Cloud Publications
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
2013, Volume 1, Issue 1, pp. 1-13, Article ID Mgmt-9
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Review Article
Open Access
Advent of American Missionaries in India
Delphin Prema Dhanaseeli
Department of History, Jayaraj Annapackiam College for Women, Periyakulam, Tamil Nadu, India
Correspondence should be addressed to Delphin Prema Dhanaseeli, prema.jac@gmail.com
Publication Date: 1 March 2013
Article Link: http://management.cloud-journals.com/index.php/IJAHR/article/view/Mgmt-9
Copyright © 2013 Delphin Prema Dhanaseeli. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract This paper describes the advent of American Missionaries in India during the period of East
India Company. India filled with social evils like sati (self-immolation of widows on husband’s funeral
pyre), thugee (organized robbery), and female infanticide and caste discrimination was ruled by East
India Company which adopted religious neutrality principle. The Christian revival fire from England
spread to America and several students of American Colleges came forward to go on a mission to
countries like India for proselytizing the Gospel. The American board, ABCFM had sent missionaries
to India who reached Calcutta. But due to the American war of Independence the missionaries could
not establish their work. But two of them with many difficulties started their mission at Bombay leading
to Maratha Mission. Later, the missionaries who established the Jaffna Mission at Sri Lanka also
visited Madurai in South India where Tamil is spoken. This led to the establishment of American
Madura Mission through which the American missionaries did medical, social and educational
services for the upliftment of depressed classes and women.
Keywords Christian Mission, Bombay, Jaffna and Madurai
1. Introduction
The English East India Company which remained mainly as a trading concern in India began to be a
ruling power between 1770 and 1818 and focused its attention on the problems of Indians. As a
politically disunited State, India experienced the spread of social diseases due to the growing
ignorance and the practices like sati (self- immolation of widows on husband’s funeral pyre), thugee
(organized robbery), female infanticide and rigidity of caste system. The British, who adopted the ‘go
slow’ policy, believed that the spread of education and enlightenment would replace the ignorance
and the superstitious beliefs which had no foundation. The American missionaries believed that a
power ethic and a more sublime religion could help in removing the social evils pervaded in the Indian
religion which was not only idolatrous but also a virtual denial of love. The English East India
Company was initially hostile to the introduction of Christianity and western ideas and hence evolved
a policy of religious neutrality. This unfriendly policy towards Christian evangelism met a change due
to the efforts of the Evangelical Party in 1793 through the promulgation of the Charter Act. Such
developments in England roused interest in evangelism in America followed by the augmentation of
foreign missions.
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
2. Religious Policy of the British
The English East India Company, which arrived India in the seventeenth century ultimately emerged
as the powerful colonial power in the mid- eighteenth century. The Company’s main interest was trade
and profit while religious concern was only peripheral. Initially it did not integrate commerce and
Christianity and the chaplains who accompanied the English crew were not expected to evangelize in
India. Though the official religion of them was Christianity, the Company adopted neutral religious
policy. When the British became an important territorial power by 1772, they wanted to expand their
empire through wars and annexations. They also focused their interest on solving the problems of
Indians with the sense of responsibility and promulgated the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt’s India Act of
1784 and periodical Charter Acts of 1793, 1813, 1853 and 1858. As Britain was progressing with the
advancement of leadership, technology and organization, India was politically disunited, culturally
unchanging and seemingly unprepared for the impact of the West [1]. The social, political and cultural
status of the country came down due to growing ignorance, evils of superstitious beliefs and practices
like sati, thugee and female infanticide. Hence the radical-minded servants of the company wanted to
bring it up from its long slumber by introducing certain reform measures to promote the social and
cultural growth [2]. The evangelists of Britain felt that the root of all the evils in India was its religion,
which practiced idol worship and the complete denial of God. As William Wilberforce remarked, both
their civil and religious systems are radically and essentially the opposites of our own. Our religion is
sublime, pure and beneficent. Theirs is mean, licentious and cruel. Of our principles and condition, the
common right of all ranks and classes to be governed and protected and punished by equal laws is
the fundamental principle of theirs, the essential and universal pervading character is inequality and
despotism in the higher classes, degradation and oppression in the lower [3].
The British could identify the religion as the root for the social evils of the Tamil society. As England
experienced a spiritual revival after the rise of evangelists like William Carey and John Wesley, the
colonial rulers recognized the necessity of proselytizing the native people. Hence the Directors of the
Company couldn’t turn their faces against the missionaries in Indian territories and the flow of
missionaries was enhanced by the provision of the Charter Act of 1813. The Company also realized
the need for providing education to Indians so that some of them could serve in subordinate positions
in the expanding imperial administrative machinery. The Christian missionaries, by establishing
modern educational institutions, fulfilled the needs of the British administration and provided the
knowledge about the customs, traditions, culture, political and social institutions by their brilliant
linguistic abilities and intelligence. The Company allowed the entry of missionaries aiming at the
improvement of Tamil society through education.
