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Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.12 (3&4): 360-364. 2014
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X-ray diffraction (XRD) and x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of ancient bricks from
Sungai Batu Temple (site SB1), Bujang Valley, Kedah
Zuliskandar Ramli 1*, Nik Hassan Shuhami Nik Abdul Rahman 1, Abdul Latif Samian 1, Muhammad Rizal
Razman 2, Sharifah Zarina Syed Zakaria 3 and Hossein Sarhaddi Dadian 4
Institute of the Malay World and Civilisation (ATMA), 2 Research Centre for Sustainability Science and Governance (SGK),
Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), 3 Research Centre for Environment, Social and Economics Sustainability
(KASES), Institute for Environment & Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia. 4 Department of Archaeology, University of Zabol, Iran. *e-mail: ziskandar2109@gmail.com
1
Received 10 June 2014, accepted 20 September 2014.
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine whether the ancient bricks from Sungai Batu Temple (SB1) are made from local materials or not.
Chronometric and relative dating have given different results, the absolute dating gave the date between 2nd to 3rd century AD while the relative dating
gave the date between 6th to 7th century AD. The structure which was fully built using bricks is a relatively large stupa structure and not a structure
associated with animism practised. In order to determine whether the bricks that were used to build the structure of Site SB1 used local raw materials
or otherwise, thus material composition analysis needs to be carried out which involves X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
analysis. Analysis shows that the mineral content present in the ancient brick samples consists of quartz, muscovite, microcline, mullite and albite.
The mullite mineral shows that some of the bricks were baked at sufficient temperature of more than 550°C. This shows that the open burning
technique was used in the production of the temple’s bricks because some of the bricks have an indication of low firing burning. The dry weight
percentage graph of silica and aluminium, and magnesium and titanium, as well as the lead and copper concentration graph indicate that the raw
materials used to produce the ancient bricks are local raw materials and these raw materials were obtained from the surrounding area of Bujang
District.
Key words: Sungai Batu Temple, x-ray diffraction (XRD), x-ray fluorescence (XRF), Bujang Valley.
Introduction
Sungai Batu Temple was found by a group of archaeologists from
Science University of Malaysia in 2006 where a structure which is
believed to function as a stupa was discovered. The structure is
entirely made of bricks and its roof made of tiles. It is the first time
that a temple of this architecture (Photos 1 and 2) was found in
Bujang Valley. The rectangular shaped structure with an empty
circle was built on top of a circular floor structure that was also
built using bricks and it is proposed that this structure is a stupa
and not an animistic structure because there is no evidence to
show that the local people that practised animism built a structure
Photo 2. Overall structure of Sungai Batu Temple.
i The1main
h structure
i
f S BatuiTemple.
Photo 1.
of Sungai
360
l
or monument for their practices. The size of the site is approximately
900 m2. The bricks used are relatively smaller and of uniformed
size if compared to the bricks found in Sungai Mas. Dating that
was given to this site is between the 3rd to the 7th century AD 1.
There was also the finding of an inscription that contained
Buddhist ‘credo’ verses in Sanskrit and of Pallava script and based
on the script, it can be dated to the 6th or 7th century AD and this is
a crucial evidence which indicated that the structure is a stupa.
The structure of Sungai Batu Temple is unique and the size of the
bricks used to build the structure is also relatively uniform and
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
standard compared to the temples of the early stage that were
found along Sungai Muda and Sungai Bujang. In order to
determine whether the bricks used are bricks that were produced
by the local people or imported, material composition analysis of
the bricks needs to be performed. The analysis involves X-Ray
Diffraction (XRD) and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analysis where
the content of the mineral, major elements and trace elements will
be able to be identified. The research carried out based on the
brick material composition in the Bujang Valley has indicated that
local clay was used in producing the bricks used to build the
temples in Bujang Valley. Among them are Sungai Mas Temple
(Site 32/34), Pengkalan Bujang Temple (Site 23), Bukit Pendiat
Temple (Site 17), Pengkalan Bujang Temple (Site 19, Site 21, 22, 23)
Pengkalan Bujang Temple (Site 2211) and Bukit Kechil Temple 2-9.
In addition to the bricks, analysis was also applied on other
artefacts such as pottery 10-12, votive tablets 13, monochrome glass
beads 14, 15 and bronze drum 16.
