Guide to Good Practices for Sustainable
Tourism in Marine-Coastal Ecosystems
Lodging Businesses
UNEP, established in 1972, is the voice for the environment
within the United Nations system. UNEP acts as a catalyst,
advocate, educator and facilitator to promote the wise use and
sustainable development of the global environment. UNEP
provides leadership and encourages partnership in caring for the
environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and
peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising
that of future generations. UNEP works with a wide range of
partners, including United Nations entities, international organizations, national governments, non-governmental organizations, the private sector and civil society.
http://www.unep.org
The Rainforest Alliance works to conserve biodiversity and
ensure sustainable livelihoods by transforming land-use practices, business practices and consumer behavior. Rainforest
Alliance works with people whose livelihoods depend on the
land, helping them transform the way they grow food, harvest
wood and host travelers. From large multinational corporations
to small, community-based cooperatives, we involve businesses
and consumers worldwide in our efforts to bring responsibly
produced goods and services to a global marketplace where the
demand for sustainability is growing steadily.
http://www.rainforest-alliance.org
CI believes that the Earth’s natural heritage must be maintained if future generations are to thrive spiritually, culturally,
and economically. Our mission is to conserve the Earth’s living
heritage, our global biodiversity, and to demonstrate that human
societies are able to live harmoniously with nature.
http://www.conservation.org
Guide to Good Practices for Sustainable Tourism
in Marine-Coastal Ecosystems
Lodging Businesses
Contact:
Contact:
Rainforest Alliance
665 Broadway, Suite 500
New York, NY 1002 USA
Tel.: +1 (212) 677-1900
Fax: +1 (212) 677-2187
E-mail: canopy@ra.org
Website: http://www.rainforest-alliance.org
Conservation International
2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500
Arlington, VA 22202
Telephone: (703) 341-2400
Toll-free (within the US): 1(800) 429-5660
Website: http://www.conservation.org
Credits
This guide has been developed as part of the Project “Mainstreaming
Biodiversity Conservation into Tourism through the Development
and Dissemination of Best Practices” financed by the United Nations
Environmental Program (UNEP) Global Environmental Facility (GEF)
and executed by Rainforest Alliance, Conservation International, Ecuadorian
Ecotourism Association (ASEC) and Programme for Belize (PfB).
Technical compilation:
Erick Vargas
Technical edition:
Alejandrina Acuña
Silvia Rioja
Philologist:
Mireya González
Translation:
Luis Delgadillo
Design:
Diseño Editorial S.A. www.kikeytetey.com
Content
Foreword............................................................................ 5
Presentation....................................................................... 7
Introduction........................................................................ 8
Why Have We Prepared This Guide?...........................................................9
Whom Is It For?...........................................................................................9
How Is It Used?..........................................................................................10
What Are The Benefits?..............................................................................11
Tourism, Biodiversity, and Conservation........................... 12
Biodiversity.................................................................................................13
Conservation...............................................................................................13
Biodiversity and Marine and Land Planning.................................................14
Biodiversity and Environmental Impact.........................................................16
Marine-Coastal Ecosystems............................................... 18
What Are Marine-Coastal Ecosystems?........................................................19
What Are the Main Marine-Coastal Resources Used by Tourism?.................21
Where Can I Get More Information?...........................................................35
Lodging Infrastructure Construction................................ 36
What Is the Issue? ......................................................................................37
Why Should I Care?....................................................................................37
What Can I Do?.........................................................................................38
Where Can I Get More Information?...........................................................41
Energy Management......................................................... 42
What Is the Issue? ......................................................................................43
Why Should I Care?....................................................................................44
What Can I Do?.........................................................................................44
Where Can I Get More Information?...........................................................49
Water Management and Use............................................. 50
What Is the Issue? ......................................................................................51
Why Should I Care?....................................................................................51
What Can I Do?.........................................................................................52
Where Can I Get More Information?...........................................................53
Wastewater Management.................................................. 54
What Is the Issue? ......................................................................................55
Why Should I Care?....................................................................................56
What Can I Do?.........................................................................................56
Where Can I Get More Information.............................................................59
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Solid Waste Management............................................... 60
Product Suppliers.............................................................. 78
What Is the Issue? ......................................................................................61
Why Should I Care?....................................................................................62
What Can I Do?..................................................................................62
Where Can I Get More Information?...........................................................65
What Is the Issue? ......................................................................................79
Why Should I Care?............................................................................80
What Can I Do?..................................................................................81
Where Can I Get More Information?...........................................................83
Chemical and Hazardous Waste....................................... 66
Marine-Coastal Ecosystem Conservations......................... 84
What Is the Issue? ......................................................................................67
Why Should I Care?............................................................................70
What Can I Do?..................................................................................70
Where Can I Get More Information?...........................................................73
What Is the Issue? ......................................................................................85
Why Should I Care?............................................................................87
What Can I Do?..................................................................................87
Where Can I Get More Information?...........................................................91
Water and Land Transportation........................................ 74
Biodiversity Conservation................................................. 92
What Is the Issue? ......................................................................................75
Why Should I Care?............................................................................76
What Can I Do?..................................................................................76
Where Can I Get More Information?...........................................................77
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What Is the Issue? ......................................................................................93
Why Should I Care?............................................................................94
What Can I Do?..................................................................................95
Where Can I Get More Information?......................................................... 101
Foreword
Coastal-marine environments are some of the most biologically diverse
areas on Earth, harboring many of the world’s plant and animal species
and providing important ecological services such as climate regulation.
They are also home to hundreds of millions of people who live in or near
coastal-marine areas, and the pressure to develop these areas, particularly
in developing countries, is intense.
The beauty and “wildness” of coastal-marine areas are highly attractive to
the growing nature-based tourism sector, and capitalizing on this attraction is one way to contribute to the conservation of these valuable ecosystems. Appropriately managed tourism can be an important way to provide
sustainable economic development and employment in these areas while
still conserving their natural value. Yet, poorly planned or implemented
tours to coastal-marine environments can also have a significant negative impact. The operational and managerial decisions of tour operators
and other tourism professionals in coastal-marine areas areas will have an
important effect on whether tourism can be a sustainable form of economic
development in these ecosystems.
This Guide to Good Practice was developed through a collaborative
process by the United Nations Environment Programme, Rainforest
Alliance, Conservation International and our partners with support from
the Global Environmental Facility. It is meant to be a key resource
for operators and purchasers of coastal-marine-based tours who care
about sustainable tourism development and understand that sustainability is the only way forward. The Guide was created for accommodation services that recognize that their rights and expectations should
go hand-by-hand with their responsibilities and obligations. It will be
an important resource for hoteliers to assess their own business activities, in order to identify areas of good performance and areas where
they can take action to improve sustainability.
We invite you to read this guide and to work with us in promoting
sustainable tourism development that benefits the coastal-marine areas,
its people and your business.
Ronald Sanabria
Director
Sustainable Tourism Program
Rainforest Alliance
Fred Boltz
Vice-President
Conservation Strategies
Conservation International
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Foto: Jason Neuerburg
Presentation
The conservation of the biodiversity in places with great tourism appeal is
a challenge that businessmen of this sector face in all regions of the world,
especially in fragile ecosystems and in areas adjacent to natural protected
zones.
The implementation of environmental and social best management practices allows for the protection of the integrity of ecosystems and local
cultures; it increases the viability of tourism companies by providing financial stability, quality employment as well as encouragement in the development of the local communities. The communities can enjoy healthy ambiences in preserving ecosystems and the natural and cultural resources for
present and future generations.
Additionally, tourists are expressing greater preference to products and
services that demonstrate socio-environmental commitment. Improving
performance in the environmental and social areas allows tourism companies to gain not only recognition and credibility, but to establish relations
adapted to the communities and ecosystems where they operate.
This guide presents detailed information about the marine coastal
ecosystem and the environmental resources most used by tourism activity
in the above-mentioned ecosystem. It analyzes the potential problems of
tourism activity and recommends best management practices to improve
company management. The implementation of these best practices allows
businessmen to minimize the negative impacts on the environment and
communities while maximizing the benefits of tourism activity in the natural
and social environments discussed.
The development of this guide was accomplished based on a broad
consultation process. The technical material prepared was submitted
to key actors for consultation (small and medium-sized companies,
tour operators, academic institutions and non- governmental organizations) through advisory workshops in Ecuador and Belize. It was
also submitted before a technical committee of international experts so
that they could evaluate the technical content and relevance of these
materials.
Special thanks to Roberto Murao – Ecobrasil (Brazil); Ali Kaka
– Kenya’s East African Wildlife Society (Kenya); Herbert Hamele
- ECOTRANS - VISIT (Europe); Gabor Vereczi – Environment
and Quality Section, Sustainable Development of Tourism Department, World Tourism Organization WTO; Stefanos Fotiou – Division of Technology, Industry, and Economics, United Nations Environment Programme UNEP-DTIE; David Blanton – International
Galápagos Tour Operador Associa-tion IGTOA (Ecuador); Brian
Morgan – Adventure Life Journeys (USA); Marion Hammerl –
Ecotrans (Alemania); Ary Suhandi - Indonesian Ecotourism Network
INDECON (Indonesia); y Helena Rey - Division of Technology,
Industry, and Economics; United Nations Environment Programme
UNEP-DTIE.
The use of this guide allows the tourism entrepreneurs to acknowledge
the main characteristics of the ecosystems where their businesses operate
and to design and improve their own management plans through the
application of best management practices.
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Introduction
Why Have We Prepared This Guide?
Up until the eighties, oceans were seen by many as an unlimited resource
that could feed the world’s growing population. It was also seen as a system
where household and industrial waste could be dumped. While the last few
years have witnessed a major change in this view, human action pressure
on oceans is still extraordinary, seriously affecting all marine and coastal
ecosystems. These actions include ocean transport, commercial fishing, oil
production, recreation, and tourism, among others. Ground-based activities, such as agriculture, industry, deforestation, mining, and urban development, also entail serious impacts because many of their solid, chemical,
and organic waste eventually affect all marine and coastal ecosystems in
the planet.
The lodging industry may have direct impacts on marine and coastal
ecosystems, on account of beach or mangrove swamp modifications to build
facilities, and indirect impacts, such as restaurant demand for seafood from
fishing companies that use unsustainable practices.
This guide makes it possible to understand and value some of the most
important components of marine-coastal biodiversity, including such
ecosystems as beaches, coral reefs, and mangrove swamps, as well as
some of the very popular wildlife groups, particularly marine turtles
and mammals, i.e., cetaceans, manatees, and sea lions. It also shows
lodging industry impacts on these resources and provides a series of
best practices to prevent or minimize said impacts.
Whom Is It For?
This reference document is a must for hoteliers, tourism and real estate
investors, hotel managers, and people in charge of the different hotel
divisions. Its principles are applicable to both large beach hotels and
lodges, and even to businesses providing lodging services on vessels.
It will also be extremely useful to professionals advising lodging businesses, such as architects, landscapists, builders, tourist product
developers, environmental interpreters, and suppliers of goods
and services.
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How Is It Used?
Information has been organized in twelve chapters. The first chapter,
entitled “Tourism, Biodiversity, and Conservation”, provides a general
framework in understanding each of these issues, as well as their relevance
in the tourism development context, particularly the lodging industry. The
following components are highlighted:
•
Biodiversity
•
Conservation
•
Biodiversity and Spacial Planning
•
Biodiversity and Environmental Impact
While these and other issues covered below may sound quite familiar
to tourist businesspeople with operations within or very close to natural
areas, the relationship does not seem to be that obvious and outright to
people in other sectors. Nevertheless, even if your company is very far
away from a wilderness area, whether or not it is protected, knowing these
issues is a priority because natural and cultural resources found in our
Latin American countries are undoubtedly the basis for a blooming tourist
industry, often touted as the best development alternative, particularly for
rural communities.
The second chapter, “Marine-Coastal Ecosystems”, aims at sharing information on the most important tourist resources connected to oceans and
coasts, in order to awaken curiosity about and appreciation for them. It is
worth mentioning this chapter is not intended to be exhaustive but rather,
as mentioned, to furnish information on some of the resources commonly
present in these ecosystems. It includes the following components:
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•
The Ocean
•
The Beach
•
The Mangrove Swamp
•
The Coral Reef
•
Marine Mammals
•
Marine Turtles
The following ten chapters deal with environmental management
processes in lodging businesses. Every chapter identifies the problem
associated with the relevant environmental process, justifies the reasons
why a lodging business should become interested in the subject, suggests
possible actions to prevent or abate problems, and recommends some
additional sources of information available to interested parties for reference. These chapters are:
•
Lodging Infrastructure Construction
•
Energy Management
•
Water Management and Use
•
Wastewater Management
•
Solid Waste Management
•
Chemical and Hazardous Waste
•
Water and Land Transportation
•
Product Suppliers
•
Marine-Coastal Ecosystem Conservation
•
Biodiversity Conservation
What Are The Benefits?
Many benefits derive from implementing recommendations provided by
this guide. The most important include:
Protecting and conserving biodiversity.
•
Maintaining natural cycles in marine-coastal ecosystems and their
influence on global processes.
•
Preserving the destination attractions that prompted tourists to visit
them in the first place.
•
Achieving efficiency and savings in business operating activities.
•
Maintaining destination quality and competitiveness.
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Tourism, Biodiversity, and Conservation
Photo: Dale Moris
Biodiversity
“Biodiversity” is a very broad concept including everything related to
diversity of life, both wildlife and domesticated species, at three different
levels:
•
Ecosystems: The different communities of living beings, and their
relationships to each other and to their environment. They also include
the different environments created by human beings, such as agricultural and cattle-raising landscapes. Some examples are: tropical rainforests, coral reefs, mangrove swamps, and moorlands.
•
Species: All forms of life existing in the planet; they may live on
land, water, air, or underground. Some examples of species are humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), the mountain almond or surá
tree (Terminalia oblonga), and the Galapagos penguin (Spheniscus
mendiculus).
•
Genes: The tiny structures responsible for heredity that enable
different species expressions, intraspecific diversity, and the particular
traits each individual may pass on to its offspring. For instance, a
collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) population in Belize can exhibit
genetic variations, compared to other population of the same
species living in Ecuador.
Conservation
It is worth mentioning that, contrary to popular belief, conservation
is not just limited to a “no take” of biodiversity, but is a much more
dynamic concept. It is a process aimed at meeting both society and
biodiversity needs. It encompasses a wide range of uses of nature, going
from preservation to sustainable production of goods and services of
renowned social value, such as food and drug production, construction
materials production, water production, erosion control, biological
diversity preservation, scenic beauty maintenance, and many others.
The Global Biodiversity Strategy (1992) defines conservation as
managing humankind’s use of the biosphere, so as to generate the
largest sustainable benefits for current generations, while preserving
their possibilities of meeting the needs and aspirations of future
generations. The Strategy also explains that conservation includes
natural environment preservation, maintenance, sustainable use,
restoration, and enhancement. Furthermore, it consists of preserving
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cultural diversity, this being to a large extent the result of different
interrelationships between human beings and their natural environment. Consequently, it has the potential of providing various choices
for biodiversity conservation and flexible use that may be applied
to different contexts. The Strategy also establishes that biodiversity
conservation requires specific efforts in three areas:
•
Saving: Seeking to prevent biological diversity disappearance or
decline, in order to keep all current and potential options open in
meeting social, economic, and environmental needs of the different
sectors of society, as well as the needs of nature itself. Efforts to save
biodiversity include the establishment of protected wilderness areas,
closed fishing or hunting seasons during breeding periods, botanical
garden creation, seed collections, and others.
•
Knowing: Aimed at creating knowledge of biodiversity at all levels,
identifying its components and understanding its functioning, as well
as current and potential sustainable uses, in response to the needs of
different sectors in society, integrating both modern and traditional
knowledge. It also provides opportunities to identify new strategies for
keeping biological diversity in the long term.
•
Using: It is meant to enhance biodiversity value to society through
using it sustainably to meet human needs, thus promoting an awareness of its importance and support to achieve long-term maintenance.
The use can be direct, i.e., when we consume a forest fruit, or indirect, as when we point out a toucan to a tourist.
Biodiversity and Marine
and Land Planning
Marine and land use planning is an enforceable set of regulations on territorial utilization defining potential uses for the various areas of a marine
or terrestrial territory. It typically involves having a clear conception of
sustainable development policies and objectives, regarding environmental,
social, and economic issues in society. Additionally, it sets standards that
are binding to all stakeholders. The agency in charge of implementing
the plan is usually the local government, in coordination with all sectors
involved. Moreover, it is developed with wide involvement of social and
institutional stakeholders present in the area.
Comprehensive space planning in communities and tourist destinations
may be an important instrument to support existing biodiversity conservation, as well as abating current impacts on it. The lodging industry can
greatly benefit from this process, since it contributes to long-term preservation of landscape and biological attractions underlying tourist activities,
and to maintaining destination quality, competitiveness, and positioning.
The land use planning process will vary according to current level of
development, and it is meant to help manage it, instead of reverting it.
Planning for already developed spaces, for instance, in coastal areas,
may have a positive impact on conserving marine coral reefs. It must be a
participatory process to gather inputs from the different sectors involved,
i.e., residents, businesspeople, investors, and visitors. It should also have
technical support from professionals in different fields, such as engineers,
architects, landscape architects, biologists, ecologists, and sociologists,
among others.
Land use planning should start with a deep knowledge of the area’s natural
features, such as soil types, topography, geology, hydrology, ecosystems,
vegetation, and wildlife. Identifying environmental services provided by
natural ecosystems is important, since their maintenance should be sought
by the planning process. Human issues should also be taken into account,
including demographics, population distribution patterns, recent construction growth rates, customs and life styles, historical and archaeological
heritage, current and potential uses of existing biodiversity, and others.
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This planning process should also take into consideration both existing
and proposed infrastructure and utility issues, such as highways, roads,
airports, landing strips, bridges, wharves, mass transit, electric power,
drinking water, sewage systems, telephone lines, public lighting, recreational areas, waste collection and disposal systems. A proper balance
should be stricken between these developments and existing biodiversity.
The process may end with a series of tools such as a land use plan or a
marine or coastal management plan, which are instruments defining actual
use possibilities, identifying spaces for the different socioeconomic development activities, biological diversity conservation, and maintenance of
its environmental services, and harmonizing the various identified uses.
Additionally, it sets standards that are binding to all stakeholders. The
agency in charge of implementing the plan is usually the local government,
in coordination with all sectors involved.
Marine space planning involves identifying the distribution of underwater
ecosystems such as coral reefs or seagrass beds. Other aspects to consider
are key species such as marine turtles, cetaceans and others. Information should be generated about feeding areas, nursing, migratory routes,
currents, distance from the coast, sources of impact and others. This can
used to identify fragile areas, define protected and management categories,
and regulations for activities such as tourism, commercial and sport fishing
and transportation,
Municipal governments do not always have the capacity to monitor if
defined standards and requirements within land and marine use plans and
urbanization plans have been fulfilled during the implementation. This
lack of control may be due to the lack of financial resources and personnel
and because of corruption at the local level. Coastal urbanization is especially attractive from an economic point of view and it might used for
money washing. Therefore it would be very important to have an effective
–neutral and financially independent– monitoring and evaluation system
regarding the implementation of land use plans. Since land use planning
is a long-term issue (10 – 20 years), it would be very important to have
regular revisions of the land use plans (every 4 – 5 years) and to evaluate
if the objectives and planned measures are still in line with biodiversity
conservation objectives and the development /demand of the (tourism)
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market. Long term monitoring and evaluation may provide useful
information to contribute to the adaptation of the plans to changing
realities and to the mitigation of negative impacts on biodiversity.
The lodging industry may significantly contribute to land and marine
use plan development, implementation and monitoring, providing
inputs on available natural attractions, identifying underlying environmental services, complying with standards set by the plan, and
embracing sustainable tourism best practices targeted on minimizing
negative impacts on biodiversity.
Biodiversity and
Environmental Impact
An environmental impact assessment, EIA, is an analysis of the likely
consequences of a specific public or private project on environmental
health, species wellbeing, integrity of ecosystems, and quality of their
environmental services. EIAs can be applied to quite diverse projects,
such as infrastructure developments (i.e., building a road or a bridge),
construction of tourist facilities (i.e., a hotel or a visitor center), and
even a tourist service (i.e., a tour through a tropical forest or a coral
reef).
EIAs make it possible to anticipate potential negative environmental
effects prior to project implementation, which, in turn, results in the
adoption of measures to eliminate or minimize said impacts. An EIA
must be a technical, objective, and interdisciplinary work enabling
project managers to make decisions on project environmental feasibility.
