he makes some other Englishman
despise h i m ...
one c o.Ti. ; n 1 an,, uc, e 1 1
-.fra: : ..'11 it- ver
ot
oh v...y c u n ’ t the ..n 1 . oh le;.:n to o et a ( ot ; exe...j le ...11
(my u n d e r l i n i n g s )
This del ig ht fu l
class
sequence
is de fi ne d
t
- veals
an ^m;ortant
by the use whi ch
c o n c e p t , th- t
a com: unity makes
of
.
into a certain
class
roup
they ar*1 boat 1 to that
speech
i oor
pattern; .
classes
and
v\
the
,,roup as
•■ay that
Ion.
they will
and
u they adhere
to its
;eh int.. the
orking
si e e t-. , i.e uays
ei sure6 that
" .c-y u peak,
n-ver n
.e above their
statin:
"It's 'eh' end 'yarn' t h .t he
not h«-.
retched cloth- . and
Higgins
believes
fundament
her in
•r place,
irty f ce
Lly in the
'verbal
cla_
dlatinc.
his
c h .racteriotic
only be a dream
ideolist
on the
pessimism
Cukor
leads him to mourn
presentj
that this
can
igyins as a frustrated
one h a n d , ;ni
v.ctim uf his
own
prejudice
on
.
.
'silly g i r l 1 , a ' bu
age',
i. ' . ailin,_ c u t 1 and
says her voice
.
she were a laay
io shown
m
the sequence
"wouldn't
it be
.
look at the
sensitive
work .n,
and
optimistic.
she believe*, are
bein'
cart
bitter
fannir.
c la. ,«
, ..lisa'
■>he
do ts all the mannerisms which
oh m e t eristic
or cynical,
cnr.
uj
r.n i reel m e
.eruel: vigcrc ur ly ,
her v c rk i n < cl
wishful-thinking is both
er-cl v.so lady
in her
All her
character and she
ithout
'c a r r i a g e 1 , a dust
.c t i nr. arc alien
, e • t s euc:
pose
to
us
•
Intere: t i n g l y , her beliefs about
concern that
priorities
tr. <y have what
she
th*
lacks.
r.re specifically w o r k i n g
define her a t. be Ion. in?
higher sta tion would
to
that
upp-r cl-.^oes show
a
..'or mot i vat ions ana
class
in orientation and
background.
i ovi..g into u
enable aer to alv.ays be w a r m , comfortable
and w e l l - f e d , thin,., u member
of the
upper class
takes for
granted.
All
Aliza v,nnts she
sin. u;
"... is a reoE somewhere
far away frci.. the cold night .ir
with one enormous chair
Aw wouldn't it be luverly
Lots
of chocolates for me to eat
Lots
of coal a a k i n ', lots of 'eat
..arm face, ware 1anas v arm feet
Aw wouldn't it be luverly..."
Amongst
the workin g classes
luxury
usually
imagines
and
mention
o
chair
reserved for the man
that
recline
an easy
she will have
eat choc
is a spec\al
of the house,
one for herself,
^ate. In E l i z a ' _arean
in which
there
. u t u i v . ire lor comfort
money,
and Elxza
to
is no
andsome on­
to protect her.
Cukor's
presentation of w o rki ng class London
and cinema tically
ing is
about
striking.
particularly
starting
effective,
their day's
colours are crab greys
various
destinations,
which
immediately
film.
He freezes
His sequence
nd
and
of the
shows how the
activities.
crowns.
people
frame for a fe
The
purpose
in the
seconds
of
go
•heir dominant
«s they move
itself
rich
early m o r n ­
towards
Cukor employs an interesting
foregrounds
action to continue.
is visually
this
cevi'c
context
and
tneir
o: tne
;hen allows
tne
s ries of freeze‘
*
Cukor
invites
importance
us to examine
tneir daily
of ear.. : ember of a society
Each one is part of a ncver -e na in g
living,
freeze
whic
frame
equilibrium.
past action and
process
ie has caught
tion of the n.rr
within
future
as
genre,
images are co mp l e t e l y appropriate.
leans towards
and
they are
portrayed
as a large
the
backbone
of
ponsible
balanced.
the
for keeping
backbone
of th'
its industry
ir. cverj
at
the
which uses stylisaconvention,
C u k o r 1.j presentation
the sentimental
happy
structure.
poise.i in
it were,
live content as an acceptable
of thr* working classes
reaiu.ee the
of working class
action are
each action,
the musical
and
to its overall
skor aho. s us is perfectly
decisive moment.
these
lives
family which
however,
count
English nation and
and economy
solvent.
ite,
is res­
The
re neated
reference
especially
into
to uiliza as a 'noble daughter'
cloying.
