Roadmap
ICT for the Fully Electric Vehicle
Annex to the
European Roadmap
Electrification of Road Transport
(Draft for final review by ETPs)
This is a deliverable of the Coordination Action ICT4FEV funded by the European Union in the framework of
the European Green Cars Initiative under the FP7 Grant Agreement Number 260116.
LEGAL NOTICE
By the European Commission, Communications Networks, Content & Technology Directorate-General.
Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on its behalf is responsible for the use which might be made
of the information contained in the present publication.
The European Commission is not responsible for the external web sites referred to in the present publication.
The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official European
Commission’s view on the subject.
Table of Contents
1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 3
2
The fast changing landscape of the last three years ................................................................................. 4
2.1
Advancements ................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2
Challenges........................................................................................................................................ 10
3
ICT paving the Way for FEVs to become the mainstream ....................................................................... 16
4
Vehicles Classification per Mass .............................................................................................................. 21
4.1
Light Electrical Vehicles up to 350 kilograms .................................................................................. 22
4.2
Micro e-vehicles in the range of 350-650 kg ................................................................................... 24
4.3
City e-Cars 650-1000kg and Small e-Cars 1000-1300 kg ................................................................. 25
4.4
Mid-Size e-Cars 1300-1500kg and Large size e-Cars 1500-2000kg ................................................ 26
5
Technology Transfer between Aeronautics and Automotive Sectors ..................................................... 28
6
Recommendations................................................................................................................................... 32
7
Annex ....................................................................................................................................................... 35
7.1
Technology roadmaps ..................................................................................................................... 35
7.2
Tables of benefits of the electric vehicle ......................................................................................... 42
1
Introduction
A European Roadmap „Electrification of Road Transport“ was compiled in late 2009 and updated
in 2012 by the European Technology Platforms EPoSS, ERTRAC and SmartGrids that combine their
efforts within the PPP European Green Cars Initiative. This roadmap is dedicated to fully electrified
or Plug-in-Hybrid passenger cars. Milestones covering a time period until 2025 were defined that
indicate multi-annual implementation paths for the electrification of passenger cars.
Linked to this general roadmap are more detailed roadmaps on critical technologies, closely
interrelated and of nearly equal strategic relevance. They are regarded as horizontal issues
essential for reaching the milestones and were introduced within the general Electrification
roadmap in the updated version of 2012. The present document focusses on one of these
transversal topics, namely on ICT systems and components and their integration as the more
differentiating key elements to electromobility. The mass deployment of FEVs exploiting the full
potentials for energy efficiency, safety and reliability as well as grid and traffic system connectivity
demands a specific optimal design of the electric, electronic and ICT architectures. Examples of
relevant systems are power electronic for motor controls, power-energy routing, battery
managements systems, specific electronic architectures, vehicle to grid and infrastructure, smart
photovoltaic, symbiotic connectivity, ICT security etc. The roadmap ICT for the fully electric
vehicle has been compiled within the CSA ICT4FEV and been put under a broader stakeholder
consultation. It is considered as a roadmap strongly linked with the Roadmap Electrification of
Road Transport dealing with one of the therein defined horizontal issues. It will appear as a
separate document but also annexed to the Roadmap Electrification of Road Transport.
In the present document, first advancements and challenges of the fast changing landscape of
electric mobility of the last three years are being reviewed to set the stage for the following
technology analysis. Then the role of ICT and smart systems and components for the fully electric
vehicle are discussed. It is explained how functionalities of the future FEV that guarantee energy
and range efficiency, safety and user adaptability will be provided by ICT and smart systems and
components. The respective enabling technologies are discussed following the definition of
technology fields in the general electrification roadmap. In order to complement this technology
analysis, it is argued that electric mobility and the corresponding market will develop differently
for the various car segments based on vehicle mass. These vehicle classes are defined and their
specific challenges and current market situation are described.
Furthermore, the present document discusses possibilities for technology transfer between the
automotive and aeronautics sector giving examples of relevant roadmaps and their overlap. Finally
recommendations based on the facts and arguments collected within this document are given.
3
2
The fast changing landscape of the last three years
The aim of the first edition of the general roadmap “Electrification of Road Transport” was to help
quantifying the differences between conventional and new technologies in terms of the much
cited aspects of energy and resource security, climate change, public health, freedom of mobility,
and economic growth, and to suggest actions that will create an impact on these. It was
demonstrated that in 1998 a mid-sized EV was leading to 30+% higher primary energy consume
than a mid-sized ICEV, while with only ten year of technology advancements in 2008 the situation
was reversed with the EV leading to a considerable primary energy saving up to 25% (see Table 1
in Annex). Similar studies followed from several Automotive Association and Public Agencies
confirming as well a reduction of the emitted Green House Gases up to 50% with respect to ICEVs
state-of-the-art solutions (see Table 2 in Annex). These considerations associated to the growing
concerns related to the impact of noxious emissions on health marked the beginning of
international EU funded collaborative public-private partnerships focusing the research
programmes on the electrification of road transport. The Roadmap established a common vision
and strategic framework for industry, the EC and Member States to develop, deploy, and maintain
control of the critical enabling technologies.
In the last three years the sector has made notable progress, the introduction of the first EVs
produced by large OEMs has considerably changed the landscape. A culture of electromobility has
grown amongst people setting a new scenario on demand.
In this paragraph we will assess technology advancements, industrial achievements, markets
reactions, R&D initiatives and more in general the most relevant factors and challenges that have
characterized the period in which electromobility has been introduced on a global scale.
2.1

1
Advancements
Power electronics: Semiconductor technology has produced devices with higher junction
temperature, while packaging solutions have led to compact and efficient power devices that
have allowed a radical simplification of the cooling systems. Amongst the most relevant
developments worthwhile to mention are1 the:
o
40µm IGBT thin wafer technology for drive applications with higher intrinsic efficiency
leading to higher switching speed and overall lower static and dynamic losses,
o
IC (gate driver) on 0,35 µm litho node, with dense logic, where HVMOS components are
able to sustain 800V and a floating circuitry up to 650V,
o
Magnetic Materials integration leading to integrated contactless current sensors for
dynamic monitoring. A DC-DC converter with an integrated inductance can fulfil the
requirements of miniaturization, functionality; low cost, impacting also on environment
(for example reduced usage of copper for coils, longer batteries life, and higher power
efficiency). The drastic reduction in power dissipation of both IGBT and MOS technologies
have led to radically smaller highly efficient and cost effective DC-DC and AC-DC
converters in the power train up to 800V and capable to drive electric motors with power
of more than 80 kW. Low cost and compact (5kW/1kg)) air cooled inverters are
commercially available working with DC link voltages from 48V to above 480V and
capable to manage peak powers up to 20kW. The semiconductors content of the electric
drivetrain is expected by 2020 to more than double that of the conventional 2012
http://www.eniac.eu/web/downloads/Brochure/eniac_awards_final.pdf
4
powertrain2, this will lead to manufacturing scale economies and the consolidation of
high efficiency semiconductor materials with further important advancements in
efficiency, miniaturization and cost reduction of all key components of the electrical drive
train, for instance SiC devices utilising the 150mm SiC wafer are scheduled to enter the
mass production phase in 20153.

Vehicle to Infrastructure: The currently most sold FEVs allow both slow and quick charge and
for either commercial reasons or practical ones quick charge is a must and cannot be
considered an option only, not just for long distance travel but a need even when the vehicle
is purchased for urban or short travel missions. Studies have demonstrated that massive
quick4 charging have a minimal impact on the grid when quick charge stations are directly
connected to medium voltage (MV) lines or when they are equipped with a 200 kWh buffer
battery and connected to the low voltage (LV) bus bar of a MV/LV substation. This is the case
even when 50% of the total kilometer run would be covered by electric vehicles 5. The
availability of a quick charge infrastructure is now believed to influence driver’s behaviour in
terms of longer average distance travelled, reduced range anxiety and general higher feeling
with electromobility6. The existing experimentation with commercial EVs has proven that slow
charging points at home or work together with quick charging points installed at conventional
service stations can meet most of the demands. The spread of slow charging points on public
areas is not necessary7. The rapid evolution of battery technology pushes towards the
planning of quick charge infrastructures. The International Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) has chosen the Combined Charging System as the quick-charging methodology for a
standard that incrementally extends the existing Type 1-based AC charging. ACEA, the
European association of vehicle manufacturers has also selected the Combined Charging
System as its AC/DC charging interface for all new vehicle types in Europe beginning in 2017.
This universal charging interface is going to be adopted by Audi, BMW, Chrysler, Daimler,
Ford, GM, Porsche and Volkswagen. The combined charging system integrates one-phase ACcharging, fast three-phase AC-charging, DC-charging at home and ultra-fast DC-charging at
public stations into one vehicle inlet. The new system gives EVs owners the ability to charge at
most existing charging stations regardless of the individual power source. Resonant wireless
charging is another quite interesting technology in that it simplifies the life to the final user
with an efficiency around 90% from the main to the battery (plate to plate efficiency can
reach 98%). The limitations on the maximum power transmissible and more specifically the
limit on power density are likely to restrict the use of wireless charging to slow charging 8. The
technology has been proposed to provide continuous charging on highways when the car is in
2
Sources: NXP, STMicroelectronics and Infineon 2012.
Latest research, market projections and charging spots forum - electric japan weekly no45, CARS21, 31 August 2012.
4
No Standard Terminology for the Charging Power Levels exists all around the world as well as all around Europe.
Rapid, quick and fast charging terms are used to describe charge at powers in the range 22kW to 50 kW. See for
instance, Fast Charging in eCar Ireland Project, ESB eCar, EV Charging Infrastructure & Grid Integration, January, 2012,
London.
5
G. Mauri, A. Valsecchi “The role of fast charging stations for electric vehicles in the integration and optimization of
distribution grid with renewable energy sources.” CIRED Workshop - Paper – 227, Lisbon 29-30 May 2012.
6
UK’s first rapid charging network allows EVs to cross the whole country. CARS21, 08 June 2012
7
Aston University, Plenty of Time to Slow Charge at regular locations, Predicting EV Charging Patterns & locating
public infrastructure, presented at EV Charging Infrastructure & Grid Integration, January, 2012, London.
http://www1.aston.ac.uk/about/news/releases/2011/july/electric-vehicle-trials/
8
Standard proposal for Resonant Inductive Charging of Electric Vehicles. Sebastian Mathar et al, Advanced
Microsystems for Automotive applications 2012, pag. 57-68, Springer edition, AMAA conference May 30-31, 2012,
Berlin.
3
5
motion9 but the cost of the related infrastructure appears to be prohibitive. There is a general
consensus to consider wireless charging a promising optional slow charge solution to be
added to the conventional conductive one.

Battery cost: The cost of lithium-ion batteries are widely cited as the biggest barrier to the
mass adoption of EVs. Manufacturing scale economies representing about one-third of the
potential price reductions up to 2025, could mostly be captured by 2015. Single facilities
capable to produce 200,000 automotive battery packs a year will be operative from 201310.
Since 1990 the specific energy (Wh/kg) of Li-ion cells, either with an organic solvent
electrolyte or with a solid polymer composite electrolyte (Li-ion polymer), have continued to
grow with a remarkable Compound Annual Growth (CAGR) of about 7%11. The intensive
industrial and research efforts spent on the development of Li-ion chemistries and
architectures are such that, until 2020, the commercial growth of specific energy is expected
to continue with a CAGR of at least 5%, leading to 400-450Wh/kg, a value still rather far away
from the theoretical limits of several Li-ion cathode-anode architectures12. Reductions in
materials and components costs through higher specific energy (Wh/kg)) and technical
advances on manufacturing leading to increase productivity (Wh/h) are expected to continue
with a rule of thumb per which the energy needed to produce 1Wh of Li-ion battery cells is
halved every five to six years13.
All together the commercial price of Li-ion cells, as per the last three years, is expected to
diminish 10-12% /year at least until 2018, reaching a consolidated price of 200€/kWh in
between 2016-201714. With an average cost of the raw materials of the order of 15€/kg,
depending on chemistry and cell architectures, today requiring less than 5 kg of raw materials
per kWh, the ambitious US Advanced Battery Consortium’s long-term price of $100/kWh is
indeed an achievable target.