In many countries, environmental impact assessments are mandatory
and a requirement to get relevant project construction permits. An
environmental impact assessment is a major planning and decisionmaking tool for lodging businesses, since it helps identify their potential environmental and biodiversity negative effects, and take corrective actions to eliminate or minimize them.
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Developing a lodging operation in harmony with environmental conditions not only contributes to a healthy environment, but also can support
biodiversity conservation and environmental services. In addition, it can
support business competitiveness from a company perspective.
According to a project’s different stages, an EIA can also be undertaken in
several stages, in order to identify potential environmental impacts at each
stage and propose desirable alternatives. Tailoring the project implementation and operation plan in response to identified problems is also possible.
This can be positive, from a project cost perspective, since making radical
design changes, choosing a different proposal, or abandoning the project
altogether becomes very costly at a later stage.
Lodging business impacts on biodiversity can occur during both construction and operation stages. A monitoring of biodiversity impacts brought
about by tourist activities, in general, and by the lodging industry, in particular, can identify both negative effects requiring mitigation measures and
positive impacts through time, as well as their causes. Impacts may affect
both abiotic systems (i.e., lifeless structures, such as soil, water, air) and/or
biotic systems (living beings, i.e., animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi).
Tourist infrastructure development may have a direct or an indirect impact
on abiotic systems, which, in turn, may have affect biological diversity.
Opening roads and trails, for instance, can divide an ecosystem and separate natural populations. Preserving soils before and after building infrastructure is important, as well preventing any erosion that may have a
negative environmental and biodiversity impact.
Lodging operations demand a lot of drinking water, the largest consumers
being such areas as laundry, gardens, kitchens, bathrooms, and swimming pools. When water is limited there may be a competition for its use
between hotel facilities and wildlife. Other impacts may come from water
pollution affecting individuals, populations, species, and ecosystems. An
excess of nutrients in water, for example, may endanger coral reefs.
Tourist developments can also impact biotic systems, disturbing the flora in
an area, deforesting, isolating populations, and polluting soils and water,
among other things. Similarly, wildlife can be affected through interfer-
ences with breeding cycles, nesting grounds, mating and resting areas,
corridors for species movements, water and food sources, and others.
Monitoring aims at measuring conditions as time goes by in order to identify and predict both positive and negative changes or impacts. Monitoring
is quite useful in identifying the social and environmental impact of tourist
activities on their surroundings. Furthermore, it leads to a better decision-making process. Environmental monitoring deals with such issues as
energy and water consumption, waste generation and disposal, and effects
on biological diversity. Monitoring requires setting objectives concerning
management, as well as environmental and biodiversity conditions. Moreover, it requires baseline information and indicators to identify changes.
Data should be easy to collect, store, and analyze, and results should be
comparable to those obtained through previous or subsequent measures, in
order to identify changes over time.
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Marine-Coastal Ecosystems
What Are Marine-Coastal
Ecosystems?
The ocean is one of the most important tourist attractions in the world.
Many tourist destinations are to be found along coasts, and provide
such natural environments as sea, beaches, and coral reefs, as well as the
opportunity to enjoy watching interesting species, i.e., fish, marine turtles,
dolphins, and many others. Tourist industry competitiveness directly relies
on conserving oceans and the numerous species living there. Hence, all
actions taken by a company to this end will be an excellent investment.
Ecosystems most relevant to marine biodiversity and humankind include:
Beaches: The natural geographic area where land and sea meet at the
same level. They are the home of many animals, such as birds, crabs and
mollusks. Many beaches are marine turtle egg-laying sites.
Mangrove swamps: These are coastal forests adapted to life in high
salinity and low water oxygen concentration environments. They border
much of tropical coasts and host large numbers of fish, mollusks, and
birds.
Estuaries: They are the region of interaction between rivers and
oceans, where tide and river flow action blends fresh and saltwater.
Consequently, estuaries consist mostlly of briny water. Abundant fertile
sediments carried by rivers usually accumulate in estuaries, which
usually host birds, reptiles, fish, crabs, shrimp, oysters, mussels, and
snails. Many fish captured at sea spend here part of their life cycle.
Seagrass beds: Beds of marine phanerogams (i.e.,Thalassia
testudinum) are ecosystems hosting a great diversity of organisms on
account of their high organic matter production and the variety of
substrates that provide shelter, food, and spaces to marine animals,
particularly mollusks. This phanerogam contributes to sediment
organic contents through rhyzome growth and decay; additionally,
it has effects on ocean water chemistry in areas with poor circulation. An estimated 90% or more of the energy provided by Thalassia
reaches the higher trophic levels via debris. Being also a substrate for
a large variety of epiphytic algae, sometimes epiphyte biomass can be
equal to Thalassia leave biomass. These algae are a source of food
for organisms living in Thalassia beds. Thalassia beds are important
areas for the development of fish and invertebrate juvenile stages,
and as sheltering and feeding areas for other marine animals, such
as turtles.
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Coral reefs: They are colonies of marine organisms formed by the association of an alga and a coral polyp. A great variety of coral algae, sea
plants and animals live associated to corals, forming what is known as a
whole as coral reefs. These are among the most productive ecosystems in
the planet.
Coastal seas: These are the areas around continents and islands with
abundant plankton and marine life, and are very important to recreation
and tourism, as well as to fishing activities. They are the home of many
fish varieties feeding large human populations, such as tuna, sardines, and
mackarel. Humpback whales usually give birth in warm coastal seas.
Sargassum communities: Macrocystis pyrifera, or giant sargassum, is
an important ecological and economic resource. It forms extensive forests or
beds that provide habitat, shelter, and food to numerous species with high
commercial value, such as abalone, lobster, and sea urchin. Also known as
giant kelp, giant bladder kelp, or seaweed, it is a giant brown alga inhabiting
the Pacific coast of North America and the the sub-Antarctic waters of South
America, South Africa, and New Zealand. It ranges from the intertidal zone to
a depth of some 30 meters and may form underwater forests. Its structures
are similar to those of true plants. Its greenish-brown “leaves” can grow
to more than half a meter long. Along the “stalk” there are small air-filled
bladders acting as floaters. Macrocystis populations are negatively affected
by high temperatures and low nutrient concentrations.
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What Are the Main Marine-Coastal
Resources Used by Tourism?
This section describes the marine-coastal resources that are more relevant to
tourist activities. First, an overall description of the sea and its importance
is given, to then focus on three kinds of ecosystems: beaches, mangrove
swamps, and coral reefs. These tropical ecosystems provide many benefits
to society and are very popular destinations for tourists seeking leisure
and recreation, thus generating millions of dollars in revenues. In addition, two major wildlife groups are described: marine mammals (whales,
dolphins, sea lions, and manatees) and marine turtles. These two groups
were chosen on account of their being part of tourist products in many
countries around the world, and also because some of these species are
seriously endangered, and turtle and cetacean survival depends on many
countries’ collective action, given they are worldwide resources that move
about in many places.
The Ocean
The ocean is the part of earth surface filled with marine water. Continents
and large archipelagos divide it into five parts also known as oceans; Pacific
Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and Antarctic
Ocean. Oceans cover 71% of earth surface, with the Pacific being the
largest one. Although it is generally unknown to us, the sea can be as rich
and diverse as terra firma.
While ocean depth is variable, the mean depth is 4 km. The deepest part
is in the Marianas Trench, reaching down to 11 km.
The ocean is made up of many ecosystems. Ocean water is in continuous
movement due to the influence of solar heat, earth rotation, and tides (in
turn influenced by moon gravity). Oceans have a temperate (12ºC to
30ºC) surface water layer reaching a variable depth that ranges from a
few tens to 400 or 500 meters, depending on the zone. Under this area
water is cold, with temperatures between 5ºC and -1ºC.
Marine currents are like rivers flowing at different speeds, depths, and in
different directions, and having a great influence on global climate and
marine ecosystems. The Gulf Stream, for instance, carries 50 times
as much water per second as all rivers in the planet combined, and
its warm waters are the reason why northwestern Europe has a
more temperate climate than American continent lands at the same
latitude. Streams such as Peru and Benguela currents, the latter in
southwestern Africa, produce true marine bonanzas through the
upwelling of nutrient-rich waters that create an overabundance of
plankton, fish, and marine birds.
Marine and coastal environments combine sand dunes, rocky shores,
cliffs, beaches, estuaries, lagoons, wetlands, mangrove swamps, coral
reefs, and seaweeds. Underwater landscapes are also extraordinarily
diverse, with spectacular geological features, such as huge mountain
ranges and deep canyons.
Ocean food chain base is phytoplankton, made up of unicellular algae
living off sun energy (i.e., they photosynthesize) and water nutrients.
These microorganisms bloom in an ocean surface layer reaching up
to 100 meters in depth. In turn, phytoplankton is a source of food
for zooplankton, a community of tiny animals, some of them unicellular and other more complex, such as krill, small jellyfish, crabs, and
shrimp. Larger creatures, such as fish and baleen whales, feed on both
phytoplankton and zooplankton. Other creatures, like tuna, feed on
those fish. In turn, they serve as food for sharks and dolphins, among
others.
Interesting food relationships also develop in coastal zones. For instance,
marine turtles lay their eggs on beaches, where they are consumed
by crabs, black vultures, frigate birds, coatis, reptiles, weasels, and
house and stray dogs, among others. At the high tide mark, crocodiles
also wait patiently for adult marine turtles and hatchlings, which are
included in their list of prey.
Just as we find deserts and tropical forests in dry land, biodiversity
is also unevenly distributed at sea. In some sectors the ocean floor
is covered by large sandy tracts resembling the Sahara Desert and
exhibiting low biodiversity. At the other extreme, we find the equivalent of tropical forests, i.e., coral reefs. Finally, there are dark areas
in the ocean, which are home to interesting creatures adapted to the
21
extreme conditions, with some of them even capable of glowing in
the dark.
Marine-coastal and island ecosystems are the place where sea and
land meet. The most biologically productive areas in oceans are
often found mostly in these shallow and sunlit areas where nutrients
come from dry land, and currents and winds bring up and move rich
sediments from the bottom of the ocean. These waters are the basis
of the world’s fishing industry. To many species living all or most of
their life at sea, i.e., fish, marine turtles, humpback whales, and many
more, the marine-coastal strip is essential to their reproduction.
American Pacific and Atlantic tropical shores host very similar wildlife, since dominant species in both shores belong to the same genera.
Pacific fauna, however, is exposed to wider temperature and salinity
ranges than Atlantic wildlife.
Coastal ecosystems are intertwined through very complex relationships,
such as found in mangrove swamps, coastal lagoons, and beach dune
systems, acting as containment barriers against erosion and floods.
The marine-coastal zone is home to over half of the earth’s population, being one of the most productive areas in the planet. In addition
to providing a series of benefits, such as transportation, food, energy,
minerals, and recreation, oceans play an essential role as regulators of
global climate. The “society-coast-ocean” relationship, however, has
been been unequal: in exchange for the benefits we receive, we return
pollution, mangrove reduction, wetland drying, sand mining, and
overexploitation of resources, among other things.
The Beach
From the scientific point of view, a beach is defined as a geomorphological
feature responding to conditions of sediment supply, wave, tide, current
and wind action on a time scale ranging from hours to thousands of years
and varying from place to place. There are, however, several simpler definitions describing a beach as: a) parts of land that are covered and uncovered by water through tide action, from the highest flood tide to the lowest
ebb tide limits every year, or b) the accumulation of non-consolidated sediments (sand, gravel, fine gravel, and pebbles) extending from the the mean
ebb tide line to some physiographic change, such as a dune field, or to the
point where permanent vegetation is established. That is to say, beaches
do not include the portion remaining permanently under water and where
wave and sediment transportation processes are most important.
Some of the world’s most famous destinations are known for their beaches.
Lured by their scenic beauty, tourists come to enjoy the sun, the water,
the sand, and the rich biological diversity. The tourist industry, however,
often contributes to deteriorating and destructing the natural attractions
that initially prompted their development. Tourism competitiveness relies
directly on preserving beaches, and large and small species inhabiting or
frequenting them. Therefore, all efforts made by a company to this end
will be an excellent investment in its business success.
On top of being ideal places to sunbathe and swim, beaches are the result
of powerful natural forces, such as waves, marine currents, wind, rivers,
and biodiversity, keeping them in a process of constant change. Some
Caribbean island beaches, for instance, are fed with sand carried by the
wind from as far as the Sahara Desert across the Atlantic. On the other
hand, a great deal of the white sand in beaches next to coral reefs comes
from ground limestone that has gone through parrot fish digestive system.
Erosion and deposition cycles, where sand is either lost or deposited with
material gains, contribute to shaping and positioning beaches. These
cycles may be influenced by human activities occurring far away from these
ecosystems, for instance, deforestation or massive sand mining from a river
bed.
Beaches are a point of junction between land ecosystems, like tropical
forests and deserts, and the sea. Hence, both marine wildlife, i.e., turtles,
crabs, and snails, can be found together with land wildlife, such as jaguars,
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tapirs, and monkeys. In fact, marine turtles coming ashore to lay their eggs
are in the menu of jaguars. Many invertebrates living on beaches, like polychaetes, crabs, and mollusks, are major sources of food to other species
and also act as controllers of other organism populations. For example,
crabs consume and damage turtle eggs, feeding also on hatchlings and thus
helping control their population. Based on the different types of materials
making up beaches, they can be classified into rocky, muddy, and sandy
beaches.
•
Rocky Beaches: Green, brown, red, and blue-green algae live on
rocky beach submerged areas and provide food and protection to
plant eaters, such as snails, sea urchins, chitons, and crabs. There are
also filterfeeding creatures that live clinging to rocks, such as sponges,
sea anemones, corals, and clams, which feed on seaweed fragments,
plankton, and organic matter particles carried by waves. There are
also mobile filterfeeders, such as crabs, and carnivores, i.e., snails,
crabs, and some fish. Further down there are starfish, octopi, and
fish living among the rocks. Rocky beach surface is an ideal place
for Galapagos sea lions and marine iguanas. They are also used by
some bird species for nesting and by some fish species, like needlefish, for spawning. Rocky beaches are also the home of vegetation.
For example, on the Central American Pacific coast some species,
like the gumbo-limbo tree (Bursera simaruba) and the barbed-wire
cactus (Acanthocereus tetragonus), can be found. Rocky beaches are
subject to strong natural pressures, but they are rather tolerant of manmade damages. Nevertheless, pollution and overharvesting of snails,
lobsters, and fish result in the loss of major resources and lead to
undesirable rocky ecosystem changes.
•
Muddy Beaches: Muddy beaches are made of fine sediments
deposited by rivers flowing into the ocean in their vicinity. Many of
their inhabitants are adapted to live buried in the mud, where they
feed on particles and small suspended organisms. Other common
inhabitants are polychaetes, small mud-burrowing worms that exhibit
bright colors, like red, pink, or green. Crabs, lobsters, shrimp, and
marine snails can also be found here. Microalgae present on these
beaches contribute with important nutrients to marine systems.
•
Sandy Beaches: Beach sands may exhibit quite different
looks, depending on the type of rock originating them. For
instance, volcanic sand is black, whereas coral reef sand is
usually white. Sandy beaches do not have primary producers,
such as algae and phytoplankton, and hence their inhabitants
rely on sea nutrients brought by currents and waves, or contributed by land ecosystems. Beach creatures may show a lot of
variation in shapes, sizes, and colors. Sandy beaches are less
stable than rocky or muddy ones. Consequently, most of their
inhabitants, i.e., clams, polychaetes, crabs, pillbugs, and starfish,
remain buried in the sand. Some are so tiny that live comfortably in the spaces between grains of sand. On many beaches
it is common to find blue land crabs (Cardisoma crassum) and
hermit crabs (Coenobita compressus). Some fish live and depend
directly on coastal sandy shoals. Marine turtles are common visitors of many beaches, where they come to lay their eggs. Much of
the organic matter they deposit as eggs remains there and helps
in natural plant fertilization, which, in turn, contributes to stabilizing the beach and increase protection against storms. Many
a bird frequent beaches, including brown pelicans (Pelecanus
occidentalis), magnificent frigatebirds (Fregata magnificens),
and several sea gull species (Larus spp.). Beaches are key sites
during migration of some shorebird species, such as the spotted
sandpiper (Actitis macularia), the sanderling (Calidris alba),
and rare species like the American oystercatcher (Haematopus
palliatus) and the wandering tattler (Heteroscelus incanus). On
sandy beaches it is possible to find salt- and sand-tolerant plants,
such as sea grapes (Coccoloba uvifera), cocoplums (Chrysobalanus icaco), beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae), and
manchineel or beach apple (Hippomane mancinella). These
plants typically help control erosion.
Beaches provide different environmental services to both people and
the environment, particularly recreation, storm protection, utilization of sand, minerals, or rocky materials, as well as shelter, nesting,
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feeding, and mating sites for different marine and avian species.
Sun and beach tourism is widespread all over the world and is one
of the main economic activities developing in coastal areas. Sites
where this kind of tourism is being developed are characterized by
having great scenic beauty, pleasant climate, and large amounts of
sunshine throughout the year. Due to their biological resources and
scenic beauty, numerous beaches around the world actually are or are
seen as part of protected wilderness areas.
The Mangrove Swamp
A mangrove swamp is an ecosystem essential to marine life, since it
provides mating areas, nurseries, and habitats to many of the main
crustacean and fish species with commercial value, in addition to
being the home of numerous birds, mammals, and reptiles, as well as a
migratory bird resting site. Mangrove swamps provide ideal conditions
for recreation, adventure, and enjoyment of nature, and they are excellent complements of beaches, reefs, and the ocean. Tourist industry,
however, does not always value mangrove swamps in all of their potential and rather contributes to their deterioration. Tourism competitiveness directly relies on preserving such ecosystems as mangrove swamps.
Therefore, every effort made by a company to this end will be an excellent investment in its business success.
A mangrove swamp is a group of tree or bush species with adaptations
allowing them to colonize flooded areas in contact with saltwater. It is
named after trees growing there, popularly known as “mangroves”.
This category encompasses several species with similar adaptations,
although belonging to different families. Some of these adaptations
include tolerance to high salinity levels, aerial roots that stabilize trees
on soft terrain, floating seeds (plantules) and specialized structures to
let oxygen in and carbon dioxide out (lenticels and pneumatophores).
A mangrove swamp can be said to live between two worlds, land and
sea. A mangrove swamp is one of the most productive wetlands in
the planet. Its vegetation provides nutrients to the marine environment and supports a great diversity of life, as well as complex food
networks. The intertidal shallow area provides a haven for raising
larvae and juveniles of fish, crabs, shrimp, and mollusks. A healthy
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mangrove swamp is essential to maintaining other marine ecosystems
healthy.
There are several types of mangrove swamps: coastal mangrove swamps
growing without any freshwater flow from inland, river mouth mangrove
swamps, mostly found in river deltas where they get a freshwater flow, and
reef mangrove swamps growing on coral reefs that rise above sea level.
Mangrove swamp areas located immediately adjacent to canals, lagoons,
and river banks are known as the outer zone, which is typically in direct
contact with saltwater. On the other hand, the inner zone is farthest
removed from saltwater, although it can be periodically or seasonally
flooded by tides.
Typically, soils in mangrove swamps have little oxygen, which decreases
with depth. These are acidic soils due to calcium shortage and to the
interaction between organic matter supplied by roots and leaves, natural
seawater salts, iron carried by rivers, and lack of oxygen. Acidic soils make
it difficult for organic matter to break down, for nutrients to be absorbed by
plants, and for crops to grow properly. Mangrove aerial roots are designed
to anchor trees firmly on unstable and nonconsolidated soils. Additionally, during ebb tide they allow for gas exchange with the atmosphere, thus
permitting tree oxygenation and survival on oxygen-poor soils.
In order to reproduce in such extreme environments, mangrove trees have
developed different strategies. In some species, for instance, fruits do not
produce seeds. The embryo germinates and develops inside the fruit,
protected against adverse salinity and flooding conditions, producing a
plantule that grows attached to the parent tree until, at the right time, it
falls and develops into a new tree. Mangroves have managed to live in high
salt concentration environments. Some species regulate the amount and
type of salts they absorb through salt-excluding filters. On the contrary,
other plants have a lower capacity for filtering salts, and thus they absorb
them in higher amounts in their systems, but they possess glands to excrete
the excess.
Mangrove swamp vegetation combines trees, herbs, lianas, and epiphytes.