The film
the conditions
of worki ng
keening with the genre
popular culture
wants
cla.s
in general,
in society.
to believe
omits making any
about
life,
and
but
It reflects what
Cukor
Beaton's ma gn i f i c e n tl y
"Ascot Gavotte"
visuali sat io n
sense
and
Ascot
seeks
taker, the moat
wear a black and white
brilliant
the
theatrical..y
vital
screen.
elements
them for the maximum
outshine
of the
irpaot.
when each member
the others.
e n s e m b l e , and
black
the a r i s t o c r a c y , tne
shown society at their most aloof,
to impress and
in
the society
it is brought to the
event and foi© gr oun de d
,e are
is
designed
In this
is p a r a m o u n t , along with
effectively
this
of the working classes,
sequence.
stylisation with which
Cukor has
picture
of the upper classes and
of event
prote
i t s t 1i .
to this
and white
real
its function as
As a direct contrast
presents Cecil
is
All of the women
each
is a masterpiece
of design and co-ordination.
he hats are decorated with all
manner
to assume
of flowers and
feathers
vast and
even absurd
.
they
strive
create
It is Cukor's
rigidly
controlled
Any dissension
results
want
following new
are accepted
they have
that
fat, lions and
the
followed
tacit approval
of accepted
and
proves
defined by speech
and
are numerous
of
of
that Higgins'
is a fallacy.
recreated
by
the
belief
Class
peonlc who
behavioural norms which
1ashione
or at least
-scot
as an excuse
the upper classes.
ccies
insist on
community,
known
is the
Although they
mese
that community.
but widely
ident-
behavioural
1 l i b e r a t e d 1, and
the whole
and
institution.
ostracision.
for horse-racing,
to the unwritten
etiquette,
social
fadt, of conouct,
by
the group identity
adherence
and
and
the upper class
and or ga nis ed
progressive
as much an occasion
created
belie!
or transgr ess ion
and
share a com:.on taste,
is both definitive
in immediate and complete
tv a pear
forcing
they
a community style which
ifiable.
most
to be different,
is not
for
rein­
It demands
-odes of social
that class
is
institutions are
be Ion.- to tn»m,
only those
there
born into a
•>na unt;■
> .•'•mutt «
. uko
<1: =)pit
e collectiv
vi sue' l y » fcj
ire .- nt in. them
in the
'nacot G&votte
stren, th u;
in
series
c y ..c
a. ; e t a
the
o.
in
upper class
still
turn,
-hots
their
i
i.ips,
♦,
r
.
turin,
mi
uniforme
ir.ea i n
grey
mornmr
■
k
c o l l c t iv»
f orce
t.-.ey
sing:
:,e v e yon< w h o s h o u l d 1 v p b e e n h e r e i.
.bat e s m a s h i n g p o s i t i v e l y d-.shin.
t
c o - ho:., i:
race...
aztd
each
here
admits:
;r
,ir
c
rl e t t
i
nj
t
.**;
i
u ’ . • •
,1
n. re.
depth
o;
It
fashionable
•din
...
*
emotion
t
11c . eu
and
excite-
an-
h
desir-
& "her,
■
•a ct
h
an a p p r o p r i a t e w u v .
h
. .• u ' vi .e •ly
>-r i ..
.-.^izu, a d o r n e d
via-
'
jn
■re
h
e ■'c i ■■e /. " n t
e n d it.
,o m u c
-i n,
t o ,e
i t
of
n:i
cane
the
occasion,
chatters
to
a
t ad
about
she
h
an d i n
r
when
forgets
aunt
•ho
who
m e
drank
she swa l l o w e d
a
>
lea
i0
thet
do 'ie
'
mu
in t 1:: •
nv ent ion
iz',
.y
, " on,
wet rin.
h r iv” .
-n ol
iled h . - 1 th< u, :: shf
-i
i n e « x n0
tro. n s u i t ,
ins
the
•vliev
f ivctie.ne
.
inds her
peculiar manners attractive
nd believes
they must
.
'
I;
taken aw a sign
,
of ba
breeding.
belong to a certa in society may
• n 1y tnose -he
transgress
-m
tru.y
its rule-.
Ihe
.,
"Ascot
Gnvotte"
ueuc e d is pi a y « b l. .x ik. um use
v
■>
for* r r o u n u inc technique,
max im urn i m p a c t .
elements
Its
result
in order to a : crd
>
-hu
thv
.. vwm&u*
the
visual
extreme
utjlisalion
cl
in a c o m p l e x
iconography
into
which
tne
•
dre.-.s and a p p e a r a n c e
of
force
community
their
a who re
merely
own
of
cultural
identity.
• ;nber
and
Jla ss
o t h e
com .unity
retriction
and
as Hig
js not
of e x i s t e n c e which
of his
relationship
priorities
ana
views
c h a r a c t e r ! : t i c , speec..,
jefines
to the
oi
o ri c
ana
person
-rich cl a..., ha.,
ana
er. u, h
ue-ieves
of m i n d
.individual
g ro u p .
tue
is n o t
the
rein­
man-rent
ins
'verbal d i s t i n c t i o n 1 it is an a t t i t u d e
a
a state
terms
sense
e ac h
to
in
its
adopting
bridge
tne
gap
■
Higgins'
nento
his
laboratory,
is b o t h
otatus
outside
the
te ll
Street
um
is
o
upper
constraints
surroundings
..i m p o l e
reflective
among
the
..here hr. c o n d u c t s
of
linguistic
:.is p e r s o n a l i t y
clasueu.
class
anu
but h i s
definition
c-
in at he is
*'he i c o n o g r a p h y
a visual
expr.ri-
in e l e c t i v e
lie b e l i e v e -
behaviour,
otherwise.
clearly
his
personal
ten
of
c:
t:.e man
.