Awareness of technology limits: ranges above 300 km can be easily covered with mid-size
vehicles having a 20kWh battery packs when the speed is kept very low, however that is not a
realistic situation. Long distance travels are usually characterized by an average speed close to
100kmh with peaks at >140kmh and a range >300km. Adopting the current technology FEVs
cannot cover these missions in a single charge and are not likely to be able to be cost
competitive with ICEVs for another decade. There is still no technical evidence that large sized
(>1500kg) fully electrical vehicles could be cost and performance competitive with ICEVs
before 2020. For these car categories hybrids or range extenders and their related complexity
will remain necessary. However, many drivers experience high speeds and long range only
occasionally and can accept one or two fast 20 minutes recharges during the same trip the
few days of the year they need to travel longer distances. The possible inconvenience they
9
Standard proposal for Resonant Inductive Charging of Electric Vehicles. Sebastian Mathar et al, Advanced
Microsystems for Automotive applications 2012, pag.57-68, Springer edition, AMMA conference May 30-31, 2012,
Berlin.
10
Wireless Charging: The future of Electric car. Andrew Gilbert, Advanced Microsystems for Automotive applications
2012, pag 49-56, Springer edition, AMMA conference May 30-31, 2012, Berlin.
11
Battery Association of Japan, http://www.baj.or.jp/
12
Yuan Yang, Matthew T. McDowell, Ariel Jackson, Judy J. Cha, Seung Sae Hong and Yi Cui (2010) New Nanostructured
Li2S/Silicon Rechargeable Battery with High Specific Energy. Nano Lett., Article ASAP doi: 10.1021/nl100504q
13
P. Perlo, “Strategic Advice FEV, Impact Assessment on Environment, Economy & Society”, ICT4FEV project report,
February 2012.
14
R. Hensley, J. Newman, and M.Rogers, “Battery technology charges ahead , JULY 2012 available at
http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/Battery_technology_charges_ahead_2997
6
could experience in those days is largely justified by the great benefits obtained the rest of the
year. Small and medium-small ICEVs are approaching 70% of total EU sales15, and supported
by the consideration that small EVs are currently commercialized in the 20,000€ range
without incentives, by 2020, small and medium-small fully electrical vehicles, when sold with
the quick charge option, could become the first and only car for many EU families16.

Advancement of renewable energy installations and costs: the last three years have been
characterized by impressive changes in the renewable energy scenario:
o
In 2011 renewable energy reached 71,3% amongst the new power installations,
o
Electricity from renewable energy in 2010 reached 21.2% 17of the total produced in
EU-27 (corresponding to an average CO2 emission of electricity as low as 340360g/KWh) and continuing with an average growth of the order 1.5%/year, the
ambitious target of 36-38% can be achieved by 2020,
o
Photovoltaic installations, currently priced at below 2€/W, allowing grid parity in
several southern European countries, motivating many privates to install off-grid PVbattery systems for both peak power shaving and EVs recharge,
o
Low cost on-vehicle smart photovoltaic have been demonstrated to be capable to
allow up to 20km/day autonomy in most EU southern countries. Thus pushing towards
a 2020 context when most trips can be run with small EVs by solar radiation only 18.
On the contrary, petroleum contributes less and less to the EU electricity generation mix with
a rapidly decreasing share at around 3.0% in 201119. It is now much more evident that
electrical mobility alleviates the ever increasing EU critical imports of petroleum as well as the
use of biofuels whose production cost, until the net energy balance remains low, will for many
years be strictly related to the price of oil. The 2010 EU milestone per which 21% of the
produced electricity had to be produced by renewable energy has been met (21.2%) proving
the general benefit to the society when ambitious Directives are taken at EU level.

Introduction of the first EVs produced by large OEMs: The 2010-2012 period will be
remembered in the history of road mobility because of the introduction in the open market of
the first fully electrical vehicles. In 2011, the total EU sales of electrical vehicles reached
14,000 units20 and a minimum of 12 fully electrical vehicles will be on sale in Europe starting
from 201221, the first year of appreciable sales (35,000-40,000) in Europe22. At least 20 new
15
www.ACEA.be and http://www.ihs.com/info/ev/automotive-conference-series/index.aspx
“89% of EV owners in California report using their EVs as their primary car”, report published by California Center
for Sustainable Energy (CCSE), July 2012 available at www.energycenter.org
17
www.ewea.org , 6 Feb 2012.
18
P. Perlo, 2012 PPP’s info days, 10 July 2012, Brussels and J.Wang presentation of the P-MOB project, ICT for the
fully electrical vehicle, 3rd cluster meeting, 12 July 2012, Brussels.
http://ec.europa.eu/research/industrial_technologies/events-fp7-programme-2012_en.html
19
Eurostat 2010 and www.ewea.org
20
http://puregreencars.com/Green-Cars-News/markets-finance/psa-peugeot-citroen-delivered-4000-evs-in2011.html. According to ACEA www.acea.be In 2011, 9,132 pure electric cars were registered in the EU. 2011 was still
a year of experimentation and many OEMs sold EVs to public institutions without a full registration, many EVs were
given on lease directly by the OEMs to their selected customers. Micro cars are not considered in the official statistics.
21
Brussels Auto Salon: EVs in the spotlight, 2012-01-13. http://www.cars21.com/content/articles/73120120113.php,
On sale 2012: Citroën C-Zero, Peugeot iOn, Renault Twizy, Mitsubishi iMieV, Mia Electric, Smart Fortwo Electric Drive,
Renault Fluence ZE, Renault Kangoo ZE, Nissan Leaf, Fisker Karma, Tesla Roadster, Opel Ampera, Ford Focus Electric,
Toyota Prius Plug-in, Toyota Prius +, Volvo C30. On sale 2013: BMW i3, Renault ZOE. On sale 2014: Volkswagen Blue emotion, BMW i8
16
7
models of PEVs will be offered to EU customers by 201423 and most EU, Japanese and US
OEMs operating in Europe have in their target from 30,000 to 50,000/year PEVs sold by 2015.
Nissan-Renault announced a global production capacity of 550,000 battery pack per year by
2013, of which 220,000 in Europe only24. Altogether, excluding quadricycles, the total PEVs
sold in EU in 2015 is very likely to be of the order of 450 thousand units (3.5%) 25,26out of the
13 million total conventional cars sold in 2011.

Demand of new forms of mobility: The last three years have emphasized the challenge for
the OEMs to face the evolution of new forms of mobility spreading all over the world,
reflecting peoples' awareness of the ever increasing problems of providing primary energy
and raw materials, congestion, climate change and impact of noxious emissions on health.
Rather than offering vehicles on ever increasing sizes and prices, the industry is asked to
satisfying a more rational demand of mobility. Clean, safe and low energy consumption
vehicles requiring less energy to be produced, using recyclable and eventually self-disposable
materials-systems. With of about 500 (Italy 700) cars every 1000 inhabitants27, the increase of
the number of cars on EU roads is very unlikely, similarly, lifetime (8 years) and the
replacement rate of cars, depending very much on the general economic wealth, confirm the
tendency of the last four years towards lower registrations associated to a global demand
toward smaller cars28, specifically the 2011 light vehicle market reported a growth of 4.2%
while the 2012 demand is on track to outpace 201129. Congestion and limited parking space30
are expected to be major concerns in megacities and in that respect many large EU cities are
re-thinking urban planning with limitation to conventional car mobility thus profoundly
influencing car usage, and that, amongst the rest, is asking for vehicles downsizing, car sharing
and car pooling.

Electromobiliity beyond conventional electrical cars: In China the kilometres run by electrical
means (33 million e-bikes produced in 201131) has superseded the kilometres run by ICEVs.
Two wheel electrical motorisations are now spreading in EU as well with of about 1,5 million
22
Interview with Andrew Heiron, Head of Electric Vehicle Programme, Renault UK, 2012-01-05 - cars21.com
Fortschrittsbericht der Nationalen Plattform Elektromobilität (Dritter Bericht) 2012, Publication of Nationale
Plattform Elektromobilität (NPE) Berlin, May 2012 and Die Deutsche Normungs-Roadmap Elektromobilität –Version 2
(2011) available on www.elektromobilitaet.din.de
24
Gonzalo Hennequet, Mass Production of EVs: The Technological Challenge of RENAULT, Auto e-motion conference,
27 September 2011, Graz, Austria.
25
EV market projections: Part I - OEM capacity production and vision, Cars21, 28 August 2012, Ford will produce
100,000 EVs annually, starting in 2013, Hybrids, plug-in hybrids, and all-electric cars will account for as much as 25 per
cent of new vehicle sales by 2020, Opel Ampera sales should reach 15,000-20,000 in 2012, Renault-Nissan Alliance
strong position of selling a total of 1.5 million electric vehicles by 2016. Toyota is expecting to sell 15,000 Prius Plug-in
hybrids this year. Toyota is also selling the new battery-electric SUV, the RAV4 EV, with a 100-mile electric range.
Mitsubishi is targeting 30,000 sales in 2013, with i-Miev being sold through Mitsubishi but also Citroën and Peugeot
brands, with an agreement on 100,000 EVs. BMW will start producing the i3 and i8, expected for late 2013 – early
2014. BMW has said they will be able to produce 100,000 cars annually. etc.
26
By adding the numbers targeted in the most EU committed Members States by 2015 the EU sales of PEVs would be
much higher. See for instance “EV market projections: Part II – Government announcements”, www.car21.com, 11
September 2012.
27
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_vehicles
28
EU Economic report 2011, www.acea.be
29
http://www.ihs.com/info/ev/automotive-conference-series/index.aspx
30
Intelligent Mobility A National Need? Report of the UK Automotive council November 2011.
31
http://www.chinasignpost.com/2011/11/electric-bikes-are-china%E2%80%99s-real-electric-vehicle-story/ 7 Nov
2012
23
8
sales in 201132. The Renault Twizy is contributing a lot to break the link between mobility and
conventional cars and is now more and more perceived as sufficient to satisfying many
demands; similar impact is expected from other e-quadricycles33.
Most European OEMs are introducing in their portfolio either or both an e-bike and an escooter demonstrating a general understanding of a consumer change34:


Consumers are learning fast to adapt to electric vehicles,

Consumers do like opportunities to be personally responsible–and are making
purchases to do so,