Use of local raw materials will prove that the local people were
the ones involved in the production of the bricks and the
construction of Temple Sungai Batu (SB1), similar to what took
place in other sites in Bujang Valley. Therefore the objective of
this research was to determine whether ancient bricks from Sungai
Batu Temple (Site SB1) are local materials or imported from other
places. This can be done by comparing bricks composition with
clay composition taken from Bujang Valley, Kedah17.
Results and Discussion
Mineral content analysis of the ancient bricks of Sungai Batu
Temple showed that the ancient bricks in this site contained major
elements such as quartz, muscovite, microcline and other minerals
such as mullite and albite (Table 1). Sample SB(i) only contained
quartz mineral content and showed that this sample was exposed
to a very high temperature, namely exceeding 950°C. Samples SB(ix),
SB(xi) and SB(xix) contained mullite mineral content while sample
SB(xvi) has albite mineral content. Open burning technique was
used in the production of bricks at this site and it is proposed that
the firing temperature was between 750°C and 850°C or even higher,
exceeding 1000°C. The x-ray diffraction pattern of the brick samples
of Sungai Batu Temple are in Figs 1-3.
Major element contents in the ancient brick samples of Sungai
Batu Temple are in Table 2. Analysis indicated that these brick
samples contained dry weight percentage of silica of between
66.53% and 80.09%. Dry weight percentage for titanium element
was between 0.40% and 1.13%. Iron element contained dry weight
percentage of between 1.56% and 3.46%. Dry weight percentage
for aluminium element was between 16.75% and 27.46%.
Table 1. Mineral content of ancient bricks from Sungai
Batu Temple.
Location
Sungai Batu
Methodology
A total of 19 brick samples were taken from the excavation site of
Sungai Batu (Site SB1) and taken to the lab for cleaning and labelled
with the names SB1, SB2, SB3, SB4, SB5, SB6, SB7, SB8, KSGC9,
SB10, SB 11, SB 12, SB 13, SB 14, SB 15, SB 16, SB 17, SB 18 and SB
19. Samples weighing 0.4 g were refined and heated up for one
hour at a temperature of 105°C and mixed until homogenous with
the flux powder of a type of Spectroflux 110 (product of Johnson
and Mathey). These mixtures were baked for one hour in a furnace
with a temperature of 1100°C. The homogenous molten was
moulded in a container and cooled gradually into pieces of fused
glass with a thickness of 2 mm and a diameter of 32 mm. The
samples were of 1:10 dilution. Samples in the form of fused glass
were prepared for analysis of major elements such as Si, Ti, Fe, Al,
Mn, Ca, Mg, Na, K and P2O2. Pressed pallet samples were prepared
for analysis of trace elements such as As, Ba, Ce, La, Nb, Ni, Pb,
Rb, Th, V, Y, Zn, U, Cr, Sr, Ga, Cu, Hf, Co and Zr. These samples
were prepared by mixing 1.0 g of samples together with 6.0 g of
boric acid powder and then pressure of 20 psi was applied by
using hydraulic pressure equipment. The samples of fused pallets
and pressed pallets were analysed using Philips PW 1480
equipment. Samples in the form of very fine powder were put into
the pellets (sample holder) and analysed using the X-ray diffraction
instrument (D500 Diffractometer SIEMEN). A scatter plot diagram
of TiO2 and MgO; Zr and V was performed to demonstrate if there
were any differences among the samples and analysed using
Microsoft Excel software. The applicability of the analytical
methods for the multi elemental analysis by XRF of the votive
tablets is evaluated by the analysis of certified reference material,
315 Fire Brick (Calibration: G_FBVac 28 mm) for major elements
and certified reference material, SY-2 (Calibration: Trace Element
P_20) for trace elements. The CRM was also used as the quality
control material of the analytical procedure.
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
Sample
SB (i)
SB (ii)
SB (iii)
SB (iv)
SB (v)
SB (vi)
SB (vii)
SB (viii)
SB (ix)
SB (x)
SB (xi)
SB (xii)
SB (xiii)
SB (xiv)
SB (xv)
SB (xvi)
SB (xvii)
SB (xviii)
SB (xix)
Mineral Content
SiO2Quartz
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
KAlSi3O8 Microcline
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
K2O.3Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O Muscovite
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3A1O10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3A1O10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
Al3Si3K(OH)2O10 Muscovite 3T
Al5.65Si0.35O9.175Mullite
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
KAlSi3O8 Microcline
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1
Al2(Al2.8Si1.2)O9.6Mullite
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1
NaAISi3O8Albite
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1
(Al4SiO8)1.2Mullite
361
q,m
q,m
q
m
SB7
q
mq
q
SB13
q
q
q
q,m
q,m
q
m
q
SB11
SB6
m
q
q
q,m
m
q,m
q
m
mc SB4
q
q
q,m
m
q
SB3
q
ml
m
q
ml ml
q
q,m
q
m
q
q
q
SB11
q
SB5
Intensity(arbitrary
(Arbitraryunits)
Units)
Intensity
Intensity
(arbitrary
units)
Intensity
(Arbitrary
Units)
q
q
q
SB12
mc
SB10
q
q
ml ml
q
q
SB8
q
q
q
q,m
q,m
SB9
m
q
SB2
q
q
q
q
m
ml
q
q
2
q,m
SB1
20
Legend: q = Quartz, m = muscovite.