his m e . c u l i n i t y ,
of his
aged,
o n
character
bachelor
h i i z a ’s
arrival
br ow n
leather,
an,
bionze
brands
him
as an
a va st
l-brary
middle-
upper-class,
int el - e c t u a - •
orking-clas s upbrin m ,
at
busts,
Higgins'
ho u se ,
is
. h e re
uniquely
she h o p e s
dis) Icyev. in h - r
to
purchase
elocu-
•
convinced
her
hile her a p p e
donned w h a t
v.ith which
t correct
th
ranee
she
she
{rove
believes
is
ill
at
s p e e c h v.ill i m p r o v e
ot he r- i se .
dhe
to be the c o r r e c t
ea: e and
her
h s
ur.: or t u..c i u ly
attire,
a lar. e h at
st-.tion,
a handbag
decorated
with
•
.
and outlook,
she
.
must
begin
to trunk
Uke
a lad,,
not
just
197
c a l l o u s , he educates
with
those
son's
speech
but
consists
class
of one's
lazy,
The
the force of economic
prejudice
own elm
come
, who
about and
see
allies him
classes are
conditions.
not analytically,
respons­
Higgins'
c-ass
lazy and
re:eats
t.ile Higgi ns a 2 ^ o.
now
not
in principle vvitn his
rather like -ina,
he
speech
in it by choice,
or social
willing to hear her mistakes.
is re f l e c ­
imprecise
the ..or, in,- classes as
Eliza begins her lessons
good
correct grair.car,
shows a lack of unders ta ndi ng about
distinctions
that
somehow
.orklng
ible for their own situa tio n and are
through
and
speech
character, 1^M'I',‘fcre
nature.
in
th t s? eecn is responsible
dis tinctions,
a slovenly
scenes
ia interestir.f .
ins believes
precise arti cu lat io n
this he also maintain:,
for Dritains
indicates
cf
Hig
these
the sain,
Lina take eloc uti on lessons,
and L i n a 1a teachers,
beyond
tive
Con., irinf
in the curlier film -.insinr in
which Jon and
Like
thro urn f e a r .
her
uncouth.
unaware and un­
sounds m cnu
ical.j
to spend hv^ro
1
True
learning
can only cone
nition and geni^uc
faults,
and
about as a result
perseverance.
gins
is too
Hiiza does
insensitive
of tault r ec og ­
not hear her
to help and guide her,
*
grows more
impatient,
while
her lack of progress.
bin
she sin. r "Ju: t you wait
she will have
effect his
swim,
when
by royal
'enry
Hhe will
'ig
ins"
urn. imagines the
The different attitudes
in
revenge
powerful enough
to
leave him drowning while they
. at her revenge
t r u a - sy and
more frustrated with
ncr anger and humiliation
to die wh e n he f 1 1 ,a ill
decree.
discovers her
l y , if
ore becomes a Indy and
dec.Ira.
leave him
-liza becomes
s< nd:
i:
or have hie. benended
short-lived
as hig.-ins
her Luck to tne voa. e n. ci....t .
of work in
cl'
o and upper c.'aes men
.
Shall Never L't a „ omnn
Luck".
Although
Higgins
and Doolittle
sex,
but
react
in ry Lite"
they are
and "with a Little
from different
share
social
similar feelings
in different way#
in their rel
Hit cl
backgrounds
about
the opposite
tionships with
them.
Higfir.t
feel,
do their utmost
co ns tructed
costs,
they
to disrupt
lifestyle .
is dev ast a t ing
nature.
that
to his
destroy
creaturea who
u mar.1 s carefully
,v oil on 1 .. influence,
a
equilibrium and
ihey s ould
because,
and
are scheming
be kept
e explains,
affects his
out of o n e 1
better
life at al^
he sin,.:
"Let a woman in your life and patience hasn't got a chance
She will ask you for advice, your reply will be concise
then she'll listen very nicely and , a out and do precisely
what she likes...
Let a woman in your life and your serenity is through
in a line that never ends come an army of her friends
come to nat te r and to chatter an.i to tell her what
the mat ter is with you'."
and withou t a woman Higgins
likes to fee.
"... an ordinary man
who
prefers to spend the evening
who
likes an atmosphere as quiet
an average man am I
of no eccentric whim
who
likes to live his life, free
doing w h a t e v e r he thinks is best
just an ordinary man."
Contrary
cal and
and
to his
i d e a s , Higgins
insensitive.
preconceptions.
and cannot
He
understand
as trying as he
Doolittle
His
that
father.
expects
sensitive
to cook and
and
In
upon
prejud.ee
prepared to compromise at all
a woman might
find him j us t
than Hig
ins
treatment
in his relationships
o J r.liza's mother,
keep r.ou-se lor him while he goes
shirks all
ith a Little
working-class
based
ego ti st i­
finds a woman.
is no more
philandering
of strife
of him
is e c c e n t r i c , selfish,
possibly
with w o m e n , as he show:, by his
whom he
he is:
in the quietness of nis room
as an undiscovered tomb
view^ aie all
is not
that
responsibility
Lit of Luck"
he
as a husband
and
expresses a common
attitude when he sings:
"Ch it's a crime for man to go philandering
to fill his wife's poor heart with fear and doubt
Ch it's a crime for man to go philandering
Put with a little bit of l u c k , with a little bit of luck
you can see ‘he bloodhound don't iind out.