3. Revival in America
Methodism, introduced during the colonial period opened doors for this religious revival. It was first
organized in 1766 during the meetings of Philip Embury at New York and a society was formed later
on. Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor were sent to America by John Wesley [4]. Francis Asbury,
who came on a mission from England in 1771, organized several religious campaigns. His strategy of
preaching through circuit riders to reach the settlements scattered all over America and the camp
meetings led to the revival. As in England, Methodism helped to establish an enthusiastic Christianity
which made people get engaged zealously in preaching salvation and doing benevolent service. Like
the Methodists, Baptists did remarkable service and gave importance to preaching and soul winning
which led to the ‘second awakening’ [5]. The spread of radical philosophical ideas of theistic and
atheistic varieties, introduced as a result of American Christianity aroused the American clergy
towards the end of the eighteenth century to check the spread of atheism and infidelity and strengthen
the church. The Methodist, Baptist and Congregational churches exhibited a remarkable invigoration
by opening theological seminaries and philanthropic organizations towards the end of eighteenth
century. Educational leaders like Timothy Dwight in 1802 vigorously promoted the revival among the
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
2
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
student community at Yale, Dartmouth, Williams and Amherst colleges [6]. Theologians like Samuel
Hopkins (1721-1803) who quickened the revival, believed that the spread of Christianity would
ultimately lead to the emergence of a spirit of universal benevolence and selfless affection which
would form a happy society. Thus the revival that had originated in England spread to America.
The Second Great Awakening, which led to important results in American religious history, attained its
peak around 1795 and 1812 and several inter-denominational societies were organized for
undertaking missions. The British evangelical movement put the fire for American Foreign Missionary
Movement and their mission to India served to turn American interest towards India. William Carey’s
preaching in India excited American Christians in New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts and
Philadelphia. Carey had correspondence with American churches, used to receive financial support
offered by them and his pamphlet published in 1792 entitled Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians
to use means for the Conversion of the Heathens was read by many American Christians. Claudius
Buchanan delivered a sermon, The Star in the East in 1809 that was published in an American edition
at Cambridge, Massachusetts by the Society of Enquiry at Andover. It generated a missionary zeal in
many students of the denominational colleges and at Andover. Upon such a situation Adoniram
Judson, one of the pioneer American missionaries, vouched to become a missionary to India [7]. The
missionary ideas, which came out of the revival, were a growing sense of service of the American
church towards the rest of the world and hence they published tracts and distributed sermons and
evangelical periodicals to fulfill task of global evangelization. As a consequence of American
Protestant Mission Movement, which was influenced by European initiatives and strongly motivated
by the evangelical spirit of the time, new boards emerged which focused on the overseas ministry.
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (A.B.C.F.M.) formed as the first board in
1810, took efforts to send missionaries to India, Burma and Ceylon during the first half of the
nineteenth century.
4. Formation of American Board
However, excitements and distractions during the American War of Independence interrupted and
almost suspended the work in the formative period. In 1806, William College at Massachusetts had
certain zealous students who offered themselves for the cause of evangelism in India. When the
American constitution was adopted in 1787, the legislature of Massachusetts incorporated a society
for preaching the Gospel among the Indians and others in North America [8]. With the spreading of
revival, missionary societies were formed at New York, Connecticut and Massachusetts in 1797, 1798
and 1799 respectively [9]. Religious awakening also resulted in the growth of religious journalism and
the Massachusetts Missionary Magazine appeared in 1803 followed by The Panoplist in 1805 which
promoted Christian piety, morality and theological knowledge [10]. The religious growth kindled the
missionary zeal among the Americans especially the students of American colleges.
The students of William College, who vouched to take the gospel to Asiatic regions, were actually
inspired by Samuel J. Mills [11]. Born in the little town of Torringford of Connecticut in 1783, he was
brought up by his mother who recited the stories of missionaries toiled for Christ among the Red
Indians including Eliot and Brainerd. When his mother boldly proclaimed that he was consecrated for
the service of God as a missionary, he himself longed to present the Gospel among non-Christians.
After joining William College in 1806, he dreamt of overseas missionary activities when he studied the
geography of Asia and its social backwardness [12]. Samuel Mills, James Richards, L. Robins, H.
Louis and B. Clean deliberated and pledged themselves to this life service [13] which led to the
formation of the Society of Brethren in 1808. The students boldly offered themselves to carry out the
mission work in countries like India. The Society of Brethren was the first foreign missionary society in
America and it was kept as a secret organization for fear of universal opposition. It emerged as a
potent force for missions in William College and further attained strength when some of its founders
joined Andover Seminary in 1810. Some of the like-minded students including Adoniram Judson Jr.
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
3
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
from Brown, Samuel Newell from Harvard and Samuel Nott Jr. from Union College joined the
members of the Society at Andover in putting the fire for missionary zeal. They also organized the
Society of Inquiry in 1810 on the subject of missions. After their training at Andover Seminary, they
requested the Massachusetts Congregational Church in 1810 to start the Board and affirmed their
commitment for evangelical work [14]. On 25 June 1810, eight or nine brethren conferred with Drs.
Spring, Worcester, Snell, Griffin, Revs. Sanborn, Reynolds, Keep, Professor Stuart and Jeremiah
Evarts in the parlor of Professor Stuart in Andover. In this meeting, Samuel Newell proposed their
eagerness of preaching the Gospel in non-Christian lands. The next day on 26 June 1810, Rev.
