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Latin grammar
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Latin, like all other ancient Indo-European languages, is highly inflectional, and so has a very flexible
word order. Thus Latin is archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In Latin there are
five declensions of nouns and four conjugations of verbs. Latin does not have articles and does not
differentiate, for example, a girl and the girl; the same word, puella, represents both. Latin syntax is
generally Subject Object Verb, although variations on this syntax in poetry are common. Latin is rightbranching, uses prepositions, and usually places adjectives after their nouns. Latin is also pro-drop and
verb-framed.
Contents
[hide]
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1 Verbs
2 Nouns
3 Determiners and personal pronouns
4 Adjectives
5 Adverbs
6 Word order
7 Ablative absolute
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
[edit] Verbs
Detailed information and conjugation tables can be found at Latin conjugation.
Verbs are one of the trickiest areas of Latin; each verb has numerous conjugated forms. Verbs have three
moods (indicative, imperative, and subjunctive), two voices (active and passive), two numbers (singular
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and plural), three persons (first, second and third), and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated in six
main tenses (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect), and have complements of
moods for the present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect. Infinitives and participles occur in the present,
perfect, and future tenses.
Conjugation is the process of inflecting verbs; a set of conjugated forms for a single word is called a
conjugation. Latin verbs are divided into four different conjugations by their infinitives, distinguished by
the endings -•re, -•re, -ere, and -•re.
There are six tenses (Latin: tempus) in Latin. They are:
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Present (Latin: praesens): describes actions happening at the time of speaking: The slave carries
the wine jar home.
Imperfect (Latin: imperfectum): describes actions continuing in the past: The slave was carrying
the wine jar home.
Future (Latin: futurum simplex): describes actions taking place in the future: The slave will carry
the wine jar home.
Perfect (Latin: perfectum): describes actions completed by the present: The slave carried (or has
carried) the wine jar home.
Pluperfect (Latin: plusquamperfectum): describes actions occurring before another past action:
The slave had carried the wine jar home.
Future Perfect (Latin: futurum exactum): describes actions that will be completed some time in
the future: By tomorrow, the slave will have carried the wine jar home.
There are three moods (Latin: modus):
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Indicative (Latin: indicativus), which states facts: That slave is carrying a wine jar.
Subjunctive or Conjunctive (Latin: coniunctivus), which is used for possibilities, intentions,
necessities, statements contrary to fact: Let the slave carry the jar. The subjunctive is also used
with the formation of subordinate clauses.
Imperative (Latin: imperativus): used for commands: "Carry this wine jar home!"
There are two voices (Latin: genus):
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Active (Latin: activum), where the verb is done by the subject: The slave carried the wine jar
home.
Passive (Latin: passivum), where the verb is done to the subject: The wine jar was carried home
by the slave.
[edit] Nouns
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Detailed information and declension tables can be found at Latin declension.
Nouns (including proper nouns and pronouns) have six cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative,
ablative, and vocative (special nouns have a seventh "locative" case); three genders: masculine, feminine
and neuter, which serve a grammatical function, not to distinguish the sex of the object; and two
numbers: singular and plural. Declining is the process of inflecting nouns; a set of declined forms of the
same word is called a declension. Most adjectives, pronouns, and participles, indicate the gender of the
noun they reference or modify.
Most nouns in the 1st declension are feminine; most in the 2nd are masculine and neuter; nouns in the
3rd can either be masculine, feminine, or neuter; nouns in the 4th are either masculine or neuter; and in
the 5th they are usually feminine, with a couple of masculine. It is necessary to learn the gender of each
noun because it is often impossible to discern the gender from the word itself. One must also memorize
to which declension each noun belongs in order to be able to decline it. Therefore Latin nouns are often
memorized with their genitive (rex, regis) as this gives a good indication for the declension to use and
reveals the stem of the word (reg, not rex).
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The nominative case, which is used to express the subject of a statement.
The genitive case, which expresses possession, measurement, or source. In English, the
preposition of is used to denote this case.
The dative case, which expresses the recipient of an action, the indirect object of a verb. In
English, the prepositions to and for most commonly denote this case.
The accusative case, which expresses the direct object of a verb or direction or extent of motion.
The ablative case, which expresses separation, indirection, or the means by which an action is
performed. In English, the prepositions by, with, and from most commonly denote this case.
The vocative case, which is used to address someone or something in direct speech.
The locative case, which is used to express the place in or on which, or the time at which, an
action is performed. The locative case is extremely marginal in Latin, applying only to the names
of cities and small islands and to a few other isolated words, and is identical to the genitive case
in the singular of the first and second declension, and the ablative case otherwise.
[edit] Determiners and personal pronouns
Detailed information and declension tables can be found at Latin declension.
In Latin there is no indefinite article or definite article, though there are demonstratives, such as hic,
haec, hoc (masculine, feminine and neuter for this) and ille, illa, illud (for that). As in English, these
can act as pronouns as well. There are also possessive adjectives and pronouns, cardinal and ordinal
numbers, quantifiers, interrogatives, etc.
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Personal pronouns also exist, for each one of the three possible persons, in both singular and plural. As
in most Romance languages and English, only third-person pronouns show gender differentiation (check
is, ea, id: he, she, it).
[edit] Adjectives
Detailed information and declension tables can be found at Latin declension.
In Latin, adjectives must agree with the nouns they modify in case and number and gender. Because of
this, Latin adjectives must also be declined. First and second declension adjectives are declined
identically to nouns of the first and second declension. Unless the word in question is in poetry,
adjectives are generally placed behind the nouns they modify. Adjectives exist, like in English with
positive, comparative and superlative forms. Positive and superlative adjectives are declined according
to the first and second declension noun paradigm, however comparative adjectives are declined
according to the third declension noun paradigm. When used in sentences, the comparative adjective
(better, faster, brighter) may be put in the ablative or with the addition of 'quam' (Latin: than).
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Cornelia est fortis puella: Cornelia is a strong girl.
Cornelia est fortior puella quam Flavia: Cornelia is a stronger girl than Flavia. (Here quam is
used.)
Cornelia est fortior puella Flavi•: Cornelia is a stronger girl than Flavia. (Here Flavia is in the
ablative.)
Cornelia est fortissima puella omnium: Cornelia is the strongest girl of all.
POSITIVE
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
bonus, -a, -um melior, -ius
optimus, -a, -um
m•gnus, -a, -um m•ior, -ius
m•ximus, -a, -um
malus, -a, -um p•ior, -ius
pessimus, -a, -um
multus, -a, -um plus (only neuter); pl. pl•res, pl•ra pl•rimus, -a, -um
parvus, -a, -um minor, -us
minimus, -a, -um
regular adjectives
POSITIVE
COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
exterus, -a, -um
exterior, -ius
extr•mus, -a, -um
novus, -a, um
novior, -ius
novissimus, -a, -um
posterus, -a, -um
posterior, -ius
postr•mus, -a, -um
pulcher, -chra, -chrum pulchrior, -ius
pulcherrimus, -a, -um
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superus, -a, -um
superior, -ius
supr•mus
[edit] Adverbs
Detailed information and declension tables can be found at Latin declension.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs by indicating time, place, or manner. Latin adverbs
are indeclinable. They can be formed by modifying the ending of an adjective. Like adjectives, adverbs
have positive, comparative, and superlative forms.
The positive form of an adverb is formed from the first and second declension adjectives, in which a
long -e replaces the ending. Instead of the adjective clarus, -a, -um, which mean bright, the adverb is
clare, which means brightly.
The comparative form of an adverb, formed from third declension adjectives, is extremely simple. It is
exactly the same as the neuter nominative singular form of a comparative adjective and it almost always
ends in -ius. Instead of the adjective clarior, which mean brighter, the adverb is clarius, which means
more brightly.
The superlative form as well is extremely simple. It has exactly the same stem as the superlative
adjective and it always ends in with a long -e. Instead of the adjective clarissimus, which mean brightest,
the adverb is clarissime, which means most brightly.
[edit] Word order
Latin allows for a very flexible word order because of its inflectional syntax. Ordinary prose tended to
follow the pattern of Subject, Indirect Object, Direct Object, Adverbial Words or Phrases, Verb. Any
extra, though subordinate verbs, are placed before the main verb, for example infinitives. Adjectives and
participles usually directly followed nouns, unless they were adjectives of beauty, size, goodness, or
truth, in which case they preceded the noun being modified. Relative clauses are always placed after the
antecedent which the relative pronoun describes. While these patterns for word order were the most
frequent in Classical Latin prose, they are frequently varied; and it is important to recall that there is
virtually no evidence surviving that suggests the word order of colloquial Latin (see Vulgar Latin).
In poetry, however, word order was often changed for the sake of the meter, for which vowel quantity
(short vowels vs. long vowels and diphthongs) and consonant clusters, not rhyme and word stress,
governed the patterns. It is, however, important to bear in mind that poets in the Roman world wrote
primarily for the ear, not for the eye; many premiered their work in recitation for an audience. Hence
variations in word order served a rhetorical, as well as a metrical purpose; they certainly did not prevent
understanding. In Virgil's Eclogues, for example, he writes, Omnia vincit amor, et nos cedamus amori!:
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Love conquers all, let us yield to love!. The words omnia (all), amor (love) and amori (to love) are
thrown into relief by their unusual position in their respective phrases. The meter here is dactylic
hexameter, in which Virgil composed The Aeneid, Rome's national epic.
The ending of the common Roman name Marcus is different in each of the following examples due to its
grammatical usage in that sentence. The ordering in the following sentences would be perfectly correct
in Latin and no doubt understood with clarity, despite the fact that in English they're awkward at best
and senseless at worst:
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Marcus ferit Corneliam: Marcus hits Cornelia. (Subject-Verb-Object)
Marcus Corneliam ferit: Marcus hits Cornelia. (Subject-Object-Verb)
Cornelia dedit Marco donum: Cornelia has given Marcus a gift. (Subject, Verb, Indirect Object,
Direct Object)
Cornelia Marco donum dedit: Cornelia has given Marcus a gift. (Subject, Indirect Object, Direct
Object, Verb)
[edit] Ablative absolute
In Latin grammar, the ablative absolute (Latin: ablativus absolutus) is a noun phrase cast in the ablative
case. More specifically it consists of a noun or pronoun and some participle (in the case of sum (to be) a
zero morpheme often has to be used as the past and present participle do not exist, only the future
participle), all in the ablative absolute. It indicates the time, condition, or attending circumstances of an
action being described in the main sentence. It takes the place of, and translates, many phrases that
would require a subordinate clause in English. The unfamiliarity of this construction makes it sometimes
difficult for Latin students to grasp; however, mastery of this construction is needed to write Latin well,
and its availability makes Latin prose quite concise. The closest English equivalent is the nominative
absolute.
The closest translation to the Latin follows the paradigm, with the NOUN PARTICPLE. This
construction however can often sound awkward in English. Therefore, it is often finessed into some
other, more English-like, construction. In the following examples, the first line is the direct translation
from Latin, while the second has been construed to sound more at home in English. The usage of
present, passive or future participles will determine the verbal idea in the ablative absolute.
Urbe capta, Aeneas fugit
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The city having been captured, Aeneas flees. (literal)
With the city having been captured, Aeneas flees.
When the city was captured, Aeneas flees.
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Ovidio exule, Musae planguntur.
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Ovid having been exiled, the Muses weep. (literal)
With Ovid having been exiled, the Muses weep.
The Muses weep because Ovid has been exiled.
The ablative absolute indicates the time when things happened, or the circumstances when they occurred.
vivo Caesare...
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with Caesar having been alive...
when Caesar was alive...
It also indicates the causes of things, as in:
Ira calefacta, sapientia dormit.
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With anger having been kindled, wisdom sleeps.
Wisdom sleeps because anger is kindled.
Domino absente, fur fenestram penetravit.
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With the master being absent, a thief entered the window.
Since the master was absent, a thief entered the window.
It can be used to add descriptions:
Passis palmis, pacem petiverunt.
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With hands outstretched, they sued for peace.
Hands outstretched, they sued for peace.
Sometimes an infinitive or clause occurs in the ablative absolute construction, especially in Livy and
later authors:
audito eum fugisse...
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with it having been heard that he had fled...
having heard that he had fled...
when they heard he had fled...
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Latin conjugation
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Jump to: navigation, search
Conjugation is the creation of derived forms of a verb from one basic form. It may be affected by person,
number, gender, tense, mood, voice or other language-specific factors. When, for example, we use a verb to
function as the action done by a subject, most languages require conjugating the verb to reflect that meaning.
(For more information on conjugation in general, see the article on grammatical conjugation.)
In Latin, there are four main patterns of conjugation composed of groups of verbs that are conjugated
following similar patterns. As in other languages, Latin verbs have a passive voice and an active voice.
Furthermore, there exist deponent and semi-deponent Latin verbs (verbs with a passive form but active
meaning), as well as defective verbs (verbs with a perfect form but present meaning). Sometimes the verbs of
the third declension with a root on -•, are regarded as a separate pattern of conjugation, and are called the fifth
conjugation, so that it is said there are five main patterns of conjugation.