Doolittle,
Higgins
like Higgins
can afford
in philosophy,
to
is selfish and
'play'
insensitive,
his linguistic
and while
games and dabble
Doolittle
disregards
responsibilities
altogether.
As an ar chetypal working
class man,
he loathes work and
loves
d r i n k i n g , but he
weakne sse s
and
is essentially
admit ling his
honest,
• htfty
c o n e s s in,
to
s
nature:
"The Lord above gave man an arc o! iron so he could
do his work and never shirk...
but with a little bit of luck...
someone e l s e 111 do the blinkin' work.
The Lord above made liquor fo: temptation, to see ii
man could turn av.ay from sin...
but with a little bit of luck...
when temptation comes you'll . ive right in."
Doolittle
feels
or remorse
code
no obligation
for his behaviour.
like hxm,
them.
in an attempt
he sells Liza
are
purely
to
H i g gi n s
sane moral
: is motives,
codes
party
and Doolittle
the
strata,
abound
and
oound
in their individual
and
sold at
random,
but
They share
of sympathy
vhat his dau^z.-cr io a
tria-.
m e n , alt hough
accepts
prostitutes her
strikes a chord
.act
prepared to conform to
intrinsically
He
transaction.
of the "u nu eserving
Cukor oh O', s he-, t o
^ o - e o.
extra drinking money
pounds.
to the
shrew and her mother a constant
himsel f as one
an
selfish and he knows an.
to be bought
in H ig ins wh e n he bemoans
lot ana not
is acceptable within his
to Higg.ns for five
is a willing
and f eels no shame
procure a little
if she were an object
the
It
of w r rking class morality,
others
as
to change,
to him.
poor"
.ie refers
^o
wno is happy with his
'middle
class'
mora^i.
.
they are iron d i : : erent
to the
prevalent
attitudes
situations,
can share
^deae and
..nich
.
then together and reinforces
In the seq jence cf " h e
Eliza climbs
herself
from
a
t-^ir
in .r:
lh- ranks
-pain
her far greaier awareness
are
to understand.
necessity
with in thr generic
been
has
learned
sensitive.
i
ain.y
in tne
she
etructu.e,
doe
ia inherent
dickering
destroys
net need
rids
one class
As a truly talented
from her experiences
Unlike Higgins
leave
effectively
she
Heality
not
-'lain ,
to speak has
than Lig< ins and
dor.
to a group.
to define her reality.
hlizi
"or she
to join another,
to belong
tays
Her learning
afforded
institution
ine identities.
cf the v.rrking classes and
of all class connections.
able
scu
the
person
institutions
in her own
person,
because she has always
who remains a prisoner 01
A
his
own self-created
will
not
to criteria
individual
indicates
of
of speech
[ecple,
as
•ii;. -nu
doe.; ..hetr.er
or a ' cial b a c k g r o u n d .
Higgins
an J c <
her kindne.s
new-found
fallen
sees
communities.
pas.: i o n ,
sel f- owa ren ee o
in love with
stren. th o:
this love.
ing "1 Could've
Danced
and
Her
go
to led.
flower, irl
.r.ich
..liza
H e r talent
sense
a lack
to a
The characters
musical
of Ky
openly
nil
heroine who
it be
generous
best
where .
conform
in music,
her
formulae,
and experience
to a certa.n
through
conventions
of
and
livin
of
e have
and
the
truly
therefore
by
of deep e m o t i o n s .
revealing her dreams
passions
("Just You -ait
Danced All ..ight
it is this
rather than the ability
individual
freedom.
class and cannot
learning
and
any­
the
of self ana
The greatest
with,
-he has no
'belong'
the working classes
this knowledge
the r e s t r i c ­
prize which
from and
loving
is her womanhood .
H i g g i n s ' character also undergoes u subtle,
ation as he gradually
allows
as a prejudiced,
Eliza
slow
tra nsform­
to enter his life.
dominating man whose
insensitivity are distinctly
,•
of her fe elings finally leads
society mark her as a true l a d y .
begins
by sing­
to be quiet
enables her to transcend
upper classes within her,
Hig -in;
the
out of accepted
("I Could've
depth
and
Eliza has elements
she has gained
to the
and capable
..overly"),
properly which
real affiliation
refusin
is talented musically,
to her becoming a woman,
of clac.
> nd
In Eliza uoolittle
This a. arene ,s of the true
tions
that she
..he is radiant with
flaunts convent ion
Hight",
' igg ins ") and her love
to speak
and
familiar types grown
expresses herself
'enry
une
Fair Lady
formulae.
Wouldn't
ins,
and concurrent with generic
implication sincere,
("A
HI
to realise
onan.
the g e n r e , and are
recurrent
brings her
tra ns fo rm at io n ha;, been t ..of o l u , from a
to a lady
from a girl
She
people
Jne
in Higgins.
Eliza's
has
.liza haa no jrejuuicc*
j udfe and classify
acco rdi ng
sees
prejudice,
non-musical.
He
arrogance and
here nliza
is
impulsive
life
or/an, sed.
confirms
She
all his
ed lifestyle
existence
prior b i Li el's about wo me n
chatter",
equilibrium,
and
until
But contrary
slowly
he
becomes
finds
intelligent.