q
q
q
40
m
q
60
2θ
Figure 1. XRD diffraction pattern of bricks from Sungai Batu Temple.
q
m
q
2
20
40
2θ
Legend: q = Quartz, m = muscovite, mc = microcline, ml = mullite.
60
Figure 2.XRD diffraction pattern of bricks from Sungai Batu Temple.
Manganese has dry weight percentage of 0.01% to 0.03% while
calcium element contained dry weight percentage of between
0.30% and 0.10%. Dry weight percentage for magnesium and
sodium elements were 0.14-0.81% and 0.01- 0.10%, respectively.
Potassium and phosphorus elements contained dry weight
percentage of 0.38-1.05% and 0.02-0.10%, respectively.
Silica and aluminium content showed that these bricks have
higher sand content compared to clay. Dry weight percentage
graph of SiO2 and Al2O3 (Fig. 4) as well as dry weight percentage
graph of MgO and TiO2 (Fig. 5) for the brick samples in Sungai
Meriam Temple and clay in Bujang Valley were plotted to see the
result of the comparison between the brick samples and clay
samples according to major elements. Based on the graph, it
Table 2. Major element contents of ancient bricks from Sungai Batu
was found that the major element composition of Sungai Batu
Temple.
Temple’s brick samples has a slight difference based on its
Dry Weight (%)
Sample
Si
Ti
Al
Fe
Mn
Ca
Mg
Na
K
P2O3 silica and aluminium content while the composition content
SB 1
75.59 0.69 19.97 1.78 0.01 0.03 0.57 0.10 0.65 0.10 of magnesium and titanium showed similarities with the raw
SB 2
75.69 0.71 19.05 2.69 0.01 0.08 0.61 0.10 0.63 0.10 material in Sungai Baru, Sungai Bujang and Sungai Terus. It
SB 3
77.39 0.87 18.54 1.92 0.01 0.05 0.22 0.05 0.78 0.10
is clear that the raw material used is local raw material.
SB 4
69.42 1.10 23.10 2.23 0.02 0.04 0.18 0.05 0.45 0.03
Trace element contents for the brick samples of Sungai
SB 5
70.75 0.82 22.53 3.46 0.01 0.07 0.81 0.10 1.05 0.02
SB 6
72.04 0.95 21.11 2.90 0.01 0.04 0.18 0.06 0.74 0.05 Batu Temple (Tables 3-5) showed content exceeding 100 ppm
SB 7
76.10 0.84 20.22 2.41 0.01 0.04 0.17 0.05 0.82 0.06 for barium, cerium, chromium, vanadium and zircon. Other
SB 8
67.03 1.12 27.46 3.24 0.02 0.05 0.57 0.03 0.70 0.04
SB 9
70.03 1.09 24.8 2.50 0.01 0.05 0.48 0.10 0.86 0.04 elements were at a slightly lower concentrations, less than
SB 10
76.52 0.79 20.29 2.12 0.01 0.03 0.22 0.05 0.64 0.04 100 ppm. Barium element content was between 684 and 837
SB 11
66.53 1.02 23.48 3.01 0.02 0.03 0.17 0.06 0.76 0.10 ppm and for cerium element between 544 and 633 ppm.