Consumers are learning that most transport events are short distances. A
“Transportation Event” is one person going on one trip. Examples: Home to Metro
station, home to work, home to bus stop, station to work, etc. Work, market trips, and
child care trips usually short distance, most places have a 4-8 km transportation
distances.
New role of portable smart devices in EVs: Simplified architectures of the EVs have been
demonstrated feasible by taking advantage of the fast technology advancements of personal
smart devices. With the connectivity of the car evolving together and around portable smart
devices, minimal dashboard clusters already entered the market with non-safety critical
functionalities displayed on the add-on portable (personal) device used as well for remote
actuation and monitoring of the vehicle functions. A variety of EU projects 35 demonstrated
that, with respect to the conventional approach based on a centralised body computer, the
overall ICT architecture of an EV can be radically simplified allowing a simpler and higher
degree of freedom to the integration of the enabling systems. The trend to accelerate the
deployment of mass-market level portable smart devices, generally acknowledged to increase
vehicle safety, reduce vehicle cost and improve energy efficiency36. Future customer
generations demand a symbiotic relationship between car and ICT solutions and software for
in-car added-value services most likely will not be part of the car. New infrastructure
components and the increased use of mobile devices in the energy infrastructure
environment introduce new digital vulnerabilities and many additional physical access points.
New applications, such as managing energy consumption, will involve new stakeholders and
require protection as seen from both the OEMs and the final user’s side demanding an
increased level of ICT security. “We need the automotive and ICT communities side-by-side.
That way we can seize the opportunities of the next generation of wireless broadband, beyond
3G, to meet the growing demand for connectivity in cars”37.
32
E-bikes Stand Strong in Declining Dutch Economy, January 03, 2012, http://www.bike-eu.com/news/e-bikes-stand-strong-indeclining-dutch-economy-5543.html
33
Fuji Keizai 2020 market projections indicate large growth. Latest research, market projections and charging spots
forum - electric japan weekly no45, 31 august 2012.
34
“89% of EV owners in California report using their EVs as their primary car”, report published by California Center
for Sustainable Energy (CCSE), July 2012 available at www.energycenter.org
35
O. Vernesan, Pollux project presentation , ICT for the fully electrical vehicle, 3rd cluster meeting, 12 July 2012,
Brussels.
36
Content of several EU projects presented at ICT for the fully electrical vehicle, 3rd cluster meeting, 12 July 2012,
Brussels, and KPMG’s Global Automotive Executive Survey, 2012
37
Speech of the Commissioner Neelie Kroes at the annual EUCAR reception on 8 November 2010.
9

Shale gas, tar sands, shale oil and biofuels: In the last three years shale gas has largely
contributed to mitigate the US crisis, transforming the Nation from a large importer to a near
future exporter of methane38. But the detailed Full Life Cycle Analysis of methane
motorisations shows that GHG global emissions are as much as twice those emitted by
gasoline and diesel motorizations. Shale gas, with its high leaks, is making the situation much
worse39. Oil extracted from bituminous sands is much more carbon intensive than the
extraction of conventional crude oil, besides it requires large quantities of water and natural
gas40. Clearly, shale gas, bituminous sands (currently providing circa 20% of oil consumed in
the US) and the forthcoming shale oil cannot be considered the answer to slow down the
process of climate change. Neither first generation bio-fuels, nor third generation ones
(algae), have proven to have a Life Cycle positive energy balance and appear to be inadequate
solutions to the challenges posed by oil. Whilst cellulosic bio-ethanol (second generation biofuels), although having a rather positive energy return, needs to be further developed before
it can meet cost parity with petroleum based fuels 41,42,43,44,45.

Advancement on ICE technologies: The Internal Combustion Engine ICE industry has made
impressive advancements and ICT can further contribute to enhance the performance of ICEs;
considering the time needed to reach the current efficiency values and the theoretical limit
imposed by the Carnot cycle, an average 5% increase of the peak efficiency could be achieved
by 2020, similarly the 2020 EU target of 95gr CO2/km at a fleet level is very likely (supposing
the investment will proceed as in the past), but that will not be enough to win the challenges
posed by hydrocarbons and more specifically by liquid fuels of which world demand is
supposed to grow on average 1.3% per year until 203546.
2.2
Challenges
 Old and new concerns of resources availability: The concerns reported in the general
Electrification of Road Transport roadmap have been confirmed: China has limited the export
of permanent magnets thus constraining the production of PM motors either to China or to
very tight industrial obligations. New concerns have been arisen on the availability of
graphite47. But the awareness of the limited natural resources have led the industry to look
and win the battle toward alternative motors and battery electrodes that when seen at a
system level can lead to higher performance and lower costs.

Fatalities per road modalities: The reduced road fatalities due to car accidents registered in
EU in the last ten years48 does not find an analogous trend for bikes, motorcycles or mopeds.
38
Keith Kohl, Energy and Capital Letters, May 2012.
P.Perlo, “Strategic Advice FEV, Impact Assessment on Environment, Economy & Society, Appendix V”, ICT4FEV
project report, February 2012.
40
Michelle Mech, A Comprehensive Guide to the Alberta Oil Sands, May 2011
41
D.V.Spitzley, G.H.Keoleian Report N0 CSS04-05R 10, February 2005 , H.T Odun, Environment, power, and society,
New York, Wiley interscience, 1971 and “Energy, Ecology, and Economic” AMBIO, Vol.2, pp.220-227, 1973.
42
http://nextbigfuture.com/2007/08/comparison-energy-returned-on-energy.html
43
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EROEI, and Cutler J Cleveland “Ten fundamental principles of net energy”,
44
Gerd Klöck, Professor of Bioprocess Engineering, University of Applied Sciences, Bremen, Germany. It’s the process,
stupid. Biofuels from microalgae are not yet sustainable. In response to a request of the European Commission.
January 6th, 2010.
45
“Energy, Ecology, and Economic” AMBIO, Vol.2, pp.220-227,1973.
46
EIA, International energy outlook , July 2010
47
Brian Sylvester, Critical Metal Shortages - a look at global graphite, manganese and vanadium supply,11 Jan 2012,
http://www.mineweb.com/mineweb/view/mineweb/en/page72102?oid=142933&sn=Detail
48
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/index_en.htm
39
10
Motorcycle or moped travel death risk is 17 (per time) to 20 (per distance) times higher than
for car travel49. The introduction of smaller four wheels vehicles, three wheelers, e-scooters
and e-bikes, asks for new structural design concepts as well as the on-board introduction of
smart devices aiming at reducing the current gaps amongst the different road modalities 50.

Battery safety and battery industry volatility: even though in the US EVs are currently sold
with battery packs covered by an eight-year/160,000-km warranty for a capacity at 80% of the
design value51, reservations remain about the long-term performance and safety of Li-ion. Liion battery technology is evolving rapidly with massive public and private investments pushing
towards higher specific energies that will leave the overall sector in a financial volatile state
that will not help to consolidate safety and robustness at the level required by the automotive
industry.

Dispute amongst OEMs and utilities on technology allocation: The uptake of electromobility
will largely depend on vehicle price and reliability, factors depending on the level of on-board
complexity. The dispute if to allocate the needed conversion power electronics on-board the
vehicle or in the infrastructure began with the advent of the first EVs and it is likely not to end
this decade. It is a matter that goes well beyond a mere cost analysis in that it is dealing as
well with the level of complexity in the vehicle, global efficiency, overall vehicle reliability and
related maintenance. In that regard the competition between fast DC charging (less power
electronic on-board) and AC fast charging will continue for years with a relevant impact on
standards. The analysis can lead to opposite conclusions when made either from the vehicle’s
point of view or the grid’s point of view. Moreover, the conclusions differ when considering a
single vehicle or a fleet of vehicles. When investigating whether there are less expensive
alternatives that could provide nearly equal benefits the business models of the operators
acting in the value chain can push in opposite directions. The growing number of cost
effective small and large renewable energy installations change the perspective of many final
users. The first three years of electromobility suggest specific studies including the final users’
point of view, which can lead to an EU industrial competitive advantage.

The changing supply chain and emerging business models: While the ICE is an extremely
complex system whose control depends on components and software packages52 in the hands
of few large organisations, the management of one or more electrical motors is much less
demanding and it is accessible to many new organisations. Similarly the management of
battery packs will not be a monopole of few companies. A high level of mechanical, electrical,
electronic and energy storage integration is cost accessible to the conventional large OEMs
and TIERs1 as well as to new entries. The increased share of semiconductors in the powertrain
is encouraging SEMI companies to address a higher level of systems integration rather than
focusing on chips only. The investments for a full production plant of light and heavy
quadricycles can be as many as 15 to 25 times lower than the investment needed for a small
conventional M1 ICEV city car. The sales growth of e-bikes, e-scooters and new form of
vehicles weighting less than 700kg, combined with traffic restrictions on large cities, will have
49
European Transport Safety Council Transport safety performance in the EU a statistical overview
Fatalities per billion kilometres: Airplane: 0.05 - Bus: 0.4 - Train: 0.6 - Truck: 1.2 - Boat: 2.6 - Car: 3.1 - Bicycle: 44.6 Foot: 54.2 - Motorcycle: 108.9 (Source TRL).
51
A warning is given on the possible further reduction of the capacity when most charges are made by quick charge
52
The processing unit that manages a state-of-the-art ICE is currently demanding about 1 billion instructions /s.
Source: Infineon UK
50
11
a considerable impact on the overall volume of non-electrified vehicles53. The introduction of
these new forms of mobility is driven by new players acting much faster than what large
OEMs are used to. “It is clear that SMEs will have a pivotal role to play in this sector, being
quick to adapt to new and emerging technologies in the sector”54. A large part of the success
of the car industry has derived from the offering to people the perception of a higher degree
of freedom, but the many forms of mobility restrictions and traffic limitations in cities, are
accelerating the move from car ownership to car usership, consequently, not owing a car for
many people has become a new form of freedom and status symbol.
The advent of the EVs have brought relevant changes in financing or leasing and pay per use
options, either for the complete vehicle, the battery pack, or vehicle to grid-infrastructure a
plethora of business relations are currently offered to EV owners and users. Some of these
are indeed meeting people’s needs (or desire) and consist of a form of risk-sharing between
OEM and user on technology evolution (i.e. battery). In other cases the proposed models
seem only to reflect the intention of new players to be part of the lucrative world of
electromobility. OEMs and TIER1s have the financial resources to lead the value chain related
to conventionally sized vehicles, but their partnerships on e-power train and mobility services
will remain in an uncertain state for years continuing for instance the partnership setting and
breaking of the conventional automotive players with Korean, Japanese, US and Chinese
battery producers.
Altogether e-mobility revolutionizes the current status quo of the industrial business relations
formed around the ICE; novel global supply chains are emerging with conventional large
players motivated to form fast acting local aggregations including SMEs.

New roles of the Public Funding Agencies: The white paper released by the EC55 and the
launch of the 2012-2013 European Green Cars Initiative calls confirm a general change
amongst the relations of the large industry and the EU public funding agencies, getting more
and more aware that specific funding to support new approaches towards alternative paths
based on micro and small EVs can have a high and short term impact on the manufacturing of
these novel forms of mobility in Europe.

Standards: European automotive companies are facing new and novel vertically organized
supply chains competing with large nations where regulations are made by fast acting
Governmental Institutions. The last years have emphasised that EU industries and institutions
suffer the complexity of the EU standardisation systems. In the past regulations have
sometimes been used to protect indigenous industry against low quality and unsafe products
and hinder foreign competition. However, non-European companies proving to be quicker
and better at responding to new rules and regulations ma turn out as a big drawback for
European companies. Leading technologies and solutions are demonstrating to be more
important than standards and will be difficult to adopt. This tactics may be highly
counterproductive when used principally to stop the spread of foreign technologies. The more
focused approach of competing nations is having, and will continue to have, an ever
increasing impact on the relations amongst Tier1 and 2 suppliers and OEMs, leading to a never
ending process of heavy industrial restructuring56.
53
Most large OEMs are aware of the new demand proposing e-bikes, e-scooters and LEVs of various kind having no
rivals amongst ICEVs. Urban mobility: small, light and electric, the way to go! 2011-09-28. cars21.com
54
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/strategies/2011_white_paper_en.htm
55
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/strategies/2011_white_paper_en.htm
56
ANSI Standardization Roadmap for Electric Vehicles – Version 1.0, April 2012
12

Overcapacity: Overcapacity and excess production remain unresolved issues around the
world including China. The global automotive market is predicted to be overbuilt by 20-30%
by 2016. The growing strength of the emerging markets converging with the western markets
in terms of customer requirements for quality, safety, and reliability, will put EU overcapacity
in a critical situation57. In the last four years the decrease of EU car demand has been
compensated “and hidden” by an increased EU production58 with export in non EU markets.
The reverse trend of importing low cost segments from emerging countries plus China likely
exporting 1 million vehicles or more by 201459, may have a disruptive impact on EU economy.