Accustomed
to her
has become
upon Eliza:
in general.
an integral
that he cannot
she gras;
but it
upsets his carefully arang-
to his expectations
nor does
and
is reasonable and his
e finds ncr be;.aviour stranye,
destroys his
honest
l :. i f; <z in s
a no irrational,
scheme,
In the sol
of his
do without her.
Eliza coes not
and
Face" Higgins
part
she
is always
loquy/song
admits hew
"natter and
"I've Grown
dependent he
"... she almost makes the
ay begin
I've grown accustomed to the tune
she whistles night and noon
Her smiles her frowns her ups her downs
are second nature to me now
Like breathing out and breathing in
I was supremely independent and content before we net
surely I can always be that way again, and yet,
I've grown accustomed to her smile
her something in the air
accustomed to her face."
Eliza's
face
is used
person,
which has
becomes angry at
curses her
as a metonymic
made
such an impact
the thought
ingratitude,
caused her defection.
which will
ultimately
"confirmed
old
replacement
that
failln,
His
bachelor",
in Higgins'
love has
from
of their love,
has
replaced
and Higgins arc equals.
est
recurrent
of mind
create
their own
real and
He
themes,
barrier;
is clearly
and
to being a
class
for each
distinctions
th t clans
or verbal
which
they
be a flower
one
is more
other.
and Eliza
of the
an attitude
distinction.
continually
strong­
people
reaffirm as
right.
character of Freddy
of the film,
emotions
development as a result
Cukor recmnhaoizes
than a socio-economic
natural,
The
generic
reverting
to a otron,- respect
freedom has
alien
just as nliza could never
.heir mutual growth and
Individual
He
that he could have
awakened
seller again.
led
life.
she could leave him and
to see
prevent him
for her whole
is an unfortunate
an acceptable,
identifiable
as
one
in the context
fam iliar one within
the heroine's desperate
V
the genre.
suitor.
%02
Cur
first
see
him hounded
sister.
impression
of r'reddy
by his
is of his w e a k n e s s , and v/e
domineering mother and his
r'reddy is ineffectual
class male,
he does
with society
n t
people .
s u i t o r s , enjoys
and he
proven, his
until
s
of the upper
and he spends all of h .s time
being
of the genre's
conven­
in love ana suffering
ardour by waiting
rendition
Freddy's performance
character
and meaning]ess.
of insincere and
is remarkable
renders
He declares
in its
the
shallow
po..er,
sentiments
to all
sense
day
You L i v e 11
emotions.
but his
expressed hollow
.ithin earshots
"I have often v.alked down this street before
but the pavement always stayed beneath my feet
All at once an I, several storeys high
knowing I'm on the street where you live."
and denies all
rejection,
outside Kliza's door
n a p p e a r s ."On the Street "here
is a magnificent
ineffective
reflective
'■!e , like all
tional
and night
v. ork
and
petulant
of res ponsibility
before
by ex c l a i m i n g :
"Let the time roll by I won't care if I
can be here on the street where you live."
Freddy
uses
the form of music without
of sincerity
character.
and
Freddy's
tion and moves
days
conviction
the
song transcends
of Eliza and when he
patience his
inp a r d o u r .
which mark
truly
emotions grow
He burst
implications
talented
all rules
into extreme sentimentality.
for a glimpse
for his
next
its greater
He has waited
is finally
to the
of dis cre ­
rewarded
point of all-consum-
into song with:
"Speak and the world is full of singing
the heavens ringing higher than the clouds.
Touch and my heart begins to tremble
the heavens tumble darling..."
and Eliza,
who
is outraged
although Eliza's
Higgins
suitors
uses words coldly
his with an excess
real meaning,
at his
indulgence
So
appear to t e at opposite extremes;
and mechanically
of emotion which
they arr
silences him.
both
leaves
incapable
and Freddy
charges
them aevoid
of all
of curing for her
genuinely.
Higgins'
Colonel
friend
colleague and
Fickering,
to Eliza,
partner in the
is a gentle,
and
a surrogate
transformation
sensitive
father
person who
of t-liza,
is both a
in the absenae
of
Doolittle.
should
be,
station,
Eliza,
.0
he
considerate
fenen:us
represents what
of
11
a true fentlenan
people no matter what
and kindheurted.
their
In her w o r d s :
"He treats a flower girl as if she were a lady... I
shall always be a lady to Colonel i ■ckering because
he always treats me a
one."
dickering,
real
although
distinctions
prejudice and
belonging
between
social
people
both friends
living with Higgins.
plate
so Higgins'
be
defection he assumes
If he had
"hailed
sex
that women are
that he could
absurd.
ana allies
the opposite
believes
in his life.
eviuence
of
to aliza while she
problems
irrational
that
she
is
or inconsistent
in his re la t i o n ­
are clearly of his
inadequate
of the
his moth er and -irs
N e ith er are dil:ic ult
in their characters,
He
free
about women are
and h e a r s a y , from the
other two important women
ships with
is essentially
tha t Higgins' opinions
prejudice
Fierce are
and
sees no
restriction.
" e can only surmise
based upon
to the upper clashes,
own making.
and refuses to contem­
in some way.
is ungrateful,
Cf Eliza's
selfish,
and
ceen:
as a Frince.
by one
an:, by a
l
l
,
he asks:
" " ould I start weeping like a bathtub overflowing?