In a dictionary, Latin verbs are always listed with four principal parts which allow the reader to deduce the
other conjugated forms of the verbs. These are:
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the first person singular of the present indicative active
the present infinitive
the first person singular of the perfect indicative active
the supine or, in some texts, the perfect passive participle, which is nearly always identical. Texts that
commonly list the perfect passive participle use the future active participle for intransitive verbs. Some
verbs lack this principal part altogether.
For simple verb paradigms, see the following pages: [1], [2], [3], [4]
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Contents
[hide]
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1 Overview of the Latin Verb
❍ 1.1 Latin verb properties
❍ 1.2 The four conjugations
■ 1.2.1 The first conjugation
■ 1.2.2 The second conjugation
■ 1.2.3 The third conjugation
■ 1.2.4 The fourth conjugation
❍ 1.3 Personal endings
❍ 1.4 Imperfective aspect tenses
■ 1.4.1 Present tense
■ 1.4.1.1 Indicative present
■ 1.4.1.2 Subjunctive present
■ 1.4.1.3 Imperative present
■ 1.4.2 Imperfect tense
■ 1.4.2.1 Indicative imperfect
■ 1.4.2.2 Subjunctive imperfect
■ 1.4.3 Future tense
■ 1.4.3.1 Indicative future
■ 1.4.3.2 Imperative future
❍ 1.5 Perfective aspect tenses
■ 1.5.1 Perfect tense
■ 1.5.1.1 Indicative perfect
■ 1.5.1.2 Subjunctive perfect
■ 1.5.2 Pluperfect tense
■ 1.5.2.1 Indicative pluperfect
■ 1.5.2.2 Subjunctive pluperfect
■ 1.5.3 Future perfect tense
■ 1.5.3.1 Indicative future perfect
❍ 1.6 Non-finite forms
■ 1.6.1 The participles
■ 1.6.2 The infinitives
■ 1.6.3 The supine
■ 1.6.4 The gerund
■ 1.6.5 The gerundive
❍ 1.7 Periphrastic conjugations
■ 1.7.1 Active
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1.7.2 Passive
❍ 1.8 Peculiarities within conjugation and non-finite forms
■ 1.8.1 Irregular verbs
■ 1.8.2 Deponent and semi-deponent verbs
■ 1.8.3 Third conjugation –i• verbs
■ 1.8.4 Defective verbs
■ 1.8.4.1 •i• — I affirm, state
■ 1.8.4.2 inquam — I say
■ 1.8.4.3 f•r• — to speak
■ 1.8.5 Impersonal verbs
■ 1.8.6 Irregular future active participles
■ 1.8.7 Syncopated verb forms
2 Summary of Forms
❍ 2.1 The Four Conjugations [in the Indicative Mood]
❍ 2.2 References
❍ 2.3 See also
❍ 2.4 External links
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[edit] Overview of the Latin Verb
[edit] Latin verb properties
Latin verbs have the following properties.
1. Two aspects—perfective, imperfective
2. Two voices—active, passive
3. Three moods—indicative, subjunctive, imperative
4. Six tenses—
Present
Perfect
Imperfect Pluperfect
Future
Future Perfect
5. Two numbers—singular, plural
6. Three persons—first, second, third
[edit] The four conjugations
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There exist four important systems of verb inflection. These are the four conjugations.
[edit] The first conjugation
The first conjugation is characterized by the vowel • and can be recognized by the -•re ending of the present
active infinitive. The principal parts usually adhere to the following patterns.
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perfect with –v•
port•, port•re, port•v•, port•tum — to carry, bring
am•, am•re, am•v•, am•tum — to love, be fond of
—— All regular first conjugation verbs follow this pattern. ——
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perfect with –u•
sec•, sec•re, secu•, sectum — to cut, divide
fric•, fric•re, fricu•, frictum — to rub
vet•, vet•re, vitu•, vititum — to forbid, prohibit
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perfect with –• and stem vowel lengthening
lav•, lav•re, l•v•, lautum — to wash, bathe
iuv•, iuv•re, i•v•, i•tum — to help, assist
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reduplicated perfect
st•, st•re, stet•, statum — to stand
d•, dare, ded•, datum – to give, bestow
irregular
[edit] The second conjugation
The second conjugation is characterized by the vowel •, and can be recognized by the -e• ending of the first
person present indicative and the -•re ending of the present active infinitive.
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perfect with –u•
terre•, terr•re, terru•, territum — to frighten, deter
doce•, doc•re, docu•, doctum — to teach, instruct
tene•, ten•re, tenu•, tentum — to hold, keep
—— All regular second conjugation verbs follow this pattern. ——
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perfect with –v•
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d•le•, d•l•re, d•l•v•, d•l•tum — to destroy, efface
cie•, ci•re, c•v•, citum — to arouse, stir
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perfect with –s• and –x•
auge•, aug•re, aux•, auctum — to increase, enlarge
iube•, iub•re, iuss•, iussum — to order, bid
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reduplicated perfect with –•
morde•, mord•re, momord•, morsum — to bite, nip
sponde•, spond•re, spospond•, sp•nsum — to vow, promise
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perfect with –• and vowel lengthening
vide•, vid•re, v•d•, v•sum — to see, notice
fove•, fov•re, f•v•, f•tum — to caress, cherish
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perfect with –• only
str•de•, str•dere, str•d• — to hiss, creak
forve•, forv•re, ferv•1 — to boil, seethe
1may
be fervu•.
[edit] The third conjugation
The third conjugation is characterized by a short thematic vowel, which alternates between e, i, and u in
different environments. Verbs of this conjugation end in an –ere in the present active infinitive. There is no
one regular rule for constructing the perfect stem of third-conjugation verbs, but the following patterns are
used.
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perfect with –s• and –x•
carp•, carpere, carps•, carptum — to pluck, select
trah•, trahere, tr•x•, tr•ctum — to drag, draw
ger•, gerere, gess•, gestum — to wear, bear
flect•, flectere, flex•, flexum — to bend, twist
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reduplicated perfect with –•
curr•, currere, cucurr•, cursum — to run, race
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caed•, caedere, cec•d•, caesum — to kill, slay
tang•, tangere, tetig•, t•ctum — to touch, hit
pell•, pellere, pepul•, pulsum — to beat, drive away
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perfect with -v•
pet•, petere, pet•v•, pet•tum — to seek, attack
lin•, linere, l•v•, litum — to smear, befoul
ser•, serere, s•v•, satum — to sow, plant
trev•, trevere, tr•v•, tretum — to rub, wear out
stern•, sternere, str•v•, str•tum — to spread, stretch out
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perfect with –• and vowel lengthening
ag•, agere, •g•, •ctum — to do, drive
leg•, legere, l•g•, l•ctum — to collect, read
em•, emere, •m•, •mptum — to buy, purchase
vinc•, vincere, v•c•, victum — to conquer, master
fund•, fundere, f•d•, f•sum — to pour, utter
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perfect with –• only
•c•, •cere, •c•, •ctum — to strike, smite
vert•, vertere, vet•, versum — to turn, alter
v•s•, visere, v•s•, v•sum — to visit, call
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perfect with –u•
met•, metere, messu•, messum — to reap, harvest
vom•, vomere, vomu•, vomitus — to vomit
col•, colere, colu•, cultus — to cultivate, till
tex•, texere, texu•, textus — to weave, plait
gign•, gignere, genu•, genitus — to beget, cause
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present stem with a –u
minu•, minuere, minu•, min•tum — to lessen, diminish
ru•, ruere, ru•, rutum — to collapse, hurl down
stru•, struere, str•x•, str•ctum — to build, erect
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verbs with –sc•
n•sc•, n•scere, n•v•, n•tum — to investigate, learn
adol•sc•, adol•scere, adol•v• — to grow up, mature
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fl•r•sc•, fl•r•scere, fl•ru• — to begin flourish, blossom
haer•sc•, haer•scere, haes•, haesum — to adhere, stick
p•sc•, p•scere, p•v•, p•stum — to feed, nourish
Intermediate between the third and fourth conjugation are the third-conjugation –i• verbs, discussed below.
[edit] The fourth conjugation
The fourth conjugation is characterized by the vowel • and can be recognized by the -•re ending of the
present active infinitive. The fourth conjugation verbs' principal parts generally adhere to the following
patterns.
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perfect with –v•
audi•, aud•re, aud•v•, aud•tus, a, um — to hear, listen (to)
muni•, mun•re, mun•v•, mun•tus, a, um — to fortify, build
—— All regular fourth conjugation verbs follow this pattern.
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perfect with –u•
aperi•, aper•re, aperu•, apertum – to open, uncover
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perfect with –s• and –x•
saepi•, saep•re, saeps•, saeptum – to surround, enclose
sanci•, sanc•re, s•nx•, s•nctum – to confirm, ratify
senti•, sent•re, s•ns•, s•nsum – to feel, perceive
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perfect with –• and vowel lengthening
veni•, ven•re, v•n•, ventum – to come, arrive
[edit] Personal endings
Personal endings are used in all tenses. The present, imperfect, future, pluperfect and future perfect tenses use
the same personal endings in the active voice. However, the pluperfect and future perfect do not have personal
endings in the passive voice. The perfect tense uses its own personal endings in the active voice.
Active
Passive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person •, m
mus or, r
mur
Familiar Second Person s
tis
ris (re) min•
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Third Person t
Singular
First Person •
Perfect Second Person ist•
Third Person it
nt
tur
ntur
Active
Plural
imus
istis
•runt (•re)
[edit] Imperfective aspect tenses
The tenses of the imperfective aspect, which are the present, imperfect and future tenses, express an action
that hasn't been completed. The verbs for explanation are:
1st Conjugation: port•, port•re, port•v•, port•tum — to carry, bring
2nd Conjugation: terre•, terr•re, terru•, territum — to frighten, deter
3rd Conjugation: pet•, petere, pet•v•, pet•tum — to seek, attack
4th Conjugation: audi•, aud•re, aud•v•, aud•tum – to hear, listen (to)
For the all conjugations, the –re is removed from the second principal part. For example, from port•re, port• is
formed. This is the present stem, and it is used for all of the tenses in the imperfective aspect. Occasionally,
the terminating vowel of the stem is lengthened and/or shortened, and sometimes completely changed. This is
especially so in the third conjugation and most conjugations in the subjunctive mood.
[edit] Present tense
The present tense (Latin tempus praes•ns) is used to show an uncompleted which happens in the current time.
The present tense does not have a tense sign. Instead, the personal endings are added to the bare present stem.
However, in this tense, the thematical vowel, most notably, the • in the third conjugation changes the most
frequently.
[edit] Indicative present
The indicative present expresses general truths, facts, demands and desires. Most commonly, a verb like port•
can be translated as "I carry," "I do carry," or "I am carrying."
●
●
In all but the third conjugation, the thematical vowel of the stem is only used. In the third conjugation,
the e is only used in the second person singular in the passive for a less difficult pronunciation.
Otherwise, it becomes either an i or u.
The first person singular of the indicative active present is the first principal part. All end in –•.
port•re
Indicative Active Present
terr•re
petere
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aud•re
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Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person port•
port•mus terre•
terr•mus pet•
petimus audi•
aud•mus
Second Person port•s
port•tis terr•s
terr•tis petis
petitis aud•s
aud•tis
Third Person portat
portant terret
terrent petit
petunt audit
audiunt
Add the passive endings to form the passive voice. The passive portor can be translated as "I am carried," or
"I am being carried."
Indicative Passive Present
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person portor
port•mur terreor terr•mur petor
petimur audior aud•mur
Second Person port•ris port•min• terr•ris terr•min• peteris petimin• aud•ris aud•min•
Third Person port•tur portantur terr•tur terrentur petitur petuntur aud•tur audiuntur
Notice that the second person singular for petere is peteris instead of the supposed petiris.
[edit] Subjunctive present
The subjunctive present may be used to assert many things. In general, in independent sentences, it is
translated hortatorily (only in the third person plural), jussively and optatively. Portem can be translated as
"Let me carry." or "May I carry." Port•mus can be "Let us carry."
Some alterations have occurred in the vowels from the indicative and subjunctive.
●
●
●
●
The first conjugation now uses an e and an •.
The second conjugation uses ea and e•.
In the third conjugation all thematicals have become either a or •.
The fourth conjugation now has either ia or i•.
"We eat caviar" is a helpful mnemonic for remembering this. 1st conjugation verbs have an "e" in their stem
(wE), 2nd conjugation verbs have an "-ea" (EAt), third conjugation verbs have an "a" (cAviar), and fourths
have an "ia" (cavIAr). Other acceptable mnemonics include shE rEAds A dIAry, hE bEAts A lIAr, or
Everybody EAts Apple IAmbics.
Subjunctive Active Present
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person portem port•mus terream terre•mus petam
pet•mus audiam audi•mus
Second Person port•s
port•tis terre•s terre•tis pet•s
pet•tis audi•s audi•tis
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Third Person portet
portent
terreat
terreant
petat
petant
audiat
audiant
Like the indicative, active personal endings may be replaced by passive personal endings. Porter can be
translated as "Let me be carried" or "May I be carried." Hortatorily, Port•mur can be "Let us be carried."