Samuel Worcester, pastor of the Tabernacle Church of Salem and Dr. Samuel Spring, minister at
Newburry port, rode together in a chaise to the General Association, a little body of eighteen
members at Breadford conceived on their way the whole plan about the American Board, its form, its
name and the number of its members. On the second day of the general association of
Massachusetts proper’s annual meeting, the four young men from Andover Seminary- Adoniram
Judson Jr, Samuel Nott Jr, Samuel J Mills and Samuel Newell were introduced in the first session and
the paper prepared by Judson was presented. The name suggested by Worcester, “Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions” was approved with the prefix ‘American’. The American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (A.B.C.F.M.) was a protestant, inter-denominational, later
predominantly congregationalist society with independent working. The Board was born not in
boldness and confidence alone, but in questionings and solicitudes and the prevailing faith.
The General Association at Breadford, after hearing the individual testimonies from these four young
men preferred the matter to a committee comprising Messrs. Spring, Worcester and Hale, the
Secretary of the Association. On 29 June 1810 this Committee approved the proposal and
recommended the organization of the Board. Accordingly, the Board was constituted with nine
members selected by the General Association for the first time [15]. The object of A.B.C.F.M. was to
devise, adopt and prosecute ways and means for propagating the Gospel among those who were
destitute of any knowledge of Christianity. Responding to the missionary spirit of the time, the seed
was sown to carry out Mission work in countries filled with social ignorance and spiritual abuses.
The first meeting of the A.B.C.F.M. was held on 5 September 1810 at Farmington, Connecticut. After
electing officers and an executive for prudential committee, adopting rules of action and issuing a
stately appeal to the Christian public, the A.B.C.F.M. adjourned for a year. As a fund of sixty thousand
dollars was felt indispensable, Mrs. Norris, an American noble lady promised Bartlett, one of the
members of prudential committee, to offer thirty thousand dollars each to Andover seminary and the
A.B.C.F.M. Enthusiasm of the promoters and the liberality of the few benefactors resulted in the rapid
collection of money through donations. Between September 1811 and 20 June 1812 about $12,000
was collected of which $7000 from four donors and $4000 from auxiliary societies. Unwilling merely to
wait for the way to open, they decided to send Judson to London for conferring with the London
Missionary Society (LMS) to secure information about the mission fields and the chances of
collaboration in maintaining missionary work. Judson left Boston in January 1811; but in the mid-sea
he was captured and imprisoned by a French privateer at Bayonne. Hence he reached London just
before the May anniversary. Though he was courteously received, the L.M.S. declined to enter into a
joint administration in a long range. The L.M.S. was ready to take Judson and his friends as its own
missionaries. The Prudential Committee at the second annual meeting of the A.B.C.F.M. at Worcester
on 18 September 1811 recommended the Board to retain these young men as its own missionaries
expecting the support from Christian public. But the long delay caused worries in the mind of Judson
and hence he went with Nott to Worcester to know whether they could go as missionaries of the
L.M.S. Finally, the members of the Board, who were irritated by the acts of Judson, decided to send
Judson, Nott, Newell and Hall as missionaries on 18 September 1811; but directed Richards and
Warren to finish theological studies at Andover and a course of medical lectures at Dartmouth College
under the Board’s direction and patronage. Though the Board viewed Burma to be the best place for
commencing the mission as it was outside the proper province of British missionary societies, it left
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
4
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
the final decision to the missionaries themselves [16]. During the first half of the nineteenth century,
India, Burma and Ceylon were the chief targets of American missionary efforts overseas. Prudential
Committee of the A.B.C.F.M. preferred three locations in Asia, the Burman Empire, Surat in India and
the Prince of Wales Island (Penang).
Samuel J Mills, the originator of this student revival was not included in the list of those missionaries
as he had to study one more year in the seminary. He also felt that he could do more to promote the
missionary cause at home by encouraging the churches, devising new agencies and organizations for
preaching the Gospel and opening new mission fields. On 6 February 1812, the five pioneer
missionaries of A.B.C.F.M. - Rev. Adoniram Judson, Rev. Samuel Nott, Rev. Samuel Newell, Rev.
Gordon Hall and Rev. Luther Rice were ordained at the Tabernacle Church in Salem, Massachusetts
[17]. Even students from Andover Seminary and Phillips Academy walked sixteen miles to enjoy the
occasion. Five of the chief ministers of New England viz., Woods, Spring, Griffin, Morse and
Worcester conducted the impressive service and laid their hands on the five men for anointing.
Accordingly the missionaries were ordained to be sent to India for proselytizing the Gospel.
The two young women who attended the service were notable- Miss Ann Haseltine, (Mr. Judson’s
prospective bride) and Miss Atwood (the prospective wife of Newell). When the A.B.C.F.M. was
organized at Bradford on 29 June 1810, a dinner was arranged for the men from Andover in the
house of Deacon John Haseltine, a Bradford citizen. As these two young women, Ann Haseltine and
Atwood were from affluent families [18], educated according to the standards of the time and socially
prominent in the region, their committal to this new venture heightened the excitement of that
ordination in the Tabernacle Church at Salem. The young missionaries got ready with their families to
carry out their mission work. Instead of remaining in the motherland and enjoying the married life, the
missionaries ventured into mission work along with their wives who also undertook the sacrificial
journey.