And carry on as if r.y home were in a tree?
would I run off and never tell me where I'm going?"
The
scenes
she
can behave as
■hen he
before and after
takes
her
accepts her as his
life.
he
ut in the
forgets Eliza
which he has
less
a working class
settle
. iggins
an.
her to the ball he
to lead
- ual both
excitement
o:
re. ardt
place
that he nn.
in society.
environment
unn has
among the upper classes .
restriction
succeeding
obnoxious,
symbolically
of some sort.
partner in
her only as an object
for the acnieve-
made her homeless,
Job­
bne no Ion, er belongs
no financial means
nliza
is free
o:
but logically no one can exint without
to an institution
proves
in his experiment,
He .'Ivcs her no creait
to realise
a
at his most
in station and us a
us a person and
and without
ball at which Eliza
a lady show
created.
ment and faxlo
the
to
social
belonging
in
Doolittle' £> raj id
is
both
the
difficult
effects
rise
.nu
in station
uncomfurtaole
of a sudaen and
Jiiice Do olittle has
honest morality,
to J in the niddle
become
he hu^
forces
for
Jukor
reveals
ch i, e in circumstances.
respected
bvi n
hin.
classes
creed
ana renowned
to
.dapt to
for his
' m i d .1e
'
Eliza's mother.
a final,
In "(Jet id.
mournful
fa rewell
to the Ch u r c h
to his
on lime" he
bachelor days anu
himsel f for a life of m a tr im oni al
isolation.
marriag e
it similar to death,
and
a sexual
companion and ho: ..ekeeper he
bids
pre.area
For Joolittle,
hile he needs a woman as
relieves in male
free-
.
to become
domineer,nr
an., df
r. ;in .
lie
ante the
pleasures
sequence
in ..hich
.
"vet me
Cukor
to the
on
presents a vivid
drinking and
portions,
physical
. ice"
i.
picture
personify
in their
of . orkin.
contact.
zest
typically
p e t u l a n t , inhicited
situation,
a e pi e t c a s
nd
counterparts.
behaviour and are
Doolittle't
forced change
the class
of one's
to
to ; ssume
its dress,
ana are
.<crkin*,
have
as their
their codes
of
which Cukor shows comically
Iy
air La .y reinforces
that one cannot move
out­
.ithcut at. op tin.- different
one nlrea.y
holds.
It is not
itn. the r social
enough
institution,
patterns or its particular m a n n e r i s m s .
Cne must
learn and accept
a fully-i
e 1 is ed musical
belong to a class
Upper
delicate,
ana restricted
message.
the tra r pit. •!. o
its speech
coarseness .
in circumstances ha* caused him
, r o .p dis ti nc ti on
the ones
nlike aliza they
of outsiders.
boundaries and t-hows us
attitudes
just
a ceriou.-
appetite for sex and
thin and
too,
considerable misery and ur -wish,
but n pt without
pro­
hap. y ana contented v.ith their
They
suspicious
lid® eating,
clac: -conscious .
but as c l ass -c ons ci ous
upper class
.
nesty ana
are ch a ra ct er is ti ca ll y
people are
class
Its women are of emple
for livin
the worki ng cl os^
class women
side
another
well-endo.. e d , v.ith t. healthy
uninhibited
class
hurch
the > overn, .
slizu,
as
c h a r a c t e r outgro. c the necessity
to
of people
id.olo y.
and her identity
is not defined
by
a social
allegiance.
ohe
is neither v.ork in.
upper c l a s s , but an assured,
elegant
cman v/ho responds
to her own n e e d s , understands her necessity
freely accepts her
submerging
them
ir.divicual
who
talented
of his
and
to remain
fellows.
express
case
so,
group.
like Doolittle
reason for
using
it leads her beyond
it reinforces
the
its
shares
Doolittle
circumstance
social
his sense
define
existence.
the group and
pensable
in his
life.
she only goes
be sensitive
and
and hio
transcend
prejudice,
visual
style.
while et
play
upper class
servei
that
elements
to reinforce
society
design concept
reveals how
love her
that he
of the
bac k­
shared
Hie
incor­
the oppo si­
similarly,
further highlights
a specific
is arab and muted
brash.
In contrast
in style,
black and white
of film to
Indies.
both exhibit
clans at work
flamboyant
The
indis­
upper class
of the n a r r a t i v e .
it is colourful and
its colour c h o i c e s .
experience
proving
the visual
icons
The working
is always
is confident
to a
barriers.
class women and
and
and
to respect and
him from his
distinctive
their differences,
learned
released
structure
orkim
Beaton'y
by
the middle
is necessary
Higgins'
social
the thematic
tion between
she
earing.
individual
poration of flowers as
Cecil
because he believes
back to him ..hen she
In M.y Fair L a d y , Cukor usea
expose
protection and
a free man who is forcea
that
He has
musical char acter hns
attitudes
provide
the film ends happily when Eliza returns
iggins who accepts
ground
the
to the
class morality.
changed
will
restriction and
to c nfirm to something he loathes,
1redictably,
both
of belonging
He wants
is ultimately
classes and middle
and
tne prevailing
true self-awareness.
restriction of working class mo rality
in it.
class man
song and d a n c e , and
to ac hieving
in Doolittle's
People
and
.y
hliza and her father are
themselves
both use song as a means
In Eliza's
group persona.
is an essentially working
is comfortable
attitudes
to love and
responsibilities without
into a collective
c o n t r a s t , Dooli ttl e
cla:, s , nor
the
but conventional
"Ascot Gavotte"
in
ma gni fi cen tl y
dla playu hov
the upper classes
create
in their quent
a definite
colour has a strong impact
cant.