Subjunctive Passive Present
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person porter
port•mur terrear terre•mur petar
pet•mur audiar audi•mur
Second Person port•ris port•min• terre•ris terre•min• pet•ris pet•min• audi•ris audi•min•
Third Person port•tur portentur terre•tur terreantur pet•tur petantur audi•tur audiantur
[edit] Imperative present
The imperative in the present conveys commands, pleas and recommendations. Port• can be translated as
"Carry you." or simply, "Carry." The imperative present only occurs in the second person.
●
The second person singular in the active voice only uses the bare stem, and doesn't add an imperative
ending.
Imperative Active Present
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Second Person port•
port•te terr•
terr•te pete
petite aud•
aud•te
The imperative present of the passive voice is rarely used. Port•min• can be translated as "Be carried you." or
"Be carried."
●
The singular uses the present active infinitive, and the plural uses the present passive indicative form of
the second person plural.
Imperative Passive Present
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Second Person port•re port•min• terr•re terr•min• petere
petimin• aud•re aud•min•
[edit] Imperfect tense
The imperfect tense (Latin tempus imperfectum) indicates a perpetual, but incomplete action in the past. It is
recognized by the tense signs b• and b• in the indicative, and re and r• in the subjunctive.
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[edit] Indicative imperfect
In the indicative mood, the imperfect simply express an action in the past that was not completed. Port•bam
can be translated to mean "I was carrying," "I kept carrying," or "I used to carry."
●
In the indicative, the imperfect employs its tense signs ba and b• before personal endings are added.
Indicative Active Imperfect
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person port•bam port•b•mus terr•bam terr•b•mus pet•bam pet•b•mus audi•bam audi•b•mus
Second Person port•b•s port•b•tis terr•b•s terr•b•tis pet•b•s pet•b•tis audi•b•s audi•b•tis
Third Person port•bat port•bant terr•bat terr•bant pet•bat pet•bant audi•bat audi•bant
As with the present tense, active personal endings are taken off, and passive personal endings are put in their
place. Port•bar can be translated as "I was being carried," "I kept being carried," or "I used to be carried."
Indicative Passive Imperfect
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular
Plural
First Person port•bar port•b•mur terr•bar terr•b•mur pet•bar pet•b•mur audi•bar audi•b•mur
Second Person port•b•ris port•b•min• terr•b•ris terr•bamin• pet•b•ris pet•b•min• audi•b•ris audi•b•min•
Third Person port•b•tur port•bantur terr•b•tur terr•bantur pet•b•tur pet•bantur audi•b•tur audi•bantur
[edit] Subjunctive imperfect
In the subjunctive, the imperfect tense is quite important, especially in subordinate clauses. Independently, it
is largely translated conditionally. Port•rem can mean "I should carry," or "I would carry."
●
●
Unlike the indicative, the subjunctive doesn't modify the thematic vowel. The third conjugation's
thematical remains short as an e, and the fourth conjugation doesn't use an i• before the imperfect signs.
It keeps its •.
In the subjunctive, the imperfect employs its tense signs re and r• before personal endings.
Subjunctive Active Imperfect
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person port•rem port•r•mus terr•rem terr•r•mus peterem peter•mus aud•rem aud•r•mus
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Second Person port•r•s port•r•tis
Third Person port•ret port•rent
terr•r•s
terr•ret
terr•r•tis
terr•rent
peter•s
peteret
peter•tis
peterent
aud•r•s
aud•ret
aud•r•tis
aud•rent
As with the indicative subjunctive, active endings are removed, and passive endings are added. Port•rer may
be translated as "I should be carried," or "I would be carried."
Subjunctive Passive Imperfect
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person port•rer port•r•mur terr•rer terr•r•mur peterer peter•mur aud•rer aud•r•mur
Second Person port•r•ris port•r•min• terr•r•ris terr•r•min• peter•ris peter•min• aud•r•ris aud•r•min•
Third Person port•r•tur port•rentur terr•r•tur terr•rentur peter•tur peterentur aud•r•tur aud•rentur
[edit] Future tense
The future tense (Latin tempus fut•rum simplex) expresses an uncompleted action in the future. It is
recognized by its tense signs b•, bi, bu, e and • in the indicative and the vowel • in the imperative mood.
[edit] Indicative future
The future tense always refers to an incomplete action. Also, the future tense is more strict in usage temporally
in Latin than it is in English. Standing alone, port•b• can mean "I shall carry," or "I will carry." Remember
that "shall" and "will" are only used in the first person. All other persons only use "will" in the indicative.
●
●
The first and second conjugations use b•, bi and bu as signs for the future indicative.
The third and fourth conjugations replace their thematicals with a, • and •. The fourth conjugation
inserts an • before the a, e and •.
Indicative Active Future
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person port•b• port•bimus terr•b• terr•bimus petam
pet•mus audiam audi•mus
Second Person port•bis port•bitis terr•bis terr•bitis pet•s
pet•tis audi•s audi•tis
Third Person port•bit port•bunt terr•bit terr•bunt petet
petent audiet
audient
As with all imperfective system tenses, active personal endings are removed, and passive personal endings are
put on. Port•bor translates as "I shall be carried."
Indicative Passive Future
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port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person port•bor port•bimur terr•bor terr•bimur petar
pet•mur audiar audi•mur
Second Person port•beris port•bimin• terr•beris terr•bimin• pet•ris pet•min• audi•ris audi•min•
Third Person port•bitur port•buntur terr•bitur terr•buntur pet•tur petentur audi•tur audientur
Notice that the second person singular for port•re and terr•re are port•beris and terr•biris instead of the supposed port•biris and
terr•beris. The former inflections are used to ease pronunciation.
[edit] Imperative future
The so-called future imperative was an archaic and formal form of the imperative; by the classical period it
was chiefly used in legal documents and the like. A few irregular or defective verbs (esse 'be', meminisse
'remember') used this form as their only imperative.
Port•t• can be translated as "You shall carry".
●
As mentioned previously, the vowel • is used as a sign of the future imperative.
Imperative Active Future
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Second Person port•t• port•t•te terr•t•
terr•t•te petit•
petit•te aud•t•
aud•t•te
Third Person port•t• portant• terr•t•
terrent• petit•
petunt• aud•t•
audiunt•
The letter R is used to designate the passive voice in the future imperative. The second person plural is absent
here. Port•tor translates as "You shall be carried."
Imperative Passive Future
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Second Person port•tor ——
terr•tor ——
petitor ——
aud•tor ——
Third Person port•tor portantor terr•tor terrentor petitor petuntor aud•tor audiuntor
[edit] Perfective aspect tenses
The tenses of the perfective aspect, which are the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses, are used to
express actions that have been completed. The verbs used for explanation are.
1st Conjugation: port•, port•re, port•v•, port•tum — to carry, bring
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2nd Conjugation: terre•, terr•re, terru•, territum — to frighten, deter
3rd Conjugation: pet•, petere, pet•v•, pet•tum — to seek, attack
4th Conjugation: audi•, aud•re, aud•v•, aud•tum – to hear, listen (to)
For all conjugations, the –• is removed from the third principal part. For example, from port•v•, port•v is
formed. This is the perfect stem, and it is used for all of the tenses in the perfective aspect. The perfective
apsect verbs also use the perfect passive participle in the passive voice. See below to see how it is formed.
Along with these participles, the verb esse, which means "to be", is used.
Unlike the imperfective aspect, inflection does not deviate from conjugation to conjugation.
[edit] Perfect tense
The perfect tense (Latin tempus perfectum) refers to an action completed in the past. Tense signs are only used
in this tense with the indicative. The tense signs of the subjunctive are eri and er•.
[edit] Indicative perfect
The indicative perfect expresses a finished action in the past. If the action wasn't finished, but still lies in the
past, one would use the imperfect tense. Port•v• is translated as "I carried," "I did carry," or "I have carried."
●
As aforementioned, the indicative present in the active voice has its special personal endings.
Indicative Active Perfect
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person port•v• port•vimus terru•
terruimus pet•v•
pet•vimus aud•v• aud•vimus
Second Person port•vist• port•vistis terruist• terruistis pet•vist• pet•vistis aud•vist• aud•vistis
Third Person port•vit port•v•runt terruit
terru•runt pet•vit pet•v•runt aud•vit aud•v•runt
In the passive voice, the perfect passive participle is used with the auxiliary verb esse. It uses the indicative
present form of esse. Port•tus sum translates as "I was carried," or "I have been carried."
First
Person
Second
Person
port•re
Singular
Plural
port•t•
port•tus sum
sumus
port•t•
port•tus es
estis
Indicative Passive Perfect
terr•re
petere
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
pet•t•
territ•
territus sum
pet•tus sum
sumus
sumus
territus es
territ• estis pet•tus es
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aud•re
Singular
Plural
aud•t•
aud•tus sum
sumus
aud•t•
pet•t• estis aud•tus es
estis
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Third
Person
port•tus est
port•t•
sunt
territus est territ• sunt pet•tus est pet•t• sunt aud•tus est aud•t• sunt
[edit] Subjunctive perfect
Like the subjunctive imperfect, the subjunctive perfect is largely used in subordinate clauses. Independently, it
is usually translated as the potential subjunctive. By itself, port•verim translates as "I may have carried."
●
The tense signs eri and er• are used before the personal endings are added.
Subjunctive Active Perfect
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular
Plural
Singular Plural Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
First Person port•verim port•ver•mus terruerim terruer•mus pet•verim pet•ver•mus aud•verim aud•ver•mus
Second
port•ver•s port•ver•tis terruer•s terruer•tis pet•ver•s pet•ver•tis aud•ver•s aud•ver•tis
Person
Third Person port•verit port•verint terruerit terruerint pet•verit pet•verint aud•verit aud•verint
The passive voice uses the perfect passive participle with the subjunctive present forms of esse. Port•tus sim
means "I may have been carried."
First
Person
Second
Person
Third
Person
port•re
Singular
Plural
port•t•
port•tus sim
s•mus
Subjunctive Passive Perfect
terr•re
petere
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
pet•t•
territ•
pet•tus sim
territus sim
s•mus
s•mus
aud•re
Singular
Plural
aud•t•
aud•tus sim
s•mus
port•tus s•s port•t• s•tis territus s•s territ• s•tis pet•tus s•s pet•t• s•tis aud•tus s•s aud•t• s•tis
port•tus sit port•t• sint territus sit territ• sint pet•tus sit pet•t• sint aud•tus sit aud•t• sint
[edit] Pluperfect tense
The pluperfect tense (Latin tempus pl•s quam perfectum) expresses an action which was completed before
another completed action. It is recognized by the tense signs era and er• in the indicative and isse and iss• in
the subjunctive.
[edit] Indicative pluperfect
As with English, in Latin, the indicative pluperfect is used to assert an action which was completed before
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another (perfect tense). Port•veram translates as "I had carried."
●
The tense signs era and er• are employed before adding the personal endings.
Indicative Active Pluperfect
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular
Plural
Singular Plural Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
First Person port•veram port•ver•mus terrueram terruer•mus pet•veram pet•ver•mus aud•veram aud•ver•mus
Second
port•ver•s port•ver•tis terruer•s terrurer•tis pet•ver•s pet•ver•tis aud•ver•s aud•ver•tis
Person
Third
port•verat port•verant terruerat terruerant pet•verat pet•verant aud•verat aud•verant
Person
In the passive voice, the present passive participle is utilized with esse in the indicative imperfect. Port•tus
eram is translated as "I had been carried."
First
Person
Second
Person
Third
Person
port•re
Singular
Plural
port•t•
port•tus eram
er•mus
port•t•
port•tus er•s
er•tis
port•t•
port•tus erat
erant
Indicative Passive Pluperfect
terr•re
petere
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
pet•t•
territ•
pet•tus eram
territus eram
er•mus
er•mus
pet•t•
territ•
pet•tus er•s
territus er•s
er•tis
er•tis
pet•t•
territ•
pet•tus erat
territus erat
erant
erant
aud•re
Singular
Plural
aud•t•
aud•tus eram
er•mus
aud•t•
aud•tus er•s
er•tis
aud•t•
aud•tus erat
erant
[edit] Subjunctive pluperfect
The subjunctive pluperfect is to the subjunctive perfect as the subjunctive imperfect is to the subjunctive
present. Simply put, it is used with the subjunctive perfect in subordinate clauses. Like the subjunctive
imperfect, it is translated conditionally independently. Port•vissem is translated as "I should have carried," or
"I would have carried."
●
The tense signs isse and iss• are used before the personal endings.
port•re
Singular
Plural
Subjunctive Active Pluperfect
terr•re
petere
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
aud•re
Singular
Plural
First
port•vissem port•viss•mus terruissem terruiss•mus pet•vissem pet•viss•mus aud•vissem aud•viss•mus
Person
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Second
port•viss•s port•viss•tis
Person
Third
port•visset port•vissent
Person
terruiss•s terruiss•tis
pet•viss•s pet•viss•tis
aud•viss•s aud•viss•tis
terruisset terruissent
pet•visset pet•vissent
aud•visset aud•vissent
As always, the passive voice voice uses the perfect passive participle. The subjunctive imperfect of esse is
used here. Port•tus essem may mean "I should have been carried," or "I could have been carried," in the
conditional sense.