Most trees in the swamp are mangroves of the Rhizophora and Avicennia
genera, as well as other species, such as Pelliciera rhizophorae, Mora
oleifera, Laguncularia racemosa, Conocarpus erecta, Annona glabra, and
Phryganocidia phellosperma, among others. Mangrove aerial roots form an
intricate mesh used by a lot of fish, mollusks, and crustaceans as mating,
haven, and nursery areas. Many of these species are important as human
food, Abundant leaves on the floor feed colonies of microorganisms that
break them down, as well as bacteria and protozoa or unicellular animals.
In turn, these colonies are at the base of complex food networks.
Shrimp reproduce very close to the shore, and the abundant larvae use
mangrove roots as nurseries, feeding on forest debris as they develop into
juveniles. Then they abandon their mangrove haven and head to the sea to
complete their development as adults. Finally, they return to the shore to
reproduce and start the cycle again.
Mangrove swamps host a large diversity of resident and migratory birds
that, depending of their features and needs, are found in different environments, such as sandy shoals, canal banks, mangrove swamp inner borders,
and tree tops. To many of them the main source of food is fish and mollusks.
Scarlet macaws (Ara macao), frequent visitors of tropical forests during
the day, gather in groups of up to 50 individuals to sleep on mangrove
trees. In Costa Rica one hummingbird species (Amazilia boucardi) is
endemic of Pacific mangrove swamps and visits flowers of some mangroves,
lianas, and epiphytes in search of nectar. Other species associated with
mangrove swamps are the mangrove vireo (Vireo pallens), the mangrove
warbler (Dendroica petechia erithachorides), and the Panama flycatcher
(Myiarchus panamensis), which live and nest there feeding on spiders,
beetles, and grasshoppers. Over 500 bird species have been recorded in
Belize mangrove forests.
Some mammals, i.e., the peccary or wild pig, come to shore at low tide.
Capuchin monkeys can be seen on mangrove tree tops feeding on leaves.
Manatees, crab-eating monkeys, fishing cats, and marine turtles have been
seen in Belize. Mangrove swamps are able to successfully regenerate in
periods ranging from 15 to 30 years, provided there have been no alterations in regular tide dynamics, there are nearby mangrove forest patches
that produce fruit or new plantules, and that these can float on water
without any obstacles.
Mangrove swamps have been used since pre-Columbian times. Indigenous
people harvested different products from mangroves, some for domestic
consumption and other for trading with other communities. The settling of
25
communities around mangrove swamps was prompted by the possibility of getting salt, mollusks, fish, and crustaceans.
advantage of in most cases, or at least there is no recognized market for
them.
Mangrove forest importance can be seen from two broad perspectives: their functions and their uses, or their ecological and economic
importance. Mangrove functions are globally acknowledged,
particularly by human communities enjoying direct or indirect
benefits from mangrove forests, such as coastline protection, sediment retention, flood buffer, food, and shelter for a large number
of economically important aquatic organisms, and wind and wave
force abatement, thus decreasing potential storm damages. Other
functions consist of protecting and producing biodiversity genetic
resources, in addition to providing areas for scientific research development, sequestering large amounts of carbon, and being seen as
good evapotranspirators that induce rainfall on the same site or in
nearby areas.
Tourism is another productive activitiy developed in mangrove areas. It
is known as a non-consumption use, as opposed to the consumption use
resulting from poorly planned activities, such as shrimp and fish farming,
salt ponds, and tourist infrastructure development, hotels, roads, ports,
among others.
Traditional extractive uses in mangrove forests are directly related
to products human beings can use for their own consumption or for
trade, mostly mangrove and wildlife species. Lumber is mainly used
for home construction, wharves, piers, farm fence posts, firewood and
coal production as an energy source, and the use of bark as a source of
tannins for the leather industry.
Animals associated to a mangrove ecosystem, such as mollusks, crabs,
shrimp, and fish, are the main source of protein to human populations inhabiting these areas. Birds, mammals, and other animals are
common in mangrove forests, although these organisms are not taken
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This important ecosystem is also one of the most endangered, since it is
disappearing at a higher rate than the tropical rainforest without getting
much attention from the public. In 2001, worldwide mangrove swamps
covered 181,000 km2 in more than 100 countries; an estimated 50% of
this was lost in the 50 years prior to this date. In Central America, Some
3,200 km2 were estimated to be left in 1994 on the Pacific coast. The
highest mangrove concentration, 1,650 km2, is found on the Panamanian
Pacific shoreline. Some Latin American countries do not have legal regulations in place for mangrove conservation, and in other instances existing
regulations are not enforced.
The Convention on, Wetlands signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an
intergovernmental treaty acting as a framework for national action and
international cooperation in favor of conserving and rationally using
wetlands and their resources. There are currently 154 Contract Parties to
the Convention with 1650 wetlands, covering a total area of 149.6 million
hectares designated to be included in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of
International Importance.
The Coral Reef
Coral reefs are thought to be one of the most exotic destinations in the
world. The tourist industry, however, often contributes to deteriorating
and destructing them −mostly unwittingly− since land activities may
directly or indirectly affect coral reefs located many miles away in the sea.
Every effort made by a lodging company to protect reefs contributes to
maintaining destination competitiveness and will be an excellent investment in business success.
The coral reef is one of the most complex and colorful tropical ecosystems, rivaling with the rainforest as to species diversity. This ecosystem
is home to 25% of all known marine species, including over 4000 fish
species, 700 coral species, and thousands of animals and plants. A reef
may be likened to a true underwater metropolis, where buildings are made
of coral and their thousands of residents come and go performing multiple
activities. The numerous hiding places between coral blocks host a large
variety of animals, including sponges, worms, mollusks, crustaceans, sea
urchins, starfish, sea cucumbers, and fish characterized by their bright
and contrasting colors. Plants include brown seaweeds, like sargassum,
red algae, green algae, and some flowering plants, such as seagrass beds.
Corals are complex structures that are often taken for rocks or plants;
although they are actually carnivorous animals related to sea anemones
and jellyfish.
Slow, albeit continuous coral growth for thousands of years and the accumulation of fragments and sediments created in the reef account for coral
survival, despite rising sea levels. Many modern coral reefs were established less than 15,000 years ago when sea level was 85 meters under
current level.
Corals are made up by polyps, which are tiny animals with a soft tubeshaped body with one opening where food comes in and waste comes
out. This opening is surrounded by a ring of tentacles used to catch small
animals swimming around. Polyps develop a cement-like calcium carbonate
exoskeleton that protects their soft and delicate bodies. When polyps die
their skeletons are used as the basis for new polyps, which, in turn, build
new skeletons on top of the old ones. With time, accumulation of these
skeletons forms coral reefs. Polyps live inside skeleton holes, known as
corallites. Usually retracted during the day, they spread their tentacles
at night to feed on small animals or zooplankton. One single coral
branch may be covered by thousands of polyps.
The most special feature of some polyps is their symbiotic relation
with unicellular algae, known as zooxanthellae, growing inside them
and capable of producing food from sunlight through photosynthesis.
Algae share this food with corals, which, in turn, provide nitrogen
from their waste. This way, in addition to catching food, corals also
have a source of food inside their own bodies. For this reason, corals
prefer clear and shallow waters where light penetrates easily. During
the day their tentacles remain retracted to get more sunlight. In addition, algae release large amounts of oxygen, remove coral waste, and
act on carbon dioxide, which, in contact with seawater forms carbonic
acid, a chemical that is lethal to coral skeleton because of its acidity.
There are coral reefs in some hundred countries, mostly between the
tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The Meso-American Barrrier Reef
is the second largest in the world, ranging for almost 1000 kilometers
from the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico through Belize and Guatemala
coasts to the Bay Islands in Honduras. This area hosts the largest
marine biological diversity in the Caribbean. Having the largest continental shelf in all Caribbean islands, Cuba hosts four primary reef
systems, including the renowned “Queen Gardens” on the southeastern
coast. Australia’s crescent-shaped Great Barrier Reef stretches over
2000 kilometers along this island continent northeastern shore, making
it the largest coral reef in the world. In order to survive successfully a
coral reef requires the following elements:
•
Clear water: Corals need transparent waters and do not develop
well in turbid waters. Sediments and excess plankton may cloud
the water and decrease the amount of light reaching coral unicellular algae.
•
Temperature: Typically, corals live in temperatures ranging
from 20 to 32 degrees centigrade.
•
Unpolluted water: Corals are sensitive to pollution and sediments, therefore requiring clean water.
•
Saltwater: Corals need saltwater to survive; hence, they are
not found in areas where river freshwater flows into the sea.
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This rich ecosystem provides important benefits to humans. Their extraordinary beauty attracts tourists and their great productivity provides a
wealth of food resources to many coastal communities around the world.
It also acts as a natural breakwater protecting shorelines against storm and
hurricane impacts, as well as the resulting erosion. Besides, corals have
potential medicinal uses.
Marine Mammals
There are several species of mammals adapted to life at sea or on shores.
The cetacean group, including whales and dolphins, is the largest one,
with 84 different species. Other well-known group is sea lions, with 14
species. The manatee group has four known species in three continents.
Cetaceans and manatees are the only marine mammals that live all their
life in the water. A general description of these groups and some of their
representatives is given below:
Whales and dolphins: Cetaceans have become important to tourism
and an increasing number of tours is being offered to watch whales and
dolphins. Millions of people travel to watch whales and dolphins in more
than sixty countries. Some destinations for cetacean watching are British
Columbia in Canada, Baja California in Mexico, Costa Rica, Argentina,
and Zanzibar in Africa. Certain destinations have emerged and positioned
themselves precisely because of their potential for watching these animals.
Whales and dolphins belong to the order of cetaceans and are the most
diverse group of mammals adapted to life at sea. They descend from land
mammals that evolved to an entirely aquatic life. Most of current species
have been in the planet for twelve millions years, although some, i.e., the
spermwhale, have been present for 23 million years.
The same as every mammal, cetaceans breathe air with their lungs, are
warm blooded, and nurse their young. They are characterized by an elongated snout and nostrils migrating to the top of the head to become one or
two blowholes. The tail is very strong and muscular ending in a fluke used
to propel themselves and move under water at speeds of 50 km per hour.
Cetaceans produce sounds to communicate with other individuals of the
same species, often at long distances.
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Cetaceans usually have wide geographical ranges. Some species, such as
humpback whales, reproduce in tropical waters and feed in polar zones.
River dolphins, however, live in very restricted areas and thus may be very
vulnerable to such threats as pollution and habitat transformation. Cetaceans are divided in two large groups: baleen whales (Mysticetes) and
toothed cetaceans (Odontocetes).
The baleen whale group includes eleven species that have baleens plates,
instead of teeth, hanging from their upper jaw and acting like strainers that
retain plankton, small fish, and krill after expelling large quantities of sea
water previously sucked in. Another trait is the presence of two breathing
orifices, known as blowholes or spiracles. Their throats are characterized
by having grooves that expand every time they feed. This group includes:
•
Right whales: Characterized by a very large head almost one third
the body length, as well as an absence of the dorsal fin. There are two
species.
•
Finback or rorqual whales: Encompassing six species. This
group includes the blue whale and the famous humpback whale.
Toothed cetaceans, with 73 species, are the most diverse group showing
a wide variety of sizes and shapes and including dolphins, porpoises, and
toothed whales. The upper part of their skull consists of a structure, known
as the “melon”, involved in their echolocation and orientation system.
They only have one blowhole, with the exception of spermwhales which
have two nasal canals that merge into one. They use their teeth to hunt for
fish, squid, and others, but they do not chew their prey but swallow them
whole. The killer whale or orca (Orcinus orca) also feeds on seals. This
group includes:
•
Spermwhale or cachalot: The largest of the toothed whales,
measuring up to 19 meters and weighing up to 70 tons. It dives at
depths of 300 meters or more. It is called spermwhale on account of
the false belief that it carries semen in its head.
•
Pigmy or dwarf spermwhales: Although related to the cachalot
family, they do not measure more than four meters. They feed mostly
on squid and octopi.
•
Beaked whales: Characterized by a pointed beak-like snout.
They have very few teeth and some have only two on the lower
jaw. They feed on fish, octopi, and squid, and are preyed upon
by orcas.
•
River and estuary dolphins: They typically have very small
eyes as an adaptation to cloudy waters. They include the blind
Ganges River dolphin, the Indus River dolphin, the Amazon
River dolphin, the Yangstse River Chinese dolphin, and the La
Plata River dolphin. The latter actually lives in coastal waters.
•
Dolphins: Delphinids are a very wide family including ocean
dolphins, killer whales, and pilot whales. Most are of small to
medium size, 1.5-4.5 meters. With over 9 meters long, the killer
whale is a true giant.
•
Porpoises: They differ from dolphins in their having spadeshaped teeth and blunt heads without typical dolphin beaks.
•
Narwhals and belugas: They belong to the same Arctic
family. The former are characterized by the presence of a long
tusk in males, likening them to a marine unicorn. Belugas are
entirely white.
Many cetacean species have been hunted to the brink of extinction for
their meat, fat (used in producing lamp oil), or ambergris (exclusive of
spermwhales) used for perfumes. The International Convention for
the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW), in force since 1948, regulates cetacean exploitation and is managed by the International Whaling Commission
(IWC).
Sea lions: Sea lions belong to the order of pinnipeds and are related
to seals and walruses. The sea lion family includes 14 species. They
often gather in large groups on rocky or sandy beaches, or on manmade structures, such as breakwaters. Males are usually much larger
and heavier than females and establish territories where they keep
harems they defend from other males. They feed on fish, crustaceans,
octopi, and other invertebrates. Their predators include cougars,
sharks, and orcas. In the American continent three of the species
represented include:
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• California sea lion: This sea lion (Zalophus californianus) lives
along California, Mexico, Galapagos, Ecuador, and Colombia
shores. It feeds mainly on fish and mollusks. An adult male may be
up to 2.4 meters long and weigh up to 390 kilos. They tend to reproduce on remote islands or coasts, and usually mate from May through
June. Gestation period is eleven months. In general, this species is
well protected.
•
•
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Galapagos fur seal: This species (Arctocephalus galapagoensis) is
endemic to the archipelago. Adult males are 1.5m long and weigh an
average of 64 kg. They spend most of their time in water foraging to
feed on fish and octopi. Although they were hunted for their fur, today
they are protected by Ecuadorian laws.
South American sea lion: This species (Otaria flavescens, also
known as Otaria byronia), inhabits South American coasts on both
oceans, south of Peru on the Pacific, and south of Rio de Janeiro
on the Atlantic, as well as the Galapagos Islands. The species was
heavily hunted throughout the nineteenth century and first half of the
twentieth century, although currently commercial hunting is banned.
It inhabits along sandy, stony, and rocky shores and beaches, as well
as rocky plateaus over cliffs. Males can reach 2.5 meters and weigh
up to 250 -300 kilograms. They feed in groups in shallow waters and
follow fishing boats to steal fish caught in nets. It is not a threatened
species, although it is protected in most countries.
Manatees: They belong to the order Sirenia and in the American continent are represented by the manatee or sea cow (Trichechus manatus),
living along Central American east coasts and in the Antilles. They
tolerate wide salinity ranges and move freely between fresh and saltwater
habitats, being thus found in shallow coastal waters and in lagoons, estuaries, and large rivers. They are lonely creatures, but can also gather in
small groups. They are hard to spot, since only the snout comes out of the
surface to breathe.
It is a voluminous 3.6m-long aquatic mammal that can weigh from 600
to over 1000 kilograms. A distinctive feature is their paddlelike tail. Like
all mammals, manatees breathe air, and hence they must constantly rise to
the surface to take a breath. While resting this happens every 20 minutes,
but when they are active, they need to take a breath every 3 to 5 minutes.
Manatees communicate with each other through a series of voices that
sound like clicks and chirps. Manatee reproduction is very slow: their
gestation period takes from 12 to 14 months, and the calf depends on its
mother for some two years. Sound communication between cow and calf
is very strong, which helps them keep in touch. They are herbivorous and
their diet includes aquatic plants and seagrass beds.
They are endangered as a consequence of hunting, boat collision accidents, and pesticides. They also get entangled in fishing lines and nets, and
swallow fishing hooks and trash. They are slow non-aggressive animals,
which makes them easy prey for hunters. Their bodies provide a large
amount of meat, so one animal can feed an entire family for a long time.
Another problem is habitat loss, since every day a manatee requires eating
50 kilograms of marine plants grown in quiet water environments.
Marine Turtles
Marine turtles live permanently at sea and lay their eggs on land, on
beaches. They travel long distances thanks to their sharp sense of orientation. They have inhabited the planet for over 200 million years and have
not changed much in all this period of time.
The carapace or top shell is the most distinctive trait of any turtle, providing
them with a shield against predators and temperature changes. In almost
all species the shell consists of a set of scutes, except for the leatherback,
which has instead a tough skin giving it better mobility. Marine turtles have
more flexible shell than land turtles and, unlike them, do not have legs but
paddlelike flippers to move about easily in the water.
Their good sense of direction allows them to move between faraway sites.
The same leatherback turtles laying eggs in Les Hattes, French Guiana,
also visit African coasts; others travel between Galapagos and Malaysia.
Although how they find their way remains unknown, some theories state
they use the stars or the sun, calculate latitude by feeling earth’s rotation
speed or tilt, or follow a specific smell or taste coming from some river or
beach.
Unlike mammals, turtles cannot keep a constant body temperature, and
must depend on their environment to get warmer or colder. The sun can
overheat a large turtle body, particularly during the strenuous nesting effort.
This is why nesting usually occurs at night, although the olive Ridley
turtle, the smallest of them all, is able to nest during the day because it can
cool down more quickly.
Marine turtles do not possess teeth, but their beak-shaped jaws enable
them to cut, bite, or crush their food. Their sense of hearing seems to be
quite developed and are able to clearly perceive an approaching fisherman’s paddling. While their underwater vision is good, above the water
they are near-sighted. Their lungs are very similar to humans’. Turtles can
remain submerged for four to five minutes, and emerge to breathe for only
two or three seconds. One single explosive exhalation followed by a rapid
inhalation is all they need to replenish oxygen. While they can rest or sleep
underwater for several hours, their ability to hold their breath is limited
at times of stress. This is why they usually drown in a few minutes when
caught in fishing nets. Adult turtles must face predators, such as sharks
and killer whales at sea, as well as jaguars during their land ventures.
31
Not all turtles eat the same food. Some prefer coral, others look for aquatic
plants, and yet other eat jellyfish, fish, or octopi. Depending on their growth
stage, turtles use different feeding areas. Hatchlings live in the sea over
kelp, where they eat plankton, small snails, and crustaceans. After years
of moving about in currents as juveniles, they come closer to shores and
estuaries where they continue their development. According to species,
adults move to coral reefs or to submerged grazing areas.
Females nest on tropical and subtropical sandy beaches. Many travel for
long distances from their feeding areas to their nesting sites. Males wait
for females near the shores, where mating takes place. They hold on to
females with the help of long and wide tails, as well as strong claws on
their fore flippers. After fertilization, eggs develop for two or three weeks.
Then, the female looks for a nest site to lay her eggs, usually on the same
beach where she hatched, although some choose new beaches. Nest location is critical to egg and hatchling survival—if too high on the beach,
vegetation roots might encroach on it, there would be more predators, and
hatchling journey to the sea would be longer; if it is too close to the water
it might get flooded under the high tide. Egg laying usually takes place
at night to avoid the heat, and at high tide, in order to reach a site where
no waves can arrive. Most females nest at least twice during the season,
and may remain on the beach for up to several hours. The process can
be strenuous, since marine turtles are heavy, slow, and awkward on land.
Once the site has been chosen, the female sweeps it with its fore flippers
and then digs a pit where she lays from 80 to 120 eggs, depending on the
species. Upon finishing, she covers and disguises the nest by compacting
the sand with her body weight, and then returns to the sea.
The higher the temperature, the faster the embryos develop. Temperature
also determines hatchling sex. Under 28°C (82.4°F) mostly males are
hatched, whereas above 30.2°C (86.9°F) females are produced. Hatchlings typically come out at night and immediately race towards the sea,
facing such dangers as ants, crabs, coyotes, black vultures, reptiles, coatis,
and dogs. Once in the water, their predators are carnivorous fish and
birds, such as terns, gulls, and frigate birds. For some three days they
vigorously flap their flippers moving away from the beach and heading to
their feeding grounds, where they will be more protected.
32
Marine turtles play a major role in several ecosystems. For instance, much
of the organic matter they leave on beaches remains there, thus contributing to beach-stabilizing plant growth and protecting nesting grounds.