When the financial position of the A.B.C.F.M. was not even one quarter enough to pay the
missionaries for their first year’s expenses, their voyage to India was planned and the ships were kept
ready. But before the starting of voyage, offerings poured from different sources by which the board
could meet its immediate necessities. The missionaries, Nott, Hall and Rice left for Philadelphia to
board the ship ‘Harmony’ while Judson and Newell waited in Salem for the ship ‘Caravan’. The vision
of A.B.C.F.M. became an accomplished fact when ‘Caravan’ started its voyage on 19 February 1812
from Salem, and the ship, ‘Harmony’ with the missionaries, Mr. and Mrs. Nott and Messrs. Hall and
Rice from the Delaware Cape on 24 February 1812. They started their voyage of mission to India
when it was under the control of the British against which America was in cold war.
5. Arrival at Calcutta
When Napoleon, emperor of the French entered Berlin in 1806 after defeating Prussia at Zena he
released the ‘Berlin orders’ prohibiting the commerce between Britain and France along with its
supporting countries. In response, Britain in 1807 promulgated the Orders in Council to prevent trade
with France and the countries following the Berlin Orders. Hence war broke out between America and
England during 1812 [19]. In Britain, the young William Pitt became the Prime Minister at the age of
twenty four in 1783 and promulgated the Pitts India Act in 1784 for reducing the powers of the English
East India Company. According to this, the powers vested with the Company were restricted to
commercial dealings and political powers were allocated to a committee constituted by the British
Government and this arrangement went on up to 1858 [20]. Under these circumstances the American
missionaries undertook their voyage and reached Calcutta to carry out their mission work in India. The
young missionaries of A.B.C.F.M could undertake their voyage when their home country was not in
good relations with the British who kept India under their fold. In addition the British East India
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
5
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
Company was interested only in the promotion of their mercantile activities. In such circumstances,
the American missionaries came like unwanted guests.
Indians turned their faces against the missionaries and the English East India Company also feared
that their activities and proselytisation might impair their commercial ventures. Hence the deciding
power to allow the missionaries and implement changes in Indian education programs was allocated
to the Court of Directors of the Company. That power was renewed every twenty years and the turn
came in 1813. It was at that juncture the missionaries of A.B.C.F.M. landed in Calcutta with the warm
welcome and greetings offered by Rev. Thomason and Rev. Dr. William Carey on 17 June 1812 after
about four months of voyage [21]. Judson and Newell, after reaching Calcutta, directly presented their
passports which they had received from the Governor of Massachusetts.
When the A.B.C.F.M. missionaries first landed in India, they faced opposition not from the natives but
from men of their own race i.e., the British. The bitter experiences of the War of 1812 and the further
preparation of the Americans for a final battle in 1813 left the British in a situation to drive out the
American missionaries from India. The missionaries, who came with the vision and mission, faced
several trials and tribulations. The English East India Company issued the prohibitory order against
their entry into India and they were asked to vacate India [22]. To their utter disappointment and
dismay the missionaries and the clergy who came to welcome them were shocked at the untoward
order; but tried to persuade the Company and requested for a grace period. This political
confrontation between America and the Great Britain reflected in their relations in India. Especially the
war of 1812 between America and England worked against the interests of the American
missionaries. The East India Company issued a ban order against their entry in to India and those
already arrived were asked to vacate India.
Due to this, the American missionaries were considered as enemies and hence the British did not
provide any sort of concession to the missionaries within any of their settlements. When they thought
of several other alternatives like Burma or Western countries, they received a letter from the
missionaries who traveled in the ship ‘Harmony’, stating the favorable conditions that prevailed in
France and Madagascar for preaching the Gospel. When all the missionaries decided to go to France,
they were able to get a ship in which only two could get a room on Board. So Samuel Newell and his
wife alone left for France on 4 August 1812 with the understanding that Judson and his wife could
follow them [23].
Four days after this, the ship ‘Harmony’ touched the shores of Calcutta. The A.B.C.F.M. missionaries
mainly came with a plan to establish a mission to the east of Bengal. The missionaries who came in
the ship ‘Harmony’ were also denied entry and hence they also decided to accompany Judson and
his wife for France. The Government was strict in sending the missionaries and did not listen to their
requests and it was not ready to grant permission for them to stay even up to November 1812. In the
meantime, the government commanded them to go to Britain which was not acceptable to
missionaries and hence Rice and Judson with his wife made arrangements to escape from India
secretly to France in a ship. Unfortunately they were interrupted by the police and brought again to
Calcutta. When Lord Minto (1807-1812), the Governor General received this message of escape
attempt he generously granted permission for them to go to France. The same ship anchored about
seventy kilometres away from Calcutta in a place called Sagar for two days. They took a boat and
reached the ship to begin their journey by showing the orders. Hall and Nott refused to go out of India
and decided to continue their job of proselytisation. They were able to get a general pass and reached
Bombay through a ship via Sri Lankan waters by spending all their money during February 1813.