Subjunctive Passive Pluperfect
port•re
terr•re
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
First Person port•tus essem port•t• ess•mus territus essem territ• ess•mus
Second Person port•tus ess•s port•t• ess•tis territus ess•s territ• ess•tis
Third Person port•tus esset port•t• essent territus esset territ• essent
petere
aud•re
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
First Person pet•tus essem pet•t• ess•mus aud•tus essem aud•t• ess•mus
Second Person pet•tus ess•s pet•t• ess•tis aud•tus ess•s aud•t• ess•tis
Third Person pet•tus esset pet•t• essent aud•tus esset aud•t• essent
[edit] Future perfect tense
The least used of all the tenses, the future perfect tense (Latin tempus fut•rum ex•ctum) conveys an action that
will have been completed before another action. It is signified by the tense signs er• and eri. The future perfect
tense is the only tense that occurs in a single mood.
[edit] Indicative future perfect
As said, the future perfect is used to mention an action that will have been completed in futurity before
another action. It is often used with the future tense. In simple translation, port•ver• means "I will have
carried," or "I shall have carried."
●
The tense signs er• and eri are used before the personal endings.
Indicative Active Future Perfect
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Singular
Plural
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person port•ver• port•verimus terruer• terruerimus pet•ver• pet•verimus aud•ver• aud•verimus
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Second Person port•veris port•veritis
Third Person port•verit port•verint
terrueris terrueritis
terruerit terruerint
pet•veris pet•veritis
pet•verit pet•verint
aud•veris aud•veritis
aud•verit aud•verint
As with all perfective aspect tenses, the perfect passive participle is used in the passive voice. However, the
future perfect uses the indicative future of esse as the auxiliary verb. Port•tus er• is "I will have been carried,"
or "I shall have been carried."
First
Person
Second
Person
Third
Person
port•re
Singular
Plural
port•t•
port•tus er•
erimus
port•t•
port•tus eris
eritis
port•t•
port•tus erit
erunt
Indicative Passive Future Perfect
terr•re
petere
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
territ•
pet•t•
territus er•
pet•tus er•
erimus
erimus
aud•re
Singular
Plural
aud•t•
aud•tus er•
erimus
aud•t•
territus eris territ• eritis pet•tus eris pet•t• eritis aud•tus eris
eritis
aud•t•
territ•
pet•tus erit pet•t• erunt aud•tus erit
territus erit
erunt
erunt
[edit] Non-finite forms
The non-finite forms of verbs are participles, infinitives, supines, gerunds and gerundives. The verbs used are:
1st Conjugation: port•, port•re, port•v•, port•tum — to carry, bring
2nd Conjugation: terre•, terr•re. terru•, territum — to frighten, deter
3rd Conjugation: pet•, petere, pet•v•, pet•tum — to seek, attack
4th Conjugation: audi•, aud•re, aud•v•, aud•tum – to hear, listen (to)
[edit] The participles
See also: Participle
There are three participles: present active, perfect passive and future active.
●
The present active participle is declined like a third declension adjective with one ending.
❍ In the first and second conjugations, the present active infinitive is formed by taking the present
stem and adding an –ns. The genitive singular form adds an –ntis, and the thematicals • and • are
shortened.
❍ In the third conjugation, the e of the present stem is lengthened. In the genitive, the • is short
again.
❍ In the fourth conjugation, the • is shortened, and an • is placed. Of course, this • is short in the
genitive.
❍ Puer port•ns translates into "carrying boy."
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●
●
The perfect passive participle is declined like a first and second declension adjective.
❍ In all conjugations, the perfect participle is formed by taking the –um from the supine, and
adding a –us (masculine nominative singular).
❍ Puer port•tus translates into "carried boy."
The future active participle is declined like a first and second declension adjective.
❍ In all counjugations the –um is removed from the supine, and an –•rus (masculine nominative
singular) is added.
❍ Puer port•t•rus translates into "boy about to carry," or "boy who is about to carry."
Participles
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Present Active port•ns, –antis
terr•ns, –entis
pet•ns, –entis
audi•ns, –entis
Perfect Passive port•tus, –a, –um territus, –a, –um pet•tus, –a, –um aud•tus, –a, –um
Future Active port•t•rus, –a, –um territ•rus, –a, –um pet•t•rus, –a, –um aud•t•rus, –a, –um
[edit] The infinitives
See also: Infinitive
There are six infinitives. They are in the present active, present passive, perfect active, perfect passive, future
active and future passive.
●
●
●
●
●
●
The present active infinitive is the second principal part (in regular verbs).
❍ Port•re means "to carry."
The present passive infinitive is formed by adding a –r• to the present stem. This is only so for the
first, second and fourth conjugations. In the third conjugation, the thematical vowel, e, is taken from
the present stem, and an –•.
❍ Port•r• translates into "to be carried."
The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding an –isse onto the perfect stem.
❍ Port•visse translates into "to have carried."
The perfect passive infinitive uses the perfect passive participle along with the auxiliary verb esse.
❍ Port•tus esse means "to have been carried."
The future active infinitive uses the future active participle with the auxiliary verb esse.
❍ Port•t•rus esse means "to be going to carry."
The future passive infinitive uses the supine with the auxiliary verb •r•.
❍ Port•tum •r• is translated as "to be going to be carried." This is normally used in indirect speech.
For example: Omn•s sen•t•res d•x•runt templum conditum •r•. "All the senatores said that a
temple will be built."
Here, masculine endings are used.
port•re
Infinitives
terr•re
petere
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Present Active port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Present Passive port•r•
terr•r•
pet•
aud•r•
Perfect Active port•visse
terruisse
pet•visse
aud•visse
Perfect Passive port•tus esse territus esse pet•tus esse aud•tus esse
Future Active port•t•rus esse territ•rus esse pet•t•rus esse aud•t•rus esse
Future Passive port•tum •r• territum •r• pet•tum •r• aud•tum •r•
[edit] The supine
See also: Supine
The supine is the fourth principal part. It resembles a masculine noun of the fourth declension. Supines only
occur in the accusative and ablative cases.
●
●
The accusative form ends in a –um, and is used with a verb of motion show the purpose. Thus, it is
only used with verbs like cedere, ven•re, etc. The accusative form of a supine can also take an object if
needed.
❍ Pater v•nit port•tum l•ber•s su•s. — The father came to carry his children.
The ablative, which ends in a –•, is used with the Ablative of Specification.
❍ Arma haec facillima port•t• erant. — These arms were the easiest to carry.
Supine
port•re terr•re petere aud•re
Accusative port•tum territum pet•tum aud•tum
Ablative port•t• territ• pet•t• aud•t•
[edit] The gerund
See also: Gerund
The gerund is formed similarly to the present active participle. However, the –ns becomes an –ndus, and the
preceding • or • is shortened. Gerunds are neuter nouns of the second declension, but the nominative case is
not present. The gerund is a noun, meaning "the act of doing (the verb)".
●
Portand• can mean "of carrying." Portand• (dative) can mean "to carrying." Portandum can simply
mean "carrying." Portand• (ablative) can mean "by carrying," "in respect to carrying," etc.
Gerund
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
Genitive portand• terrend• petend• audiend•
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Dative portand• terrend• petend• audiend•
Accusative portandum terrendum petendum audiendum
Ablative portand• terrend• petend• audiend•
[edit] The gerundive
See also: Gerundive The gerundive is the passive equivalent of the gerund, and much more common in Latin.
It means "[the act of] (the verb) being done" It is a first and second declension adjective, and means "[the act
of] (the verb) being done". Often, the gerundive is used with an implicit esse, to show obligation. Many say
that the gerundive is a future passive participle, but it does not show futurity.
●
Puer portandus means "boy should be carried," or "boy who should be carried." Amanda means "She
who must be loved".
Gerundive
port•re
terr•re
petere
aud•re
portandus, –a, –um terrendus, –a, –um petendus, –a, –um audiendus, –a, –um
[edit] Periphrastic conjugations
There are two periphrastic conjugations. One is active, and the other is passive.
[edit] Active
The first periphrastic conjugation uses the future participle. It is combined with the forms of esse. It is
translated as "I am going to carry," "I was going to carry", etc.
Conjugation
Translation
Pres. Ind.
port•t•rus sum
I am going to carry
Imp. Ind.
port•t•rus eram I was going to carry
Fut. Ind.
port•t•rus er•
I will be going to carry
Perf. Ind.
port•t•rus fu•
I have been going to carry
Plup. Ind.
port•t•rus fueram I had been going to carry
Fut. Perf. Ind. port•t•rus fuer• I will have been going to carry
Pres. Subj.
port•t•rus sim
I may be going to carry
Imp. Subj.
port•t•rus essem I should be going to carry
Perf. Subj.
port•t•rus fuerim I may have been going to carry
Plup. Subj.
port•t•rus fuissem I should have been going to carry
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[edit] Passive
The second periphrastic conjugation uses the gerundive. It is combined with the forms of esse. It is translated
as "I am to be carried," "I was to be carried", etc.
Conjugation
Translation
Pres. Ind.
portandus sum
I am to be carried
Imp. Ind.
portandus eram I was to be carried
Fut. Ind.
portandus er•
I will deserve to be carried
Perf. Ind.
portandus fu•
I was to be carried
Plup. Ind.
portandus fueram I had deserved to be carried
Fut. Perf. Ind. portandus fuer• I will have deserved to be carried
Pres. Subj.
portandus sim
I may deserve to be carried
Imp. Subj.
portandus essem I should deserve to be carried
Perf. Subj.
portandus fuerim I may have deserved to be carried
Plup. Subj.
portandus fuissem I should have deserved to be carried
Pres. Inf.
portandus esse
To deserve to be carried
Perf. Inf.
portandus fuisse To have deserved to be carried
[edit] Peculiarities within conjugation and non-finite forms
[edit] Irregular verbs
There are a few irregular verbs in Latin that aren't grouped into a particular conjugation (such as esse and
posse), or deviate slightly from a conjugation (such as ferre, •re, and dare). It consists of the following list and
their compounds (such as conferre). Many irregular verbs lack a fourth principal part.
sum, esse, fu•, fut•rus — to be, exist
possum, posse, potu• — to be able, can
e•, •re, •v•, •tum — to go
vol•, velle, volu• — to wish, want
n•l•, n•lle, n•lu• — to be unwilling, refuse
m•l•, m•lle, m•lu• — to prefer
fer•, ferre, tul•, l•tum (Old Latin tl•tum) — to bear, endure
fi•, f•er•, factus sum — to become, happen
ed•, •sse (edere), •d•, •sum – to eat, waste
d•, dare, ded•, datum — to give, bestow
[edit] Deponent and semi-deponent verbs
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Deponent verbs are verbs that are passive in form (that is, conjugated as though in the passive voice) but
active in meaning. These verbs have only three principal parts, since the perfect tenses of ordinary passives are
formed periphrastically with the perfect participle, which is formed on the same stem as the supine. Some
example coming from all conjugations are:
1st Conjugation: m•ror, m•r•r•, m•r•tus sum — to admire, wonder
2nd Conjugation: polliceor, pollic•r•, pollicitus sum — to promise, offer
3rd Conjugation: loquor, loqu•, loc•tus sum — to speak, say
4th Conjugation: orior, or•r•, ortus sum – to rise, spring up
Deponent verbs use active conjugations for tenses that do not exist in the passive: the gerund, the supine, the
present and future participles and the future infinitive. They cannot be used in the passive themselves, and
their analogues with "active" form do not in fact exist: one cannot directly translate "The word is said" with
any form of loqu•, and there are no forms like loqu•, loquis, loquit, etc.
Semi-deponent verbs form their impefective aspect tenses in the manner of ordinary active verbs; but their
perfect tenses are built periphrastically like deponents and ordinary passives; thus semideponent verbs have a
perfect active participle instead of a perfect passive participle. An example:
aude•, aud•re, ausus sum — to dare, venture
Note: In the Romance languages, which lack deponent or passive verb forms, the Classical Latin deponent
verbs either disappeared or (as in the case of m•r•r•) changed to a non-deponent form.
[edit] Third conjugation –i• verbs
There is a rather prolific subsect of important verbs within the third conjugation. They have an –i• present in
the first principal part (–ior for deponents), and resemble the fourth conjugation in some forms. Otherwise,
they are still conjugated as normal, third conjugation verbs. Thus, these verbs are called third conjugation –i•
verbs or third conjugation i-stems. Some examples are:
capi•, capere, c•p•, captum — to take, seize
rapi•, rapere, rapu•, raptum — to plunder, take up
faci•, facere, f•c•, factum — to do, make
cupi•, cupere, cup•v•, cup•tum — to desire, long for
morior, mor•, mortuus sum (dep.) — to die, decay
patior, pat•, passus sum (dep.) — to suffer, undergo
They resemble the fourth conjugation in the following instances.