The hawksbill turtle is like a biological control in coral reefs, since it feeds
on sponges that might cover and suffocate the reef. When the green turtle
feeds on seagrass beds it contributes to their increased productivity, the
way large mammals do it on land. If marine turtles went extinct, the negative impact on marine and coastal ecosystems would be enormous. There
are eight marine turtle species, seven of which are found in the Americas:
•
•
•
Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas): The largest of the seven species
with hard shells. It lives in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Pacific.
In the Caribbean its main nesting grounds are in Tortuguero, Costa
Rica. Along American Pacific coasts it is replaced by the Pacific
green or black turtle. The Galapagos Islands on the eastern Pacific
is an important nesting and feeding area, where it visits beaches on
Baltra, Santa Cruz, and Isabela islands. In its juvenile stage it feeds on
small invertebrates, mollusks, and jellyfish, whereas adults forage on
seagrass beds. It has been the most heavily hunted of all sea turtles.
Pacific Green Turtle or Black Turtle (Chelonia agassizii):
It tends to be much darker than the green turtle and is found along the
Pacific coastline in North and South America, as well as Galapagos,
where it nests on Santiago and Floreana islands. Experts believe this
archipelago populations spend their entire life there. On the continent the most important nesting beaches are in Michoacan, Mexico,
Jiquilisco, El Salvador, and Paracas, Peru. During the nesting season
large concentrations of turtles are sometimes seen near the shore.
During their first years of life their diet consists of marine invertebrates
associated to sargassum. Adults feed on aquatic vegetation.
Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta): Known by its heart-shaped
shell and large rounded head. It has the second largest range in the
planet, after the green turtle. It is found in the Caribbean Sea and on
the coasts of Florida, although it is absent from Central and South
American Pacific shores. It is also present in the Galapagos. It is
a mostly carnivorous turtle feeding on mollusks, crustaceans, and
small fish.
•
Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata): A curved hawklike beak gives it its name. It nests on numerous tropical and
subtropical beaches, including American Pacific and Caribbean
shores. Juveniles are almost entirely herbivorous, but adults feed
on octopi, crab, and corals, which are cut with their beak. The
beauty of their top shell or carapace has resulted in their having
been heavily hunted to use it as a trophy or wall decoration, or
in the manufacture of all sorts of objects made from carapace
material, known as tortoise shell. One of the biggest current
threats is nesting ground destruction in the Caribbean and other
places in the world.
•
Olive Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys olivaceae): Found
throughout the world, although its range is smaller than other
sea turtles. It visits South American and Pacific North American
coasts. It is a carnivore feeding on jellyfish, mollusks, crustaceans,
sea urchins, and fish. It nests on Mexico, Central America,
Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, and French Guiana beaches.
One of its main nesting grounds is Ostional, Costa Rica, where
hundreds of turtles come ashore simultaneously in an event known
as arribada. There are also arribadas in Jalisco, Guerrero, and
Oaxaca, Mexico.
•
Kemp’s Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii): Found along
the U.S. east coast, as well as in the Gulf of Mexico, although
only two nesting beaches are known in the states of Tamaulipas
and Veracruz. The species is absent from the Caribbean Sea. It
nests in arribadas, although the number of females per arribada
has dramatically decreased since mid-twentieth century. It has a
carnivorous diet based on mollusks and crabs sharing their habitat
with several shrimp species, thus resulting in turtles getting often
caught in shrimp boat nets.
•
Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriaceae): It is the largest
of all turtles, with a range covering the Atlantic, Indian, and
Pacific oceans. It can be found on both American coasts, and
its main nesting grounds are in Costa Rica, Guyana, Surinam,
French Guiana, and Florida. It moves from Costa Rica to the
33
Galapagos Islands and returns to lay eggs. Indigenous people living
near the coast in Belize contribute in monitoring this species. It feeds
on jellyfish, fish, squid, crustaceans, mollusks, plants, and algae.
Marine turtles migrate and scatter over long distances. Therefore,
their conservation does not depend on just one country, but on a
collective effort by many nations. It is not just by protecting one beach
or marine space that these species will survive. Protection should
include migration routes, feeding grounds, mating areas, and nesting
beaches. All sea turtles are protected and included in Appendix
34
I of CITES, an international organization that regulates the trade in
animals. There is also the Inter American Convention for the Protection
and Conservation of Marine Turtles, an international treaty exclusively
dealing with sea turtles. It has been signed by countries in North, Central,
and South America and the Caribbean, as well as France, Netherlands,
and the United Kingdom, which have territories in the region. Its goal is
to promote protection, conservation, and recovery of marine turtle populations and their habitats, based on the most trustworthy scientific data available, and considering participant country environmental, socioeconomic,
and cultural characteristics.
Where Can I Get More Information?
On ocean status
On coral reefs
Several reports (Spanish and other languages)
In: Greenpeace-España
http://www.greenpeace.org/espana/reports
The Coral Reef Alliance, CORAL
www.coralreefalliance.org/
“Oceans and Marine Life”
In: National Environmental Trust
www.net.org/warming/
NOAA is a U.S. federal agency that provides
information on ocean and atmosphere conditions.
In: National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, NOAA,
US Department of Commerce
www.noaa.gov/
Greenpeace-España
Numerous articles (Spanish, English)
http://www.greenpeace.org/espana/
On wetlands
RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands
http://www.ramsar.org/
On mangrove swamps
Mangrove Action Project, MAP
http://www.earthisland.org/map/
International Coral Reef Action Network,
ICRAN
www.icran.org/
Alliance for the Meso American Reef (Spanish/
English)
www.icran.org/icranmar/home_bil.html
On wildlife migration
Convention on migratory species
http://www.cms.int/
On marine mammals
Manatee Conservation (English)
http://www.thewildones.org/Animals/
manateeCons.html
Proyecto Manatí (Spanish)
http://www.icomvis.una.ac.cr/noviembre/
manati.htm
Fundación Salvemos al Manatí de Costa
Rica (Spanish)
http://www.fundacionmanati.org/home.
php
On marine turtles
Marine Turtle Restoration Program,
PRETOMA (Spanish/English)
http://www.tortugamarina.org/
Whale and dolphin Conservation Society,
WDCS (English)
http://www.wdcs.org/
Caribbean Conservation Corporation &
Sea Turtles survival League (English)
http://www.cccturtle.org/
Whale and dolphin species lists
In: Whale and dolphin Conservation Society,
WDCS (English)
http://www.wdcs.org/dan/publishing.nsf/allweb/
A59B71D6C8A9EB17802568F800443577
On best practices
“Best Practices Guide: Environmental Issue
Management in the Marine Recreation Sector”
(pdf Spanish/English)
In: The Coral Reef Alliance, CORAL
www.coralreefalliance.org/
35
Lodging Infrastructure Construction
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
What Is the Issue?
•
Civil, residential, and hotel infrastructure planning and construction
processes on coastlines often do not consider essential issues in coastal
forest, beach, mangrove swamp, and coral reef dynamics, nor the
natural history of species inhabiting them, such as life styles, movements, food, mating, and nesting.
•
Hotels and other tourist facilities are often built on shores at the cost
of the environmental space of numerous plant and wildlife species, as
well as the site natural scenic beauty.
•
Earth movements for hotel buildings in coastal areas may create sediments ending up in the sea and affecting coral reefs.
•
Sediments introduced in the ocean muddy the water and reduce the
amount of light reaching corals, thus affecting their unicellular algae
photosynthesis. If the amount of sediments is too large they could bury
the coral to death. Even if sediment volumes are not large the coral
still has to spend energy to get rid of such material, instead of using
it to grow, heal wounds, fend off other organisms or diseases, and
reproduce. This way, little by little, the coral may eventually die. A
degraded coral reef hosts very little biological diversity. Additionally,
it loses its ability to contain wave erosive forces during storms.
•
Tall buildings very close to the beach could project their shadow
over it in such a way that turtle eggs do not get enough heat to
incubate, in addition to shedding lights over the beach and thus
affecting turtles during nesting.
Why Should I Care?
•
Biodiversity is one of the main attractions in marine-coastal environments and a strong motive for tourists to visit said destinations.
In spite of it, many tourist developments contribute to destroying
or deteriorating these valuable resources.
•
Impacts from building on coastlines are often not felt in the immediate environment but instead affect resources found at greater
distances, such as coral reefs and mangrove forests. These
impacts are likely to be minimized through adequate planning
and a careful construction process.
•
With adequate building planning and processes, biodiversity
may be built in the tourist facility environment, thus adding
value to them.
37
What Can I Do?
Environmental Impact Assessments
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
38
•
An EIA will help you anticipate likely negative effects on natural
marine-coastal ecosystem dynamics, which, in turn, will allow you to
take measures in advance to eliminate or minimize said effects.
•
In some countries, companies are required to submit an EIA as a
prerequisite to build and operate tourist facilities. Remember a serious
assessment should be carried out by responsible and ethical professionals with knowledge and experience about resources in the area.
•
Environmental impact assessments are also indispensable in civil
works, such as roads, dikes, dams, and others.
•
Analyze such impacts as habitat fragmentation, habitat destruction
or conversion, loss of biodiversity, exotic species introduction, system
deterioration from agrochemicals, sedimentation, water regime modification, water table changes, water quality alteration, water level
changes, population decline, loss of genetic biodiversity, lower reproductive success in endangered species, among others.
•
Get data ontemperature and rainfall, perturbance regimes.
•
Identify suface and ground water regimes, soil moisture, water table
elevation and surface, water mix and circulation, lake level variation, inflow variation (local runoff, ground water, rivers), water flow,
storms.
•
Identify water and soil chemical parameters, chemistry (nutrients,
hydrocarbons, gases, salinity), temperature and pH, particulate and
loose organic matter, water turbidity or clarity.
•
Get data on geology, topography and batymetry, geomorphology,
structure and drainage, soil porosity and texture, reef topography,
coastline complexity
•
If you are going to develop a golf course, perform an analysis of the
potential site and identify areas that may be environmentally valuable
or sensitive, particularly wetlands, mangrove swamps, and rivers; try
not to plant exotic encroaching pastures, identify the viability of species
that rely on the potential golf course and perform aquifer analyses to
make sure they will not be depleted and neighboring communities will
not be deprived of water.
•
Take into account natural risks, i.e., landslides and floods, that could
increase runoff and the carrying of sediments to the sea.
•
Start construction only after all permits have been granted.
•
If you own an already existing operation, identify current impacts and
take mitigation measures.
•
Collect as many field observations as possible, enter your data preferably in a Geographical Information System, and take many digital
pictures.
Adapt your design to environmental traits:
•
Adapt to coastal landscape features, instead of radically changing
it to accommodate your facilities. In designing and building your
lodge, hotel, or residential development, take into account such issues
as topography, coastline shape, site natural vegetation distribution,
traditional marine turtle nesting grounds, and others.
•
Remember that keeping natural ecosystems is an investment, since
they are a value added to your project, on account of their biological diversity, protection against natural disasters, and scenic beauty.
Emphasizing site characteristics preserves natural resources, facilitates
maintenance, and reduces costs.
•
In implementing works, choose contractors with experience in fragile
sites.
•
Adopt landscape-friendly designs to reduce impacts from the elements,
such as waves, rain, or wind.
•
You may adapt your design to the environment and then build it in.
Remember that having a soil analysis available is important. When
you are sure the soil is suitable to support the building, this can literally be “embedded” in the slope.
•
Minimize the infrastructures as much as possible. Look for multi-use
infrastructure.
•
Design buildings in a “easy to clean” way to reduce the use of cleaning
products and water use.
•
Minimize sediments during construction:
•
Adequately plan and implement such works as earth movements and waste disposal. For instance, first trace final access
roads, and haul construction and waste materials on them,
instead of building temporary roads or trails.
•
Avoid using heavy machinery to excavate for foundations. If
possible, digging should be done by hand.
•
Prevent removed dirt from falling into bodies of water, i.e., rivers
and creeks.
•
Adequately dispose of generated waste, in such a way it will
never pile up on forests or streams.
•
Use local materials extracted in a sustainable manner and quickly
biodegradable.
•
If possible, distribute extracted materials in building site surroundings.
Adopt measures to decrease runoff impact:
•
If possible, take advantage of natural drainage, instead of building
sewages. On top of being more aesthetic, it reduces water speed
and erosion, allows higher infiltration, and provides a habitat to
wildlife.
•
Build runoff management in facility design and operation. Apply
architectural designs that make it possible to catch rain water from
roofs and filtrate paved surface runoff, in order to have minimal
disturbances in natural drainage patterns.
•
Use roofing systems that include local vegetation to reduce rain
water impact and heat loss, and to protect biodiversity.
•
Build during months with less rainfall to prevent rain impact on
the soil.
Using vegetation to manage impacts
•
Plant native trees on your landscaped areas. The presence
of trees decreases rain impact and reduces runoff speed and
39
volume, as well as flood damages; if strategically positioned, they
reduce heat loss from buildings and provide shade.
•
Gabion structures have a low environmental impact, since they adapt
to different environments, do not block water flow, and are built
with inert materials fostering rapid wildlife and plant recovery after
construction.
•
If gabions are used, make sure stones are extracted from a quarry in a
sustainable manner under valid municipal permits.
• In your gardens always follow practices favoring soil conservation.
• Resort to using native plants to decrease erosion in very steep or
vertical slopes. Some species are very well adapted to slope soils.
•
Identify native plant species that are best adapted to your region. On
this, seek the advice of a professional or of local people.
Using retaining walls
40
•
Retaining walls will help you decrease erosion risks in industrial, residential, and tourist projects, as well as maritime constructions, i.e.,
ports, wharves, and breakwaters.
•
If you are interested in building a retaining wall, get the advice of a
qualified professional, usually with civil engineering training.
•
Gabions are large stone-filled wire-mesh boxes used as retaining walls
in buildings and river banks, as bridge protection, and on road sides.
Adopt protective measures in marine turtle nesting
and hatching grounds:
•
Avoid edification shade and introduced vegetation over marine turtle
nesting sites. Plan your building height and distance to the beach,
in such a way they will not project a shadow over marine turtle
nesting sites.
•
In different countries the distance to be kept between the beach and
the buildings varies a lot, but a reasonable figure is between 60 and
120 meters from the dunes, not from the highest tide mark.
•
Refrain from introducing tall vegetation near the beach.
Where Can I Get More Information?
On sustainable design
In Your Home Design Guide: Design for
Lifestyle and the Future
http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/index.htm
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
41
Energy Management
What Is the Issue?
Using energy is vital to tourist lodging business operation, with electricity
being one of the most important energy sources. Electricity, however, is
often generated through the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and
natural gas, resulting in the release of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere,
and its consequent contribution to global warming and climate change.
Climate change is a global phenomenon of huge proportions. Although it
has multiple causes, the lodging industry actually contributes to it. Planet
climate changes have a strong impact on biodiversity, and in many cases
these effects are just beginning to be studied, including:
•
•
Negative effects on wildlife food sources: Climate changes
could directly or indirectly affect food sources of sea dwellers. In the
southern hemisphere a reduction in the ice cap would lead to a decline
in phytoplankton, the food for krill, which in turn is consumed by many
marine animals, including whales. In the Arctic, ice-dependent Arctic
or polar cods (Arctogadus glacialis) could end up with waning populations, thus endangering narwhals and belugas feeding on them.
Increased frequency and intensity of El Niño: The term El
Niño was originally coined by fishermen along Ecuador and Peru
coasts in reference to a warm marine current that tended to
appear typically around Christmas, hence the name alluding the
Child Jesus. Every year the warm waters from Ecuadoran and
Colombian coasts move towards northern coasts increasing sea
temperature and causing torrential rains that last for several days
in the area. In some years, however, the warm water mass is bigger
and has a lower salt content, thus entirely changing area characteristics. In addition to physical changes in the ocean, the area
experiences some major climate changes (rains, storms, strong
winds), the emergence of unusual vegetation growth along the
coasts, high mortality rates in schools of fish and flocks of gulls,
and a sudden increase in river flow rates. These combined factors
have led scientists to talk about the El Niño phenomenon, instead
of only an intensification of El Niño Current. The causes of this
anomaly are esentially of a meteorological nature and are related
to the ocean.
The El Niño phenomenon is a large-scale climate variation
covering large areas of the planet and affecting three oceans −the
Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans− and four continents−the
Americas, Asia, Oceania, and Europe. The current spans a
43
large tract of the Pacific Ocean, particularly tropical and subtropical regions, but also involves the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. This
phenomenon has increased in frequency and intensity in the last 30
years, and its effects on biodiversity are very serious. The El Niñoinduced decrease in nutrients along the South American coastline has
repercussions on phytoplankton production, which, in turn, affects
the entire food chain. For instance, during the 1997-1998 El Niño,
South American sea lion populations in Peru declined from 180,000
to a mere 30,000 individuals as a result of decreased food sources.
•
Ocean acidification: With higher carbon dioxide levels, scientists predict a significant ocean pH reduction that would harm coral
reefs and other organisms whose skeletons or shells contain calcium
carbonate, because they would be exposed to acid-caused wear.
•
A rise in sea level: A higher water level would produce coastal
area flooding. Rising water could remove waste deposits, releasing
large amounts of pollutants and solid waste to the sea, and affecting
aquatic life. Similarly, coastal habitats, such as beaches, mangrove
swamps, and estuaries, could be destroyed. Losing marine turtle
nesting beaches, for instance, would be catastrophic to those species.
•
Loss of coral regenerating power: An atmosphere increasingly
rich in carbon dioxide and sea temperature increases may permanently
damage coral regenerating power. When water gets warmer, corals
expel the unicellular algae that provide them with nutrients and color,
and therefore they bleach. Some scientist believe bleaching helps corals
adjust to higher temperatures by replacing their algae with others that
are more heat resistant. But as planet temperature increases, corals
are reaching their upper heat tolerance limit. A degraded coral reef
hosts few fish, marine mammals, and other important species.
Why Should I Care?
•
44
If you leave your car parked out in the sun, the temperature inside
the vehicle will usually be higher than outside. This is similar to what
happens with the greenhouse effect, which is a natural phenomenon
essential to life on earth, where the atmosphere acts like a shield contrib-
uting to keep the heat. In the last decades, however, the use of fossil
fuels has left an excessive amount of carbon dioxide and other gases in
the atmosphere, thus deepening this effect and increasing temperatures
throughout the planet. Should this continue, it would be the strongest
impact humankind has ever caused on climate and biodiversity.
•
Climate change increases the risk of extreme events in coastal regions
that can cause damage worth up to millions of dollars in replacement
costs. In effect, there is a growing likelihood that tourists and operators
will make insurance claims.
•
Hotel businesses may be contributing to global warming and climate
change by meeting their energy requirements through the burning of
fossil fuels, namely, coal, oil, and natural gas, which release carbon
dioxide.
•
Air, land, and water transportation of people (tourists, staff) and goods
(food products, hotel equipment) is carried out by means that use up
fossil fuels.
What Can I Do?
Get information about climate change: Keep abreast of the climate
change and its effects on oceans and biological diversity. New research
findings on what is happening in the planet are available every day. Seek
information about new trends and technologies that will allow you to minimize the impact of your activities on the environment. Some websites with
information on the matter are recommended at the end of this chapter.
Adopt bioclimatic architectural solutions: A bioclimatic architectural design can help you decrease heat impact, air conditioning reliance,
and electric power demand. If you are still at the design stage, the following
strategies could be useful:
•
Orient the project along a north-south direction, leaving the east-west
for service areas, stairs, and others. If this is not possible, use movable
or permanent parasols for protection against the sun.
•
Avoid direct sunlight penetration by using eaves, perimetral corridors, roofed balconies, and parasols.
•
Choose construction materials according to their heat absorption,
reflection, and conservation capacity. Steel absorbs a lot of heat and
glass has little ability to absorb it, but a high capacity for conserving
it, sometimes creating a greenhouse effect.
•
Use gardens around the building to minimize sunlight impact, since
vegetation absorbs heat. Trees with horizontal tops create a wider
shaded area and a cool microclimate.
•
Locate the swimming pool and water sources in the wind direction
to create an evaporation, condensation, and cooling effect that then
penetrates buildings through corridors.
•
Use cross ventilation, with fresh cool air coming into spaces in a
horizontal direction and warm air leaving through vents at the top.
Start an energy-saving campaign: Since electricity is generated
from fossil fuels in many countries, efficient energy use is required to
minimize our business impact on global warming and resulting climate
change. Adopt measures to decrease energy consumption. Work with
your staff and your customers on an ongoing energy-saving campaign.
The following recommendations will be useful.