When two of the six missionaries escaped to Bombay, they were discovered and a peremptory
command was issued from the Supreme Government to Sir Evan Nepean, Governor of Bombay to
send them to England. Sir Evan Nepean was a man of deep religious principles with scrupulous
attention to religious duties and obligations. Hence, instead of treating them roughly, he showed
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
6
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
kindness and sympathy. As he received a request from them to be allowed to stay in Bombay, he
permitted them to remain, pending a reference, which he made to the Governor General in Bengal.
Through this document, he was able to convince the Governor General about their integrity and
peaceableness by expressing their motives and objectives. Yet, due to the war between the America
and Britain in 1812, a fresh order was issued to deport the missionaries which further caused
obstacles to commence their mission work at Bombay.
6. Maratha Mission
As the Americans took upper hand in the war between America and Britain, the latter was annoyed
and wrote a letter to Governor Sir Evan Nepean of Bombay to send back the American missionaries
to England [24]. The Governor delayed the orders on grounds of health to Mrs. Nott and Hall. The
Governor-General-in-Council secretly supported and encouraged the missionaries; but they were at
the disposal of their higher authorities who utterly opposed the missionary activities. Occasionally,
they became openly hostile to it. Based on the ideas proposed by his friend William T. Money, the
Governor wrote a letter of recommendation to the Governor-General to consider the requests made
by the missionaries. When this was under process, a fast boat by name Alligator came to Calcutta
from Salem in America with loads of books, letters and money for the missionaries. As the boat
bringing supplies to the missionaries from Salem to Calcutta was suspected as an informer to
American ships and hence the missionaries were again commanded to go to England. However,
before the order could be carried out, Hall and Nott fled from Bombay secretly in a ship with the
intention of proceeding to Ceylon to join Newell, one of the missionaries of A.B.C.F.M. On their way,
they stayed for a month from 30 October 1813 in Cochin with the help of Pearson, the English
Magistrate. Their unsuccessful attempt to join Newell at Ceylon through Cochin also proved futile. Sir
Evan, in spite of the displeasure due to their flight, showed kindness and concern on their return and
offered accommodation in the Admiralty House. Six months after their arrival in Bombay on 22
December 1813, they were instructed to wait for further orders. Though the Governor was personally
friendly with them, he could not help them due to strict instructions from higher authorities. Finally,
they were allowed to start their mission as the Company had yielded to the influence not only from
India but also from their own men at home. After Lord Minto, when Marquis Hastings (1813) took over
as the Governor-General, American missionaries were supported in their act of proselytisation. Sir
Charles Grant and William Wilberforce made the East India Company to accept the renewed Charter
by which the missionaries were permitted to work. Charles Grant took painful efforts to convince the
British authorities in favor of American missionaries and he was the main reason in reducing their
miseries. After the renewed Charter of 1813, India was virtually thrown open to Christianity.
Missionary societies began to offer their noble efforts to reclaim the natives from their ignorance by
preaching the Gospel [25]. Bombay served as a place of opening for the missionaries of A.B.C.F.M.
When Lord Moira, the new Governor-General took charge in October 1813, their friends in Bengal
requested permission for their continuance and Sir Evan Nepean also tabled this matter. The
Governor wrote to the Court of Directors in England favorably. Though some members had
vehemently opposed, the staunch support from Charles Grant was able to get the permission for the
continuance of the A.B.C.F.M. missionaries in Bombay till further orders. When the Governor decided
to send the missionaries to Britain, they were able to write a letter explaining their motive and purpose
of staying in India in detail to the Governor General and accordingly they were granted permission to
stay in Bombay. Their letter changed the minds of the British authorities. The first missionaries of the
A.B.C.F.M., who were commanded to leave Bombay in 1813, wrote a memoir to Sir Evan Nepean,
Governor of Bombay stating, we most earnestly entreat you not to send us away from these heathens
We entreat you by the spiritual miseries of the heathen who were daily perishing before your eyes,
and under your Excellences’ Government, not to prevent us from preaching Christ to them By all the
principles of our holy religion, by which you wish to be saved, we entreat you not to hinder us from
preaching the same religion to these perishing idolaters [26].
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
7
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
7. Socio-Political Background in Bombay
Bombay came as a centre of the English East India Company in 1662 and became the seat of
flourishing trade. During the early years of British possession, meager efforts were made to foster
religious feeling among the European residents in Bombay. Around fifty years they had neither
chaplain nor church and when Rev. R Cobbe, the first chaplain arrived, he took efforts to erect the
church. Till then Christian services were held for those who wished to attend them in one of the high
rooms in the fort. The first mission to establish in Bombay was that of the A.B.C.F.M.’s. The continued
efforts of the missionaries with steady perseverance, the constant daily exposition of the truths of
Christianity in various regions of the city, their numerous schools and the circulation of the Bible and
children books in the vernacular languages produced a powerful impact upon the public mind. The
Bombay Bible Society founded in 1813 gained the full support of Governor Sir Evan Napean who
already had been a member of the British and Foreign Bible Society in England. This Society
circulated the Holy Scriptures in many languages along the Malabar Coast. In Bombay, one of the
interesting schools was the one for blind children containing fifty pupils, who were taught not only
ordinary elementary branches but also various trades. Some were instructed on type-writing while
some were given music lessons on the piano. The School was supported by voluntary gifts and not
the money from A.B.C.F.M [27]. As no missionary work was attempted among the Marathi people,
these two A.B.C.F.M. missionaries Nott and Hall were the pioneers in Bombay. The American
missionaries could initiate their mission in Bombay through their educational and social service.