EU traffic growth to continue: Several studies show that, mainly because of immigration from
less developed countries; the linear trend of EU traffic growth is expected to continue beyond
202060. Because the road network of several EU Member States is at the limit of its capacity,
rather than a growth of conventional vehicles sales, needs and limitations will push towards
different modalities and vehicles having a lower footprint61.

Ambitious targets of competing nations against the EU stated goals:
Japan: Toyota, Nissan, Mitsubishi, Honda, have started the EVs competition from several
years of road testing and millions of full hybrids sold. In 2010 a “Next-Generation Vehicle
Plan” has been released with projections to 2020 and 203062, four roadmaps have been set
on: batteries R&D targets, resource strategy, infrastructure development and international
standardization. EVs and batteries are considered the growth drivers, the government has set
diffusion targets to pursue next-generation vehicles up to 50% of new sales in 2020 of which
20-30% conventional hybrids and 15-20% PEVs. In the context of Li-ion battery components
Japanese manufacturers are expected to maintain > 50% share on the manufacturing of
cathode materials, anode materials, separators and electrolyte solutions at least until 2015 63.
India: The Indian government has recently approved spending €3.2 billion on the promotion
of electric and hybrid vehicles, including two-wheelers, four-wheelers and commercial
vehicles, over the next 8 years under the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020
(NEMMP 2020)64. The target of 6 million EVs by 2020 will be achieved through research,
development, infrastructure building and subsidies. Out of the targeted 6 million electric and
hybrid vehicles by 2020, the roadmap foresees that around 4 million are to be two-wheelers
and the rest four-wheelers, including commercial cars.
China: From e-bikes following the logic of a step-by-step implementation with low speed EVs
(LSEV), mainly quadricycles, business has taken off. LSEVs are cheap, usually costing between
2500€ and 7500€, and do not require a driving license, which are key factors that attract
consumers. Confirming the emergence of ultra-low price vehicles, in China, the ultra-mini EV
is gradually becoming a practical transportation device. LSEVs manufacturers are
concentrated in Shandong Province, where approximately 100 small and middle-sized LSEV
57
KPMG’s Global Automotive Executive Survey, 2012
www.acea.be
59
KPMG’s Global Automotive Executive Survey, 2012
60
Intelligent Mobility A National Need? Automotive council UK November 2011 and J. Potocnik, Making the European
industry greener safer and smarter to boost our industrial competitiveness, TRA, Ljubliana, 21 April 2008.
61
Intelligent Mobility A National Need? Automotive council UK November 2011
62
Publication of the Japan’s Manufacturing Industry, Ministry of Economy Trade and Industry, July 2010.
63
Setsuko Wakabayashi, NEDO, Joint EC/European Green Cars Initiative Expert Workshop 7 December, 2011 Brussels.
64
http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=86985
58
13
producers exist. In Shangdong 85,000 LSEVs were manufactured, sold and exported in 201165.
Clearly all these vehicles will soon be based on Li-ion technologies. The premises are for a rate
of growth similar to that registered for the e-bikes world, but LSEVs are much more
alternative to conventional ICEVs. Regarding the M1 context the Chinese government has
released the “2012 Chinese Auto Industry Development Report” with plans to introduce
subsidies to customers and manufacturers of electric vehicles in an attempt to encourage
production and sales to achieve its massive target of 5 million EVs by 2020. Meanwhile BYD
alone is addressing a production of 500,000 EVs by 201566.
USA: All together, Gartner, the largest technology market research firm, is forecasting 100,000
electrified (FEVs and Hybrid Plug-ins) car sales in 2012 in the United States close to one
percent of the 13.4 million U.S. vehicle sales 67, with the commercialization of fully electrical
vehicles in the lower medium category from 2013 on68 and with the spread of large capacity
battery plants69, the US seems on track to meet the 1,000,000 EVs on the road targeted by
2015.
Europe: The European Commission has stimulated the start of the electromobility era by
launching and supporting the European Green Cart Initiative since 200870. Since then
governmental initiatives on electromobility are spreading all across Europe; Estonia71,
Portugal, Netherlands, UK, Spain are rapidly moving to the installations of national corridors
with fast charging stations to allow long distance travels. France with Renault and Peugeot is
currently leading the EU sales of EVs well supported by the French Government, Germany 72
has targeted 1 mil EVs on the road by 2020 and for that aim the Government has funded a
large number of projects including a specific 600 million Euro programme on battery
developments. Altogether Europe lacks an ambitious Directive like the successful one
implemented on renewable energies to set targets and timing as much ambitious as those
introduced in Japan, USA, China and Korea.

Transversality of the Green Car Initiative achievements: The technology achievements
resulting from the efforts spent on ICT for batteries management, navigation and stabilization
systems, motor controls, systems integration, smart photovoltaic and power electronics are
rapidly changing the landscapes of private and public73 road transports as well as those of
other important sectors with huge implications on the manufacturing of novel high level
65
EVs are included in Guangzhou’s license plate lottery system - Electric China Weekly No12, cars21, 23 August 2012.
ibid
67
EV market projections: Part I - OEM capacity production and vision, Cars21, 28 August 2012, Ford will produce
100,000 EVs annually, starting in 2013, Hybrids, plug-in hybrids, and all-electric cars will account for as much as 25 per
cent of new vehicle sales by 2020. Opel Ampera sales should reach 15,000-20,000 in 2012, Renault-Nissan Alliance
strong position of selling a total of 1.5 million electric vehicles by 2016. Toyota is expecting to sell 15,000 Prius Plug-in
hybrids this year. Toyota is also selling the new battery-electric SUV, the RAV4 EV, with a 100-mile electric range.
Mitsubishi is targeting 30,000 sales in 2013, with i-Miev being sold through Mitsubishi but also Citroën and Peugeot
brands, with an agreement on 100,000 EVs. BMW will start producing the i3 and i8, expected for late 2013 – early
2014. BMW has said they will be able to produce 100,000 cars annually. etc..
68
http://www.ev.com/knowledge-center/electric-vehicles-articles/14-million-evs-on-roads-by-2017.html
69
In one single plant in Tennessee US, Nissan has announced a capacity of 200,000 battery packs a year from 2013.
70
www-green-cars-initiative.eu
71
http://www.mkm.ee/electric-mobility-programme-for-estonia/
72
Fortschrittsbericht der Nationalen Plattform Elektromobilität (Dritter Bericht) 2012, Publication of Nationale
Plattform Elektromobilität (NPE) Berlin, May 2012 and Die Deutsche Normungs-Roadmap Elektromobilität –Version 2
(2011) available on www.elektromobilitaet.din.de
73
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bus
66
14
products. The supply chain of the road transport industry is now much more linked with the
industries of:
o
Personal and industrial robotics: robot production is now a 700 billion-yen, market &
the value will increase to 2.9 trillion yen in 2020 and 9.7 trillion-yen in 203574.
o
Air mobility: ultra-light electrical aircraft for personal mobility can adopt very similar
technologies used on road transport for the e-powertrain and for ICT navigation and
connectivity75. The differences between the conventional aircraft and the automotive
industries when referring to personal mobility are minimized. Worthwhile to mention
is the Google initiative on air personal mobility and autonomous driving in the air 76.
Air personal mobility is opening a business of the same order of road e-mobility. Long
distance air travels by solar radiation only have already been demonstrated 77.
o
Water mobility: the integration of batteries, high efficiency motors with novel
propellers and smart solar panels are radically changing the design approach of small
and mid-sized boats, the great majority of which are designed for short travels. The ICE
can be downsized and in most cases replaced with much cleaner and cost effective
electrical solutions.
74
Japan Robot Association, IFR SD “World Robotics 2009”
www.cafefoundation.org
76
www.cafefoundation.org , May 2011
77
www.cafefoundation.org blog comments on solar impulse.
75
15
3
ICT paving the Way for FEVs to become the mainstream
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are an enabler of the fully electric vehicle
since they provide means complementary to advances in battery cell performance to solve issues
that currently still impede the mass deployment of electric vehicles. However, the enabling role of
ICT for the FEV may go far beyond helping to replace the conventional powertrain by an electric
motor, a converter, and a battery. They will facilitate the development of a unique European FEV,
a safe, affordable, energy efficient car with sufficient range. They will further provide accessibility
and adaptability of the car as well as driving comfort. All of these may bolster user acceptability,
and thus ensure the ability to seize the opportunities for cutting green house gas emissions and to
compete on global markets.
According to the assessments made by experts from EPoSS, the role of ICT solutions and smart
78
systems integration can be summarized as enabling the full electric vehicle by :

providing aware, caring and robust means of power and energy routing between
accumulator cells, battery packs, motors and grids,

applying adaptive control and power electronic converters to electric motors and wheels,

actively enhancing the safety of road transport based on batteries and lightweight vehicles,

making the driver aware of the availability of energy and power and of the resulting
restrictions in terms of range and comfort, and,