Indicative present (first person singular, third person plural) — capi•, capiunt, etc.
Indicative imperfect — capi•bam, capi•b•mus, etc.
Indicative future — capiam, capi•mus, etc.
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Subjunctive present — capiam, capi•mus, etc.
Imperative future (third person plural) — cupiunt•, etc.
Present Active Participle — capi•ns, –entis
Gerund — capiend•, capiendum, etc.
Gerundive — capiendus, –a, –um
[edit] Defective verbs
Defective verbs are verbs that are only conjugated in only some instances.
●
Some verbs are only conjugated in the perfective aspect's tenses, yet have the imperfective aspect's
tenses' meanings. As such, the perfect becomes the present, the pluperfect becomes the imperfect, and
the future perfect becomes the future. So, the defective verb •d• means "I hate." These defective verbs'
principal parts are given in vocubulary with the indicative perfect in the first person and the perfect
active infinitive. Some examples are:
•d•, •disse — to hate
memin•, meminisse — to remember
coep•, coepisse — to have begun
●
A few verbs, which meanings usually have to do with speech, only appear in certain occurrences.
Que•, qu•re, qu•v• (to be able) and neque•, nequ•re, nequ•v• (to be unable) are conjugated like
•re, and only occur in the present tense.
Cedo (plur. cette), which means "Hand it over!" or "Out with it!" is only in the imperative
mood, and only is used in the second person.
The following are conjugated irregularly.
[edit] •i• — I affirm, state
Conjugation of •i•
Indicative
Indicative
Subjunctive
Present
Imperfect
Present
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person •i•
—— •i•bam •i•b•mus ——
——
Second Person a•s
—— •i•b•s
•i•b•tis •ias
——
Third Person a•t
•iunt •i•bat
•i•bant •iat
——
Present Active Participle: — •i•ns, –entis
[edit] inquam — I say
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Conjugation of inquam
Indicative
Indicative
Indicative
Present
Future
Perfect
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person inquam ——
——
—— ——
——
Second Person inquis
——
inqui•s —— ——
——
Third Person inquit
inquiunt inquiet —— inquit
——
[edit] f•r• — to speak
Conjugation of f•r•
Indicative
Indicative
Indicative
Indicative
Imperative
Present
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Present
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
First Person for
—— f•bor
—— f•tus sum —— f•tus eram —— ——
——
Second Person ——
—— ——
—— ——
—— ——
—— f•re
——
Third Person f•tur
fantur f•bitur —— ——
—— ——
—— ——
——
Present Active Participle — f•ns, fantis
Present Active Infinitive — f•r•
Supine — (acc.) f•tum, (abl.) f•t•
Gerund — (gen.) fand•, (dat. and abl.) fand•, no accusative
Gerundive — fandus, –a, –um
The Romance languages lost many of these verbs, but others (such as •d• and the imperative cedo), survived
but became regular fully-conjugated verbs (in Italian, odiare, cedere). The Spanish verb hablar may be
partially descended from f•r•, but is not quite a genetic descendant.
[edit] Impersonal verbs
Impersonal verbs are those lacking a person. In English impersonal verbs are usually used with the neuter
pronoun "it" (as in "It seems," or "It storms"). Latin uses the third person singular. These verbs lack a fourth
principal part. A few examples are:
pluit, pluere, pluvit — to rain (it rains)
ningit, ningere, ninxit — to snow (it snows)
oportet, oport•re, oportuit — to be proper (it is proper, one should/ought to)
The third person forms of esse may also be impersonal.
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Nox aest•va calida fuit. — It was a hot, summer night.
Est e• qu• terram colunt. — It is they who till the land.
[edit] Irregular future active participles
As stated, the future active participle is normally formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –
•rus. However, some deviations occur.
present
active
supine
infinitive
iuv•re
i•tum
lav•re
lautum
parere partum
ruere
rutum
sec•re
sectum
fru•
mor•
or•r•
1—may
future
active
participle
iuv•t•rus
lav•t•rus
parit•rus
ruit•rus
sec•t•rus
fructum1 fruit•rus
mortuum morit•rus
ortum
orit•rus
be fruitum; this is actually the form from which the future active participle comes from.
[edit] Syncopated verb forms
Like most Romance languages, syncopated forms and contractions are present in Latin. They may occur in the following
instances.
●
The ending –ris in the passive voice may be –re as in:
port•b•ris → port•b•re
●
The ending –•runt in the perfect tense may be –•re as in:
port•v•runt → port•v•re
●
Perfect stems that end in a –v maybe contracted when inflected.
port•visse → port•sse
port•vist• → port•st•
port•verant → port•rant
port•visset → port•sset
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●
The compounds of noscere (to learn) and mov•re (to move, dislodge) are also able to be contracted.
novist• → nost•
novistis → nostis
commoveram → commoram
commover•s → commor•s
[edit] Summary of Forms
[edit] The Four Conjugations [in the Indicative Mood]
1st
laud•, laud•re,
laud•v•, laud•tum
Active Passive
1st
Singular
2nd
Person
3rd
Person
1st
Plural
2nd
Person
3rd
Person
The Four Conjugations, Indicative Mood
2nd
3rd
3rd (i-stem)
terre•, terr•re, ag•, agere, •g•,
capi•, capere,
terru•, territum
actum
c•p•, captum
Active Passive Active Passive Active Passive
Present
4th
audi•, aud•re,
aud•v•, aud•tum
Active Passive
laud•
laudor
terr•o
terreor
ag•
agor
capi•
capior
audi•
audior
laud•s
laud•ris
terr•s
terr•ris
agis
ageris
capis
caperis
aud•s
aud•ris
(aud•re)
laudat
laud•tur
terret
terr•tur
agit
agitur
capit
capitur
audit
aud•tur
laud•mus laud•mur terr•mus terr•mur agimus agimur capimus capimur
aud•mus aud•mur
laud•tis
laud•min• terr•tis
terr•min• agitis
agimin• capitis
capimin• aud•tis
laudant
laudantur terrent
terrentur agunt
aguntur capiunt capiuntur audiunt audiuntur
Imperfect
[edit] References
●
New Latin Grammar, an eBook, originally written by Charles Edwin Bennett at the Project Gutenberg
[edit] See also
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●
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Latin declension
Grammatical conjugation
Latin verbs
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Latin declension
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Latin is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, and adjectives must be declined in order to serve a
grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. There are five
declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender. For simple declension paradigms,
visit the Wiktionary appendices: First declension, Second declension, Third declension, Fourth declension, Fifth
declension.
Contents
[hide]
●
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●
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●
●
1 Grammatical cases
2 Syncretic trends
3 First declension (a)
❍ 3.1 First declension Greek nouns
❍ 3.2 Peculiarities
4 Second declension (o)
❍ 4.1 Second declension R nouns
❍ 4.2 Second declension Greek nouns
❍ 4.3 Peculiarities
5 Third declension (i)
❍ 5.1 Third declension i-stem nouns
❍ 5.2 Peculiarities
6 Fourth declension (u)
7 Fifth declension (e)
8 Pronoun declensions
❍ 8.1 Personal pronouns
❍ 8.2 Interrogative pronouns
❍ 8.3 Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives
❍ 8.4 Relative pronouns
❍ 8.5 Indefinite pronouns
❍ 8.6 Definite pronouns
9 First and second declension adjectives
❍ 9.1 First and second declension –r adjectives
❍ 9.2 First and second –•us genitive adjectives
10 Third declension adjectives
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10.1 Third declension adjectives with one ending
❍ 10.2 Third declension adjectives with 2 endings
❍ 10.3 Third declension adjectives with three endings
11 Declension of numerals
12 Declension of •dem
13 Comparison and superlative forms of adjectives
❍ 13.1 Comparisons and superlatives of –er adjectives
❍ 13.2 Comparisons and superlatives of –lis adjectives
❍ 13.3 Irregular comparisons and superlatives
14 Adverbs and their comparisons and superlatives
❍ 14.1 First and second declension adjectives' adverbs
❍ 14.2 Third declension adjectives' adverbs
❍ 14.3 Adverbs' comparative and superlative forms
❍ 14.4 Irregular adverbs and their comparative and superlative forms
15 Peculiarities within declension
❍ 15.1 Irregularity in number
❍ 15.2 Indeclinable nouns
❍ 15.3 Heterogeneous nouns
❍ 15.4 Plurals with alternative meanings
16 References
17 See also
❍
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[edit] Grammatical cases
A complete declension consists of seven grammatical cases:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
The nominative case, which is used to express the subject of a statement. It is also used with copulative verbs.
The genitive case, which expresses possession, measurement, or source. In English, the genitive case is
represented analytically by the preposition of or by the enclitic "–s", which itself developed from the genitive
case. This –s closely resembles the Latin suffix "–is".
The dative case, which expresses the recipient of an action, the indirect object of a verb. In English, the
prepositions to, from and for most commonly denote this case analytically.
The accusative case, which expresses the direct object of a verb. In English, except for a small number of
words which display a distinct accusative case (e.g., who > whom), the accusative and nominative cases are
identical.
The vocative case, which is used to address someone or something in direct speech. This case is indicated in
English by punctuation, e.g. "Mary is going to the store" (Mary is nominative) compared to "Mary, are you
going to the store?" or "Mary!" (Mary is vocative).
The ablative case, which expresses separation, indirection, or the means by which an action is performed. In
English, the prepositions by, with, from, in and on are most commonly used to indicate this case.
The locative case, which is used to express the place in or on which, or the time at which, an action is
performed. The locative case is extremely marginal in Latin, applying only to the names of cities and small
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islands and to a few other isolated words, and is identical to the genitive case (in the first and second
declension singular), the dative case (in the first and second declension plural and in the third declension) or
the ablative case (fourth and fifth declension).
The sequence of the grammatical cases above is standard in North America, and in fact goes back to Byzantine
grammarians originally writing about Greek. But the presentation NOM-VOC-ACC-GEN-DAT-ABL has been the
usual order in Britain and many European and Commonwealth countries since the publication of Hall Kennedy's
Latin Primer (1866). This order is argued to more closely reflect the tendencies of different cases to share similar
endings.
In Polish language Latin learner texts, however, the most common order is NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-ABL-VOC,
which is a similar order to the one adopted for Modern Polish. Likewise, in German textbooks, the order NOM-GENDAT-ACC-VOC-ABL is used, to mirror the order of the four grammatical cases of Modern German (NOM-GENDAT-ACC). The same order is used in Italian textbooks (Italian has no grammatical cases).
However, Brazilian grammarian Napoleão Mendes uses the unusual sequence NOM-VOC-GEN-DAT-ABL-ACC.
[edit] Syncretic trends
Syncretism, where one form in a paradigm shares the ending of another form in the paradigm, is common in Latin.
The following are the most notable patterns of syncretism:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
The accusative is always identical to the nominative in the neuter (both singular and plural, across all
declensions). In addition, the accusative is the same as the nominative in the plural of the third, fourth and
fifth declensions (but note the alternative –•s accusative plural ending for i-stem nominals, different from
nominative –•s).
The vocative is always identical to the nominative in the plural, and also in the singular except in the second
declension and a few Greek nouns. For example, the vocative of Aene•s is Aenea, although Aene•s is first
declension.
The dative is always the same as the ablative in the plural, and in the singular in the second declension, the
third-declension full i-stems i.e. neuter i-stems, adjectives), and fourth-declension neuters.
The genitive singular is the same as the nominative plural in first-, second-declension, and fourth declension
nouns that are not neuter.
The dative singular is the same as the genitive singular in first- and fifth-declension nouns.
Plural neuter nominative/accusative always ends in -a (with a few exceptions: demonstrative hic and related
istic and illic, relative/interrogative qu• and friends; in all of them, the neuter plural takes the same form as
feminine singular nominative).
The accusative singular ends in short vowel plus -m, except for a few neuters with unusual base forms.
The accusative plural (assuming not neuter) ends in a long vowel plus -s; so does the nominative plural of the
third, fourth and fifth declensions (again assuming not neuter).
[edit] First declension (a)
Nouns of this declension usually end in –a and are typically feminine, for example 'road' (via, viae fem.) and
'water' (aqua, aquae fem.), with a few masculine exceptions, including 'farmer' (agricola, agricolae masc.),
'sailor' (nauta, nautae masc.), 'charioteer' (auriga, aurigae masc.), 'inhabitant' (incola, incolae masc), and
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'poet' (poeta, poetae masc). The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is a. The nominative
singular form consists of the stem and the affix -a, and the genitive singular form is the stem plus -ae.
puella, –ae
girl, maiden f.