Lighting:
•
Make the best of natural light. Use indoor patios, skylights, and
windows to illuminate your building indoors during the day.
•
Keep curtains and blinds open during the day. If you are in a warm
climate, close the windows at daytime, because opening them lets
natural light in, but also heat and, at any rate, the cost of artificial
lighting is lower than that of air conditioning the room.
•
Paint walls and roofs in light colors to increase light reflection.
•
Perform most activities taking advantage of daylight. For instance,
do the laundry or iron under natural light, instead of doing these
tasks at night.
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
45
• Turn off the lights you are not using. Instill in your customers and
employees the habit of turning the lights off when not in use.
• Motion sensor switches can help you optimize the time lights
remain on.
•
Use energy-saving lamps. Some 85% of the power consumed by incandescent lamps dissipates in the form of heat and only the remaining
15% becomes light.
•
Replace incandescent and halogen lamps with compact fluorescent
bulbs, which are more expensive but consume four times less energy
and last up to ten times as much. Their use is not recommended in
bathrooms, since they should not be frequently turned on and off.
•
Install fluorescent tubes for general lighting in kitchen, laundry, or
service areas.
Climatization:
46
•
Fans are the climatization devices with the lowest energy consumption. Clean their vanes periodically and do not leave them on unnecessarily.
•
Thermal insulation can save you up to 50% of the power used in
heating or air conditioning. Fill up and seal all cracks, change broken
glass panes and seal any holes where air can leak through.
•
Air conditioning equipment is accountable for some of the highest
energy consumption. A reduction in climatization consumption,
however, should not affect service quality.
•
Ask your guests to keep their room doors and windows closed while
the air conditioning unit is on, and to turn it off when leaving the
room.
•
Find the comfort zone, which is 22°C-27°C. Set the temperature at
25°C to avoid sacrificing user comfort. Remember a 1ºC variation
entails a 6% difference in power consumption.
•
Keep air conditioning equipment well maintained and clean. Filters
should be cleaned periodically. Air conditioning units without maintenance for two or more years have been found to consume twice the
power.
•
In case you require heating, use an architectural design that favors
heat during the day and slows temperature loss at night.
Water heating:
•
If you have an old electric water heater model, replace it with a newer
more efficient one to save energy and money.
•
Make sure there are no energy or water leaks. Install water consumption reducers, such as water-saving showerheads, to decrease the
volume of water to be heated.
Kitchen area:
•
When the range and the oven are not operated adequately they can
result in high power or gas consumption.
•
Use pots or pans that match the heating unit size. Using larger pans
will extend cooking time. On the contrary, using smaller pots will lead
to energy losses in the form of heat dissipation and will damage stove
disks
•
Use pressure cookers because they cook at higher temperatures and
thus cooking time is reduced to half.
•
Use pots, coffee pots, and pans made of such materials as stainless
steel that conduct heat rapidly. Keep pots and pans covered with a lid,
since water will boil faster and food will be ready in a shorter time.
•
Use a lid-covered coffee pot with a warning whistle. Once water
comes to a full boil, turn the heat source off immediately. If you drink
coffee several times a day, brew it only once in the morning and then
put it away in a thermos bottle.
•
•
•
When using a conventional oven, bake several food items at the same
time, do not use it for small quantities of food, and be careful not to
open oven door unnecessarily. Take advantage of oven residual heat
by turning it off a few minutes before taking the food out.
Install the refrigerator at a place where there is enough room for air to
flow between the back of the fridge and the wall, and be careful not to
place objects that could block off good airflow; otherwise, the appliance will overwork.
Install the refrigerator away from other heat-generating appliances,
such as stoves, ovens, and dishwashers, since their nearness causes the
refrigerator to overwork.
•
Set the temperature at 4°C inside the refrigerator. In most refrigerators this setting is usually found at the middle of the setting knob.
•
Check refrigerator door gaskets. For this purpose, take a piece of
paper and pin it by closing the fridge door. If the paper falls down or
can be removed without any friction, the door gasket seals are not in
proper conditions and you are wasting energy.
Laundry area:
•
Place the amount of laundry specified as the maximum allowable load. If you put less than that you will be wasting water
and power, and if you place more than allowed, you may overload the motor.
•
Try not to use hot water in the washing machine, unless laundry
is too soiled. Rinse with cold water.
•
The cloth drier consumes a lot of energy. Use it only when
strictly indispensable. If possible, let the sun dry your clothes.
•
Iron the largest possible amount of cloth in each ironing session,
since the amount of energy required by the iron to heat up will be
wasted when ironing just one garment.
Office:
•
If possible, acquire laptop instead of desktop computers, since
they consume five times less energy.
•
Do not open the fridge unnecessarily for more than ten seconds, since
it operates efficiently when the door is opened as seldom as possible.
•
Do not leave the computer monitor on, because it uses up enough
energy to heat six TV dinners in the microwave oven.
•
Do not use the back of the fridge to dry towels or clothes, since this
will increase power consumption.
•
Disconnect electronic equipments to eliminate stand-by energy
consumption. This could account for some 10% of consumption.
•
Disconnect refrigerators and coolers when not in use. Load the
smaller equipment as much as possible to take advantage of its refrigerating capacity and prevent underutilization of several units at the
same time.
•
Use a dishwasher model that saves on water and power. Check
product label.
Means of transportation:
•
If possible, choose hybrid engine vehicles that use ethanol, methanol, liquefied gas and/or biofuels
•
When accesible, use fuel cell vehicles (FCVs)
•
Provide your drivers with training on best driving practices that
result in fuel savings.
•
Use transportation vehicles with modern and fuel-efficient
engines to limit pollutant emissions.
47
•
Make sure transportation units −either your own or transportation
service companies’− get periodic maintenance.
•
Assess your vehicle occupancy rate. Share transportation to and from
the airport or local destinations with other hotels.
•
Provide your customers with information on existing public transportation (hours, rates, telephones, others).
•
Procure food items from the region, since this practice lowers your
transportation emissions.
•
Estimate your business’ annual amount of greenhouse gas emissions
from transportation and offset it through payment for environmental
services to some protected marine or coastal wilderness area.
Power generators:
48
•
If you rely on power generation based on fossil fuels establish a schedule
for generator operation, performing activities with the highest energy
demand in a period of just a few hours.
•
Consider using alternative energy sources, such as photovoltaic solar
panels. These are an excellent alternative in areas with an abundant
solar resource. Electricity thus obtained may be used directly or stored
in batteries for night use.
Where Can I Get More Information?
On global warming
and climate change
In: Florida Power and Light Company
http://www.fpl.com/index.shtml
Information on the “United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change” and the Kyoto
Protocol” and their applications (English/Spanish/
French) at the Convention Secretariat website
http://unfccc.int/2860.php/
“Eficiencia energética - Consejos de ahorro de
energía”: Focusing on home, commerce, industry, and
transportation (Spanish).
In: Organización Latinoamericana de Energía,
OLADE
www.olade.org.ec/php/index.php
“Global Warming – The Latest”
In: National Environmental Trust
www.net.org/warming/
On offsetting CO2 emissions
“An Inconvenient Truth”
In: Official site of Al Gore’s documentary
www.climatecrisis.net/
Program to offset CO2 emissions through planting
forests (English).
In: Sustainable Travel International
http://www.sustainabletravelinternational.org/
documents/op_carbonoffsets.html
Introduction to climate change, causes, and evidence,
environmental impact, social and economic
impact,solutions, conventions, and treaties (English).
In: UNEP.NET
http://climatechange.unep.net/
Program to offset CO2 emissions through planting
forests (English).
In: The Carbon Neutral Company
www.futureforests.com
On energy savings
“Guía Práctica para el uso de la Energía en clientes
de Máxima Demanda “(Spanish).
In: Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad
www.grupoice.com/esp/cencon/gral/energ/consejos/
usodelaenergia1.htm
Program for offsetting air and land
transportation emissions through planting trees,
product development, and event organization
(English/Dutch).
In: Climate Neutral Group www.
klimaatneutraal.nl/?language=EN
On vehicle maintenance:
Consejos para el mantenimiento de vehículos
A series of practical advices in providing
maintenance to private vehicles (Spanish).
In: Castrol México
http://www.castrol.com/castrol/subsection.do?cat
egoryId=8364015&contentId=6006443
River Eco Lodge & Sustainable Living Center in
Dominica has modified a pick up truck that has
been retrofitted to run on used vegetable oil as well
as diesel fuel
www.sustainabletourism.net/cs_destination.html
Program for business and individuals to offset CO2
emissions through planting trees (English/Dutch).
In: Trees for Travel
www.treesfortravel.nl/general.html
“Home Energy Advisor”: Energy and money saving
tips (English/Spanish).
49
Water Management and Use
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
What Is the Issue?
•
Increased water demand from tourists and residents at a tourist destination can result in water availability becoming insufficient to meet
human needs and, at the same time, to support natural processes
involving plants and wildlife.
•
This problem is more serious in areas with a seasonal water
shortage.
•
Water shortage in rivers and lakes near the coast usually affects plants
and animals in the first place, since people have the possibility of
catching available water to meet their own needs.
•
Water shortage affects all wildlife, particularly animals requiring water
in their reproductive cycles and to keep their water balance, such as
amphibians.
•
Without enough ground water, plants may dehydrate and die. When
plants disappear the soil is exposed, erosion increases, and a phenomenon known as desertification may appear.
Why Should I Care?
•
Water is needed by all living organisms. Without it our planet
would be lifeless.
•
Nowadays, each of us spends 20 times as much water as our
ancestors did, and if this trend continues a serious water shortage
is expected in the near future.
•
Tourism demands large amounts of water for normal operation
of facilities (kitchen, laundry, rooms, gardens, others), guest
consumption (drinking, personal hygiene, bathrooms), recreational activities (swimming pools), and others. Added to this
is permanent resident consumption in the tourist area. All this
consumption could lead to shortage.
•
Water scarcity not only affects human beings, but also harms
plant and animal species relying on natural sources. This is a
very common problem found in many tourist beaches around
the world.
51
• Water may come from surface sources, such as rivers and lakes, and
from underground sources, such as aquifers. Overpumping water
from aquifers near the coast may involve the risk of sea water infiltrating the aquifer.
52
•
If you are in the process of building, implement a full or partial reuse
system for all kinds of water, in order to filter and recover both waste
water and grey water to be used in the hotel.
•
What Can I Do?
Do the laundry only when you have full washing machine loads and,
if possible, acquire low water- and energy-consumption washing
machines.
•
Implement water use and water-saving programs
with staff and guests:
Irrigate landscaped areas during late afternoon or at evening, in order
to prevent water from evaporating. It is best to use sprinkler or drip
irrigation systems.
•
Use special devices to reduce water consumption in showers and
bathrooms: efficient showerheads, compact-tank toilets, and others.
•
Keep monthly records of water consumption and cost, using utility
bill data.
•
•
If you have your own water source, generate your own data: install a
meter on the main pipeline and keep water consumption records.
Set up a leak detection and repair program, based on periodic checks
and in charge of one person responsible for follow-up.
•
Where conditions allow it, catch and use rainfall water.
•
If you can afford it, install meters in each operating area (kitchen,
laundry room, guest rooms, etc.) to know which areas are generating
the highest expenses and requiring savings measures.
•
Educate your customers about ways of saving water: post discreet
signs reminding them to shut off faucets when not in use, and inviting
your customers to accept towel and linen changes less often.
•
Develop operating manuals for efficient water use in tasks related to
cleansing, laundry, food preparation, swimming pool maintenance,
landscaped area irrigation, and others.
•
Train your staff to implement operating manuals and to convey
company environmental policies to customers.
•
If possible, reuse water. For instance, laundry wastewater may be used
for washing walls.
Support forest and river conservation:
•
Support programs for conservation and recovery of natural forests
strategically located near tourist developments. Forests play a major
role in water production and conservation.
•
Support activities to conserve rivers flowing through your area, as well
as other freshwater bodies, i.e., lakes, lagoons, and aquifers.
Where Can I Get More Information?
On freshwater
“Water: scarcity, irrigated agriculture, sanitation, quality,
groundwater, ecosystems, floods and droughts, urban water”
(English).
In: UNEP.NET
http://freshwater.unep.net/
Information on freshwater resource protection
and rational management (English)
In: Freshwater Society
http://freshwater.org/
Conserving the source of life (English)
In: WWF: For a living planet
http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/
freshwater/index.cfm
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
53
Wastewater Management
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
What Is the Issue?
Wastewater consists of water that has been used, is seen by direct users as
something worthless, is formed by all waters going to the sewage system,
and sometimes includes storm water and seepage into the soil.
•
Wastewater contains human bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Therefore, if it is discharged into rivers or other sources of water for human
consumption it may result in serious epidemics.
•
Wastewater may cause wildlife death, particularly fish, when
discharged into water sources because it consumes oxygen.
Discharging it into continental marine waters is also hazardous,
since it can contaminate seafood, particularly water-filtering organisms, such as mussels, cockles, and clams, among others.
•
Microorganisms isolated from wastewater and relevant to public
health are Salmonella, Shigella spp., Escherichia coli, Campylobacter spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Clostridium perfringens, Vibrio
cholerae, hepatitis A virus, rotavirus, poliomielitis virus, and enterovirus. As to parasites, Ascaris lumbricoides, Giardia lamblia, Taenia
solium, Taenia saginata, and Entamoeba hystolitica eggs have been
isolated.
•
Wastewater, as well as garden, golf course, and orchard irrigation
water, leads to increased organic waste in seawater along the shoreline, which creates problems to biodiversity and to people.
•
An organic waste excess in shoreline waters increases nutrient
level, thus speeding up the growth of oxygen-consuming algae,
which reduces aquatic invertebrate and fish growth and diversity.
Grey water is made up of suds from the kitchen, bathrooms, sinks, and
laundry. It is not drinking water, but it is not wastewater either.
Wastewater comes from toilets, urinals, and animal fecal matter dumping
sites. It is contaminated by fecal substances and urine from human or animal
organic effluents. It has a high contents of organic matter, cellulose (toilet
paper), nitrogen (urea), and a very high pathogen concentration.
55
• Nitrogen is an element used in garden and orchard fertilizers, and is
a major source of soil and water pollution.
• An excess of nutrients and organic matter in seawater alters ecological
balance in coral communities, since the presence of nitrogen above
moderate levels deteriorates coral growth and reproduction. Nutrients favor the growth of algae and phytoplankton. While the former
compete with corals for space at the bottom of the sea, quickly growing
until coral is covered and smothered, an increase in phytoplankton
reduces the amount of light reaching corals and their unicellular algae,
and thus promotes an increase in coral skeleton eroding organisms.
These eroders, which are largely phytoplankton and organic matter
filterfeeders, expand their populations due to food abundance and
increase their impact on corals. Algae population explosion reduces
available oxygen and suffocates corals.
•
All these impacts also affect fish and other species populations that
use the reef as food source and habitat. Organic or high nutrient
pollution is also a major factor in red tide generation.
Why Should I Care?
•
Untreated wastewater from land-based lodging facilities contributes
to increase nutrients and organic matter in rivers, mangrove swamps,
and reefs.
•
Increased levels of viruses, bacteria and disease associated with
human waste, threaten both reef ecosystems and human populations
and diminish the attractiveness of an area as a tourist destination.
•
Excess use of garden and orchard fertilizers, and inadequate gardening
practices promote runoff and increase the presence of nitrogen in soils
and water.
•
Fecal contamination (from untreated wastewater) may reach aquifers,
which means water extracted from wells can be contaminated.
•
Using large amounts of water to maintain gardens and golf courses
disseminates used agrochemicals.
• Another organic pollution source consists of vessels discharging both
waste and untreated or partially treated sewage into coastal waters.
56
•
Disposing of water in a wide range of ways under the generic name
of septic pit or septic tank is common; not all of them, however, attain
the goal of keeping aquifers free from contamination because they are
usually just cesspools or absorption pits, where water seeps into the
soil without any true treatment. The same name is often applied to
sedimentation and storage tanks that are periodically emptied, surreptitiously dumping their wastewater at a site. This results in mangrove
and estuary contamination.
What Can I Do?
•
The right treatment of wastewater reduces the potential for polluting
local water sources, rivers, beaches, mangrove swamps, and coral
reefs, prevents the risk of guests and staff getting diseases, and helps
keep the quality of natural features attracting tourists.
•
Do not use untreated wastewater to irrigate vegetables meant for
human consumption, such as those growing at ground level and typically consumed fresh (lettuce, watercress, cabbage, parsley, coriander,
celery, and leeks).
•
If you have domestic animals (or if you have a constant flow of visitors) you may use anaerobic digestors to treat animal waste, produce
biogas, purify wastewater, and make biofertilizers.
Lodging Businesses
•
Bear in mind that “the best waste is the one that is not produced” o
the one that is disposed of “in situ”.
•
Determine the nature of the problem associated with waste water in
the property
•
This will provide information on the type and amount of wastewater
being generated and it will assess water use, reuse and treatment practices.
•
Reduce organic pollution at the source. As much as possible, decrease
the amount of wastewater generated by your hotel, thus reducing water
consumption.
•
According to your requirements, use dry or water-saving toilets.
•
Make sure wastewater is treated before discharging it to the environment.
•
Reuse water in buildings where it is produced, in order to reduce
drinking water consumption (from 30 to 45% of total drinking water
total consumption) and wastewater effluent volume.
•
Grey water reuse facilities consist of reservoirs where grey water is
collected and purified to be subsequently fed through a pipeline to
toilet tanks, garden irrigation network, etc.
•
Grey water may be given alternative uses that do not require drinking
water consumption, such as flushing of toilets that use up 6-8 liters of
drinking water in every flush, irrigating landscaped areas, or cleaning
particular enclosures or facilities.
•
Separate grey water from wastewater at the source, and also treat
them separately at the source. This may also help solve environmental
problems caused by wastewater.
•
The most adequate treatment system should consider specific environmental and even cultural conditions. Treatment system installation
should not only take purification effectiveness into account, but also
analyze the relationship of surrounding elements, particular needs,
cost, maintenance, reuse, and utilization or disposal of purification
byproducts.
•
Install grey water purification systems that use biomechanical filtering,
UV lamp sterilization, or gravel tanks filled with grey water and
floating water plants; in this latter system, water is circulated from one
tank to another until it reaches the clean stage required to be reused.
•
Recirculate grey water to toilets and urinals.
•
If you have a septic tank, maintain it with efficient microbacteria
(EM), phase out chlorine and non-biodegradable disinfectants (to
prevent killing the bacteria that are cleaning the septic tank), keep all
pipes with said bacteria, and use tank sludge as organic fertilizer in
your landscaped areas.
•
If you need to empty the septic tank, make sure the contracted company
is disposing of contents in a proper manner, in sites designated for this
purpose.
57
•
Remember the objectives of biological water treatment: 1. reducing
organic matter contents in water, 2. reducing its nutrient contents, and
3. eliminating pathogens and parasites.
•
In the absence of a municipal system, identify the best wastewater
treatment alternatives available. If possible, choose natural systems
that treat water by means of inert matter, plants and bacteria instead
of chemicals
•
If there is a municipal system, make sure the sewage collecting network
goes to a treatment plant and it is not directly discharged in the environment.
•
In orchards and gardens use compost or other similar products in
place of chemical fertilizers.
•
Create your own compost with kitchen waste, and use it on your
orchard and gardens.
•
Join programs that support beach protection and quality.
The Blue Flag Program is an ecolabel that has been applied
to some 3200 beaches and marinas in 36 countries around
the world. This program seeks sustainable beach and marina development through stringent criteria related to water quality, environmental information and education, information management, safety,
and other services. It is implemented by the Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE), an independent non-profit organization.
It is an award granted every year and it is only valid for one year. In
order to be eligible for Blue Flag a recreational beach must meet all
the requirements
Recreational and Lodging Vessels:
58
•
If available, use ground sewage pumping facilities: If your
vessel is small, you may dispose of wastewater on the ground. Make
sure waste from pumping stations is sent to treatment plants.
•
When possible, use land-based restroom facilities: Educate
tourists and recommend that passengers use land-based restroom
facilities before boarding a boat excursion. Land-based facilities are
likely to be connected to municipal waste treatment facility.
•
Treat wastewater before discharging it from the vessel: If
there are no pumping stations available, use biodegradable chemicals
and mechanical methods to reduce solid waste and waste pathogens
before discharging into the environment. Small vessels should be as
far away as possible from the coast before discharging treated wastewater to prevent coral reef pollution. Try not to discharge toilets or
wastewater storage tanks in confined or heavy-traffic areas, or in sensitive environments, or in protected marine areas.