As pioneers Gorden Hall and Samuel Nott and their wives started preaching the Gospel and gave
birth to the Maratha mission in India. Long before getting the official permission, they began their
labors in Bombay. Having learnt the Marathi language, the missionaries began their preaching in
1815. They worked for the translation of the Bible into Marathi and opened schools and printing press.
In 1830, they opened the second station at Ahmednagar. The missionary enterprise started in 1813 in
Bombay extended to Ahmednagar, Satara and Sholapur districts of the Bombay Presidency [28].
Though missionaries of A.B.C.F.M., started their labors in 1813 in Bombay, little progress was made
till 1833, when they crossed over from Ceylon where they had been at work. In 1831, they began
working in Ahmednagar which later developed into the Maratha Mission [29]. In 1832, though the
British power became their protection, the missionaries were hooted and pelted with dirt in the streets
of Ahmednagar while their preaching assemblies were broken. Because of their experience in the
Maratha Mission, they modified the strategy and gave less importance to local printing and teaching;
but attached more significance to itinerant preaching and personal intercourse.
The A.B.C.F.M., during 1840-1860, established a network of missionary stations in Bombay and
Madras presidencies. The Maratha Mission had stations in Bombay, Ahmednagar, Sirur, Satara,
Rahari and Sholapur. The American missionaries undertook extensive traveling assiduously for
preaching and distributing tracts. They established a printing press in Bombay in 1816 and within two
years, they were able to publish the Gospel of St. Mathew as well as the Acts of Apostles in Marathi.
Besides, they also undertook publication of school text books and help books for learning English.
Both Hall and Newell improved the Marathi translation of the Bible done by Carey by bringing out a
standard Marathi translation of the entire Bible in 1826. They distributed the tracts with enthusiasm,
which helped them in effectively proselytizing the Gospel. With educational services, the American
missionaries carried out their preaching work.
American missionaries from the beginning itself (1814) emphasized the significance of educating the
natives. Education was designed as a medium to propagate knowledge of both the material and the
spiritual world. Within five years of their arrival, they were running about twenty-five schools with one
thousand and four hundred students who were instructed on reading, writing and arithmetic along with
the basics of Christianity in Marathi language. In 1817, the missionaries opened one of the earliest
English schools in the Bombay Presidency [30]. The number of American schools in Bombay by 1832
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
8
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
reached thirty-two with 1940 pupils. Through their mission schools, they played a major role in the
promotion of English education in Bombay Presidency and during 1830s they opened elementary
English schools which soon developed into high schools. In the early stage of English education,
these missionaries even surpassed the work of the English East India Company.
A.B.C.F.M. missionaries were the pioneers in the west coast to start the first girl’s school in the
Bombay Presidency in 1824. In 1825 the inhabitants of Bombay raised a donation of $300/- and
supported the first girl’s school. This showed an elevation to nine schools with three hundred and forty
pupils in 1826. As the first lady, Cynthia Farar organized and managed the girl’s school and similar
schools were started in Ahmednagar in 1831. This was appreciated by Gopala Krishna Gokhale who
paid rich tributes to the pioneering efforts of the American missionaries in educating the females [31].
Recognizing the importance of vernacular education in 1834, the deputation sent by the Prudential
Committee of the A.B.C.F.M. scrutinized the suitability of English schools for the purpose of the
mission. The American missionaries gave importance to female education after understanding its
necessity. O’Malley observes, “Female education in the first half of the nineteenth century was the
child of no one but the missionaries” [32]. In the history of modern education in India, the early
mission schools represented the more efficient system, which imparted religious training and taught
subjects like grammar, history and geography. They were the first to write and print school textbooks
and introduce regular school hours. The missionaries through their Maratha Mission made significant
contribution to the development of education.
Zenana evangelism, which was designed to spread Christian principles among the purdah women,
was carried on by Bible women and wives of missionaries. The Annual Report of the A.B.C.F.M.
states, “For the last few years several women have been employed to read the Scriptures and
converse with companies of women, as they can be gathered in private houses or some quiet places
by wayside. Such labors faithfully carried on cannot fail to do much good” [33].
India did not have much modern medical hospitals; but the sufferings of the people due to diseases
were immense. Hence missionaries served to provide relief through their medical activities. For this
help, they had already equipped themselves with some medical knowledge. Hall and Newell took a
short medical training in Philadelphia before their voyage to India in February 1812.
The missionaries eagerly promoted changes in the Indian Christians even in the dress pattern of
children in orphanages in western methods and giving Biblical names to the converts who imitated
their pastors in dress, food and deportment to bring out entire changes in the life style of the natives
[34]. Early missionary activities indirectly helped to release forces for religious and social reforms and
they had the welfare of the natives primarily at heart who were the only westerners coming to India for
other than worldly motives [35]. Many members of the untouchable castes accepted Christianity and
the Mahars of the Bombay Presidency were converted to their fold. The missionaries showed their
concern in the upliftment of the destitute and untouchables for establishing social justice.
