Perspective
pubs.acs.org/journal/ascecg
Natural Colorants in the Presence of Anchors So-Called Mordants as
Promising Coloring and Antimicrobial Agents for Textile Materials
Shahid-ul-Islam and Faqeer Mohammad*
Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University), New Delhi-110025, India
ABSTRACT: In recent years there has been a phenomenal increase in the
use of natural colorants in a variety of areas. They exhibit high
biodegradability, low toxicity, and green chemistry and have potential to
greatly impact the textile dyeing and finishing industry. Natural colorants
from plant sources have been recently discovered as novel agents in
imparting multifunctional properties to textiles such as antimicrobial, insect
repellent, deodorizing, and UV-protective. Among all textile surface
modifications, antimicrobial finishing has become a very promising, high
growth research area due to their potential to provide quality and safety
benefits to different kinds of textile materials. The use of natural colorants
offers promise in developing antimicrobial textiles for aesthetic, hygienic, and
medical applications owing to the presence of potent highly active agents
such as tannins, flavonoids, quinines carotenoids, and alkaloids in their
extracts. This article presents a concise account of the state-of-the art
sustainable technology derived from natural colorants and will be useful to the textile and polymer chemists engaged in
development of health care bioactive textiles. In particular, it discusses recent developments in coloring and antimicrobial
finishing of textiles with different class of compounds isolated from natural colorants, highlights current challenges, and finally
concludes by providing a perspective on future research directions in this area.
KEYWORDS: Natural colorants, Polyphenols, Antimicrobial activity, Textile fibers
■
INTRODUCTION
Natural colorants can be explored toward achieving safe and
environmentally friendly textile products.16−20 Humans have
used natural dyes since antiquity, however in the last two
decades there has been a phenomenal increase over their use in a
variety of areas.13,21−23 They exhibit high biodegradability, low
toxicity, green chemistry, and have the potential to greatly
impact the textile industry which is considered as one of the most
polluting industry today.24−28 Recent research in the natural dye
area have identified them as novel agents in imparting
multifunctional properties to textiles such as antimicrobial,
insect repellent, deodorizing, and UV-protective.29−32 Of all
these fascinating fields antimicrobial finishing has become a very
promising, high growth research area due to their potential to
provide quality and safety benefits to both textile materials and
precious human life.13,33,34 Owing to the existence of large
number of structurally diverse active compounds such as tannins,
flavonoids, curcuminoids, alkaloids, and quinines in their
extracts, the use of natural colorants offers promise in developing
antimicrobial textiles for aesthetic, hygienic, and medical
applications in the near future.35−37
It is worth mentioning that most of the natural colorants
involve the use of anchoring agents which are known as
mordants.38,39 Use of several anchors such as metal salts and
The textile industry is a diverse, heterogeneous sector which
involves several wet processes in the production of a wide variety
of products.1−3 Cotton, wool, silk, and linen fibers are the most
widely used natural fibers in textile industry today; they are used
to make soft, breathable, and functional textiles for a wide range
of applications.4−7 Despite their endless uses, they have some
drawbacks, mainly the susceptibility to microbial attacks.8 They
provide several favorable conditions such as moisture, temperature, oxygen, and nutrients required for rapid growth and
multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms resulting in high
offensive odors, color degradation, cross-infections in hospitals,
and transmission of diseases, allergic responses, and deterioration of textile materials.9,10 To overcome these problems,
scientists have applied some innovative antimicrobial finishes on
textile surfaces. Substantial investigations have revealed the
application of wide range of synthetic chemicals and auxiliaries as
antimicrobial agents, etc.11,12 However, most of the synthetic
agents either produce toxic chemicals or generate dangerous
effluents thus pose considerable energy and environmental
challenges. Therefore, the textile processing industry has
imposed strict bans on certain synthetic dyes and auxiliaries
which are posing serious challenges to sustainability issues. This
has led to tremendous current excitement in the search for
environmentally friendly products which can offer suitable
alternatives/copartners to these agents.13−15
© 2015 American Chemical Society
Received: June 16, 2015
Revised: August 4, 2015
Published: August 26, 2015
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Table 1. Different Classes of Antimicrobial Natural Dyes Tested on Textiles and Polymers