•
Keep sanitary fixtures in good conditions: In order to prevent
an accidental discharge of untreated wastewater, check and maintain
all hoses, plumbing fixtures, and mechanisms concerning wastewater
storage.
•
Respect “no discharging” areas: Remember the creation and
effective operation of areas where discharging is prohibited contributes to major coastal zone protection.
Where Can I Get
More Information
On Blue Flag
“Awards for improving the coastal environment:
The Blue Flag example”
(pdf document in Spanish/English).
In: Blue Flag Program
www.blueflag.org/
59
Solid Waste Management
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
What Is the Issue?
Few of the things we dispose of every day are actually useless, since most
could be recycled, repaired, or reused. Therefore, the concept of “trash”
is rather relative. In current terms, any material thought to be useless or
unnecessary is seen as “trash” and is then discarded. The word “residue”
or “waste” is used in referring to “materials or byproducts of production,
consumption, or devaluation processes that are rejected because they are
seen as unsuitable for social and technical development.” Depending on
their physical state, waste can be classified as solid, liquid, and gas.
•
Solid waste causes irreparable damage to marine and coastal life.
Waste includes plastics, bags, cans, and cigarette butts, as well as
fishing nets and lines.
•
Many animals, such as birds, seals, turtles, fish, and cetaceans,
instinctively come closer to solid waste in water −taking it for
food− and may die in trying to eat it. An estimated one million
birds and some 100,000 turtles and marine mammals die every
year from this cause.
There are various solid waste classification criteria. Regarding their source,
that is to say, with respect to activities that generate it, waste can be classified into household, industrial, and commercial waste. According to its
chemical composition, it can be organic or inorganic. And for handling
purposes aimed at reducing, reusing, or recycling, and based on its composition, waste can be classified into plant, animal, and edible waste, paper
and cardboard, metal, plastic, glass, and other waste.
•
A plastic bag floating on the ocean may look like a jellyfish, and
when eaten by a turtle it can obstruct its stomach or intestines,
starving it to death or causing harmful infections. The same
happens to many cetaceans that eat plastic waste thinking they
are eating squid. At least 26 cetaceans species consuming plastic
waste, found in their bodies during post-mortems, have been
identified.
•
Birds, mammals, or fish may accidentally get entangled in fishing
nets, soft drink or beer can plastic rings, packing straps, or other
similar waste. If they cannot break loose, they die. Those that
61
manage to escape are left exhausted and weak, and become easy prey
to predators or diseases.
• Along Caribbean coasts, manatees also die trapped in river and canal
fishing nets.
•
Trash on top of corals can damage or even suffocate them.
•
Large pieces of waste or debris on beaches can block nesting turtle
movements. This might hinder or prevent them from reaching safe
nesting grounds, forcing them to look for inadequate sites or even
failing to lay eggs. The presence of obstacles could also hinder or
prevent hatchling journey from the nest to the sea, exposing them to
predators and to the sun
Why Should I Care?
•
•
•
62
Inadequate solid waste management results in waste ending up in the
sea, often after being carried for long on the ground by wind and river
currents. A piece of plastic can travel long distances before causing
irreparable damage to some animal.
Household, industrial, and agricultural solid waste dumped into rivers
are carried downstream and may reach mangrove swamps, beaches,
coral reefs, and the open sea, by the action of waves, currents, and
tides.
A lot of waste comes from fishing and sailing activities, since tons of
gear, i.e., plastic nets, lines, and buoys with anchor ropes, are lost or
discarded in the sea.
•
Solid waste generation in lodging businesses increases significantly
during the tourist high season.
•
Cruise ships generate large amounts of waste in providing their food
and other services
What Can I Do?
Solid waste management: Implement a solid waste management
program aimed, first, at reducing, then reusing, and finally recycling.
Start by quantifying the waste generated by your operation at least during
one week and then sort and weigh the different types of materials (glass,
plastic, cans, organic matter, others). This information will be useful in
choosing the most appropriate actions in your company’s waste management. Dispose of waste at the source, trying first to reduce, then reuse, and
finally recycle. Involve your hotel staff in programs to reduce pollution from
solid waste. Invite them to apply in their own homes what they learned.
Waste reduction
•
Implement specific measures to reduce solid waste generation.
•
Eliminate using disposable plates, cups, and utensils.
•
If you must use disposable plates and cups, try to use those made of
paper instead of plastic.
•
Use washable napkins and towels.
•
Do not use or allow sales of disposable containers.
•
Acquire products in large quantities, instead of procuring the same
amount in individual packages.
•
Substitute liquid dispensers for individual soap, shampoo, and conditioner presentations in guest rooms.
•
Carry your own shopping bag to reduce plastic bag consumption
Reuse
•
Implement specific measures for reusing inputs:
•
Reuse paper, printing sheets of paper on both sides.
•
Use only returnable containers.
•
Reuse empty containers for storage purposes.
•
Reuse old clothes in cleaning tasks
Recycling
Use products that can be recycled.
Make use of recyclable products. Many plastic packages use a symbol
indicating it is made of recyclable material.
Use recycled products. Products made with recycled materials indicate
their condition through a symbol.
Tour or Lodging Vessels: The following recommendations will be
useful in adequately managing onboard vessel waste.
•
Never dump solid waste in the sea or on the shore.
•
Adopt specific measures to reduce, reuse, or recycle solid waste.
•
Tie up garbage bins or install them inside, in order to minimize the
possibility of waste accidentally falling overboard.
•
Never dispose of fishing nets and lines in the sea. If they are broken
down, pick them up and dispose of them appropriately on dry land.
•
Educate your customers about the hazards of improper solid waste
disposal for marine wildlife and invite them to support your activities
aimed at reducing said hazards
Marine-coastal environment clean-up campaigns: Promote and
participate in activities to clean such environments as beaches, mangrove
swamps, estuaries, rivers, creeks, and coral reefs. Identify waste that can
be sold for recycling. The proceeds may be used to support these cleaning
activities. Remove the following objects:
•
Plastics, particularly plastic bags.
•
Food packing bags.
•
Fishing lines, nets, and fish and lobster traps.
•
Batteries, bottles without organisms attached to them, and tin
containers.
•
Cigarette and bottle cap remnants.
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
63
Cleaning rivers and creeks
Support campaigns to clean river and creek basins, in order to prevent or at
least decrease solid waste carriage to beaches and sea on these streams.
Cleaning beaches during turtle
nesting seasons
•
Reduce the potential damage caused by debris, trunks, and other
solid waste found on beaches by regularly removing them, both before
and during the nesting season. This should be done by hand, since
machinery may compact the beach and affect nesting sites.
•
Develop alliances with businesses in your community to jointly carry
out beach clean-up activities
Underwater reef clean-up
The following recommendation, adapted from The Coral Reef Alliance,
Coral(©CORAL), will be useful in your underwater cleaning activities:
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
64
•
Always dive with somebody else, and make sure to check the equipment before diving.
•
Make sure underwater conditions and the weather are favorable for
diving and diver safety.
•
Your cleaning gear should include mesh bags, gloves as protection
against sharp or rough objects, and scissors or shears to cut fishing
lines and tin containers.
•
Work slowly and carefully. Adjust your floatability throughout the
diving session as collected waste turns increasingly heavier.
•
Make sure your gear is well attached and fasten your mesh bag in such
a way it will not be dragged on or stuck in corals.
•
One of the divers should collect the trash wearing gloves, while the
other holds the mesh bag.
•
For safety reasons, place glasses, needles, and fishing hooks inside a
different trash bag.
•
Do not remove objects that have been built in the reef, and are now
helping to maintain marine life. Make sure no organism is living on or
inside objects before removing them.
•
Never try to pull on fishing lines to break them loose. Cut them into
sections with your pincers or scissors, and remove them to prevent
damaging organisms growing around fishing lines.
•
Do not remove heavy objects or any other thing that may seem
dangerous.
•
After diving, make sure trash is collected and taken to an official
dumpster. Do not leave it on the beach.
Where Can I Get More
Information?
On waste management
“Recycling”: It provides answers to a series of basic
questions about recycling, and offers practical tips to reduce
waste (English).
In: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/recycle.htm
On underwater clean-up
“Guidelines for tourists: Underwater clean-up”
(pdf Spanish/English)
In: The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL)
www.coralreefalliance.org/
65
Chemical and Hazardous Waste
What Is the Issue?
•
Easily flammable substances: they can become heated or
inflamed in the air at room temperature and without any energy
contribution. Liquids with ignition points at or above 0ºC and
under 21ºC. Substances and preparations that release extremely
flammable gases in hazardous amounts when in contact with water
and moist air.
•
Flammable substances: their ignition point is 0ºC and their
boiling point is above 21ºC and under 35ºC.
Chemical hazardous agents are those that can directly or indirectly harm
people, goods, and/or the environment. A preparation is hazardous if it
contains at least one hazardous substance.
These include:
•
Explosives: they can explode under the action of flames or heat, and
are very sensitive to blows, rubs, or frictions.
•
Combustible agents: in contact with other substances (particularly
with flammable substances they produce a strongly exothermal reaction) they release heat.
Chemical waste includes pesticides and hazardous household agents
(i.e., batteries, bleachers, paints, and insecticides).
•
Extremely flammable substances: their ignition point is
extremely low, under 0ºC, and their boiling point is 35ºC or lower.
Hazardous household agents may include: cleansing solutions, paint,
paint thinner, turpentine, batteries, insect sprays, and garden chemicals, among others.
67
•
68
Hazardous chemical agents can be:
--
Very toxic: by inhalation, ingestion, or skin penetration in a
very small amount they can cause acute or chronic effects and
even death.
--
Toxic: by inhalation, ingestion, or skin penetration in small
amounts they can cause acute or chronic effects and even
death.
--
Noxious: by inhalation, ingestion, or skin penetration they can
cause ailments of limited seriousness.
--
Corrosive: in contact with living tissues they can have a
destroying action on them.
--
Irritant: non-corrosive agents that may cause an inflammatory
reaction when in brief, prolongued, or repeated contact with the
skin or mucous membranes.
--
Sensitizers: by inhalation, ingestion, or skin penetration they
can cause an immune system reaction, in such a way that a
subsequent exposure to that substance or preparation triggers a
series of characteristic negative effects.
--
Carcinogenic or cancer causing: by inhalation, ingestion, or skin penetration they can produce cancer or increase
its frequency.
--
Mutagenic: by inhalation, ingestion, or skin penetration
they can lead to genetic hereditary alterations or increase their
frequency.
--
Teratogenic: by inhalation, ingestion, or skin penetration they
can induce fetal lesions during intrauterine development.
--
Hazardous to reproduction: by inhalation, ingestion, or
skin penetration they can cause negative non-hereditary effects
on offspring, increase their frequency, or negatively affect reproductive capacity.
--
Environmentally toxic: they pose or may pose an immediate or future danger to one or more components of the environment.
•
Chemical pollution affects both marine-coastal ecosystems (reefs,
seagrass beds, beaches, mangroves) and individuals (fish, marine
mammals, turtles, sea birds, and smaller species, such as plankton
and other microorganisms).
•
South American sea lions at Mar del Plata port have been
so seriously affected by toxic chemical waste and heavy metals
that they suffer from skin infections, conjunctivitis, rhinitis, and
alopecia.
•
Chemicals causing the greatest concern are those from agriculture and
industry entering the marine food chain and being passed on through
all the links until they accumulate in large predators.
•
Hydrocarbons are some of the main continental and marine
water pollutants often coming from water and land transportation of people and goods, as well as from spills.
•
Some chemicals seriously affect the quality of habitats used by cetaceans, reducing their prey availability.
•
•
Seagrass bed and coral community deterioration due to pollution may
be dangerous to marine turtles, since they feed and seek refuge in
those environments.
Fuels, oils, and antifouling paints contain carcinogenic substances
and heavy metals. These substances can harm and kill corals
and other living organisms. An increase in coral disturbances
and death may result in an overall biodiversity reduction in a reef
ecosystem.
•
Many animals get sick or die every year from causes related to water
chemical pollution. Marine mammals can accumulate toxic compounds
in their reserve tissues and release them during fasting periods, when
they are gravid or nursing their young. Furthermore, chemical pollution damages their reproductive and inmmune systems, which results
in womb malformations, sex hormone balance changes, and cancer.
•
•
In some parts of the world, whale and dolphin bodies washed ashore
are so contaminated they themselves qualify as “toxic waste” and must
be disposed of in a careful manner.
Toxic antifouling paints may spread throughout the food chain by
accumulating in a delicate environment as small pellets deposited
on a reef. Subsequently, when algae grow on them, they may be
consumed by herbivores in the ecosystem, which leads to heavy
metals being disseminated and taken in by the entire fish population, thus negatively affecting other consumers, which range from
carnivorous fish to human beings.
•
TBT is a feared antifouling agent with a disturbing hormonal
effect, capable of making some particular marine snail species
change sex, causing females to become males.
69
Why Should I Care?
• While there are many sources of chemical pollution beyond lodging
operations, this industry could be contributing in different ways. For
instance, a major pollution source consists of cleansing products used
in tourist facilities and swimming pools.
•
Fertilizers and pesticides used in gardens, landscaped areas, orchards,
and golf courses are produce pollution.
•
Heavy metals released from hull antifouling paints cause serious
environmental damages. These paints are applied to prevent algae,
mollusks, and other marine organisms from growing on a ship hull,
but once their toxic compounds are dispersed in water they are fatal to
marine species.
Cleansing Products
•
Reduce the number of chemicals used in your company.
•
Use natural products, such as salt, vinegar, and bicarbonate to clean
ovens, drains, windows, and floors.
•
Make use of biodegradable products. Cleansing and laundry products that reduce the amount of toxic chemical pollutants are currently
available in the market.
•
Check the environmental quality of products you purchase. They
usually have symbols specifying package material and toxicity.
•
Fuel and oil spills may alter beach, mangrove swamp, and reef chemical composition, poisoning the environment for many organisms.
•
Use automatic dispensers for cleansing products, in order to make
sure the right amounts of chemicals are used for each task.
•
Sunscreens or suntan oils applied by water sportspeople snorkeling
over corals is retained in the water surface layer and may affect polyps
and their symbiotic algae.
•
Train your staff to know how to use and dispose of cleansing products
in a responsible and safe manner.
•
Dispose of hazardous materials in a responsible manner and according
to national and international legislation.
•
Pesticide waste disposal is very simple: Follow the instructions on the
label. If you follow the instructions you will be abiding by the law.
Some pesticide containers can be burned, recycled, or buried (see
instructions on the label), if empty and rinsed three times.
•
The best way to dispose of used oil is turning it in for recycling. Some
service stations, autopart stores, and other automobile businesses
collect used oil for recycling.
•
Dispose of batteries in an appropriate manner. Take them to collection centers to prevent damage caused by metals contained in them,
such as nickel, cadmium, lead, and selenium.
•
Use rechargeable batteries, since one of them can substitute for up to
one hundred disposable batteries.
•
•
•
•
70
What Can I Do?
Poor boat maintenance causes environmental damage. One pollution
source is the bilge waste from fishing and transportation vessels, as
well as its inadequate handling. Bilge water is the waste generated by
normal vessel operation, containing a mixture of machine room liquids,
seepage, and fuel residues. Other source consists of oil and fuel leaks
from sea and land transportation that eventually make it to the sea.
Although a small fuel leak from a recreational vessel does not necessarily cause long-term damage, cumulative pollution effects from many
vessels in a heavy-traffic area may result in major degradation of the
different marine environments.
With all these chemicals present, surface water is contaminated. It
then runs off through drains and infiltrates in the soil, with the risk of
reaching down to drinking water sources or reservoirs used for human
consumption and for biodiversity.
Water also runs off over the surface to rivers and creeks, and through
them chemicals eventually make it to river mouths or estuaries, where
mangrove swamps are commonly found. In the ocean, they pollute
coral reefs and beaches
Gardens and Orchards
•
Select native plants that require less water, pesticides, fertilizers,
and herbicides.
•
Use compost or other similar products in place of chemical fertilizers.
•
If feasible, in controlling insects substitute native fish, iguanas, and
amphibians, for pesticides, and promote the use of natural insect
repellants.
•
Create your own compost with kitchen waste, and use it on your
orchard and gardens.
•
If possible, acquire organically-grown produce, so you can offer
healthier food produced without affecting biodiversity. This way
you will also be supporting farmers that conserve the environment.
•
There is market availability of glyphosate-based herbicides, which
have favorable physical, chemical, and environmental properties
and cause a minimum environmental impact, when products are
used according to technical recommendations:
--
They are biodegradable, disappearing from the environment
in a short period of time.
--
Some 90 % of the product disappears within 60 days after
application, and is broken down by natural soil microorganisms.
--
They do not leach, which means they remain where they were
applied, strongly adhering to the soil and thus preventing
water source pollution.
--
They are not volatile, reducing the likelihood of being air
borne.
--
They are not biocumulative. Instead, they are rapidly metabolized
71
Water and Agrochemical Management
in Golf Courses
•
Identify, analyze, and adequately manage aquifers used in irrigation
water extraction.
•
Design irrigation, drainage, and retention systems for water-efficient
use to decrease runoff, as well as water and fertilizer loss.
•
During construction, implement strategies to effectively control sediments, minimize soil loss, protect the water resource, decrease an
eventual agrochemical pollution, and reduce wildlife disturbance.
•
Pest control measures should combine biological, cultural, physical,
mechanical, and chemical methods. Chemical control methods should
be used as the last resort.
•
In applying fertilizers and pesticides always read the labels and follow
the instructions. In order to maximize their effectiveness with minimum
environmental impact, attack the problem as soon as you identify it;
do not let it go out of control.
•
Use agrochemicals and practices that decrease water pollution potential, such as using slow release or organic fertilizers. During application, do not exceed plant nutrient requirements.
•
Use local plant species in the landscaping component, since they will
be best adapted to local conditions and will require less water.
•
Avoid irrigating more than needed. If possible, use modern irrigation
control technologies to achieve a more efficient use of water.
•
Remember that agrochemical containers (bag, bottles, or any kind of
container) should be disposed of in a responsible manner. Ask the
product distributing company about ways of handling and collecting
containers.
Antifouling Paints
72
•
If possible, use a nontoxic antifouling paint on boat hulls.
•
International laws are beginning to ban antifouling paints. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) ratified an International
Convention on the Control of Harmful Antifouling Systems in ship
paints, making their substitution mandatory beginning in 2008.
•
The market is beginning to offer antifouling paints based on organism-repellant agents, slippery and ant-adherent hulls, without toxic
interactions with nature.
Water Transportation
•
Fuel the vessel only at the port or the marina, since if you do it during
the trip you could accidentally spill fuel on the water. Use non-toxic
oils, if possible. Wait until you reach a marina before disposing of
residual oil.
•
Regularly inspect potential areas of toxic substance spills on the
vessel. Include pipelines, fuel tanks, filters, separators, valves, and
water bailing pumps.
•
Keep absorbent sponges onboard to reduce or eliminate oil and fuel
spills. There are sponges to absorb gasoline and oil, but not water.
Keep them always at hand when fueling at a marina or port, and
dispose of them properly.
•
•
Unless the vessel is in danger, wait before bailing out oily bilge water,
particularly when near a coral reef. Do not clean bilges with detergents or emulsifiers.
Bilge water collection and treatment plants at port facilities are globally accepted preventive measures to avoid hydrocarbon pollution.
Land Transportation
•
Use vehicles with modern fuel-efficient engines to limit pollutant emissions. Make sure they are subject to periodical checks and maintenance.
Where Can I Get More
Information?
On golf course design, construction,
and environmental management
United States Golf Association, USGA
http://www.usga.org/home/index.html
Environmental Principles for Golf
Courses in the United States
In: United States Golf Association, USGA
http://www.usga.org/turf/articles/environment/
general/environmental_principles.html
On marinas
“Guía técnica de buenas prácticas ambientales para la
operación de las marinas turísticas en México”
(pdf español/inglés)
http://www.crc.uri.edu/mxgmp/
Guia_final_sept9.pdf
73
Water and Land Transportation
Photo: Ingrid Ayub
What Is the Issue?
•
Recreational aquatic vehicles, such as jetskis, are driven at high speeds
on shallow waters near beaches. These may cause sonic, chemical,
visual, and behavioral contamination of aquatic animals (particularly
sessile organisms, i.e., those unable to move on their own).
•
Poor or irresponsible boat driving can result in accidentally hitting
dolphins, marine turtles, freshwater turtles, manatees, and other
animals. Finding dead animals as a consequence of these accidents is
not uncommon. It can also lead to collisions with coral reefs, crushing
large amounts of corals and other organisms living there.