In the Maratha Mission Aryan, Maratha and aborigines were the principal races and Urdu and Marathi
were the major languages. Muslims were strong in Ahmednagar and Sholapur while Bombay served
as the nerve center of nationalism. The Mission had its territory with sixty eight churches, one
theological seminary in Poona, one Bible training school, three other training schools, eight secondary
schools, six industrial schools, two hospitals, eight dispensaries and several social and welfare
centers. The missionaries of A.B.C.F.M. could extend their educational, medical and social services
along with the Gospel work and aimed at the improvement of the natives. When the Maratha mission
was started by the efforts of Nott and Hall, Newell was responsible for the establishment of Jaffna
mission.
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
9
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
8. Jaffna Mission
Newell, who left for France from Calcutta on 4 August 1812, lost his child in the voyage on 19
September 1812 and this wife in France on 30 November 1812. As he was alone in France, he
planned to visit Sri Lanka which was under the direct control of the British Government. On hearing
the conditions favourable for proselytisation, he entered Sri Lanka after many difficulties and landed at
Galle. In Colombo immediately after his visit, he was well received by Governor Brownrigg, who made
arrangements to survey Jaffna out of his interest in mission work which led to the birth of Jaffna
Mission. Jaffna, connected with the mainland by a sand-bank of forty miles width was inhabited by a
Tamil society of 3, 50,000 whose fore-fathers had migrated from South India. The A.B.C.F.M.
missionaries entered here for missionary activities after the Portuguese, the Dutch and finally the
British. Their religion was a composite of Hinduism and the nature worship with gross and
multitudinous idolatry. Their religious festivals were seasons of puerile and corrupting practices,
beginning with bathing and dressing the idols and ending with a rough brawl over the distribution of
coconuts. In such a society, the missionaries of A.B.C.F.M. began their mission work. As Newell lost
his wife and his child in the voyage, he wanted to start the mission in a new region rather than France.
Moreover, the warm reception extended by the Governor made him begin the Jaffna mission. The
people of this region did not have any opposition against Christianity. Jaffna was also already
exposed to the missionary activities of the Portugese, the Dutch and the British. It could attract the
missionaries because of its fertile lands and the conducive climatic conditions. These factors favored
the birth of Jaffna mission.
9. American Madura Mission
In the Jaffna Mission, James Richards, Benjamin C.Meiggs, Partwell and Daniel Poor and their wives
with Edward Larren were sent as the first missionaries to Jaffna by the A.B.C.F.M. in the ship Dryad
which reached Sri Lanka on 22 March 1816. Along with proselytizing, these missionaries did
educational and social services. They started boarding schools and village free schools and
concentrated on educating girls. With good reception and large adherents, they wanted to extend into
South India where Tamils lived numerously. With the direction from A.B.C.F.M. the venerated and
venerable Levi Spaulding, recognized as the father of A.M.M (American Madura Mission), visited
Madras on a tour of exploration and landed at Devipatnam on 10 January 1834. After taking de-tour
by way of Travancore and Tirunelveli and paying a visit to the interesting missions in those parts, he
arrived in Madurai on 8 February 1834 [36].
After his return to Sri Lanka, he shared his Indian experiences with the fellow missionaries. Though
they opposed initially, A.B.C.F.M. granted permission to start missionary work in Madurai. William
Todd, Hoisington and their wives were selected for the new Mission while Mrs. Hoisington could not
come. Hence Levi Spaulding with three missionaries and three native assistants of Jaffna reached
Madurai on 31 July 1834 and started their Mission. When the missionaries did not like to start the
mission without permission from the Government, Lord William Bentinck, the Governor General,
known for his reform measures, visited the Nilgris. Sir Frederic Adam, the Governor of Madras and
Henry Woodward, a staunch supporter of Christianity were also taking rest in Nilgris. Using this
golden opportunity, Woodward requested the permission for American Madura Mission to start
schools and preach the Gospel which was readily granted. As Woodward died due to weakness at
Coimbatore, Mrs. Woodward joined the Todd couple and started the first communion service on 24
August 1834 in a rented house inside the fort while Mr. Spaulding and Mr. Hoisington left for Sri
Lanka.
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
10
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
10. Conclusion
The spiritual movement that spread in America, made the students of American Colleges commit
themselves for proselytisation activities. One such development happened at William College
continued through Andover Seminary which led to formation of the first missionary board, A.B.C.F.M.
Due to the constant efforts of the young missionaries like Adoniram Judson, the board decided to
send its missionaries to India in spite of its financial crunch. But the benevolent and sacrificial
offerings which came in time enabled the A.B.C.F.M. to send its zealous missionaries to India. When
their ships touched the shores of Calcutta, men of their own race, the British, who had India under
their clutches, denied entry, and commanded the missionaries to go back to America. The
missionaries who came with the thirst for Indian souls were much disappointed and tried their level
best to convince the British through their requests. But this denial in Calcutta led to the birth of
American missions in Burma, Bombay, France and Jaffna. The Maratha mission in Bombay helped
the missionaries to understand the problems of Indian society, caste discrimination and the declining
state of social and cultural conditions with political fortunes where superstition was in its sway. They
understood that India had lost its way into the dreary desert of social evils. At this juncture, realizing
the dire need of fresh reforms and infusion of new ideas, the A.B.C.F.M. missionaries started
believing that the spread of education and enlightenment would help the natives to get rid of the evil
customs and superstitious beliefs. Though the British, the trustee of India’s moral welfare at that time,
had advocated their ‘go slow’ policy, they strongly believed that the introduction of Christianity and
western knowledge in India would bring not only spiritual blessings but also material prosperity.