SB 12
80.09 0.80 16.75 1.56 0.01 0.03 0.14 0.40 0.04 0.10
Chromium and vanadium element contents were between 8
SB 13
68.94 1.03 24.11 2.50 0.03 0.05 0.42 0.01 0.80 0.10
SB 14
69.47 1.13 25.14 3.12 0.01 0.03 0.49 0.05 0.38 0.02 and 104 ppm and 90 and133 ppm, respectively, while zircon
SB 15
70.18 0.87 25.53 1.66 0.01 0.04 0.31 0.05 0.63 0.03 element has concentration of 231-500 ppm. Fig. 6 shows the
SB 16
74.72 0.95 21.20 1.95 0.01 0.04 0.25 0.10 0.58 0.03 graph that was plotted to see the distribution of copper
SB 17
77.85 0.77 17.91 2.11 0.01 0.10 0.44 0.05 0.43 0.10
SB 18
76.79 0.80 19.86 1.72 0.03 0.03 0.18 0.05 0.62 0.10 element against lead for the brick samples of Sungai Batu
SB 19
74.15 0.40 21.64 2.03 0.01 0.06 0.47 0.05 0.38 0.10 Temple where the concentration of both elements is between
362
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
Table 3. Trace element content of ancient bricks
from Sungai Batu Temple.
q,m
Element
(ppm)
As
Ba
Ce
Co
Cr
Cu
Ga
Hf
La
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
Sr
U
Th
V
Y
Zn
Zr
SB19
q
ml ml
q
q
q
q
q,m
Intensity
(arbitrary
units)
Intensity
(Arbitrary
Units)
q
SB18 q
q
SB17
q
q
SB16
q
q
SB15
q
q
q,m
q
q,m
q
q
SB 1
10
712
596
8
74
12
24
8
30
36
29
44
63
16
9
18
90
5
52
320
SB 2
10
689
602
10
83
10
22
7
29
36
26
41
51
16
9
18
98
0
45
246
Sample
SB 3 SB 4
11
13
837
694
633
570
8
8
79
89
12
9
24
28
8
8
31
29
40
35
30
29
49
50
58
46
10
6
9
9
27
26
112
127
8
12
48
53
388
500
SB 5
16
685
567
21
103
12
28
7
29
33
28
45
109
31
9
24
111
13
61
231
SB 6
14
769
618
10
88
13
24
8
30
38
28
49
54
11
9
22
115
2
68
317
q,m
q
m
q
Table 4. Trace element content of ancient bricks from
Sungai Batu Temple.
q
q,m
q
SB14
2
20
2θ
Legend: q = Quartz, m = muscovite, ml = mullite.
q
q
q
40
60
Figure 3. XRD diffraction pattern of bricks from Sungai Batu Temple.
35
30
Al2O3 (%)
25
20
15
Sg. Batu
10
Lempung
5
0
0
20
40
60
SiO2 (%)
80
100
120
Figure 4. Dry weight percentage (%) of SiO2 and Al2O3 element for
the brick samples of Sungai Batu Temple and clay in Bujang Valley.
1.2
1
TiO2 (%)
0.8
0.6
Sg. Batu
0.4
Lempung
0.2
0
0
0.5
1
MgO (%)
1.5
2
Figure 5. Dry weight percentage (%) of MgO and TiO2 element for
the brick samples of Sungai Batu Temple and clay in Bujang Valley.
Element
(ppm)
As
Ba
Ce
Co
Cr
Cu
Ga
Hf
La
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
Sr
U
Th
V
Y
Zn
Zr
SB 7
13
729
600
7
80
11
27
7
28
40
27
48
68
7
8
23
102
4
46
353
SB 8
14
684
544
10
104
10
32
8
29
33
29
45
52
15
9
29
129
10
56
397
Sample
SB 9 SB 10
16
11
710
733
590
602
118
77
9
8
12
12
39
25
8
8
30
30
34
37
32
30
47
47
88
56
31
7
9
9
38
16
133
99
19
1
50
55
344
276
SB 11
13
725
590
14
98
10
23
6
27
40
21
43
83
21
8
20
102
6
60
280
SB 12
8
770
603
7
66
9
20
8
31
38
26
45
32
6
9
15
98
1
54
447
12 and 17 ppm and 48 and 62 ppm, respectively. The results showed
that there is one major source of raw material that was used and
based on lead and copper element concentrations, slight
differences were found with the clay in Bujang Valley, Kedah.
Although the trace element composition of the bricks found in
Sungai Batu Temple is slightly different from the trace element
composition of the clay available, based on the trace composition
content of the bricks in this site, it is more of local clay composition.
Data of clay composition around the Sungai Batu basin has yet to
be performed and most likely this raw material was sourced from
the areas in the vicinity of the site.
Conclusions
The study on material composition of the ancient bricks of Sungai
Batu Temple (Site SB1) shows that the bricks have almost similar
material composition as the clay in Bujang Valley, Kedah, which is
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
363
Table 5. Trace element content of ancient bricks from Sungai
Batu Temple.