natural colorant
Acacia catechu
class
tannin
textile
materials
wool, cotton
Punica granatum
Quercus infectoria
wool, cotton
wool, cotton
Termanalia
chubula
Chemalica sensesis
Saraca asoca
Rheum emodi
cotton
Rubia cordifolia
Kerria lacca
Lawsonia inermis
Juglons regia
Juglons regia
Albizia lebbeck
Acacia nilotica
Mallotus
philippinensis
Crocus sativus
Curcuma longa
Beta vulgaris
Opuntia
lasiacantha
anthraquinone
alphanaphthoquinone
flavonoid
carotenoid
curcuminoid
alkaloid
microbes
ref
S. aureus, E. coli, B. subtilis, K. pneumonia, , P. vulgaris, P. aeruginosa, C. albicans, and C.
grablata
S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, C. albicans, and C. grablata
S. aureus, E. coli, B. subtilis, K. pneumonia, P. vulgaris, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumonia, C.
albicans, and C. grablata
E. coli, K. pneumonia, and P. vulgaris
45, 72
60, 71, 144
36, 68, 72,
145
71
wool
silk
wool, silk,
cotton
wool
wool
wool
S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa
Aspergillus niger
S. aureus, E. coli, K. pneumonia, P. vulgaris, and C. tropicalis
44, 71, 91
S. aureus, E. coli, B. subtilis, K. pneumonia, P. vulgaris, and P. aeruginosa
S. aureus, E. coli, B. subtilis, K. pneumonia, P. vulgaris, and P. aeruginosa
S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, C. albicans, and C. grablata
72
72
42, 46, 111
wool
polyamide
silk
cotton
cotton
S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa
S. aureus and E. coli
Aspergillus niger
E. coli, K. pneumonia, and P. vulgaris
E. coli, K. pneumonia, and P. vulgaris
60
94
wool
wool, silk,
cotton
cotton
wool
S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa
S. aureus and E. coli
43
91, 146, 147
S. aureus
E. coli, B. subtilus, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus
127
22
71
71
Da and are obtained from various plant parts including roots,
barks, leaves, flowers, skins, fruits, and shells.47 The high tannin
content in some plant extracts has raised interest in using these
dyes to produce textiles with deodorizing, antimicrobial,
antifeedant and UV protective properties. The antimicrobial
activity of natural polyphenols against various bacteria, fungi and
yeasts is one of their attractive features which facilitate their use
in a variety of application fields including pharmaceutical, food,
feed, dyestuff, cosmetics, and other chemical industries.48 Several
different mechanisms for microbial inhibition by tannins have so
far been proposed. Its mode of action is believed to be the
inhibition of extracellular microbial enzymes, deprivation of the
substrates such as electrolytes, UV-absorbing material, proteins,
etc., required for microbial growth or direct action on microbial
metabolism through inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation.49,50
Ikigai and co-workers51 observed that the catechins from green
tea extract induced leakage of 5,6-carboxyfluorescein from
phosphatidylcholine liposome from bacteria and suggested that
the death of cells resulted from the disruption of bacterial
membrane. They found that Gram-positive bacteria were more
susceptible to catechins as compared to Gram-negative bacteria.
This was attributed to the presence of lipopolysaccharides in
Gram-negative bacteria which render to the bacterial surface a
density of negative charges superior to that observed for Grampositive ones. Other mechanism suggests that the antimicrobial
activity is due to the generation of hydrogen peroxide. Hoshino
and co-workers52 found that in the presence of a non lethal
concentration of copper(II) metal ion, catechins are more
effective against Gram-negative E. coli than Gram-positive S.
aureus. They believe that the interaction of (−)-epigallocatechin,
(−)-epicatechin, and copper(II) results in the generation of
hydrogen peroxide which accounts for its bactericidal activity.