Singular
Plural
Nominative puella –a puellae –ae
Genitive puellae –ae puell•rum –•rum
Dative puellae –ae puell•s
–•s
Accusative puellam –am puell•s
–•s
Vocative puella –a puellae –ae
Ablative puell• –• puell•s
–•s
Locative puellae –ae puell•s
–•s
[edit] First declension Greek nouns
The first declension also holds three types of Greek nouns. They are declined irregularly in the singular. These nouns
are derived from Ancient Greek's Alpha Declension.
neani•s, –ae
psych•, –•s
athl•t•s, –ae
boy, chap m.
psyche, mind, spirit f.
athlete, wrestler m.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative neani•s –•s neaniae –ae
psych• –• psychae –ae
athl•t•s –•s athl•tae –ae
Genitive neaniae –ae neani•rum –•rum psych•s –•s psych•rum –•rum athl•tae –ae athl•t•rum –•rum
Dative neaniae –ae neani•s
–•s
psychae –ae psych•s
–•s
athl•tae –ae athl•t•s
–•s
Accusative neani•n –•n1 neani•s
–•s
psych•n –•n psych•s
–•s
athl•t•n –•n athl•t•s
–•s
Vocative neani• –•
neaniae
–ae
psych• –• psychae
–ae
athl•t•s –•s3 athl•tae
–ae
Ablative neani• –•
neani•s
–•s
psych• –• psych•s
–•s
athl•t• –•2 athl•t•s
–•s
Locative neaniae –ae neani•rum –•rum psych•s –•s psych•rum –•rum athl•tae –ae3 athl•t•rum –•rum
1—may
be –am
be –•
3—may be –a
2—may
Sometimes, Greek nouns may be declined as if they were native, Latin nouns. For example, athl•t•s may be athl•ta.
[edit] Peculiarities
●
●
●
The older genitive singular termination is an –•s. This is often used with familia as in pater famili•s and m•ter
famili•s.
In poetry, the genitive singular –•• occurs. Aquae becomes aqu••.
The genitive plural ending –um replaces –•rum. This is actually a contraction. Puellum.
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●
Because first declension nouns and second declension nouns display an –•s in the dative and ablative plural,
words like equus (horse) and equa (mare) will end up looking alike in these cases. However, if a distinction
must be made, equ•s for 'mares' would become equ•bus in the dative and ablative plural. Dea, "goddess",
likewise has the ablative and dative plural de•bus.
[edit] Second declension (o)
The second declension is a large group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine nouns like equus, equi ("horse") and
puer, pueri ("boy') and neuter nouns like castellum, castelli ("fort"), with a few feminine exceptions including names
of gemstones, trees, and some cities. In the nominative singular, most masculine nouns consist of the stem and the
affix -us, although some end in -er, which is not necessarily attached to the complete stem. Neuter nouns generally
have a nominative singular consisting of the stem and the ending -um. However, every second-declension noun has
the affix -i attached as a suffix to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the
ending forms of this declension is o.
campus, –•
bellum, –•
field, plain m.
war n.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative campus –us camp•
–•
bellum –um bella
–a
Genitive camp• –• camp•rum –•rum bell• –• bell•rum –•rum
Dative camp• –• camp•s
–•s
bell• –• bell•s
–•s
Accusative campum –um camp•s
–•s
bellum –um bella
-a
Vocative campe –e camp•
–•
bellum –um bella
–a
Ablative campo –o camp•s
–•s
bell• –• bell•s
–•s
Locative campo –o camp•s
–•s
bell• –• bell•s
–•s
[edit] Second declension R nouns
Some masculine nouns of the second declension end in an –er or an –ir in the nominative singular. The genitive
singular must be learned to see if the E is dropped. For example, socer, –er• keeps its E. Though, in magister, –tr•
drops its E. (The I in nouns that have –ir in the nominative singular is never dropped.) Below is an example of
magister and armiger.
magister, –tr•
armiger, –er•
teacher, director m.
armor-bearer m.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative magister –er magistr•
–•
armiger
–er armiger•
–•
Genitive magistr• –• magistr•rum –•rum armiger• –• armiger•rum –•rum
Dative magistr• –• magistr•s
–•s
armiger• –• armiger•s
–•s
Accusative magistrum –um magistr•s
–•s
armigerum –um armiger•s
–•s
Vocative magister –er magistr•
–•
armiger
–er armiger•
–•
Ablative magistr• –• magistr•s
–•s
armiger• –• armiger•s
–•s
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Locative magistr•
–•
magistr•s
–•s
armiger•
–•
armiger•s
–•s
[edit] Second declension Greek nouns
There are two types of masculine Greek nouns, and there is one type of neuter Greek noun. These nouns are only
irregular in the singular, as are their first declension counterparts. Greek nouns in the second declension are derived
from Omicron Declension.
barbitos, –•
lyre, zither m.
Singular
Plural
Nominative barbitos –os barbit•
–•
archig•s, –•
head, top m.
Singular
Plural
archig•s –•s archig•
–•
the•tron, –•
theatre, amphitheatre n.
Singular
Plural
the•tron –on the•tra
–a
Genitive barbit• –• barbit•rum –•rum archig• –•1 archig•rum –•rum the•tr• –• the•tr•rum –•rum
Dative barbit• –• barbit•s
–•s
archig• –• archig•s
–•s
the•tr• –• the•tr•s
–•s
Accusative barbiton –on barbit•s
–•s
archig•n –•n archig•s
–•s
the•tron –on the•tra
–a
Vocative barbite –e barbit•
–•
archig•s –•s archig•
–•
the•tron –on the•tra
–a
Ablative barbite –e barbit•s
–•s
archig• –• archig•s
–•s
the•tr• –• the•tr•s
–•s
Locative barbit• –• barbit•rum –•rum archig• –•1 archig•rum –•rum the•tr• –• the•tr•rum –•rum
1—may
be –•
Some Greek nouns may be declines as normal, Latin nouns. For example, the•tron can appear as like the•trum.
[edit] Peculiarities
●
Nouns ending with –vus, –quus and –vum may be declined in two ways. The following inflection resembles
Old Latin.
servos, –•
slave, servant m.
Singular
Nominative servos –os
Genitive serv• –•
Dative serv• –•
Accusative servom –om
Vocative serve –e
Ablative serv• –•
Locative serv• –•
●
equos, –•
aevom, –•
horse m. eternity, age n.
Singular
Singular
equos –os aevom –om
equ• –• aev• –•
equ• –• aev• –•
equom –om aevom –om
eque –e aevom –om
equ• –• aev• –•
equ• –• aev• –•
The plural of deus (god, deity) is also irregular.
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Nom. d•
Gen. de•rum
Dat. d•s
Acc. de•s
Voc. d•
Abl. d•s
Loc. d•s
●
The vocative singular of deus is also irregular, and identical to the nominative: deus.
[edit] Third declension (i)
The third declension is the largest group of nouns. These nouns may end in –a,–e, –•, –•, –y, –c, –l, –n, –r, –s, –t, or –
x. It consists of masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns of variable nominative cases and roots. The third declension
includes flumen, fluminis neut. ("river"), flos, floris masc. ("flower"), and pax, pacis fem. ("peace"). Each noun has
the affix -is as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. Masculine, feminine and neuter
nouns each have their own special nominative singular endings. For instance, only masculine nouns end in an –or
(amor). Only feminine nouns end in an –•x (phoen•x), and only neuter nouns end in an –us (onus). As in all
declensions, some nouns defy these rules.
pr•nceps, –cipis
phoen•x, –•cis
c•n•men, –inis
leader, chief, prince m.
phoenix, fire-bird f.
effort, struggle n.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative pr•nceps –ps pr•ncip•s –•s phoen•x –•x phoen•c•s –•s c•n•men –en c•n•mina
–a
Genitive pr•ncipis –is pr•ncipum –um phoen•cis –is phoen•cum –um c•n•minis –is c•n•minum –um
–
–
–
c•n•min• –• c•n•minibus
phoen•c• –• phoen•cibus
Dative pr•ncip• –• pr•ncipibus
ibus
ibus
ibus
–
–
–
c•n•mina
–a
phoen•c•s –•s c•n•men
pr•ncip•s –•s phoen•cem
Accusative pr•ncipem
em
em
en1
Vocative pr•nceps –ps pr•ncip•s –•s phoen•x –•x phoen•c•s –•s c•n•men –en c•n•mina
–a
–
–
–
Ablative pr•ncipe –e pr•ncipibus
phoen•ce –e phoen•cibus
c•n•mine –e c•n•minibus
ibus
ibus
ibus
–
–
–
Locative pr•ncip• –• pr•ncipibus
phoen•c• –• phoen•cibus
c•n•min• –• c•n•minibus
ibus
ibus
ibus
1—The
nominative and accusative of neuter nouns are always identical. It should not be assumed that –en is always the appropriate
ending, as it might appear above.
[edit] Third declension i-stem nouns
The third declension also has a set of nouns which are declined differently. They are called i-stems. One can tell
whether a word is an i-stem or not based on the following criteria.
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●
●
Masculine & Feminine
❍ Parisyllabic Rule: Some masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have the same
number of syllables in the genitive as they do in the nominative. For example: amnis, –is
❍ Double-Consonant Rule: The rest of the masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have
two consonants before the –is in the genitive singular. For example: pars, partis
Neuter
❍ Special Neuter Ending: Neuter third declension i-stems have no rule. However, all of them end in
either an –al, –ar or –e. For example: animal, –•lis
amnis, –is
pars, partis
animal, –•lis
stream, torrent m.
part, piece f.
animal, living being n.
Parisyllabic Rule
Double Consonant Rule
Special Neuter Ending
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative amnis –is amn•s –•s pars –rs part•s –•s animal –al anim•lia –ia
Genitive amnis –is amnium –ium partis –is partium –ium anim•lis –is anim•lium –ium
Dative amn• –•
amnibus –ibus part• –•
partibus –ibus anim•l• –• anim•libus –ibus
Accusative amnem –em1 amn•s
Vocative amnis –is
Ablative amne
Locative amn•
–e3
–•
amn•s
–•s2 partem –em1 part•s
–•s pars –rs part•s
amnibus –ibus parte
amnibus –ibus part•
–e3
–•
–•s2 animal –al anim•lia
–•s animal –al anim•lia
partibus –ibus anim•l• –• anim•libus –ibus
end in –im
end in –•s
3—may end in –•
2—may
[edit] Peculiarities
In the third declension, there are four irregular nouns.
vis
s•s, suis
b•s, bovis
Iuppiter, Iovis
force, power f. swine, pig, hog c. ox, bullock c.
Jupiter m.
Case
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Singular
Nominative vis
v•r•s s•s
su•s
b•s
bov•s Iuppiter
suum
bovis
bovum Iovis
robori1
Accusative vim
Vocative vis
Ablative v•
v•ribus su•
subus bov•
b•bus Iov•
v•r•s suem
v•r•s s•s
v•ribus sue
su•s
bovem
su•s
b•s
subus bove
bov•s Iovem
bov•s Iuppiter
b•bus Iove
Locative robori1
v•ribus su•
subus bov•
b•bus Iov•
Dative
1--Borrowed
from robur,roboris (oak)
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–ia
partibus –ibus anim•l• –• anim•libus –ibus
1—may
Genitive roboris1 v•rium suis
–ia
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[edit] Fourth declension (u)
The fourth declension is a group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine words like 'wave' (fluctus, fluct•s masc.)
and 'port' (portus, port•s masc.) with a few feminine exceptions, including 'hand' (manus, man•s fem.). The fourth
declension also includes several neuter nouns like 'knee' (genu, gen•s neut.). Each noun has the affix -•s as a suffix
attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this
declension is u.
portus, –•s
corn•, –•s
port, haven, harbor m.
horn, strength n.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative portus –us port•s –•s corn• –• cornua –ua
Genitive port•s –•s portuum –uum corn•s –•s cornuum –uum
Dative portu• –u• portibus –ibus corn• –• cornibus –ibus
Accusative portum –um port•s –•s corn• –• cornua –ua
Vocative portus –us port•s –•s corn• –• cornua –ua
Ablative port• –• portibus –ibus corn• –• cornibus –ibus
Locative port• –• portibus –ibus corn• –• cornibus –ibus
In the dative and ablative plural, –ibus may be replaced with –ubus. This is only so for a few nouns.
The declension of domus is irregular:
domus, –•s
house, home m.
Singular
Plural
Nominative domus –us dom•s
–•s
Genitive dom•s –•s dom•rum –•rum
Dative domu• –u• domibus –ibus
Accusative domum –um domos –os
Vocative domus –us dom•s
–•s
Ablative dom• –• domibus –ibus
Locative domi –i domibus –ibus
[edit] Fifth declension (e)
The fifth declension is a small group of nouns consisting of mostly feminine words like 'affair, matter, thing' (r•s, re•
fem.) and 'day' (di•s, di•• usually feminine, except on notable days when it is masculine). Each noun has either the
affix -•• or –e• as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form.
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effigi•s, –••
sp•s, –e•
effigy, ideal f.
hope, anticipation f.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative effigi•s –•s effigi•s
–•s
sp•s –•s sp•s
–•s
Genitive effigi•• –•• effigi•rum –•rum spe• –e• sp•rum –•rum
Dative effigi•• –•• effigi•bus –•bus spe• –e• sp•bus –•bus
Accusative effigiem –em effigi•s
–•s
spem –em sp•s
–•s
Vocative effigi•s –•s effigi•s
–•s
sp•s –•s sp•s
–•s
Ablative effigi• –• effigi•bus –•bus sp• –• sp•bus –•bus
Locative effigi• –• effigi•bus –•bus sp• –• sp•bus –•bus
Note that nouns ending in i•s have long •• in the dative and genitive, while nouns ending in a consonant + •s have
short e• in these cases.