The
upper clauses
s h a d e s , Lrs Higgins
decorated
in pale
an elegant
Uie
girl,
sings
to generic
Visually,
it is usually
show a preference
resides
for
signif i­
paste 1
in a towrhouse which
pink shades,
and
is
appropriately mirrors
personality.
fulfils many of t..e genre's narrati ve formulae
simplest
boy
atyle.
lilestyle and her refined
I.;,v Fair lady
even
because
to be different,
plot determinant,
boy meets
son.- nr s gets girl.
t y p e s , the hero,
,'lrl,
boy loses
Its characters
the heroine,
are
the hero's
best
friend,
th»- ar er.t suitor an.
And
sub-plots are recognisable within the structure
its
musical
g e n r e , the heroine
woman and rises
Higgins'
in station
individual
procedures
to which
their members
they are
on opposite
purpose,
individual.
constraints
and what
tacitly
ends
of the
fundamental
Cukor
either class
it i,
are
social
by the
expressed
inevitable
resolved as they
illustrates
restriction.
subject
..crking
to the same
their own group identities
pledge
characters
allegiance.
arc
is ultimately
statements
to a
characters.
of the social
bound
of the
to a l a d y .
is only
true
really
and create
True musical
are
Kelly,
which
..h; ch is to rationalise
people
wheth er
other's
freedom and
and upper classes
structuring
common
from a girl
import?.nt opposition which :'y ■■air Lady
is between
cla.ses
of each
surrogate m o t h e r .
from a flower girl
suspicion and mistrust
become more aware
most
transformed
and Eliza's relat ion shi p is clouded
conflict,
The
is
the heroine's
t -ue
or they
which
So although
spectrum they share a
the existence
of each
free from social
telling us,
are not.
This
is that
is one
the musical film ma k es ,
by /red A. t a i r c , Uingrr Rogers,
Donold C 1Connor or Eliza D o o l i t t l e .
Cene
207
CCNCL:- >.!! i
he
,truct ureliut mcdel
muslca:
sis.
genre
the
of binary
is valuable
eu a tool
t provides n grid of
narrative
mapped.
content
what makes
of
it
genre
he
and focuses
purpose
category
taught,
comv
anc
film,
are
the
its st ructural
. irstly,
vhich
alout
^o this
relationships.
various
differences
p .nta have
m:
nve/ t ir
ing b
society's
,nsi
t. into he
structure
has come
that
attitude about
by feedin,
culture
genre
inventing
films
producers
which
one
that
to have a greater
sees
'natural'
In the musical
of life,
itself,
i.e.
they
oi
'true
the ..orld they
pander
viev, oi
to
and
and no-one
see
vhe
.rils desire
lile.
lopular
rcnlit, , but never
enre,
carry
and confirm a
of reality,
and directors
sense
Analys­
as being natural ana
is reflective
portrays a d i s to rt ed
which
import .nt.
they serve,
to bcllev,
them a so-called
are shown us a fact
leads
the world
Audience., want
to hide anything.
in society,
ideological carriers
the . ociety
in , enre
role
to be regarded
are
specific
industry's
third-./,
formulaic ana ad-
particular community
about
film
And
vhich is continually
pi ular culture
messages
presented
to promote
the forces and constraints
is highly
ulfilo a certain
o pul nr culture modes
to l i f e 1 .
literary
itself.
opular c: Iture
.nly recently,
ept that
between
appeal artforn.
especially the musical
,nr ps to an overall
and
a popular culture me d i u m needs
understand
operate u ion e masc
■ilm and
of this
it i.i i.eces,ary to a.
i , must
b<- n
been to ehov. how a certain
to
Secondly,
to
It has
special attention and any analysis which aims
iscour,
can Le
the jenre m u si cal ,ca n be stuuied
in attempting
le. .
-hid.
is its specificity
particular content
urtain fundamental
f 11.:.
analy­
a,. vinst
the film musical.
of this work has
to li ht.
there
and
05
upon
for critical
possibilities
orkuble,
in mind
in the
in individual film text
a certain clas.> of texts,
devised bearing
oppositions
sccr.^
class uistinctions
pretends
uhut tney
2C8
not
exist.
and
even desirable
with
C n the
security
c o n t r a r y , t h e y are accepted
because
and a sense
Put
popular culture
the
society which
it entrenches
dow
provide the
of co:ncunity
is really
onl„
it r e f l e c t s .
the dominant
into the nature
we must
tey
ideology,
ana
culture
but as
films
In recent years numerous
.-i Kitzes,
e attempted
the concept
of genre criticism,
i were
are often complex,
taneously
on many
When v.e view
to which
but must
impact.