•
Birds, fish, and other organisms are disturbed by sonic pollution and
stress caused by boat motors. In mangrove swamps, for instance,
birds take flight when they hear the sound of motors, crocodiles and
freshwater turtles swim away from boats, and monkeys are disturbed
and start screaming. This may disrupt such vital activities as nesting,
courtship, or feeding.
•
Using anchors to moor recreational and lodging vessels can
severely damage coral reefs. Repeated anchor dropping affects
reef integrity, leaving extensive scars and exposing damaged corals
to infections. Anchoring can also cloud water with disturbed sediment, choking tropical corals and limiting available sunlight,
which the symbiotic algae need for photosynthesis.
•
The use of vehicles, 4 wheelers, or horses can compact the sand,
destroy marine turtle nests, accidentally crush hatchlings or crabs,
and also cause pollution from sound, fuels, and oils.
•
Turtle hatchlings can fall into tire treadmarks in the sand, thus
being forced to use their energy reserves and increase their exposure on the beach
75
Why Should I Care?
•
Poor practices concerning land and water transportation deteriorate
living conditions for coral, mangrove forests, coastal lagoons, fish,
birds, reptiles, mammals, and other animals, affecting important
processes, i.e., feeding, resting, courtship, and nesting.
•
Manatees are very shy and hard-to-watch creatures. However, a cause
of death is collisions with power boats.
•
Although coral reefs can recover from damages caused by dropping
anchors on them, it is a slow process that may take decades, and
in sectors where damage has been very extensive the reef may never
manage to regenerate itself.
•
Degraded habitat reduces the number and variety of fish important to
attract visitors.
•
Fewer living corals, fewer new corals, more stressed corals, more algae
growth, cloudy water and destruction of seagrass beds
What Can I Do?
On the beach
•
Regulate the use of motor vehicles and horses. If possible, reduce or
ban the use of vehicles, 4 wheelers, and horses used on the beach to
carry tourists and their luggage, or for rides. Decrease the number of
trips on the beach by following a transfer schedule.
•
During turtle nesting or massive crab movement periods, temporarily
ban the use of transportation on the beach, or identify safe routes that
do not harm biodiversity
On the reef
76
•
Implement best navigation practices. Know and obey speed limit signs
to decrease propeller jet impacts, as well as the wake left by the boat.
•
Remain within designated canal boundaries.
•
In unknown or non-demarcated reef areas do not come close to the
most visible zone of the reef. Consider dark water areas as possible
shallow-water important ecosystems.
•
Learn how to properly read and interpret a navigation chart.
•
If there are no regulations on these issues, promote their definition
with relevant authorities.
•
Use mooring buoys. These provide boats with rope ends for mooring,
which eliminates the need for dropping anchor, which also clouds
the water by stirring sediments. Mooring buoys provide permanent
lines that allow boaters to fix their position without dropping anchor.
An effective mooring program includes the installation of moorings
that are suitable for near-shore marine and coral reef areas, use of
moorings by all boats, and regular maintenance and correct use of
moorings.
•
Buoys should be located in marine areas close to shores and coral
reefs, and should be used by all vessels frequenting those areas.
•
If dropping anchor is absolutely necessary, make sure you do it in an
area designated for this purpose, far from reefs and important ecosystems. Do it over sandy bottoms or in debris canals, leaving enough
space to prevent dredging the bottom.
•
•
Change boating practices: Small adjustments to standard practice
can help save near-shore marine and coral reef eco-systems such as
correctly using mooring buys whenever possible and running a check
when you tie up to a mooring point,
Educate Customers by explaining the proper way to anchor and
through the use of written reminders of proper anchoring practices
on al vessels
On the mangrove swamp
•
•
If you are coming by boat from the sea, slow down when you
approach the mangrove swamp. This way there will be less
noise, animals will be less scared, and you will minimize the
risk of collisions against the boat.
•
If possible, use canoes or kayaks for mangrove swamp tours to
decrease impacts caused by the visit and enjoy a better experience.
Where Can I Get More
Information?
Water transportation
In: Yatch Club Santa Fe-Argentina
http://www.ycsf.org.ar/ecologia.htm
Simple advices to save on fuel
In: Advance Autoparts
http://www.advanceautoparts.com/spanish/youcan/
html/ccr/ccr20030101gm.html
The four-stroke engine
In: Applets de física
http://www.k-wz.de/vmotor/v_omotors.html
When approaching mangrove swamp inner parts, you should turn the
boat motor off and use paddles to propel the boat. Paddling allows
navigation on the canals without any noise or waves that alter coast
physionomy, and tourists can get more enjoyment out of watching
animals in their natural environment.
77
Product Suppliers
Photo: ACICACOF
What Is the Issue?
Products consumed by the hotel create a demand on local, national, or
regional suppliers. Reaching sustainability involves not only performing
your own activities, but also addressing the production system of your
suppliers of raw materials for your business. This is why selecting suppliers
and requiring them to follow sustainable and environmentally friendly
procedures will expand the sustainability circle beyond the exclusive sphere
of the hotel and its surroundings
•
Accidental trapping of whales, dolphins, porpoises, sharks, turtles,
sea lions, seals, and birds during fishing activities is a common
occurrence. Some 23% of worldwide fishing catch is estimated to
be disposed of because it has no commercial value. This waste has
taken many species to the brink of extinction.
•
Every year, some 300,000 cetaceans die trapped in fishing nets.
Some techniques, i.e., driftnets, have a large negative impact, since
they do not discriminate between target prey and cetaceans, and
were thus banned by the United Nations, although they are still
used. A dolphin trapped in these nets panics, and in its attempts at
breaking loose and coming up to breathe could end up with broken
teeth and jaws or torn flippers. Eventually, it will run out of oxygen
and die of drowning.
•
Shark finning is the practice of harvesting mostly shark fins,
discarding the rest of the body. On top of being a waste, this
endangers the entire food chain. Removal of sharks promotes a
mushrooming of the carnivorous fish they prey upon, which, in
turn, prey on herbivorous fish. A decline in herbivorous fish
results in coral reef algae proliferation, which helps deteriorate
that ecosystem.
79
Foto: Jason Neuerburg
80
•
Turtle eggs are used as food or as ingredients in baked products. In
many countries there is a belief they possess aphrodisiac properties.
Green turtle meat and soup is considered a gourmet delicacy in most
of the world. The olive Ridley turtle is hunted for its neck, shoulder,
and flipper skin to manufacture shoes, bags, and boots. The hawksbill turtle carapace −the source of natural tortoise shell− is the raw
material for rings, earrings, hair clips, combs, and other decoration
objects. Its carapace is hung on walls as decoration, and even juvenile turtles are stuffed and sold as adornments. Many countries ban
harvesting of egg turtles and using their meat and other byproducts.
Illegal harvesting of eggs and animals, however, as well as marketing
of turtle-derived products is a reality. Similarly, there are communities
organized for a sustainable use of turtle eggs obtained in mass egg
laying arrivals.
•
Sea lions trail fishing boats hoping to capture something caught in
fishing nets, and some of them are trapped in the nets. Species with
relatively small populations, i.e., the Galapagos sea lions and fur seals
that forage in fishing areas may be seriously affected. Other common
problem is fishing hooks, largely affecting juveniles. While these are
actual problems in the Galapagos, their impact on populations is still
unknown.
•
Shrimp farming in mangrove areas: Mangrove swamps are destroyed
and turned into huge “ponds” to grow shrimp, thus endangering many
species survival. Typically, large mangrove tracts have been felled to
make room for shrimp farms, which generate excess organic matter
from shrimp feed, thus polluting the bottom of highly productive bays.
Water pumping is performed twice a day with a 10% minimum water
renewal in each pond.
•
Shrimp farm impacts on water should be seen from different angles:
evaporation produced in water mirrors, water demands by the shrimp
sector through daily water changes in ponds, mangrove deforestation
resulting in soil erosion and concomitant mineralization, increased
turbidity and conductivity, and water pH changes, nutrients meant for
mangroves and aquatic plants have concentrated in the water, together
with those produced in the ponds by fertilization, pellet feeding,
and biomass excretion processes, shrimp larva and maturation labs
contribute large amounts of microbiological biocides and persistent
pathogenic microorganisms.
•
In coral reefs, indiscriminate harvesting of corals, snails, lobster, crabs,
octopi, and fish may expose those ecosystems to negative transformations by changing the relationships among the different species
Why Should I Care?
•
Overfishing is drastically decreasing populations of fish, octopi,
whales, dolphins, marine turtles, and many others. In fact, many
fishing businesses have collapsed.
•
The use of trawl nets eliminates anything bigger than the mesh coming
across the net, thus resulting in some 90% by-catch that is mostly
returned dead back to the sea.
•
The increased demand for fish and derived products are the causes of
declining marine resources.
•
While the lodging industry is not directly involved in commercial
fishing, it is an important sea product customer, since providing good
eating is one of its main activities. This includes fish, sea urchins,
crustaceans (lobster, crawfish, crab, shrimp), mollusks (octopi, squid,
clams, mussels, oyster, queen conch), and others.
•
If the lodging business purchases these food items from companies
that use non-sustainable fishing techniques it will be promoting the
death of many marine species, which are ultimately trashed for lack of
a commercial value.
•
Marine turtle populations are declining in many parts of the world
due to pressure from human beings.
•
The shrimp farming industry is installed in mangrove swamp areas,
since that is where they naturally develop. Although tourism is not
directly involved in that activity, it is an indirect player by demanding
their product and not analyzing either the shrimp source or their
extraction or farming method.
Foto: Jason Neuerburg
81
• Coral and snail specimens are taken from the coral reef to manufacture tourist souvenirs and trinkets. Other species, i.e., lobster,
oyster, octopus, and fish, are caught to be part of hotel and restaurant
menus.
What Can I Do?
Implement best sustainable seafood practices: By implementing best sustainable food practices you will be using your
purchasing power to support ocean and marine biodiversity conservation efforts. Some recommendations are:
•
Design a menu that is friendly to sea and marine biodiversity conservation, and share it with your customers.
•
Get information on the source of seafood products consumed at your
hotel and identify reliable suppliers.
•
Get information about the different fishing and aquaculture methods,
as well as their impacts on biodiversity. Do not purchase products
harvested at the risk of endangering cetaceans, turtles, and other
species.
•
82
Consume fish from companies that make use of turtle exclusion devices
(TED). These devices are large holes at the back of fishing nets
allowing marine turtles and other animals to escape, thus decreasing
their accidental death rate.
•
Reject products from protected or endangered species, of from
declining or threatened populations, such as lobsters or oysters.
•
Reject aquaculture products farmed at the cost of mangrove swamp
destruction.
•
Reject aquaculture products involving introduced encroaching or
potentially encroaching species.
•
Visit the websites recommended at the end of this chapter, where
yo will find practical information on sustainable food with marine
resources.
•
Reject any product obtained through harming marine turtles. Marine
turtles should no longer be objects of direct consumption. Fortunately,
they are protected almost in every country through the enforcement
of CITES, an international convention regulating the trade in threatened fauna and flora species. CITES entirely bans trade in these
animals and their derived products.
Souvenirs and decoration items
•
Do not sell marine souvenirs or decoration items, and explain your
customers they can help control their harvesting by refraining from
purchasing them.
•
Remember many marine species may be endangered and are protected
by national legislation and by the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES.
Where Can I Get More Information?
On sustainable foodstuffs
Various reports on edible seafood products (Spanish)
In: Greenpeace-España
http://www.greenpeace.org/espana/reports
“Seafood Watch”: Information on marine species that are safe to consume,
according to their conservation status (English).
In: Monterrey Bay Aquarium
www.mbayaq.org/cr/seafoodwatch.asp
“From Sea to Table”: Program for seafood lovers to better understand their
relationship to the ocean through the food they eat (English).
In: Blue Ocean Institute
www.blueocean.org
“Eat Smart”: Program on smart choices concerning seafood (English)
In: Oceans Alive
www.oceansalive.org/home.cfm
“Seafood Lover’s Guide – Seafood Cards”: It offers a series of cards
with information on the different kinds of seafood, as a support
in choice-making at a restaurant or market (English).
In: Audubon’ Living Oceans
http://seafood.audubon.org/
Seafood Choices Alliance: It is a global commercial association of seafood industry
conservationists and professionals. It provides information on the conservation status
of species used for human consumption (English / French).
In: Seafood Choices Alliance
www.seafoodchoices.org/home.php
“Certified fisheries”: Sustainable fishery accreditation program (English / Spanish).
In: Marine Stewardship Council
www.msc.org
83
Marine-Coastal Ecosystem Conservations
Foto: Jason Neuerburg
What Is the Issue?
•
•
•
Coastal ecosystems, such as mangrove swamps, tropical forests, and
beaches are often altered to accommodate tourist developer interests
and needs.
Many hotels are built on the beach frontline or on dune systems,
coastal tropical forests are partially or entirely cleared to open up
spaces for new beachfront buildings, and mangrove swamp areas are
felled, drained, and filled with debris to build tourist infrastructure
works and facilities.
In some instances, in order to provide guests with a better view, coastline vegetation is removed. Vegetation removal jeopardizes native
plant populations and curtails their nutrient contribution to the beach.
Additionally, it increases the risk of sand dune erosion and its impact
on organisms living there.
•
Golf course development is often done at the cost of a complete
mangrove swamp or forest destruction to provide the space for the
links, which are planted with introduced encroaching grasses.
•
Massive beach sand extraction to use it in constructions decreases
its availability and alters marine currents and natural sand supply
and loss, thus modifying the coastline.
•
In many tourist beaches lost sand is artificially replaced with new
material, which may lead to a serious compaction that alters the
natural habitat of sand-burrowing organisms, i.e., polychaetes
and pillbugs, and affects marine turtle nesting site selection.
•
The presence of constructions hinders local movements of some
species, such as the white crab (Cardisoma quanhumi) and the
blue crab (Cardisoma guanhumi), which live in holes they dig
in solid ground, but during the breeding season they march en
masse towards the sea to lay their eggs, going through all sorts of
obstacles, i.e., highways and buildings.
85
86
•
Beach alteration makes it difficult or impossible for marine turtles to
reach safe nesting grounds, forcing them to look for inadequate sites
or even failing to lay eggs. Nesting in unsuitable places may result in
eggs being flooded or swept away by waves. Ultimately, females would
have to nest on other beaches or even dispose of their eggs at sea.
•
Coastline alterations can increase silting on coral reefs, clouding the
water and reducing the amount of sunlight reaching corals, which
eventually leads to coral diseases or death.
•
Some nearshore areas are chosen by humpback whales as nurseries
for suckling and raising their calves. They usually settle in unpolluted,
light-traffic waters without fishing activities. Therefore, a deterioration
in these characteristics could hinder or prevent their reproduction.
•
Manatees are also threatened by seagrass bed loss or deterioration
due to agricultural and industrial runoff.
•
Coastal region plant species are also affected, since many of them
are removed or have to compete against species introduced for landscaping purposes. The Australian pine (Casuarina equietifolia) is
an invading species in many coastal areas of Florida, where it forms
dense clusters that eliminate dune native plants and project their
shadow over extensive beach areas, forcing marine turtles to use the
central and lower parts of the beach for nesting, which increases nest
flooding risks at high tide.
•
Domestic animals, like dogs and cats, can bring about the loss of local
species, such as crabs, birds, turtle hatchlings and eggs, which end up
in their menu
Why Should I Care?
•
Tourist developments causing most destruction in marine-coastal
ecosystems include airports, beach access roads, hotels, wharves,
marinas, commercial properties, and housing.
•
Marine-coastal ecosystem destruction or alteration breaks the delicate food web supported by these systems, since many marine species
beginning their life cycle in a mangrove swamp can have their reproduction threatened. Some of these species are also important as food
for humans.
•
Marine-coastal ecosystem destruction or alteration can involve losing
migratory bird and marine turtle resting and feeding sites.
•
Some birds restricted to small geographical areas, like endemic species
in a mangrove swamp, are in danger of becoming extinct.
•
There is a balance among the different marine-coastal ecosystems,
given some of them help protect the others against storm, hurricane,
and tsunami impacts. If any of them is removed a protection barrier
is lifted, to the detriment of the others and to an increased human
population risk in face of natural threats.
•
Works taking place far away from beaches may also have an impact,
such as river sand mining, dam building, and flood control measures
that can decrease the volume of material contributed to a beach and
result in its erosion.
•
Depending on alteration extent, marine-coastal ecosystem recovery
can be very difficult or impossible, economic costs would be too high,
and the time involved in regenerating original traits and dynamics
could be many decades.
•
Although people value beaches and other marine-coastal ecosystems as recreational, scenic beauty, and resting sites, they often do
not understand their role as the habitat of numerous wild organisms,
because they do not known this aspect
What Can I Do?
Coast Land Use Plans
•
Urge your departmental, provincial, or municipal government
to adopt and enforce a coast land use plan defining what can
and what cannot be done in each place.
•
The plan is an instrument that should combine population wellbeing, sustainable use of natural resources, and environmental
conservation. Therefore, remember the idea is not to exclude
development, but to build it in actual land capacities, preserving
the natural cycles taking place in that area.
•
Zoning should identify natural spaces that perform important
ecological functions, such as species conservation, greenhouse gas
sequestration, scenic beauty, and mitigation of natural events, i.e.,
storms and hurricanes. In this context, mangrove swamp permanence and integrity is fundamental
•
Make sure to take into account what is provided for in national
legislation concerning maritime zoning, river mouth areas, and
mangrove swamp conservation. Also consider international
conventions signed by the country, such as RAMSAR (1971),
for wetland conservation.
•
Contribute to participatory consultation processes for designing
or updating the coast land use plan, and make sure it covers a
comprehensive coastline plan that respectfully and seriously takes
into consideration the requirements of natural life forms inhabiting the different ecosystems, as well as provisions in the relevant
legislation.
•
Your involvement can be very effective if done through the business association you represent, for instance, the local chamber of
tourist businesspeople.
•
The distance to be kept from beach to constructions varies a lot
from country to country, but a reasonable figure is for buildings
to be located between 60 and 120 meters from the dunes, not
from the highest tide mark.
87
Protected Wilderness Areas
88
•
An excellent strategy in conserving natural ecosystems and their
biodiversity is the establishment of protected wilderness areas or
RAMSAR sites.
•
Support protected wilderness area establishment and management to
conserve beaches, mangrove swamps, estuaries, coral reefs, and cetacean transit and reproduction areas with special scenic and biological
features that should be strictly protected from environmental changes
or alteration.
•
If your country is signatory of the RAMSAR Convention it may
propose sites to be included in the list of protected wetlands under this
international convention.
•
Support initiatives for establishing protected marine-coastal areas
and national or international corridors benefiting migratory species.
There is one such initiative between Ecuador, Colombia, Panama,
and Costa Rica.
•
Support initiatives for the establishment of Multiuse Marine Areas.
•
Natural areas should have a biological resource inventory, a management plan, zoning, and, if applicable, a natural resource sustainable
use plan.
•
Get information on their management plan design, development and/
or implementation and, if possible, get actively involved in it.
•
Zoning defines the different uses and their intensities that can occur in
the protected area, for instance defining such things as no-take areas,
research areas, special areas for threatened species, and public visitation areas.
•
Collaborate with protected area administration in defining carrying
capacity of heavily visited sites to prevent excess visitation.
•
Support the work of private conservationist organizations, as well as
that performed by park rangers and coastguards working for the preservation of marine-coastal ecosystems.
•
Pay protected area user fees.
•
Provide your support through donations, and invite your guests to join
you in this collaboration.
•
Donate new or used equipment (photographic cameras, bird guidebooks, diving gear, and others) to protected area administration, in
order to facilitate their job.
•
Get acquainted with national and local protected wilderness area laws
and regulations.
•
Report environmental crimes to relevant authorities.
Introduced Encroaching Species
•
Do not use introduced ornamental plants and choose instead local varieties for your landscaped areas. In addition to preventing imbalances
in insect-plant relationships, this will also decrease water consumption
and related costs, since plants will be best adapted to living under
conditions prevailing at your hotel. This will also prevent plants from
potentially encroaching on neighboring natural areas.
•
Control and manage domestic animal population in a humane
fashion. Keep pets away from beaches during turtle nesting and crab
movement periods. Support periodic sterilization campaigns. A dog
and cat overpopulation problem can be controled in a relatively short
period of time.
•
Reject aquaculture involving introduced encroaching or potentially
encroaching species.