People like William Wilberforce and Charles Grant who were confident that through the introduction of
the Gospel through Protestant missions, India could experience a moral and material transformation,
strove to insert a provision on the Charter Act for the admission and encouragement of missionaries in
India. When missionaries worked in India, they had the chance of acquiring first-hand knowledge
about the people and their religious practices and developed the confidence that by their cultural
superiority and the uniqueness of their spiritual message, the benighted India could be raised. When
the A.B.C.F.M. missionaries of the Jaffna Mission visited Madurai, they found it a suitable field for
their proselytisation activities to serve God and people through education, medical service and literary
work.
References
[1] Bearce G.D., 1961: British Attitude towards India, 1784-1858. Oxford University Press, London, 6.
[2] Pathak S.M., 1967: American Missionaries and Hinduism. 1st Ed. Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers, Delhi, 4.
[3] Hansard, 1813: Parliamentary Debates, First Series, Vol. XXVI, T.C. Hansard, London, 865.
[4] Sweet W.W., 1930: The Story of Religion in America. Harper Publisher, New York, 222.
[5] Elsbree O.W., 1928: The Rise of Missionary Spirit in America, 1790-1815, Williamsport, PA, 31-34.
[6] Mark A. Noll, 1993: A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, Michigan, 168-169.
[7] Judson E., 1833: The Life of Adoniram Judson, American Baptist Publication Society,
Pennsylvania, 16.
[8] Bartlett S.C., 1872: Sketches of the Mi ssions of the American Board, Boston, 6.
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
11
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
[9] Sydney E. Ahlstrom, 1972: A Religious History of the American People, Yale University Press,
United States of America, 423.
[10] The Panoplist, Mission Journal, 1806, Vol. 7, Boston, 3.
[11] Williston Walker, 1934: A History of Christian Church, T&T Clark, Edinburg, 523.
[12] Eddy S., 1945: Pathfinders of the World Missionary Crusade, Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, New
York, 38.
[13] Catherine L. Albanese, 1992: America Religious and Religion. II Ed, Wadsworth Publishing
Group, California, 182.
[14] Reid, D.G., et al., 1990: Dictionary of Christianity in America. Intervarsity Press Illinois, 753.
[15] Strong W.E., 1910: The Story of the American Board. BiblioBazaar, Boston, 6.
[16] American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1834: First Ten Annual Reports,
Crocker & Brewster, Boston, 24-40.
[17] American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1834: First Ten Annual Reports,
Crocker & Brewster, Boston, 35-36.
[18] Bartlett S.C., 1872: Sketches of the Missions of the American Board. The Board, Boston, 12.
[19] Devaraj D., 1995: Educational Service of American Missionaries in South India, Part I, Pasumalai,
6-7.
[20] Kapur A.C., 1970: Constitutional History of India 1765-1975, S. Chand Group, New Delhi, 14-15.
[21] Gammel W., 1849: A History of American Baptist Mission, Gould and Lincoln, Boston, 7.
[22] American Board, 1834: First Ten Annual Reports, Crocker & Brewster, Boston, 59.
[23] Leonard W., 1820: Memoirs of Mrs. Harriet Newell, London, 26.
[24] Bemis S.F., 1939: A Diplomatic History of the United States, Harvard University Press, New York,
161-168.
[25] Anderson R., 1874: History of the Mission of A.B.C.F.M. in India, American Board, Boston.
[26] A.B.C.F.M., 1834: The First Ten Annual Reports, Crocker and Brewster, Boston, 107-108.
[27] Huizinga H., 1909: Missionary Education in India. Orissa Mission Press, Cuttack, 75.
[28] Orville A. Petty, 1933: Laymen’s Foreign Missions Enquiry Fact-Finders Reports, London, 193.
[29] Robinson C.H., 1923: History of Christian Missions, Scribner, New York, 91.
[30] McCully B.T., 1940: English Education and the Orgins of Indian Nationalism, Columbia University
Press, New York, 51.
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
12
IJAHR – An Open Access Journal
[31] Dennis J.S., 1897: Christian Missions and Social Progress, Vol. II, New York, 180.
[32] O’Malley, 1941: Modern India and the West: A Study of Interaction of their Civilizations, Oxford
University Press London, 688.
[33] American Board, 1870: Annual Report, Crocker and Brewster, Boston, 56.
[34] Butler W., 1885: From Boston to Bareilly and Back, Phillips & Hunt, New York, 521.
[35] Furber H., 1948: John Company at Work, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 331.
[36] A.B.C.F.M., 1873: Annual Report of the American Madura Mission. Crocker and Brewster,
Boston, 3.
International Journal of Advanced Historical Research
13