guiding the driver to the next recharging station in case the car runs out of battery power.
The conventional concepts of vehicle integration which have been developed in an evolutionary
79
and bottom-up process for decades are hindering innovation, particularly for the electric vehicle :
The extent to which ICT is used even in the conventional car today does not match the
opportunities offered by that technology, e.g. drive by wire and active safety systems have barely
been implemented so far. The main reason for this is that adding any new functionality increases
the complexity of the system and causes high additional cost because there is a lack of common
interfaces between the various on-board systems themselves and to the off-board world.
For developing the next generation electric vehicle that exploits the full potentials for energy
efficiency, safety and reliability as well as grid and traffic system connectivity, a real paradigm shift
can be foreseen: a completely redesign of the electric, electronic and ICT architecture of the fully
electric vehicle from scratch. If complemented by performance gains in the battery and traction
system, and by strongly reduced energy demand, e.g. due to radical weight reduction, as well as
by a decay of manufacturing costs through learning effects, this may open the path towards a
mass deployment of FEVs.
The European Roadmap „Electrification of Road Transport“ updated in 2012 by the European
Technology Platforms EPoSS, ERTRAC and SmartGrids sorts actions to be taken in order to achieve
the milestones into six technology fields: Energy Storage Systems, Drive Train Technologies,
Vehicle System Integration, Grid Integration, Transport System Integration and Safety.
78
Strategic Research Agenda, EPoSS 2009.
The Software Car, Fortiss, 2011.
79
16
Figure 1 ICT and Smart System Functionalities that enable the energy and range efficient, safe,
reliable and adaptable electric vehicle in relation to the technology fields.
17
Thinking about the described demands on the future full electric vehicle, energy efficiency, safety
and usability, the required ICT related functionalities can be sorted in these technology fields
which is realized in figure 2. However, safety is here not defined as a technology field but rather a
general demand that refers not only to active and passive passenger and road safety but also to
functional safety of components and systems which in turn is directly related to reliability and
robustness. Thus safety is linked horizontally to all other technology fields. Furthermore, the
category of Driver Assistance was added in the figure to illustrate the ICT specific contributions to
usability and adaptability which are referring to the comfort of driving provided e.g. by the
availability of information about range, charging possibilities and traffic, or autonomous driving.
Additionally, connectivity to external information systems and the possibility of integrating
external devices is a growing consumer demand.
The transverseness of functionalities as well as the interrelation between energy efficiency, safety
and usability makes obvious the need for totally new modular platforms and specific ICT
architectures. This is particularly the case e.g. for Comprehensive Energy Management that
concerns all technology fields and facilitates not only energy efficiency, but also safety and
usability. This energy management is characterized as comprehensive by managing and
coordinating the energy storage system, the energy flow between the traction and energy storage
systems, recuperation, integration of the range extender, charging functionalities. It furthermore
provides interfaces to the traffic system and to the user. Other examples include energy efficient
route planning and driving based on car2x communication, automated, cooperative and
autonomous driving, as safe and convenient driving. An inherently transversal issue is the
development of wireless and autonomous functionalities.
In the following for all six technology fields defined in the European Roadmap „Electrification of
Road Transport” a general analysis of critical ICTs and smart systems is made. This part is
complemented by the technology roadmaps given in the annex that classify the above compiled
functionalities of the future electric vehicle into devices and the related research needs and
necessary development steps. In these more detailed roadmaps a transversal roadmap has been
added that deals mostly with materials and basic building blocks of smart systems and ICT devices
that are transverse to many described functionalities and technology fields.
Energy storage systems: All battery types require some degree of management to optimise
performance. And, the larger the battery pack, the greater is the need for management. Lithium
Ion batteries are relatively expensive and do not tolerate abuse, hence, monitoring and
management are especially essential. Furthermore, the battery management systems on the
vehicle and the on-board or off-board charger must communicate since the battery has to be
charged with a precise (I,V) profile function. In the ideal interoperability context the BMS is a
universal device designed to communicate with the quick charger supporting analog, CAN
(CAN2.0A, B and CAN Open, from 125kbit/s up to 1Mbit/s bus speed) and PWM interfaces with an
extensive library of chargers supported.
Cell monitoring and management can be performed by embedding a sensor platform in each cell
or in between a group of cells. ICT is the key to differentiate the performance of a battery pack;
this can have different degrees of autonomy, partitioning and intelligence, but it will be more
conveniently developed in those nations controlling the manufacturing of cells and packs.
The management of the energy storage system is then strongly related to the manufacturing of
cells and packs, to vehicle architecture and to the charging infrastructure. The evolution of the
battery pack will move more and more toward a high level of smart systems integration in the
hand of battery manufacturers. If battery manufacturing will not rapidly grow in Europe there is a
18
serious risk that European companies will lose the advantages gained through a large number of
research projects assigned to battery management. ICT related to battery management is well
developed in Europe but it will hardly advance if Europe will not be able to establish its own large
scale battery manufacturing.
Drive train technologies: The role of ICT in the drive train is as much important as it is to manage
fuel and air injections in the internal combustion engine. ICT is the key to future multifunctional,
fail safe and high efficiency e-powertrains. Automatic transmission gear box can be computer
controlled to differentiate the torque distributed to each wheel in relation to inputs received from
accelerometers or gyros. The e-powertrain will gradually evolve to multi-motor propulsion
embedding vehicle stabilization functions and distributed regenerative braking. In a long term
vision mechanical breaking, ABS and EPS functions will be fully or partially replaced by the fail safe
automatic control of the electrical motors. The European strength in advanced systems integration
has to be continuously monitored and supported to maintain a competitive advantage.
ICT is the most important aspect towards more efficient electrical motors having low or no
contents of critical permanent magnets that can compete with permanent magnet synchronous
motor such as:




Separately excited Synchronous Motor [SSM]
Induction motor [IM]
Switched Reluctance Motor [SRM]
Synchronous Reluctance Motor (SynRM)
The induction motor does not require rare earth metals. It is also possible to use switched
reluctance motor (SRM) or synchronous reluctance motor (SynRM) which do not use rare earth
metals. Although these motors have lower power density and large torque ripple, these problems
can be resolved by improving design and control. Moreover, both SRM and SynRM motors do not
have the temperature limitations imposed by rare earth metals. In addition, rare earth metals are
mechanically weak thereby limiting attainable speed and power. Hence by operating SRM and
SynRM motors at high speed, they could be made smaller and lighter than motors using rare earth
metals albeit efficiency may be slightly compromised.
Regarding power electronics, Europe in 2011 demanded 13% of the electronics produced in the
world but only 8% of it was manufactured in Europe80. Because the share of EU production
diminishes 1% a year there is a concrete possibility that by 2020 there will be only a minor
production of power electronics in Europe. This is very critical because the leading EV industry
needs a direct and easy access to advanced electronics. There is an urgent need of a common
strategy developed between the automotive and the SEMI industries before European
semiconductor suppliers will lose their leadership in automotive microelectronic (~37% of the
2011 worldwide market) and in automotive ASIC/ASSP (~63% of the 2011 worldwide market)81.
The supply chains of LEVs, Micro-EVs and small EVs have to quickly develop in Europe to assure
the necessary volumes so that the SEMI industries could be motivated to grow in Europe. If the
European demands of silicon based electronics (MOSFET and IGBT) will be large enough there will
be sufficient resources to compete on the more performing GaN and SiC like materials necessary
to manage higher voltages and currents.
Vehicle system integration: The electric-electronic architecture of the electrical vehicle is
intrinsically different from that of the ICEV. New concepts of modularity and partial networking
80
81
Source: WSTS, IC Insight.
Source:WSTS, IHS
19
can be introduced in EVs while reducing complexity and costs. Personal devices, when interface to
wireless systems, can contribute to radically simplify the electrical electronic-architecture and
projects should be encouraged towards the maximum level of simplification of all non-safety
critical functionalities.
Grid integration: ICT dominates the V2G functionalities at large, e.g. protocols for wireless,
conductive charging or hybrid charging methodologies, the integration of off-grid renewable
energies and the “invisibility” of such services to the user.
Transport systems integration: Road mobility is increasing with a change towards modalities with
lower CO2-footprint. The vehicle-to-vehicle or vehicle-to-infrastructure communication is evolving
towards the networking amongst different modalities of mobility managed by personal devices
primarily to assure a higher level of safety in highly congested cities. The management of modality
change within the same travel or the management of EV fleets in novel usership concepts are
aspects requiring further ICT developments.
Safety: All safety related aspects that apply to conventional cars have to be transferred to electric
vehicles. The typical high voltages and currents that characterise the electric vehicle ask for fail
safe double and triple redundancy in the electrical architecture against high voltage-current
contacts during all phases of the lifecycle including manufacturing, use and maintenance. The
typical high voltages and currents that characterise the electrical vehicle ask novel design
approaches to limit the impact of EMI and EMC as seen at a system level. The conventional
methodologies currently addressing the design of electronic components have to be further
developed to assure the highest level of safety and enhance the perception that electromobility is
the cleanest and the safest form of road transport.
Security is another intrinsic difference to the ICEVs. The demand of a symbiotic relationship
between the EV and ICT solutions and the increased use of mobile devices in the energy
infrastructure environment introduce new digital vulnerabilities. New applications, such as
managing energy consumption, will involve new stakeholders and require protection as seen from
both the OEMs and the final user’s sides demanding an increased level of ICT security. EV users
will demand and perceive security as a new and important element of differentiation.
20
4
Vehicles Classification per Mass
According to the upper scenario of the General European Roadmap Electrification of Road
Transport published by the European Technology Platforms ERTRAC, EPoSS and SmartGrids, 5
million electrical cars are accumulated in Europe by 2020. Including e-bikes and others a total of
30-40 million new electrically powered mobility means are very likely to be used by 2020 in
Europe. In the year 2000, Light Electrical Vehicles (LEVs), as e.g. bicycles, scooters, tricycles,
mopeds and quad-cycles, accounted for a global production in the order of 100.000 per year,
while in the 2010's they are produced in several tens of millions per year as China and Japan are
rolling out large scale production addressing manufacturing cost issues. LEVs are now evolving to
micro-cars and conventional small and mid-sized cars. Electrification of conventional cars will
follow starting with these smaller vehicles that cover most urban mobility needs.
In this context, a review of the development of electrification within the different vehicle
categories is needed to complement the analysis of required technologies from the previous
chapter. Electro-mobility is not just cars: a classification of the forms of mobility per their total
mass and energy consume is necessary to better evaluate market’s demand in relation to
technology evolution and cost (see Table 1).
Type
Light EVs
(e-Bike)
Light* EVs
(other)
Micro e-Cars
Light-heavy
Q-cycles
City
e-Cars
NEDC
Small
e-Cars
NEDC
Mid-Size
e-Cars
NEDC
Large
e-Cars
NEDC
Weight (kg)
15-50
50-350
350-650
650-1000
1000-1300
1300-1500
1500-2000
Energy
kWh/100km
1-2
2-4
4-8
9-12
12-15
15-18
18-25
Kg/100km of
Li-ion b.pack
(180Wh/kg)
6-11
11-17
23-50
50-67
67-85
85-100
100-150
DC link (V)
24-48
48-65
48-98
65-240
120-360
240-480
360-480++
Nominal
Power (kW)
0.05-1.0
to 3
to 15
10-40
18-70
50-140
70-200+
Speed (km/h)
to 35
to 45
45-30+
No driving licence / 14 years / 16 years
No heavy safety restrictions
by design
M1 passenger Cars: ABS, EPS mandatory
NCAP 5 almost a must
* High speed classical motorcycles are not included
Table 1 Classification of e-means per weight, energy consumes and battery pack needed for their
typical missions. The 180Wh/kg is the 2011 state of-the-art energy density of a Li-ion battery pack.
The classification should not be regarded as sharp as it could appear from table 1. Clearly vehicles
cannot be classified by weight only, their footprint and shape influence consume as well. LEVs as
well as micro EVs are very heterogeneous and could be subdivided into several subclasses. In
some cases cars of 800-900kg are classified as small82 while the category of large e-cars (ACEA
executive) could be subdivided in two. An analysis of market evolution per segment is quite
complex because of the many factors in play; taxes on conventional cars, incentives to EVs, the
availability of easy to use infrastructures, congestion and traffic limitations in cities influence the
82
M. Grunig et al, An overview of Electric Vehicles on the market and in development, Report, Delft April 2011.
Reporting an extensive analysis per weight.
21
sales of EVs. The total cost of ownership is another parameter that influences customer towards
EVs and clearly the evolution of the price of gasoline will further increase the gap between EVs
and ICEVs.
The macro classification per mass is the most useful to understand how technology evolution
impacts performance and production costs. We will limit the considerations and comparisons only
to performance (speed and range) and production costs. Aware that a large number of “external
variables” are all advantaging PEVs over ICEVs.
Weight is usually correlated to size and aero drag influencing consume, range and total capacity of
the battery pack. Besides weight influences:
o the DC link voltage and the complexity of the battery system,
o the rated power then heat dissipation in power electronic and motor(s) and the overall
cooling system,
o semiconductor technology to be used (MOSFET/ IGBT). Silicon is the basic material for
LEVs, Micro, City and Small EVs while mid-size and large e-cars benefit of SiC components
capable of handling much higher currents with better efficiency and heat dissipation
property.
In the following the market segmentation already taking place within these vehicle categories will
be reported on. For each vehicle category gaps that must be filled to meet production volumes
and the performance targeted per category are commented on and resulting recommendations
are provided.
4.1
Light Electrical Vehicles up to 350 kilograms
China is the world leader with a 2010 production of 27 million e-bikes83 and an accumulated fleet
on the road of over 100 million in 2009. In 2010, China produced 83 million conventional bikes84
and set a vision per which by 2030, LEVs will replace all forms of gasoline scooters, mopeds and
light motorcycles in the market today with Electric Scooters 85. Additionally, increasing affluence
among consumers will result in many buyers of normal bicycles and today’s electric bicycles
upgrading to electric motor scooters. According to Pike Research the world market for electric
bicycles will reach 47 million in 2018, and “China is anticipated to account for 42 million of these ebicycles that year, giving it 89% of the total world market” 86.
Worthwhile to mention is the approach of the Chinese Government who has financed the
construction of public infrastructure to facilitate new companies entering the business of e-bikes87.
E-bikes are part of the Central Government Implementation plan approved in August 2009
focusing on Regional Excellence. Tianjin’s region is the Kingdom of e-bikes with 29.41 billion USD
by 2012 invested in infrastructures in an area of 8 square kilometres addressing the full supply
chain of e-bikes and including: the national bicycle testing centre, the metal manufacture centre,
83
http://www.bike-eu.com/Sales-Trends/Market-Report/2011/2/bChina-2010b-E-bikes-Developing-atUnprecedented-Speed-BIK004801W/ . 25 Feb 2011.
84
http://www.bike-eu.com/Sales-Trends/Market-trends/2012/5/Chinas-Bike-Production-and-Export-Leveling-OffBIK005849W/, 8 May 2012
85
Tao WU, Tianjin Polytechnic University, The Infrastructure and Environment to Develop and Manufacture EVs in
China, Presented at The future of Electrical Vehicles, 7-8 December, 2010, San Jose.
86
Press Release, 27 May 2012, Pike Research. http://www.pikeresearch.com/newsroom/annual-sales-of-electricbicycles-will-surpass-47-million-by-2018-2
87
Tao WU, Tianjin Polytechnic University, The Infrastructure and Environment to Develop and Manufacture EVs in
China, Presented at The future of Electrical Vehicles, 7-8 December, 2010, San Jose.
22
the new material and energy R&D manufacture centre, the premium bike manufacture centre, the
premium bike parts manufacture centre, the bike industrial culture centre, the logistic centre.
LEVs have the potential to be the cleanest mean of transport. Additionally, they are comparably
cheap. Hence, LEVs can be expected to play an important role as the demand for affordable and
sustainable mobility continues to increase. As well, the bicycle fits well with the growing interest in
recreation, sports, fitness and health. With world-wide wealth increasing, people are able to make
new choices towards better personal transport, with “better” being a matter of style, prestige and
utility. Most humans world-wide travel by foot, bicycle, bus, train, or metro. Thus, LEVs are an
upgrade in personal mobility for most humans.
The move to e-bikes is very fast in Europe as well headed by the Netherlands where e-bikes
became a status symbol. There sales increase while sales for conventional bikes decline. “Today
15% of all bicycles sold in the Netherlands are e-bikes and this number is expected to grow to
25%.” 88. Within the EU electric bike sales broke the one million unit mark in 2010. EU Sales are
forecast to grow to 3 million by 201589.
The electric bike is far less than a mature product. Sensors integration is often employed only as
an addition to the system to facilitate information gathering. The framework to process this
information is rather basic. The connection between the sensors functionality and the the user at
the design and usage stages is not profoundly researched. Existing electric bikes are not smart and
do not adapt themselves intuitively to the user’s experience.
The two wheels motorisation is the most unsafe modality of transportation (fatalities/km), ICT
plays a crucial role in safety, communication with the infrastructure and energy efficiency.
Gaps: As seen from the ICT context Europe has no gaps to recover. Bosch is offering an e-bike drive
system with three sensors measuring speed, pedaling frequency, and torque. STMicroelectronics
and Infineon are supplying the majority of Chinese players with power MOSFETS and electronic
kits. The manufacturing volumes and the implemented vertical level of organisation addressed in
China has generated a gap that cannot be recovered, most European “manufacturers” are in fact
importers and assemblers of Chinese parts. European manufacturers are differentiating their
products addressing premium e-bikes but the small average size of these companies and the
increasing level of heterogeneous and multidisciplinary systems integration will face the EU
manufacturers to the much more organized premium bike manufacturing centre operating in
China. There is a considerable risk that even the context of premium e-bikes will be dominated by
Chinese companies. EU companies will suffer the availability of low cost motors as much as the
availability of battery systems.
Recommendations: The stated production of STM and Infineon are located in China where the
largest demand is (China), multi-sensor e-bikes platforms are sold as well by Panasonic with
production in Asia. ICT and system integration play a crucial role for next generation of much
smarter e-bikes; European suppliers have the necessary technologies, but to sustain a European
manufacture of e-bikes it seems essential to pursue the development of a European supply chain
and advanced R&D activities by focussing in few selected Specialized Regions.
88
E-bikes Stand Strong in Declining Dutch Economy, January 03, 2012, http://www.bike-eu.com/news/e-bikes-stand-strong-indeclining-dutch-economy-5543.html
89
http://www.bike-eu.com/market-reports/beu-2010-b-e-bikes-rising-star-in-all-major-markets-5299.html
23
4.2
Micro e-vehicles in the range of 350-650 kg
These category of vehicles include light quadricycles90 and heavy quadricycles91, most times
outside Europe they are called low speed EVs or ultra-mini EVs.
The business of MicroEVs has taken off in China as well as in Europe. They do not require ABS or
EPS systems and can be homologated by much simpler and quicker procedures than those
required by classical M1 vehicles. The design is typically reduced to the essentials functionalities
and no stringent regulations have to be applied against crash and safety tests. As in larger e-cars
all connectivity aspects are demanded to personal portable smart devices.
Light quadricycles do not require a driving licence and can be driven by 14 years old people.
Several EU countries do not allow the circulation of these category of vehicles.
Heavy quadricycles require an A1 driving license (16 years old people) for powers up to 15kW and
maximum weight of 550 kg (for vehicles intended for carrying goods), not including the mass of
batteries in the case of electric vehicles. The speed at which these vehicles can be homologated
depends on the safety features implemented and can reach values of 70-90km/h with battery
packs allowing ranges above 200km.
The Renault Twizy 45 (max speed 45kmh) and the heavy Twizy are the two most popular European
examples of micro EVs.
Micro EVs in China are gradually becoming a practical transportation device confirming the
emergence of ultra-low price vehicle.The manufacturers are concentrated in Shandong Province,
where approximately 100 producers exist and 85,000 micro EVs were manufactured in 201192. Like
for e-bike , the vertical supply chain established in the Chinese Shandong Province allows the new
producers an easy access to the public infrastructures for research, design, low cost manufacturing
processes, testing, homologation and standards. No problems are foreseen on the grid even when
a large number of micro EVs would be connected at the same time to the grid.Low cost production
facilities and low cost enabling components and systems (battery packs 4kWh-10kWh) allow
vehicle prices between 2500€ and 11000€.
Micro EVs are more of an alternative to conventional ICEVs than e-bikes, since heavy quadricycles
meet many people’s needs, and can be designed to be updated to M1 vehicles. Hence, in the next
five years micro EVs may be a fast growing sector experiencing a similar growth like e-bikes Which
can be expected to lead to the decline of conventional micro vehicles based on combustion
engines.
90
Light quadricycles (L6e) are defined by Framework Directive 2002/24/EC as: "motor vehicles with four wheels
whose unladen mass is not more than 350 kg, not including the mass of the batteries in case of electric vehicles,
whose maximum design speed is not more than 45 km/h, and: whose maximum continuous rated power does not
exceed 4 kW in the case of an electric motor. These vehicles shall fulfill the technical requirements applicable to
three-wheel mopeds of category L2e unless specified differently in any of the separate directives". Therefore, in many
European countries such as France, Italy, Belgium and the Netherlands, light quadricycles can be driven without an
automobile driver’s licence (category B).
91
Quadricycles (L7e), also referred to as Heavy quadricycles, are defined by Framework Directive 2002/24/EC as
motor vehicles with four wheels "other than those referred to (as light quadricycles), whose unladen mass is not more
than 400 kg (category L7e) (550 kg for vehicles intended for carrying goods), not including the mass of batteries in the
case of electric vehicles, and whose maximum net engine power does not exceed 15 kW. These vehicles shall be
considered to be motor tricycles and shall fulfill the technical requirements applicable to motor tricycles of category
L5e unless specified differently in any of the separate Directives".
92
Cars 21, August 23, 2012. http://cars21.com/news/view/4876, August 23, 2012
24
The introduction of novel approaches to safety cell designs assisted by advanced ICT features,
aiming at reducing the risk of road fatalities may contribute to an even higher potential demand
than the forecasted 55.000 units of annual sales in 2017 93.
Gaps: Europe has no ICT technology gaps to recover but rather advantages to defend, as e.g.
power MOSFET technology and smart photovoltaic. Smart personal devices will play an ever
increasing role to differentiate micro EVs and because the complete personal smart device does
not seem to be a EU manufacturing context any more, there are concrete risks that the most
advanced implementation will be originated outside Europe. In that direction European industries
need to cover the implementation of advanced functionalities and system integration aspects
taking advantage of the EU strength on MEMS design and developments. The availability of battery
packs is a gap that non-large EU companies will suffer against the much more vertical Chinese,
Korean and Japanese supply chains. The emerging gaps to recover are similar to those for ebikes.There are concrete risks that Chinese companies gradually increase their advantage on
premium micro EVs as well.
Recommendations: In Europe the supply chain for this category of vehicles is still rather weak and
needs support in terms of both public infrastructures and the funding of manufacturing facilities.
The promotion of SMEs clusters in Specialized Regions is essential to originate more vertical and
organized supply chains. The manufacturing of micro EVs does not require the expertise of the
classical OEMs and the EU Governments of non-automotive oriented nations should be motivated
to launch local productions or parts assembly.
A specific EU Directive could be introduced to make smart photovoltaic mandatory by 2020
because most trips of micro EVs can be covered by the accumulation of solar radiation only.
Incentives to purchase micro EVs should be introduced to promote the use of more efficient and
lower footprint vehicles still responding to most people demand.
4.3
City e-Cars 650-1000kg and Small e-Cars 1000-1300 kg
By 2015 a city e-car adopting state of-the-art technologies, when having the same weight of an
ICEV, can run for ranges above 200km (NEDC)94 while small cars can be conceived with ranges
above 250 km (NEDC). Even in a view of conservative technology advancements for these
categories of cars the full hybridization or the introduction of range extenders does not seem to be
technically justified. Because for mature products weight, production cost and eventual price are
strictly connected, from 2015 most new city cars may be expected to be conceived starting with
the full electric version. For small e-cars this development may be three years later.
City e-cars are currently priced at around 20.000€. Because battery and powertrain technologies
are evolving quite fast, e-cars that will be commercialised since 2014 will be revised two or three
times before 2020, and hence, technology evolution and the consolidation of mass manufacturing
capabilities will have a considerable impact on price and performance on small and city e-cars like:
Renault Zoe, Smart Fortwo Electric Drive, Volkswagen e-Up, BMW (i lower series), Citroën C-Zero,
Peugeot iOn, etc.
Consequently new “born” electrical vehicles with much better performance may make city e-cars
price- and performancewise competitive to conventional ICVEs by 2017-2018. city e-cars will be
price-performance competitive with conventional ICEVs. Again small e-cars may reach that goal
93
Press Release, Pike Research 25 October 2011. http://www.pikeresearch.com/newsroom/trends-in-housingdemographics-to-fuel-growth-of-neighborhood-electric-vehicles
94
P.Perlo, “Strategic Advice FEV, Impact Assessment on Environment, Economy & Society”, ICT4FEV project report,
February 2012.
25
about three years later. Additional demand for these types of cars may be created by government
incentives and the increasing traffic restrictions set by many EU cities. Small EVs with an
incorporated fast charge system are likely to become the first and only car of many EU families95.
The high EU internal demand represents a clear advantage for the EU OEMs however this is the
sector of electromobility faced to the toughest global competition.For city e-cars the emergence of
ultra-low price vehicles and motivations of emerging nations for export to Europe may be a risk for
European manufacturers.
Gaps: European OEMs and TIERs 1 and the associated supply chain have the full potentiality to
cover by 2020 the demand of electric city cars, but the concerns on battery manufacturing in
Europe must be urgently addressed. The more advanced manufacturing and R&D in batteries of
Japan, Korea, the US and China may in the near term affect the role of the EU industry in a sector
where Europe has the second largest demand. Furthermore, because fast charging is becoming an
almost mandatory feature especially for small e-cars, there is an urgent need to address EU
solutions in opposition to the spread of the CHaDemo DC fast charge approach. European
companies need to address alternative more efficient and cost affordable (either DC or AC fast
charge) solutions together with standards. Power electronics and associated ICT play a crucial role
to reduce the still existing gap in this regard.
4.4
Mid-Size e-Cars 1300-1500kg and Large size e-Cars 1500-2000kg
The 2012 has seen the first commercialization of mid-size plug-in hybrids in Europe running in pure
electric mode 20-25 km and until 2018 the most mature full hybrids and plug-in hybrids are likely
to win the competition with the more expensive fully electrical versions. The 30% increased range
of the forthcoming 2013 fully electric Nissan Leaf (1526kg)96 with respect to the 2010 version and
the spread of fast charging points in conventional petrol stations is a clear warning of the
recommended design approach towards new vehicles of this category. In the next 5 years it will be
always more difficult to decide whether a new vehicle of this category has to be conceived first
hybrid plug-in or directly fully electric. The sales of this segment in Europe are currently of the
order of 3.1-3.3 million cars/year.
For large e-cars full hybrids and plug-in hybrids will remain the most likely first design option until
2020. In Europe this category of cars is currently representing 1.8-2.0 million cars/year. This
category of cars is associated to high speeds and long distance travels and there is still no technical
evidence that before 2020 FEVs could compete in performance and production cost with ICEVs, full
hybrids or plug-in hybrids. Until 2020 the sales of fully electrical vehicles of this category will be
strongly correlated to incentives and are likely to remain a small share of the total sales. Unless
FEVs of this category are used for the delivery of goods or have other specific uses in the urban
context they should not be incentivized before 2018.
Gaps: High voltages and high currents necessary to deliver peak powers above 100kW impose
cooling and an overall electrical electronic complexity of the powertrain much higher than the one
necessary for city and small EVs. At the power level in play for the categories (up to 100kW for midsized cars and up to 180 kW for large cars) the availability of SiC components capable of handling
high currents with high efficiency and heat dissipation property represents an industrial
advantage. European SEMI industries will have to spend considerable R&D efforts to keep the
95
“89% of EV owners in California report using their EVs as their primary car”, report published by California Center
for Sustainable Energy (CCSE,) July 2012, available at www.energycenter.org.
96
Nissan Leaf is here considered a mid-sized e-cars in view of near term technology evolution.
26
level of competition on SiC aligned with the Japanese and the US one. For this category of vehicles
fast charging is a commercial must and the state of development of the infrastructure is critical.
27
5
Technology Transfer between Aeronautics and
Automotive Sectors
The aerospace and automotive sectors are sharing common interests and face similar challenges
regarding the electrification of the vehicle and the aircraft respectively. In terms of the
roadmapped technology fields mainly Energy Storage Systems, Drive Train Technologies and
Vehicle System Integration as well as Driver Assistance offer topics for cooperation or transfer on
sub-system and on system level (see figure 3). At the same time, both sectors are driven by
different focuses. In the aerospace industry, performance, availability and radiation harshness are
the keywords for technology development and production. A much longer time of operation
within a much harsher environment, higher safety and dependability requirements as well as
mandatory certification set very different standards for aerospace industry compared to the
automotive industry, which is driven by low cost and modular and efficient designs. Hence, it is
also worthwhile to harmonize requirements, especially those related to environment (vibration,
shock, temperature & radiation) to help define common components. For example, the definition
of a common temperature range between aeronautics (-55/+125°C) and automotive (-40/+115°C)
would help standardizing the references and tests. One could also mention the temperature
cycling or the power cycling conditions as other fields where aeronautics and automotive should
address the suppliers in the same way.
These topics for co-operation and knowledge transfer as well as possibilities for the harmonization
of requirements should be taken into account for proposals of sector-specific R&D programmes,
and may also be beneficial for the definition of future directions for common R&D programmes for
both, the aeronautics and the automotive transport sector.
Common topics regarding electrification in both sectors concern foremost the electronics domain.
Hence, especially regarding components development and manufacturing processes, it is very
important for both sectors to get leverage on electronics industry to promote a European supply
base for critical components. Such base technologies that are relevant to all technology fields are
listed in the transversal roadmap. First steps in this direction have been taken through European
Space Agency, European Defence Agency and European Commission to define “European
Technology non Dependence” as part of the future FP8 activities in space research.
In order to advance the discussion in the context of the present roadmap document into more
detail, the Discotech97 roadmaps have been analysed for topics relevant to electrification of the
vehicle. The Discotech roadmaps, which were designed for the aeronautics and space domain in
the field of components, can greatly contribute to the definition of breakpoint technologies
common to the electrification of air and road transport, although they were initially meant for
defence needs. Figure 4 shows items and respective timelines as given in the Discotech roadmaps
that have a high potential for a future dual use in the automotive and aeronautics sector. These
have been taken into account for the development of the ICT for the FEV roadmap to identify
common breakpoints in technologies as far as electronic components are concerned, and for
reference to the timeline as considered in the aeronautics sector. These base technologies are
mostly relevant for all technology fields and hence, this analysis bears importance especially for
the transversal roadmap. Nevertheless, some breakpoint technologies and respective targets from
the aeronautics sector relevant for the electric vehicle shall be provided for reference and
comparison:
97
The Discotech roadmaps have been established for the European Defence Agency and aim at highlighting
where components should be specifically developed to fulfil the specific Defence needs.
28
Energy Storage Systems:



2020:15 years and 300 000 km (autonomy should reach 200 km)
Energy density: 400 Wh/kg in 2020 and 700 Wh/kg in 2025.
Super-capacitors: supply voltage of 3.5 V and energy density of 20 Wh/kg in 2016
Drive train technologies:2020




Available power of electrical engine could reach 80-110 kW (to propel a car today)
Power modules voltage to go up to 800 V
Maximum temperature 200°C
Robustness in temperature cycling from -50 up to +250°C
Transversal:2020




SiC to deliver power devices above 200 V
Processing and control parts for power electronics in Silicon-On-Insulator with high
temperature (>250°C) might pose an availability issue from European sources.
Availability of WBG components from European sources
The integration of passives components for Low Voltage Power Supplies is facing
bottlenecks:
o No R&D on power resistors (always same old thick films and wirewound
o Power film capacitors : shortage of dielectric film
o Size and weight of capacitors
o No standards for connector specifications
o 3D integration (improve from current situation: <50 V / < 10 A
29
Figure 2 Topics for Co-operation and knowledge transfer between aeronautics and automotive on system and subsystem level
30
Figure 3 Topics excerpted from the Discotech roadmap that are relevant for the electrification of
the vehicle. For indicating the timeframe the Discotech roadmap employed the Technology
Readiness Level (TRL) Scale of the European Space Agency which differentiates the R&D phase
used in the ICT for FEV roadmaps into 5 levels that were in Figure 3 summarized to two stages for
reader’s convenience. The TRL 1-3 are listed as “first stages of introduction” and the TRL 4-5 as
“validation from laboratory to environment”.
31
6
Recommendations
Altogether more than 80 collaborative R&D projects have been started in the context of the PPP
European Green Cars Initiative in all relevant technology fields. A full list including abstracts is
contained in a specific brochure98. These projects together with those initiated within the JTIs
ENIAC and ARTEMIS form a virtual European Technological Flagship that in terms of its dimensions
has few equals in the rest of the world. Coordination across the JTIs, the PPP EGCI and national
programmes should be further emphasized aiming at the convergence and complementarity of
the objectives.
In light of these current activities, and taking into account the assessments made by the European
Technology Platforms of the PPP European Green Cars Initiative, some recommendations can be
made on how the topic of ICT for the FEV could be further promoted within the new Horizon 2020
framework. This shall follow the roadmaps as described in this document, and for a systematic
approach start from the ICT and Smart Systems functionalities as described in Figure 1.
In order to meet the ambitious goals of global climate protection policy, a substantial deployment
of EV will be needed. Ambitious plans have thus been announced by several EU Member States,
however a unified EU Directive aiming at aligning the EU targets to those planned in USA, Japan,
and China is recommended to further stimulate and coordinate industrial actions by overall
ambitious but achievable targets. The proposal for a Clean Power for Transport Directive can be
considered a serious step into this direction.
Consequently, Europe is very likely to demand an annual battery capacity of the order of 100GWh
by 202099 corresponding to a market of 15÷20B€. That is 7 to 8 times the expected European
production capacity by 2015 (400,000÷500,000 automotive battery packs). The lack of European
produced batteries will impact and seriously limit the competitiveness of all ICT related aspects of
electromobility. Because of that the most important recommendation is that European
Commission, Member States and large OEMs/TIER1s will coordinate their actions to launch large
scale risk sharing initiatives to manufacture battery cells and systems in Europe.
Aiming at the generation of specialised and competing vertical supply chains, specific activities
should be promoted so that the objectives pursued in the forthcoming Horizon 2020 framework
converge with the structural funds investments planned within e.g. the regional specialization RIS3
initiative100.
The development of multi-sensor platforms, energy-power storage, actuator systems, smart
energy harvesting and novel 3D mapping-navigation solutions in different application areas such
as: road mobility, personal aero mobility, robotic companions and water mobility should be
encouraged to generate critical masses and maximise the impact of the R&D efforts. With the
advent of personal air e-mobility even a a bidirectional technology transfer between aeronautics
and road mobility may have a constantly increased role in the future.
Horizon 2020
According to the assessments made in the context of updating the European Roadmap on
Electrification of Road Transportation, and of compiling this Roadmap on ICT for the Fully Electric
98
Project Portfolio European Green Cars Initiative PPP. ERTRAC/EPoSS7SmatGrids/EIRAC 2011.
P.Perlo, End users and the SMEs perspective, Electric Vehicle workshop, ICT Competitiveness Week, 19-09-2012
Brussels.
100
Guide to Research and Innovation Strategies for Smart Specialisation (RIS 3), March 2012.March
99
32
Vehicle, a multitude of new research, development and innovation (R&D&I) activities have to be
started under the new Framework for Research and Innovation Funding, Horizon 2020. This is in
much detail reflected by the technology phases proposed in the annex of this document.
A more general overview of when research and development phases will be needed for the ICT
and Smart System Functionalities described in the annex is shown in figure 4. It indicates that
there will be two dominant development phases of the role of ICT in the FEV under Horizon 2020,
namely:
(a)
ICT enabling mass production of city and small FEVs (2012 – 2018)
The current FEVs still lack user acceptance because the total cost of ownership is higher than for a
conventional car and may be paid off by lower cost of energy only after a couple of years. Also, the
limited range is essentially restricting the use to urban driving, and yet the underdeveloped
charging infrastructure is a major roadblock. ICT, components and smart systems will be used not
just for improving the energy efficiency of the electric drivetrain and the energy management but
also for enhancing the ease of use, e.g. by routing and navigation functionalities, user
identification or the integration into a multi-modal transport system. Novel car sharing services
which lead to a better utilization ratio of FEVs will be enabled by these activities.
(b)
ICT enabling the complete redesign of the FEV (2015 – 2021)
A second phase which will start already in parallel to the first one but will extend over the entire
duration of Horizon 2020 is aiming at enabling the mass deployment of FEVs through enabling
series production and a fundamental resolution of existing hurdles. Functionality improvement,
the reduction of complexity and an overall optimized energy management will be key factors of
this development. In particular, a complete revision of the electric and electronic architecture of
the FEV has to be undertaken, supported by drive by wire or even wireless communication as well
as overall modular concepts, as it can lead to weight reductions and leaner production processes.
The required research and development activities will not be delivered and implemented into
products in short time, also because of serious re-organization of the structures of vehicle
manufacturing.
Beyond these two development phases, a third trend will be expected for the time of Horizon
2020, namely the overall radical increase of energy efficiency of FEVs by a synergetic combination
of developments from a multitude of domains including electrochemical energy storage systems,
light weight construction and (which would be the part of ICT) the improved system integration. In
order to exploit the full potential of this trend, and to make use of it for the competitiveness of the
European industry, research activities in a multitude of domains need to be coordinated and the
required value chains have to be created. Therefore, the technology developments suggested in
this document need to be complemented by innovation at all product layers of a vehicle, as it has
been suggested by the European Technology Platforms of the European Green Cars Initiative PPP
for Horizon 2020.
33
Figure 4 Phases of research and development in the domain of ICT and Smart Systems functionalities for the FEV as
projected for Horizon 2020. (X: Implementation phase).
34
7
Annex
7.1
Technology roadmaps
A European Roadmap „Electrification of Road Transport“ was compiled in late 2009 and updated
in 2012 by the European Technology Platforms EPoSS, ERTRAC and SmartGrids that combine their
efforts within the PPP European Green Cars Initiative. This roadmap is dedicated to fully electrified
or Plug-in-Hybrid passenger cars.
Milestones covering a time period until 2025 were defined that indicate multi-annual
implementation paths for the electrification of passenger cars. Actions to be taken in order to
achieve the milestones are sorted into technology fields:






Energy Storage Systems
Drive Train Technologies
Vehicle System Integration
Grid Integration
Transport System Integration
Safety.
In the following technology roadmaps specify devices and the related research needs and
necessary development steps to develop the functionalities that were defined in chapter 3 . These
items are sorted into the technology fields as defined in the European Roadmap „Electrification of
Road Transport“. A transversal roadmap has been added that deals mostly with materials and
basic building blocks of smart systems and ICT devices that are transverse to many described
functionalities and technology fields.
35
4
Energy Storage Systems
Research
& Development
Battery Assembly and Manufacturing Processes
Production
& Market
Recycling-ready Design
Regulatory
Framework
Battery Management System
Develop Aging Model + Aging Protocol
Smart Modules and Scaleable Systems
Active and Passive Cell Balancing/ Redistribution
Failure and Crisis Management
Integrated Power Electronics
Thermal Management of Battery Cells
Including Low Temperature Capabilities
Flexible Battery Management System
Architecture
User Interface to BMS/EMS
Standards for Smart Packaging of Batteries
Reg. for Battery Assembly and Manufacturing
Processes
Standards for Battery Evaluation, Test, and
Reliability
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
2022
2024
2026
Table 2 ICT related to battery management is well developed in Europe but it will hardly advance if
Europe will not be able to establish its own large scale battery manufacturing.
36
4
Drive Train Technologies
Research
& Development
Highly Integrated Powertrain: Functionalization, Integration,
Miniturization with Modular Storage Systems
Production
& Market
Smart and Robust Traction Control for single and multimotor
design, Torque vectoring, Priorisation of functions for safety
Regulatory
Framework
Active Load Management
Optimize Regenerative Braking
Analysis of Critical Failure Modes
User-Accepted and Safe Drive-by-Wire
Optimize Control ICE for use as Range Extender
ICT/Smart Systems for High Integration Range Extenders
Control for modular range extenders
EMC limits and tests for electrical drives
Diagnostics in multi-drive power train architecture
Safety Regulations drive-by-wire for EV
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
2022
2024
2026
Table 3 Silicon is the basic material for LEVs, Micro, City and Small EVs while mid-size and large ecars benefit of SiC components capable of handling much higher currents with better efficiency
and heat dissipation property. The e-powetrain will gradually evolve to multi-motor propulsion
embedding vehicle stabilization functions and distributed regenerative braking. ICT is the most
important aspect towards more efficient electrical motors having low or no contents of critical
permanent magnets that can compete with Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor such as:
 Separately excited Synchronous Motor [SSM]
 Induction motor [IM]
 Switched Reluctance Motor [SRM]
 Synchronous Reluctance Motor (SynRM)
37
4
Vehicle System Integration
Comprehensive Energy Management
Research
Develop Measures for Vehicle Health / Fault Diagnostics
Production
Research Possibilities for Smart Self-Sustained and / or Energy
Optimized Auxiliaries
Regulatory
Smart Photovoltaics
Investigate Possibilities of Active NVH Control
Fundamentally revised E/E- and Software Architecture:
Integration, Simplification, Felexibility
Scaleable CPU
Hirarchical Decision Making
Incorporation of Intelligent Sensors and Actuators
Separation of Hard- and Software
Implement Plug'n'Play Hard- and Software
Exploit possibilities of partial networking
Broadband Infrastructure >1 Gbit/s (Transciever/Router/Bus)
Communication Standard for the EV Energy Management
System and Associated Components (e.g. Smart Navigation
eCharger, Power Train, Vehicle Safety Module)
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
2022
2024
2026
Table 4 The electric-electronic architecture of the electrical vehicle is intrinsically different from
that of the ICEV. New concepts of modularity and partial networking can be introduced in EVs
while reducing complexity and costs. Personal devices, when interface to wireless systems, can
contribute to radically simplify the electrical electronic-architecture and projects should be
encouraged towards the maximum level of simplification of all non-safety critical functionalities.
38
4
Grid Integration
Research
& Development
Develop Adaptive on- and off- Board Charging Device
Production
& Market
Smart Devices for Bi-Directional Charging
Smart Devices for Contactless Charging
Regulatory
Framework
Smart Energy Supply and Demand Matcher
Regulations and Limits for Contactless eCharging
Next Gen car2grid Communication for eCharging
Incorporating new Charging Techniques
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
2022
2024
2026
Table 5 ICT technology dominates the V2G functionalities at large. The development of both onboard and off-board fast charging technologies should be considered a priority. Together with the
wireless, conductive charging or hybrid charging methodologies and their associated protocols,
R&D efforts should be spent on assuring “invisibility” to the user and the integration of off-grid
renewable energies.
4
Safety
Advanced vulnerable Road Users Protection Systems
adapted to FEVs
Research
& Development
Adaptive Personal Safety System
Production
& Market
Functional Safety: HV, Gases, Thermal
Regulatory
Framework
Optimized (lower cost) Adaptive Light Protection System/
Vision Enhancement
Functional Safety "Designing for Reliability" Standard
Addendum to ISO26262; Implementation Guideline EV
Safety Regulations for Autonomous Driving
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
2022
2024
2026
Table 6 The typical high voltages and currents that characterise the electrical vehicle ask for fail
safe double and triple redundancy in the electrical architecture against high voltage-current
contacts during all phases of the lifecycle including manufacturing, use and maintenance.
39
4
Transport System Integration
Research
& Development
Develop Devices for Automated and Cooperative Driving
Production
& Market
Car2Car and Car2Infrastructure
Regulatory
Framework
Provide Interfaces for Integration into
Transport System Networks; Enable multi-modality
Smart Energy Efficient Router
Next Gen Maps for EV Navigation; Smart Information and
Formats, Learn Techniques, Car2Car Protocols
Smart Connectivity to Private Networking (e.g. NFC) and Public
Information Systems
Next Gen Car2Infrastructure Communication; Wireless and
Secured
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
2022
2024
2026
Table 7 The conventional Vehicle to Vehicle or Vehicle to infrastructure communication is evolving
towards the networking amongst different modalities of mobility managed by personal devices
primarily to assure a higher level of safety in highly congested cities. The management of modality
change within the same travel or the management of EVs fleets towards usership concepts are
aspects requiring further ICT developments.
40
4
Transversal
Autonomus / Wireless Sensor & Actuators
Research
& Development
Thermal Stable Electronics / Materials
Production
& Market
Packaging Technology (3D, Modules, Flexible / Thin Films
Electronics and Photovoltaic…)
Regulatory
Framework
Passive Components
Intelligent Power Electronic Devices (smart IGBTs, Switch /
Drive Capabilities for MOSFETs)
Methods and Tools for Design of Components and Systems:
Software Solutions, Simulation Models & Tools
Innovative Technologies and Materials (High Bandgap
Material and Components, Communication Components
for Telematics Products & Services, Embedded Processing
Power >100 MIPS, Mechatronics)
Regulations for the Reliability and Manufacturing Tests for
the Extended Lifecycle of EV Components
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
2022
2024
2026
Table 8 The conventional methodologies currently addressing the design of electronic components
have to be further developed to limit the impact of EMI and EMC as seen at a system level thus
assuring the highest level of safety and enhance the perception that electromobility is the cleanest
and the safest form of road transport.
41
7.2
Tables of benefits of the electric vehicle
Year
Power
Plant
Efficiency
Grid
Efficiency
Inverter
AC/DC
Efficiency
Battery
Power Electr
Efficiency
Efficiency
(Slow Charge) (DC/DC,
DC-AC)
Motor and
Magnetic
Gear
Efficiency
Energy
Consumption
Ideal mid size
car Wh/km #
Total
Consumption
of Primary
Energy
Wh/km*
1998
0.39
0.88
0.85
0.70
0.65-0.70
120
987-1064
0.85
Range
20km°
2008
-7% Reg.
Braking
0.45
0.93
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.80-0.86
120
457-492
Range
150km
2008
Range
150km
-15% Reg.
Braking
Renewable 0.93
Energy
only
2008
Range
600km
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.80-0.86
120
205-221
-15% Reg.
Braking
WTW Powertrain Efficiency
of a Conventional Internal Combustion Engine car in reality:
0.16 - 0.23
120
522-750
-10% micromild hybrid
Table 9 Evolution of primary energy consumption of electrical vehicles, and comparison to the
conventional power train. #Energy needed to move an ideal mid-sized vehicle in the NEDC.
°Reduced battery weight. *Cars smaller than the reference vehicle may have less energy
consumption.
CO2eq in g/km
Well to Tank
(Batteries)
Tank (Batteries) to
Wheels
Total CO2eq
Emissions
23
120
143
Biofuels
17 - 28
97 - 135
114 - 163
Battery Electric
Vehicle
64 - 80
0
64 - 80
126 - 155
0
126 - 155
0 – 4**
0
0 – 4*
Conventional ICE Car *
26,0% Nuclear
24,2% Renewable
49,8% Fossils
(EU-27 mix 2011)
Battery Electric
Vehicle
(Coal)
Battery Electric
Vehicle
50% Wind
50% Photovoltaic
(Renewables)
Table 10 Comparison of WTW CO2 emissions for conventional gasoline ICE vehicles, biofuels
conventional ICE and EVs in relation to the electricity mix. EU-27 Electricity mix derived from
42
Eurostat. Emissions from101. * Definition of conventional ICE car from83. **Emissions for
Photovoltaics from EPIA, Wind from EWEA.
101
CONCAWE (CONservation of Clean Air and Water in Eu, EUCAR (European Council for Automotive R&D) and JRC
(EU Joint Research Center). Well-To-Wheels analysis of future auto-motive fuels and power trains in the European
context. 2011.
43