89
Environmental Education
• Learn about natural marine-coastal ecosystems and their biodiversity. The better you understand them, the greater your motivation to
preserve them.
•
Raise awareness in your employees, investors, customers, and local
residents about the value of beaches, mangrove swamps, estuaries,
and coral reefs as natural ecosystems and habitat for numerous wild
organisms.
•
Support local education programs targeted on community children
and adults to disseminate the importance of coral reefs and awaken
their enthusiasm to contribute to their protection.
•
Distribute recommendations among your customers with the purpose
of promoting the observation and enjoyment of nature connected to
those ecosystems.
•
Provide printed materials with illustrations and information on how
natural ecosystems work and on the natural history of some species
Scientific Research
90
•
Support scientific and academic organizations that create knowledge
on marine-coastal ecosystems.
•
Research creates valuable information that can be used in conserving
these ecosystems and in adding value to tourist products.
•
An ongoing monitoring is required to know marine-coastal ecosystem
conservation status. For instance, the presence of some species, like
sharks, in coral reefs is an indicator of this environment health status.
•
Support initiatives to monitor biodiversity in marine-coastal ecosystems.
Tourist Product
•
Design tourist products that include natural ecosystems existing in
your region.
•
Organize guided tours to the beach, mangrove swamp, estuary, and
coral reef, or work with local tour operators.
•
Promote the practice of respectfully watching wildlife, such as birds,
marine turtles, cetaceans, and others.
•
Some recommendations for responsible tour operations in these
ecosystems are given below.
Whale Calf Nurseries
•
Support research and conservation programs to better understand
space, time, and physical requirements of whales in raising, feeding,
and protecting their calves.
•
Gather information on whale local movements and migration patterns,
as well as the number of adults and juveniles visiting the area every
year.
•
Get involved in the international humpback whale monitoring if they
swim past your area.
•
Make sure all whale and calf requirements and needs are taken into
account in these conservation initiatives.
•
Invite the different users of whale habitat (fishermen, carriers, cetacean watchers) to carry out their activities respecting these animals’
needs without disturbing or harming them. Some cetacean-watcher
recommendations given below could also be useful to all users of
marine environments.
Where Can I Get More Information?
On ocean conditions
Various reports (Spanish and other languages)
In: Greenpeace-España
http://www.greenpeace.org/espana/reports
Oceans and Marine Life
In: National Environmental Trust
www.net.org/warming/
NOAA is a U.S. federal agency that provides
information on ocean and atmosphere conditions.
In: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
NOAA, US Department of Commerce
www.noaa.gov/
Greenpeace-España
Numerous articles (Spanish, English)
http://www.greenpeace.org/espana/
Mangrove restoration in Sri Lanka
Post-Tsunami-Project. Global Nature
This is a mangrove reforestation initiative supported by the European
Commission in communities affected by tsunami in Sri Lanka.
www.globalnature.org
91
Biodiversity Conservation
What Is the Issue?
•
The majority of environmental management programs for hotels
located in biodiversity hotspots are focused on procedures for internal
resource conservation and their related cost-savings. Broader biodiversity considerations are overlooked. In addition, the many forms of
accommodation ownership increase the difficulties of disseminating
information and practical tools on how and why to incorporate sustainability into their management.
•
Indiscriminate harvesting of mollusks and crustaceans to use them as
sports fishing baits affects their natural populations.
•
Sports fishing is no longer considered “harmless”. It may lead to
a decline in populations of large pelagic species that are selectively
fished and which have a low survival rate upon their being returned
to the sea after struggling for several hours on the fishing line; generally speaking, it does not provide local communities with significant
revenues.
•
Massive gathering of shells and snails to manufacture decoration items
or for collection purposes results in less available shelters for hermit
crabs, which use discarded snail shells as mobile homes. This
can also alter beach composition, which is partially made up of
particles from mollusk shell disintegration and coral remnants.
•
Beach recreational and sports activities disturb the resident wildlife. Such sports as football and handball contribute to sand grain
compaction, affecting hermit crabs (Coenobita compresus), ghost
crabs, mollusks, and polychaetes. A decrease in their populations
affects the food chain, since they are preyed upon by larger creatures, i.e., birds, coatis, and crab-eating raccoons.
•
Recreational beach bonfires may destroy turtle eggs, if lit on top
of nests. Mass sports and cultural events, such as music concerts
or sports tournaments, can generate enormous amounts of solid
waste and sonic pollution. Furthermore, the mass presence of
people on the beach contributes to compacting the sand.
•
There are tourist companies promoting wildlife feeding with the
purpose of attracting animals and amuse or amaze tourists. Such
animals as crocodiles, monkeys, hummingbirds, and others
modify their feeding habits because of contact with guides or
tourists providing them with food. Crocodile feeding in their
natural environment, for instance, becomes a real show.
93
• Amateur snorkelers and irresponsible or inexperienced scuba divers
may crush and break corals and other reef-dwelling organisms with
their fins, gear, or part of their bodies. These damages usually occur
when people move about, stand, or walk in a shallow area, swim
against the current, or come closer to watch, photograph, handle,
touch, and feed animals.
•
•
•
•
94
When marine turtles find people on the beach at night during the
nesting season they either choose to return to the sea, delay their egg
laying, move to other beaches, or make a poor selection of alternative
nesting sites. During the day, human activity disturbs and endangers
eggs and hatchlings.
Another threat on turtles is street and building artificial lighting
because they are guided by moonlight reflected on the sea and can
easily get confused. Females may lose their natural course towards
egg-laying grounds and many of them shun artificially lit beach areas.
Hatchlings coming out of the nest at night and relying on natural light
as a signal to find the sea are disoriented by the presence of artificial
lights, and may die from exhaustion, desiccation, predation, or be run
over by cars.
When cetaceans are frequently disturbed many abandon their usual
homes for more quiet waters. Swimming with dolphins and sea lions
in the sea may disturb their activities, such as feeding, resting, nursing,
courting, and other conducts. In captivity, a dolphin cannot avoid
humans even if it does not want to interact with them. In fact, dolphins
may become aggressive and harm people swimming with them.
Many dolphins are captured for shows and, according to the Whale
and Dolphin Conservation Society (WDCS), dolphin capture and
transportation methods can be cruel and many individual die in the
process. Dolphins are often taken from populations that are already
under great pressure from other human activities.
Why Should I Care?
•
The lodging industry has a great opportunity to contribute to biodiversity conservation by adopting good practices and principles into
design, planning, development and management of tourism products
and services. The impact can be highly positive.
•
A consequence of gathering shells and snails is a lower availability of
calcium carbonate in the environment. This very important element
is used by many animals and plants as a raw material to build their
protective structures.
•
Feeding wild animals can remove the natural distance some animals
usually keep from humans and increase their aggressiveness in trying
to get easy food.
•
An excess number of people during marine turtle nesting, coupled
with an inadequate behavior, could have a serious impact on the
nesting process.
•
Irresponsible operation of tours to watch whales, dolphins, and sea
lions may cause serious disturbances to these animals.
•
Captive dolphins have a lower life expectancy than wild ones, they
cannot communicate, feed, reproduce, and play as they do it in the
sea, and confinement-related stress typically results in their acquiring
abnormal behaviors and diseases.
•
Dolphin shows do not necessarily promote respect of nature, nor
an understanding of these creatures’ wonderful existence. On the
contrary, these are animals controlled by humans and confined within
an artificial environment.
What Can I Do?
Commitment
•
Commit to industry-led voluntary environmental initiatives that include
criteria for biodiversity conservation.
•
Incorporate biodiversity conservation practices and principles into
design, planning, development and management of tourism products
and services into supply chain management.
•
Use material produced by industry associations and organizations for
the integration of biodiversity considerations into lodging management
procedures (ie. UNEP, UNWTO, IHEI, IFTO, TOI).
Public relations and marketing
•
Public relations is an excellent strategy to identify potential partners as
well as to reach them in appropriate ways with the right information.
These include the Media, governmental organizations, other enterprises, local community organizations and others.
•
‘Customer Relations’ can be used to integrate sustainability in the
lodging industry and to promote knowledge. Partner with tour operators to influence tourists’ responsible actions by preparing informational
brochures to promote appropriate behavior in pre-departure information. Customer relations can raise awareness on the local biodiversity
and tourism behavior that is acceptable for its conservation. Tour Operators can reinforce their messages by inviting feedback on sustainability
issues and channel this feedback to hotel managers or lodging owners.
•
Communication is essential to combat the degradation of biodiversity.
It raises awareness of tourism key players from the supply and demand
side.
•
Implementation of good environmental practices can be used as a
marketing tool. Lodging enterprises can promote their good environmental practices in promotional materials, advertising and educational
displays to enhance their reputation and their public image.
•
As a result, the hotel’s credibility increases, as well as the potential to
attract dedicated and motivated staff that will work towards protecting
the marine-coastal biodiversity.
95
Local community
•
• Integrate local community tourism products and activities with potential to contribute with biodiversity conservation, such as: 1) learning
about traditional farming methods 2) how to make and taste local
dishes; 3) visiting organic farms; 4) visiting local schools to learn
about local history, 5) learning to make local crafts. These activities
can replace nature based activities which may pose threats on wildlife,
such as huntinhg or over harvesting.
Regulations should not be seen as a straitjacket for business sector
activities. On the contrary, they are a mechanism to conserve the
natural attraction underlying tourist industry, which in this case is the
beach and its biodiversity.
•
When a beach is within a protected wilderness area its recreational
use is defined in public use regulations, which, in turn, are based
on the area’s management plan. Respect established regulations and
invite your customers to follow suit.
•
Avoid using the beach for bonfires or barbecues. If this is not possible,
control their number, frequency, and location, reserving a specific
place for them in such a way bonfire negative effects will be limited to
a particular site. Make sure the selected site does not affect turtle nests
or beach vegetation.
•
Promote local training activities in topics related to biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.
•
Local people can contribute to tourist’s awareness during their engagement in activities at the community.
•
Hire local staff known for their unsustainable practices (trawl fishers,
poachers, miners, wildlife smugglers, river poisoners) who are well
acquainted with the area and train them to progressively divert them
from their activities, raise awareness, and simultaneously educate
tourists.
Collecting organisms
•
Discourage the collection of living organisms or their waste. Do not
sell marine souvenirs or decoration items, and explain your customers
they can help control their harvesting by refraining from purchasing
or collecting them during their walks on the beach.
Beach Use Regulations
•
96
Promote the adoption of regulations on using beaches for recreational
purposes. This should be done in accordance with the Land Use
Plan, and should specify what activities are allowed, what activities
are excluded, and how permitted activities should be performed.
•
Do not build infrastrcture in public areas.
•
Subject-related entities, such as municipalities, public and private
tourism and conservation agencies, can contribute in defining these
issues.
Beach Cultural and Sports Events
•
Beach use regulations should include rules concerning cultural and
sports events taking place on the beach.
•
Adequately plan concerts and other cultural and sports events for
times of the year where they will not interfere with wildlife reproduction processes.
•
Delimit the area for events so as to focus their effects on a particular
sector.
•
Keep the volume within acceptable human health limits.
•
Develop a post-event waste collection and management plan to prevent
waste from disseminating throughout the environment.
•
Take advantage of the event to raise funds for conserving the beach
and organisms living there or visiting it. Donate a percentage of said
funds.
•
During the event, send conservation messages to the audience,
reminding them how important the beach is as an ecosystem and
providing some interesting information or curious data about organisms living there or visiting it.
Responsible Wildlife Watching
•
Promote responsible watching, of marine-coastal wildlife in its natural
environment, and hire guides or tour operators that apply this principle.
•
Explain visitors that they should not scream, use radios, or make
noises that cause unnecessary disturbances.
Diving and Snorkeling in the Reef
Ask your guests to behave responsibly while practicing snorkeling in
the reef. The following recommendations, adapted from The Coral
Reef Alliance, Coral (© CORAL), will be useful to your company
and your customers:
•
Before getting into the sea take good diving and snorkeling
courses, and practice your skills in a swimming pool or over a
sandy bottom, provided it is far from the coral reef.
•
Use binoculars with a good augmentation-luminosity ratio (10x50,
8x30, or 12x60) and field guides with good illustrations and natural
history information.
Make sure your gear is tightly fit to your body before entering the
water, since it could be very difficult to fit it in the water.
•
If you do not feel confident or have little experience, use a snorkeling vest to improve your floatability.
•
Dressing in neutral colors and according to weather conditions is
recommended.
•
When you get in the water, carefully choose entry and exit points to
prevent standing on coral.
•
Refrain from touching, handling, or feeding wild animals. Remember
nature provides food to animals in their natural condition, and also
that they play various roles in the ecosystem food chain.
•
Never touch corals, since even the slightest contact could damage
them.
•
Discourage your guests from joining tours where feeding of wildlife
takes place.
•
Try not to use gloves and kneepads in these environments: bare skin
makes divers more careful about the things they touch.
•
Avoid accidental feeding by keeping garbage containers closed.
•
Make sure you know where your fins are at all times, so you will not
accidentally kick corals, and try not to stir the sand.
•
Know the main marine-coastal species in your region or country. For
example, in Central American waters some thirty whale and dolphin
species live or swim by, but the majority of population ignore this
important fact.
•
Keep a horizontal position while on the coral reef to avoid standing
on corals.
•
Swim without using your arms to thus prevent touching the reef.
•
Move slowly and carefully in the water. Relax while you swim and
take your time.
•
Marine life disturbance caused by diving and snorkeling may be
reduced through a “take only pictures, leave only bubbles” voluntary policy that discourages feeding and harassing marine wildlife.
•
Do not take anything dead or alive out of the water, except for
recently thrown trash.
•
Never chase or try to ride on marine animals.
•
Use biodegradable sunscreens or sunproof suits to prevent
polluting the water with chemicals that are toxic to marine life.
•
•
The best times to watch birds is early in the morning or at dusk,
when they are most active. For this reason, keeping your distance and
watching them with respect is important.
•
Get familiar with the different species, their characteristics, habits,
and if applicable, their migratory patterns.
•
Understand habitat requirements and needs of species. If you really
wish to contribute to their conservation, you also need to support
conservation of all the habitats they need to survive. Sea lions, for
instance, spend part of their life in the water and part on sandy and
rocky beaches. Therefore, their conservation relies on the quality of
both environments.
97
Marine Turtle Nesting Watching
98
•
Carry out marine turtle watching with great respect, particularly during
the critical egg-laying period. If your company offers guided tours to
watch turtle egg laying, adopt stringent operating regulations.
•
If tours are conducted by other companies or private guides, make
sure they enforce the regulations.
•
Regulations are not a straitjacket for businesses. They rather provide
tourists with greater enjoyment and learning, in addition to giving
turtles better opportunities for successful egg laying.
•
Inquire about specific turtle watching rules in your area.
•
Resort to properly trained local guides.
•
Organize watching groups not larger than 10 people, although the
ideal figure is five.
•
Promote the use of dark cloth.
•
Do not allow any light-emitting devices, such as flashlights or
cameras.
•
Keep the disturbance to a minimum, keep quiet, and move slowly.
•
Do not get close to turtles as they just emerge from the sea, since they
could get scared and go back to the water.
•
Try not to get too close when the turtle is digging her nest, and keep
out of her visual range.
•
Remain at a minimum distance of 5 meters from the back of the
turtle.
•
Before approaching, after the animal is done digging, wait some five
minutes to make sure she is not just resting and has started laying
eggs.
•
Keep quiet while watching the nesting process.
•
During egg laying you can get a little closer to the turtle, always from
the rear, since she is then less sensitive to disturbances. Use a small
flashlight with a filter to point directly at eggs being dropped. Never
shine any light on the turtle head.
•
•
When the turtle is in the process of covering her nest she turns again
sensitive to disturbances, and people should keep their distance and
remain out of sight.
Try to avoid lights over nesting beaches. Turtle hatchling orientation
towards artificial lights compromises their ability to respond to key
natural orientation, both on land and at sea. Apply a dark tint over
windows overlooking the beach to decrease indoor light glow.
•
Choose lights that allow you to reduce lighting projected from your
facilities. Install movable indoor lamps that can be focused away from
the beach.
•
Use yellowish or reddish lights that are less distracting than violet,
blue, green, or golden lights. Low sodium vapor pressure lamps emit
a yellow light having a weaker effect on turtles than light from other
sources.
•
•
Develop a guide with recommendations concerning visitor
behavior in nesting and hatching areas. For instance, make sure
tourists do not “help” hatchlings in their first run towards the
sea since a) hatchlings that did not follow this path might lose
their ability to find their bearings at subsequent stages, and b)
this run could provide an imprint for subsequent nestings.
•
In cases of extreme threats to turtle nests, relocate the eggs.
•
When great nest losses are sustained on account of severe beach
erosion, nest flooding, illegal egg harvesting, or nest crushing by
vehicles or people, one measure is to relocate nests to a safer and
more stable area on the same beach, or even on other beaches.
•
Do not carry out this activity by yourself. These process should
be performed by organizations and people with knowledge and
experience, and they also should have the relevant permits.
•
This measure is applied in extreme cases, since the ideal is to
protect eggs without any human handling or intervention.
Once the turtle has laid her eggs and is heading back to the sea, you
can watch her better without negative consequences. Do not use flashlights, since that could scare away any other turtle that is just emerging
from the sea.
Artificial Lighting Management on
Turtle Nesting Beaches
•
Turtle Nest Rescue
Install opaque shades or screens to cover lamp posts. They direct the
glow towards the ground and not towards the beach, thus preventing
turtle-disorienting light dispersion.
•
Regulate the use of lighting in your facilities during the nesting
season and educate or instruct your staff to help minimize the use of
lighting.
•
Provide your guests with information on the matter and invite them to
collaborate by turning lights off, or keeping their curtains drawn.
•
Place decals on all switches, reminding guests and staff to keep the
lights off during the nesting season.
Cetacean Watching
The following recommendations, adapted from The Coral Reef Alliance, Coral (© CORAL), will be useful to your company and your
customers:
•
Responsible whale and dolphin watching is an excellent alternative for seeing these animals in their natural environment,
inspiring people to contribute to their conservation, providing
scientific research opportunities, and opening work and revenue
sources for coastal communities.
•
Let whales and dolphins take control of the situation.
•
Never surround, chase, or harass any animal, and leave an
escape route open.
•
If they seem to be restless or disturbed, abandon the area.
99
• Keep alert at all times to prevent collisions.
• Show great care when there are mothers and their young to prevent
accidental separation.
Where Can I Get More
Information?
• Keep noise to a minimum.
•
Do not try to touch or feed the animals.
•
Do not purchase any whale-derived products−they are in CITES
protection list.
•
Refrain from swimming with whales or dolphins. Their behavior is
not fully understood and may risk people’s lives.
•
Avoid sudden speed or direction changes, as well as noise levels.
•
Keep a distance of some one hundred meters from animals.
•
Never get close to whales or dolphins from the front and stay out of
their way, so they will not feel forced to change course.
•
Limit your stay to 30 minutes per boat.
•
Limit the number of boats to one or two at the same time.
Captive Dolphins
•
Do not promote among your customers the visits to marine parks,
aquariums, and zoos that keep captive dolphins.
•
Share with your customers the captivity effects on dolphin physical
and emotional health. It is important to remember these are intelligent
and very sensitive animals that evolved to live in a huge environment
and with an instinct for traveling long distances.
•
Get in touch with dolphin aquariums in your region and express your
opposition to keeping those animals in captivity.
•
Promote responsible watching of whales and dolphins in their natural
environments.
On diving and snorkeling tours
“Guidelines for tourists: Diving” (pdf Spanish/English)
In: The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL)
www.coralreefalliance.org/
“Guidelines for tourists: Snorkeling” (pdf Spanish/English)
In: The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL)
www.coralreefalliance.org/
On marine mammals
Whale and dolphin Conservation Society, WDCS (English)
http://www.wdcs.org/
Whale and dolphin species lists
In: Whale and dolphin Conservation Society, WDCS (inglés)
http://www.wdcs.org/dan/publishing.nsf/allweb/A59B71D6C8A9E
B17802568F800443577
Manatee Conservation (English)
http://www.thewildones.org/Animals/manateeCons.html
Proyecto Manatí (Spanish)
http://www.icomvis.una.ac.cr/noviembre/manati.htm
Fundación Salvemos al Manatí de Costa Rica (Spanish)
http://www.fundacionmanati.org/home.php
On marine turtles
Marine Turtle Restoration Program, PRETOMA
(Spanish/ English)
http://www.tortugamarina.org/
Caribbean Conservation Corporation
& Sea Turtles survival League (English)
http://www.cccturtle.org/
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