This declension class is the last to develop in Latin; the only nouns that have the full declension are di•s and fid•s.
[edit] Pronoun declensions
Relative and demonstrative pronouns are generally declined like first and second declension adjectives, with the
following differences:
●
●
●
the nominatives are often irregular
the dative singular ends in -•: rather than -ae or -•.
the genitive singular ends in -•us rather than -ae or -•.
These differences identify the "pronominal" declension, and a few adjectives also follow this pattern.
[edit] Personal pronouns
The first and second persons are irregular. They may only be masculine or feminine.
First Person
Second Person
ego, me• n•s, nostrum
t•, tu•
v•s, vestrum
I m. and f. we m. and f. thou m. and f. ye m. and f.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative ego
n•s
t•
v•s
Genitive me•
Dative
Accusative
Vocative
Ablative
mihi
m•
——
m•
nostrum1
n•b•s
n•s
——
n•b•s
tu•
tibi
t•
t•
t•
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vestrum1
v•b•s
v•s
v•s
v•b•s
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Locative m•
1—may
n•b•s
t•
v•b•s
be nostr• or vestr•
Usually, to show the ablative of accompaniment, cum would be added to the ablative form. Though, with personal
pronouns and the interrogative (not with 3rd person), cum is added on to the end of the ablative form. For example:
m•cum, n•b•scum, t•cum, v•b•scum and qu•cum (sometimes qu•cum).
is, e•
ea, eae
id, ea
he, they m.
she, they f.
it, they n.
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative is
e•, i• ea
eae
id
ea
Genitive eius
e•rum eius
e•rum eius
e•rum
Dative e•
e•s, i•s e•
e•s, i•s e•
e•s, i•s
Accusative eum
e•s
eam
e•s
id
ea
Vocative Ablative e•
e•s, i•s e•
e•s, i•s e•
e•s, i•s
Locative e•
e•s, i•s eae
e•s, i•s e•
e•s, i•s
The third person reflexive pronouns always refer back to the subject whether it be singular or plural.
—, su•
himself, herself
itself, oneself, themselves
Nominative —
Genitive su•
Dative sibi
Accusative s•, s•s•
Vocative Ablative s•, s•s•
Locative s•, s•s•
[edit] Interrogative pronouns
The interrogative pronouns are used strictly for asking questions. It is best not to confuse them with the relative
pronoun and the interrogative adjective (which is declined like the relative pronoun). Interrogative pronouns rarely
occur in the plural, though they may. The plural interrogative pronouns are the same as the plural relative pronouns.
quis
quid
who? m. and f. what? n. only
Singular
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Nominative quis
Genitive c•ius
Dative cui
Accusative quem
Vocative Ablative qu•
Locative qu•
quid
c•ius
cui
quid
qu•
qu•
[edit] Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives
hic, haec, h•c
ille, illa, illud
this, this one
that, that one
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative hic
h•
haec
hae
h•c
haec ille
ill•
illa
illae illud
illa
Genitive h•ius
h•rum h•ius
h•rum h•ius
h•rum ill•us
ill•rum ill•us
ill•rum ill•us
ill•rum
Dative huic
h•s
huic
h•s
huic
h•s
ill•
ill•s
ill•
ill•s
ill•
ill•s
Accusative hunc
h•s
hanc
h•s
h•c
haec illum
ill•s
illam
ill•s
illud
illa
Vocative hic
h•
haec
hae
h•c
haec ille
ill•
illa
illae illud
illa
Ablative h•c
h•s
h•c
h•s
h•c
h•s
ill•
ill•s
ill•
ill•s
ill•
ill•s
Locative h•c
h•s
haec
h•s
h•c
h•s
ill•
ill•s
illae
ill•s
ill•
ill•s
●
Another demonstrative pronoun iste, ista, istud, which means 'that of yours', and the intensive pronoun ipse,
ipsa, ipsum follow the preceding declension.
[edit] Relative pronouns
qu•, quae, quod
who, which, that
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative qu•
qu•
quae
quae quod
quae
Genitive c•ius
qu•rum c•ius
qu•rum c•ius
qu•rum
Dative cui
quibus cui
quibus cui
quibus
Accusative quem
qu•s
quam
qu•s
quod
quae
Vocative qu•
qu•
quae
quae quod
quae
Ablative qu•
quibus qu•
quibus qu•
quibus
Locative qu•
quibus quae
quibus qu•
quibus
[edit] Indefinite pronouns
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[edit] Definite pronouns
[edit] First and second declension adjectives
First and second declension are inflected in the masculine, the feminine and the neuter; the masculine form typically
ends in –us (although some end in -er, see below), the feminine form ends in –a, and the neuter form ends in –um.
Therefore, adjectives are given like altus, alta, altum.
altus, –a, –um
high, long, tall
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative altus –us alt•
–•
alta –a altae –ae
altum –um alta
–a
Genitive alt• –• alt•rum –•rum altae –ae alt•rum –•rum alt• –• alt•rum –•rum
Dative alt• –• alt•s
–•s
altae –ae alt•s
–•s
alt• –• alt•s
–•s
Accusative altum –um alt•s
–•s
altam –am alt•s
–•s
altum –um alta
–a
Vocative alte –e alt•
–•
alta –a altae –ae
altum –um alta
–a
Ablative alt• –• alt•s
–•s
alt• –• alt•s
–•s
alt• –• alt•s
–•s
Locative alt• –• alt•s
–•s
altae –ae alt•s
–•s
alt• –• alt•s
–•s
[edit] First and second declension –r adjectives
Some first and second declension adjectives' masculine form end in an –er. As with second declension nouns –r
nouns, some adjectives retain the E throughout inflection, and some omit it. Sacer, sacra, sacrum omits its E while
miser, misera, miserum keeps it.
miser, –era, –erum
sad, poor, unhappy
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative miser
–er miser•
–•
misera –a miserae –ae
miserum –um misera
–a
Genitive miser• –• miser•rum –•rum miserae –ae miser•rum –•rum miser• –• miser•rum –•rum
Dative miser• –• miser•s
–•s
miserae –ae miser•s
–•s
miser• –• miser•s
–•s
Accusative miserum –um miser•s
–•s
miseram –am miser•s
–•s
miserum –um misera
–a
Vocative miser
–er miser•
–•
misera –a miserae –ae
miserum –um misera
–a
Ablative miser• –• miser•s
–•s
miser• –• miser•s
–•s
miser• –• miser•s
–•s
Locative miser• –• miser•s
–•s
miserae –ae miser•s
–•s
miser• –• miser•s
–•s
Masculine
sacer, –cra, –crum
sacred, holy
Feminine
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Neuter
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Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative sacer –er sacr•
–•
sacra –a sacrae –ae
sacrum –um sacra
–a
Genitive sacr• –• sacr•rum –•rum sacrae –ae sacr•rum –•rum sacr• –• sacr•rum –•rum
Dative sacr• –• sacr•s
–•s
sacrae –ae sacr•s
–•s
sacr• –• sacr•s
–•s
Accusative sacrum –um sacr•s
–•s
sacram –am sacr•s
–•s
sacrum –um sacra
–a
Vocative sacer –er sacr•
–•
sacra –a sacrae –ae
sacrum –um sacra
–a
Ablative sacr• –• sacr•s
–•s
sacr• –• sacr•s
–•s
sacr• –• sacr•s
–•s
Locative sacr• –• sacr•s
–•s
sacrae –ae sacr•s
–•s
sacr• –• sacr•s
–•s
[edit] First and second –•us genitive adjectives
There are nine first and second declension adjectives that are irregular in the genitive and the dative in all genders.
Here belong:
alius, –a, –ud; (gen. sing. alter•us to avoid ali•us); another
•llus, –a, –um; any
uter, –tra, –trum; which (of two)
solus, –a, –um; sole, alone
alter, –era, –erum; the other (of two)
n•llus, –a, –um; no, none (of any)
neuter, –tra, –trum; neither (of two)
t•tus, –a, –um; whole
•nus, –a, –um; one
•llus, –a, –um
any
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative •llus –us •ll•
–•
•lla –a •llae –ae
•llum –um •lla
–a
Genitive •ll•us –•us •ll•rum –•rum •ll•us –•us •ll•rum –•rum •ll•us –•us •ll•rum –•rum
Dative •ll• –• •ll•s
–•s
•ll• –• •ll•s
–•s
•ll• –• •ll•s
–•s
Accusative •llum –um •ll•s
–•s
•llam –am •ll•s
–•s
•llum –um •lla
–a
Vocative •lle –e •ll•
–•
•lla –a •llae –ae
•llum –um •lla
–a
Ablative •ll• –• •ll•s
–•s
•ll• –• •ll•s
–•s
•ll• –• •ll•s
–•s
Locative •ll• –• •ll•s
–•s
•llae –ae •ll•s
–•s
•ll• –• •ll•s
–•s
[edit] Third declension adjectives
Third declension adjectives are, of course, declined like third declension i-stem nouns.
[edit] Third declension adjectives with one ending
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Third declension adjectives with one ending have single nominative ending for all genders. Like nouns, a genitive is
given for the purpose of inflection.
atr•x, –•cis
terrible, mean, cruel
Masculine & Feminine
Neuter
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative atr•x –•x atr•c•s –•s atr•x –•x atr•cia –ia
Genitive atr•cis –is atr•cium –ium atr•cis –is atr•cium –ium
Dative atr•c• –• atr•cibus –ibus atr•c• –• atr•cibus –ibus
Accusative atr•cem –em atr•c•s
–•s1 atr•x –•x atr•cia
–•s atr•x –•x atr•cia
–ia
Vocative atr•x
–•x atr•c•s
Ablative atr•c•
–•2 atr•cibus –ibus atr•c• –•2 atr•cibus –ibus
–• atr•cibus –ibus atr•c• –• atr•cibus –ibus
Locative atr•c•
1—may
2—may
–ia
end in –•s
end in –e
[edit] Third declension adjectives with 2 endings
Third declension adjectives that have 2 endings have one form for the masculine and feminine, and a separate form
for the neuter. The ending for the masculine and feminine is –is, and the ending for the neuter is –e. Because the
sexed form ends in an –is, we find the adjective genitive singular.
agilis, –e
nimble, swift
Masculine & Feminine
Neuter
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative agilis –is agil•s –•s agile –e agilia –ia
Genitive agilis –is agilium –ium agilis –is agilium –ium
Dative agil• –• agilibus –ibus agil• –• agilibus –ibus
–•s1 agile
Vocative agilis –is agil•s –•s agile
Ablative agil• –• agilibus –ibus agil•
Locative agil• –• agilibus –ibus agil•
Accusative agilem –em agil•s
1—may
–•x agilia
–ia
–e agilia –ia
–• agilibus –ibus
–• agilibus –ibus
end in –•s
[edit] Third declension adjectives with three endings
Third declension adjectives with three endings have three separate nominative forms for all three genders. Like third
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and second declension –r nouns, the masculine ends in an –er. The feminine ends in an –ris, and the neuter ends in
an –re. With that information, we come upon the genitive singular needed for inflection, the feminine form.
celer, –eris, –ere
swift, rapid, brash
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative celer
–er celer•s –•s celeris –is celer•s –•s celere –e celeria –ia
Genitive celeris –is celerium –ium celeris –is celerium –ium celeris –is celerium –ium
Dative celer• –• celeribus –ibus celer• –• celeribus –ibus celer• –• celeribus –ibus
–•s1 celerem –em celer•s –•s1 celere –e celeria –ia
Vocative celer
–er celer•s –•s celeris –is celer•s –•s celere –e celeria –ia
Ablative celer• –• celeribus –ibus celer• –• celeribus –ibus celer• –• celeribus –ibus
Locative celer• –• celeribus –ibus celer• –• celeribus –ibus celer• –• celeribus –ibus
alacer, –cris, –cre
lively, jovial, animated
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative alacer –er alacr•s –•s alacris –is alacr•s –•s alacre –e alacria –ia
Genitive alacris –is alacrium –ium alacris –is alacrium –ium alacris –is alacrium –ium
Dative alacr• –• alacribus –ibus alacr• –• alacribus –ibus alacr• –• alacribus –ibus
Accusative celerem –em celer•s
–•s1 alacrem –em alacr•s –•s1 alacre
–er alacr•s –•s alacris –is alacr•s –•s alacre
–• alacribus –ibus alacr• –• alacribus –ibus alacr•
–• alacribus –ibus alacr• –• alacribus –ibus alacr•
Accusative alacrem –em alacr•s
Vocative alacer
Ablative alacr•
Locative alacr•
1—may
–e alacria
–ia
–e alacria –ia
–• alacribus –ibus
–• alacribus –ibus
end in –•s
[edit] Declension of numerals
See also: Roman numerals.