Element
(ppm)
As
Ba
Ce
Co
Cr
Cu
Ga
Hf
La
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
Sr
U
Th
V
Y
Zn
Zr
SB 13
16
777
583
9
103
12
32
8
30
38
31
52
113
19
9
30
127
19
47
320
SB 14
14
715
586
6
93
10
28
9
32
38
28
50
82
10
7
24
110
3
50
282
SB 15
10
744
616
7
79
13
27
8
30
37
33
46
46
14
9
18
104
4
53
312
Sample
SB 16 SB 17
12
14
733
730
589
572
8
7
83
96
12
10
25
26
8
4
30
26
38
28
31
30
48
48
55
72
9
14
9
7
26
28
116
124
6
11
50
51
425
380
SB 18
9
753
607
7
75
11
22
8
30
40
29
47
53
7
9
16
105
2
42
307
SB 19
12
773
60
8
95
10
26
4
28
25
29
50
71
13
20
22
121
13
52
314
25
Cu (ppm)
20
15
Sg. Batu
10
Lempung
5
0
0
50
100
Pb (ppm)
150
200
Figure 6. Graph of lead and copper element concentration for the
brick samples of Sungai Batu Temple and clay in Bujang Valley.
based on major and trace elements which is similar to composition
of clay samples. The mineral content present in the ancient brick
samples consists of quartz, muscovite, microcline, mullite and
albite. The mullite mineral shows that some of the bricks were
baked at sufficient temperature of more than 550°C. This shows
that the open burning technique was used in the production of
the temple’s bricks because some of the bricks have an indication
of low firing burning. The dry weight percentage graph of silica
and aluminium and magnesium and titanium as well as the lead
and copper concentration graph indicate that the raw materials
used to produce the ancient bricks are local raw materials and
these raw materials were obtained from the surrounding area of
Bujang District.
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted using the GGPM-2013-070 and II/004/
2012; and therefore, we would like to express our gratitude to
National University of Malaysia and Ministry of Higher Education
for the research grant awarded.
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ancient bricks at Site 2211, Candi Pengkalan Bujang, Kedah. Res. J.
Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. 6(16):3027-3033.
9
Ramli, Z. and Abdul Rahman N.H.S.N. 2013. Composition analysis of
ancient bricks, Candi Bukit Kechil, Bujang Valley, Kedah. Res. J. Appl.
Sci. Eng. Technol. 6(5):924-930.
10
Chia, S. 1997. Prehistoric pottery sources and technology in Peninsular
Malaysia based on compositional and morphological studies. Malays
Museums J. 33:91-125.
11
Ramli, Z., Abdul Rahman, N.H.S.N., Jusoh, A. and Sauman, Y. 2011.
X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescent analyses of prehistoric pottery
shards from Ulu Kelantan. Am. J. Appl. Sci. 8:1337-1342.
12
Moradi, H., Dadian, H. S., Ramli, Z. and Abdul Rahman N.H.S.N.
2013. Compositional analysis of the pottery shards of Shahr-I Sokhta,
South Eastern Iran. Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. 6(4):654-659.
13
Ramli, Z., Abdul Rahman N.H.S.N., Samian, A.L., Razman, M. R.,
Zakaria, S. Z. S., Jusoh, A., Sauman, Y. and Dadia, H. S. 2014. X-ray
diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of protohistoric votive tablets from Chawas Cave, Hulu Kelantan, Malaysia.
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. 7(7):1195-1201.
14
Ramli, Z. and Abdul Rahman N.H.S.N. 2009. Beads trade in Peninsula
Malaysia: Based on archaeological evidences. Eur. J. Soc. Sci. 10(4):
585-595.
15
Ramli, Z., Abdul Rahman N.H.S.N. and Samian, A.L. 2011. X-ray
fluorescent analysis on Indo-Pacific glass beads from Sungai Mas
archaeological sites, Kedah, Malaysia. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Ch. 287:
741-747.
16
Jusoh, A., Sauman, Y., Abdul Rahman, N. H. S. N. and Ramli, Z. 2012.
Scientific analysis of samples of some artefacts metal age in Malaysia.
Soc. Sci. 7(6):772-777.
17
Ramli, Z., Abdul Rahman, N. H. S. N., Jahi, J.M., Razman, M. R.,
Zakaria, S. Z. S. and Dadia, H. S. 2014. X-ray diffraction and X-ray
fluorescence of clay and soil samples in sub district of Bujang and
Merbok, Kedah, Malaysia. Journal of Food, Agriculture and
Environment 12(2):1061-1062.
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014