1beyond
model
of binary
first
serious attempt
both complex
ist model
of binary
which
will
discourse
Cur
to do tni.
and
achievea the
simul­
'2
and m e t a p h o r i c .
from the society
is
to understand
An analysis
and
one of nostalgic
a form which
of genre
structuralist
the
revealed a film
dense.
category
-he s t r u c t u r a l ­
in the music il genre,
to provide a critical
of films.
can use
about a hi therto misundt rutood,
film
popular culture,
hitzes'
thematically
to students, who
they
still have a strong
interest
an important group
valuable
basis tor
in the - estern genre was
oppositions
attempt
to analyse
prove
but
formula' •
oppositions
which was
wise a serious
indexical
consider their function as
also go
like ^tanley
to a need in sr • 'ty,
relevant
itself so o b v i o u s l y .
ategories must
be consiaer-
it has now
are dislocated
leading to a concern
foregrounds
and can
ecause although genre
l e v e l s , literal,
them t o d a y , they
this,
t h e m s e l v e s , not
stylised works which c o n m u n .
they were most
curiosity,
beyond
Ihocas Schatz ana Colin
and
in response
visual and narrative
a win­
to create an intellectual
it deserve-.
provided
because
provide,
film critics
-tephen lieale,
KcArthu-
f;
to
be-on^ing to a definite
ed a r t .
ac ceptance
relevant
of a certain community.
of film which car. be serious
serious
identity.
socially
category
Solomon,
individual
It is necessary
con sider the individual
just as popular
as natural
is lik e­
framework within
I hope
it to
neglected
that
promote
renre.
it
2C9
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• riodioalft
’
/enrr-s A . l a c u s e i o n of T o d o r o v on the
. a n t a., t ic in
literary Higtorv
VIII
No 1 Autun.n 19 76
B u e c o m b e , Bd
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Douglaa
ihe i d e a o 1 .en re in > h e A m e r i c a n C i n e m a
in -jc r e c n
Vol 11 lio 2
C e n r e a rd L o v i e a
in i-ovie
R y a l l , Tom
No 20
1 975
i e a c h i n b I .-.rough G e n r e
in s c r e e n ^ c u c a t i o n
No 17
Ihe N o t i o n of G e n r e
in ^ c r e e n
Vol 11 N o 2
3 ch c1ea , Robert
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in N o v e l 2 1 9 6 9
iodorov, Tzvetan
7he O r i g i n of G e n r e s
ln :-ev< L i t e r a r y
Visaer,
The G en e r i c
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•<o o l f , V i r g i n i a
I d e n t i t y of the N o v e l
..'inter 19 7 8
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in 1 ev. Ne; ub 1 ic
Unpublished
Grov&,
j
.
V I I I N o 1 A u t u m n 1 97 6
History
XLVII
A u g u s t 1 92 6
Thesis
l h ± - -N-PMcn 1
and
z m e t ire
at GecotiJar.v -.c ho n
University
oj
■11
Jtu.l y
■p v e l
of the uitv.atei srund 1 9 8 1
2ie
index
cf
FILLS
i- e G a1*•
Broadway Uelody
or 1929
1929
Paramount
193c
1932
on Parade
I art-
.turner Droi
io dio
„arner Bros
Footlight Parade
Warner aros
of 1933
R .K • C .
The Gay D i v o r c e e
The Kerry
-ido.v
Fashions
cT 1934
Top Hat
Broadway Melody
Golddiggers
1937
Faranovnt
V,arner B r o s
R.K.t.
1. .G •i•a
of
1'• ?t
of 1939
1948
1949
195C
R .r.•C •
k . •K
"he
the Hleet
Ireat '•al t z
R.K»L •
rteK eC e
c i r l C y
Of v rucn snd Irene Oe.tle
i»l•G • •
East er Parade
k •G •k •
Cn The To-vn
i».eG •k e
The
student
;rinoe
k*G»k«
Annie Get Your Gun
k •G eke
An American in Paris
k eJ e e
uhow boat
1„•G e e
Singing
The
in the Lain
Band wagon
j-o
*’•
.g .k.
...•G eke
Brigauoon
A star
k.G.k*
....
K •G • •
It'S Always 1'elr ..eathcr
1955
1956
„ arner Bros
The Jolson Story
1952
1954
•
Paramount
1951
1953
R .h •(- •
Follow
1939
1946
Bros
Warner
Swing Tine
Llay tine
1938
•
Street
Golddiggers
1936
Ca
R aK
Plying Down
42nd
1935
ount
Love Ke Tonight
1933
1934
pf.ranount
k a g n a / B .1•
Enterprises
Carousel
It",G •I.•
High Society
The King and
%
Twentieth
Century Fox
-— m
219
J. •
1957
1959
196 2
1964
1965
1967
1969
1972
1983
SjIk Stockings
South
ft1 •
•
Twentieth
C e n t u r y S'ox
lac if 1c
Gigi
The u-an <ho Shot Liberty
.< a r n e r Bros
C.d.S./earner
Ky lair
Twentieth
Cen tu ry lox/
Argyle
W a r n e r Jros
lady
The Sound
of .«uaic
C aaelot
Kid
3 U t =h C a j s i a y
a- d
*h = 3 u n d a n c «
Twentieth
C e n t u r y I'ox
AdC rict ires/
allied Artists
Cabaret
United A r t i s t s
Flashdance
listed indicate
the y e a r
of r e l e a s e .
W ' f'
Author Hiltermann T V
Name of thesis A structuralist analysis of the musical film genre and its relation to the teaching of film concepts 1983
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