All numerals, except •num (one), duo (two), tria (three), m•lia (thousand, sing. m•lle) and ducent• (two-hundred) are
indeclinable adjectives. •nus, •na, •num is declined like a first and second declension adjective with an –•us in the
genitive, and –• in the dative. Duo is declined irregularly and tria is declined like a third declension adjective.
duo, duae, duo
two
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Plural
Nominative duo
duae
duo
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Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative
Ablative
Locative
du•rum
du•bus
du•s
duo
du•bus
du•bus
du•rum
du•bus
du•s
duae
du•bus
du•bus
du•rum
du•bus
duo
duo
du•bus
du•bus
It should be noted that amb•, both, is declined as duo is. Though, its O is long.
tr•s, tria
Masculine & Feminine Neuter
Plural
Nominative tr•s
tria
Genitive trium
trium
Dative tribus
tribus
Accusative tr•s, tr•s
tria
Vocative tr•s
tria
Ablative tribus
tribus
Locative tribus
tribus
The word, m•lle, is singular, an adjective and indeclinable. However, its irregular plural, m•lia is used in the same
way pl•s is.
m•lia, m•lium
(a) thousand n.
Plural
Nominative m•lia
Genitive m•lium
Dative m•libus
Accusative m•lia
Vocative m•lia
Ablative m•libus
Locative m•libus
As stated before, the rest of the numbers are indeclinable adjectives. They are also indeclinable as substantives.
1
2
3
4
I
II
III
IV
•nus, –a, –um 11 XI
duo, –ae, –o 12 XII
tr•s, –ia
13 XIII
quattuor
14 XIV
•ndecim
21
duodecim
22
tr•decim
30
quattuordecim 40
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XXI
XXII
XXX
XL
•nus et vigint• 101
du• et vigint• 200
tr•gint•
300
quandr•gint• 400
CI
CC
CCC
CD
centum et •nus
ducent•, –ae, –a
trecent•
quadrigent•
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5 V qu•nque
6 VI sex
7 VII septem
8 VIII oct•
9 IX novem
10 X decem
15 XV qu•ndecim
16 XVI s•decim
17 XVII septendecim
18 XVIII duod•vigint•
19 XIX •nd•vigint•
20 XX vigint•
50 L
qu•nqu•gint•
60 LX
sex•gint•
70 LXX septu•gint•
80 LXXX oct•gint•
90 XC
n•n•gint•
100 C
centum
500 D
qu•ngent•
600 DC
sescent•
700 DCC septingent•
800 DCCC octingent•
900 CM
n•ngent•
1000 M
m•lle
[edit] Declension of •dem
The adjective •dem, eadem, idem means 'same.' It is a variant of the third person pronouns which were declined
earlier. Generally, they are formed by adding –dem to a declined third person pronouns. However, some forms have
been changed to ease pronunciation.
•dem, eadem, idem
the same, same as
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
e•dem,
Nominative •dem
eadem eaedem idem
eadem
i•dem
Genitive eiusdem e•rundem eiusdem e•rundem eiusdem e•rundem
e•sdem,
e•sdem,
e•sdem,
Dative e•dem
e•dem
e•dem
i•sdem
i•sdem
i•sdem
Accusative eundem e•sdem eandem e•sdem idem
eadem
e•dem,
Vocative •dem
eadem eaedem idem
eadem
i•dem
e•sdem,
e•sdem,
e•sdem,
e•dem
Ablative e•dem
e•dem
i•sdem
i•sdem
i•sdem
e•sdem,
e•sdem,
e•sdem,
e•dem
eaedem
Locative e•dem
i•sdem
i•sdem
i•sdem
[edit] Comparison and superlative forms of adjectives
As in English, adjectives have superlative and comparative forms. For regular first and second declension and third
declension nouns with one or two endings, the comparison is formed by adding an –ior for the masculine and
feminine, and an –ius for the neuter to the base. The genitive for both are formed by adding an –i•ris. Therefore, they
are declined like the third declension. However, they are not declined as i-stems are. Superlatives formed by adding
an –issimus, –a, –um to the base. Now, we find that superlatives are declined like first and second declension
adjectives.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
ben•gnus, –a, –um (kind, nice) ben•gnior, –ius ben•gnissimus, –a, –um
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Adjective
fr•gidus, –a, –um (cold, chilly) fr•gidior, –ius
fr•gidissimus, –a, –um
calidus, –a, –um (hot, fiery)
calidior, –ius
calidissimus, –a, –um
p•gn•x, –•cis (pugnacious)
p•gn•cior, –ius p•gn•cissimus, –a, –um
fortis, –e (strong, robust)
fortior, –ius
aequ•lis, –e (equal, even)
aequ•lior, –ius aequ•lissimus, –a, –um
fortissimus, –a, –um
[edit] Comparisons and superlatives of –er adjectives
Adjectives (in the third and first and second declensions) that have masculine nominative singular forms ending in –
er have different forms. If the feminine and neuter forms drom the E, use that for the comparative form. The
superlative is formed by adding an –rimus onto the masculine form.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
pulcher, –cra, –crum (pretty, beautiful) pulchrior, –ius pulcherrimus, –a, –um
sacer, –cra, –crum (sacred, holy)
Adjective tener, –era, –erum (delicate, tender)
•cer, –cris, –cre (sharp)
sacrior, –ius
sacerrimus, –a, –um
tenerior, –ius
tenerrimus, –a, –um
•crior, –ius
•cerrimus, –a, –um
cel•ber, –bris, –bre (celebrated, famous) cel•brior, –ius cel•berrimus, –a, –um
celer, –eris, –ere (quick, fast)
celerior, –ius
celerrimus, –a, –um
[edit] Comparisons and superlatives of –lis adjectives
Some third declension adjectives with two endings in –lis in the sexed nominative singular have irregular superlative
forms. It should be noted that the following are the only adjectives that have this unique form.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
facilis, –e (easy)
facilior, –ius
facillimus, –a, –um
difficilis, –e (hard, difficult)
difficilior, –ius
difficillimus, –a, –um
similior, –ius
simillimus, –a, –um
Adjective similis, –e (similar, like)
dissimilis, –e (unlike, dissimilar) dissimilior, –ius dissimillimus, –a, –um
humilis, –e (low, humble)
humilior, –ius
humillimus, –a, –um
imbecillis, -e
imbecillior, -ius imbecillimus, -a, -um
[edit] Irregular comparisons and superlatives
As in most languages, Latin has adjectives that have irregular comparisons and superlatives.
Positive
Comparative
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Superlative
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Adjective
bonus, –a, –um (good)
melior, –ius
optimus, –a, –um
malus, –a, –um (bad, evil)
peior, –ius
pessimus, –a, –um
magnus, –a, –um (great, large)
maior, –ius
maximus, –a, –um
parvus, –a, –um (small, slight)
minor, –us
minimus, –a, –um
multus, –a, –um (much, many)
pl•s1
plurimus, –a, –um
n•quam2 (worthless)
n•quior, –ius
n•quissimus, –a, –um
posterus, –a, –um (next, future)
posterior, –ius postremus, –a, –um
superus, –a, –um (above, upper)
superior, –ius supremus, –a, –um
exterus, –a, –um (outer, outward) exterior, –ius
●
●
extremus, –a, –um
novus, –a, –um (new, strange)
recentior, –ius novissimus, –a, –um
senex, senis (old, aged)
senior, –ius
——
iuvenis, –is (young, youthful)
iunior, –ius
——
1: noun used with genitive to express more of something
2: indeclinable
[edit] Adverbs and their comparisons and superlatives
To the relief of many Latin students, adverbs are not declined. However, adverbs must be formed if one wants to
make an adjective into an adverb.
[edit] First and second declension adjectives' adverbs
First and second declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an –• onto their bases.
Adjective
Adverb
cl•rus, –a, –um (clear, famous)
cl•r• (clearly, famously)
validus, –a, –um (strong, robust)
valid• (strongly, robustly)
•nf•rmus, –a, –um (weak)
•nf•rm• (weakly)
solidus, –a, –um (complete, firm)
solid• (completely, firmly)
integer, –gra, –grum (whole, fresh) integr• (wholly, freshly)
l•ber, –era, –erum (free)
l•ber• (freely)
[edit] Third declension adjectives' adverbs
Typically, third declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an –iter onto their bases. However, most third
declension adjectives with one ending simply add an –er to their bases.
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Adjective
Adverb
pr•d•ns, –entis (prudent)
pr•denter (prudently)
aud•x, –•cis (bold)
aud•cter (boldly)
docilis, –e (docile)
dociliter (dociley)
virilis, –e (courageous, spirited) viriliter (courageously, spiritedly)
sal•ber, –bris, –bre (wholesome) sal•briter (wholesomely)
pauper, –eris, –ere (meager)
pauperiter (meagerly)
[edit] Adverbs' comparative and superlative forms
Adverbs' comparative forms are actually their neuter adjectives' comparative forms. Adverbs' superlative forms are
made in the same way in which first and second declension adjectives' adverbs are made.
Positive
cl•r• (clearly, famously)
Comparative Superlative
cl•rius
cl•rissim•
solid• (completely, firmly) solidius
solidissim•
l•ber• (freely)
l•berius
l•berissim•
prudenter (prudently)
prudentius
prudentissim•
dociliter (docile)
docilius
docilissim•
sal•briter (wholesomely)
sal•berius
sal•berissim•
[edit] Irregular adverbs and their comparative and superlative forms
As so with adjectives, there are irregular adverbs with peculiar comparative and superlative forms.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
bene (well)
melius
optim•
male (ill, badly)
peius
pessim•
m•gnoper• (greatly)
magis
maxim•
multum (much, a lot)
pl•s
pl•rimum
n•n multum (little)
minus
minim•
n•quiter (worthlessly)
n•quius
n•quissim•
saepe (often)
saepius
saepissim•
m•t•r• (seasonably, betimes) m•t•rius
m•turrim•
prope (near)
propius
proxim•
n•per (recently)
——
n•perrim•
——
potius (rather)
potissim• (especially)
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——
prius (before, previously) pr•mum1 (first)
secus (otherwise)
s•tius (less)
●
——
1: may be pr•m•
[edit] Peculiarities within declension
[edit] Irregularity in number
Some nouns are declined in the singular only. This is the case with:
●
●
●
Materials such as aurum (gold) and aes (copper)
Abstract nouns such as celerit•s (speed) and scientia (knowledge)
Proper names such as Iulius (Julius) and Cl•ra (Clara)
There are nouns that are only declined in the plural as well (plurale tantum):
●
●
●
Many festivals, such as Saturnalia
Words like castra (camp) and arma (arms)
A few geological places are plural such as Th•bae (Thebes).
[edit] Indeclinable nouns
Indeclinable nouns are neuter nouns which only occur in the nominative and accusative singular. There are only six
such nouns:
●
●
●
●
●
●
f•s — fate, divine law
•nstar — likeness
m•ne — morning (used in the ablative case as well)
nef•s — sin, abomination
nihil — nothing, none
secus — sex, coitus
[edit] Heterogeneous nouns
Heterogeneous nouns are nouns which vary in respect to gender.
●
●
A few nouns in the second declension occur in both the neuter and masculine. However, their meanings
remain the same.
Some nouns are one gender in the singular, but become another gender in the plural. They may also change in
meaning.
Singular
Plural
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balneum n. bath
balneae f. bath-house
epulum n. feast, banquet epulae f. feasts, banquets
fr•num n. bridle, curb fr•n• m. bridle, curb
iocus m. joke, jest
ioca n. jokes, jests
locus m. place, location loca n. places, locations; loc• region
r•strum n. hoe, rake
r•str• m. hoes, rakes
[edit] Plurals with alternative meanings
The nouns below have a specific singular meaning, yet have a different plural meaning.
Singular
Plural
aed•s, –is f. building, temple
aed•s, –ium rooms, house
auxilium, –• n. help, aid
auxilia, –•rum auxiliary troops
carcer, –eris m. prison, cell
carcer•s, –um starting-place of a chariot race
castrum, –• n. fort, castle, fortress
castra, –•rum milit. camp, encampment
c•pia, –ae f. plenty, much, abundance
c•piae, –•rum troops
f•nis, –is m. end, boundary
f•n•s, –ium territory
fort•na, –ae f. luck, chance
fort•nae –•rum wealth
gr•tia, –ae f. charm, favor
gr•tiae, –•rum thanks
imped•mentum, –• m. impediment, hindrance imped•menta, –•rum baggage
littera, –ae f. letter (as in A, B, C, etc.)
litterae, –•rum epistle, scholarship, literature
m•s, m•ris m. habit, inclination
m•r•s, –um m. morals, character
opera, –ae f. trouble, pains
operae, –•rum workmen
ops, opis f. the goddess Ops (pers.), help
op•s, –ium resources, wealth
pars, partis f. part, piece
part•s, –ium office, function
s•l, salis m. salt, sea water
sal•s, –um wit, smarts
[edit] References
●
New Latin Grammar, an eBook, originally written by Charles Edwin Bennett at the Project Gutenberg
[edit] See also
●
Latin conjugation
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_declension"
Category: Latin language
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