In view of their potent antimicrobial activity, tannin rich
extracts have gained wide attention to impart color and other
biological agents including chitosan and other newly discovered
biomordants from plant species have gained significant academic
interest and have contributed substantially to overcome the
drawbacks such as narrow shade range and lower color fastness
properties of naturally dyed textile materials.21,40 Lately, textile
and polymer chemists have explored that the use of natural
mordants have synergistic effects on antimicrobial characteristics
of dyed samples.41 For example lawsone a natural colorant from
henna leaves with inherent antibacterial property when applied
on wool previously pretreated with chitosan was found more
active against E. coli and S. aureus than control dyed samples.42
On the other hand metal salt mordants may either enhance or
decrease the antimicrobial activity depending upon the applied
antimicrobial test method.43,44 However, the use of metal
anchors has proved markedly effective in retaining the
antimicrobial activity up to several laundering cycles which is
greatly appreciated by today’s demanding consumer market.44−46 This is attributed to strong complex forming ability
of metal ions with the active functional sites of dye molecules. In
view of these facts, this article is aimed to summarize some latest
research studies carried out in this realm followed by critical
analysis of the use of different class of compounds isolated from
natural dye yielding plants as promising coloring as well as
antimicrobials agents for textile materials (Table 1). This
perspective also highlights the current challenges and provides
scope for further investigations to corroborate the existing gaps
in this area of study.
■
TANNIN RICH EXTRACTS
There has been an enormous attention over the past few decades
on the use of tannin rich dyes from vegetable sources in
coloration of textile materials.13 Tannins are polyphenolic
compounds having molecular weight between 500 and 3000
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which has affinity for dyeing substrates due to presence of
auxochrome group −OH. Gallnut has a wide range of
pharmacological activities and has been used as ointment for
the treatment of piles and in plasters.63 Gallnut extract contains
mainly tannin (gallotannin, 50−75%), as well as smaller
molecules such as gallic acid and ellagic acid.36 Gallnut extract
was a principal ingredient in wool dyes used as early as the fifth
century BC.64 The application of gallnut on different textile
substrates provides a variety of color shades. Onal and
colleagues65 studied the dyeing properties of ellagic acid
extracted from gallnut on wool, feathered leather and cotton
using three mordant dyeing methods at various pH values and
obtained deep shades. Lee et al.57 2009 investigated the
colorimetric analysis and antibacterial properties of cotton,
silk, and wool fabrics dyed with peony, pomegranate, clove,
Coptis chinenis, and gallnut extracts. The dyed fabrics displayed
excellent antibacterial activity (reduction rate: 96.8−99.9%)
against Staphylococcus aureus. However, in case of Klebsiella
pneumoniae, the antibacterial activity was found to depend on the
kind of natural colorant extract used. Shahid and co-workers36
studied the inherent antimicrobial activity of gallnut extract
before and after application on wool by employing microbroth
dilution method, disc diffusion assay and growth curve studies
against common pathogens Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus
aureus, and Candida albicans. It was found that gallnut extract
displayed excellent antimicrobial activity against the tested
microorganisms and produced beautiful shades with acceptable
fastness properties. Park et al.66 reported that silk fabrics dyed
with the extract from gromwell plant using gallnut as natural
mordant showed good fastness properties. Hong et al.,67
likewise, studied the effect of natural mordant gallnut on cotton
fabrics dyed with gromwell extract. The gallnut treated cotton
fabrics were found highly active against S. aureus and K.
pneumonia. Koh and Hong68 noticed that the gallnut extract
dyed cotton and wool displayed good antioxidant and
antimicrobial properties, and that the pretreatment using plasma
improved their finishing effects. Zhang and co-workers32 carried
out the dyeing of wool with aqueous extract of Chinese gall using
aluminum potassium sulfate mordant and obtained colorful
shades on wool with good antibacterial activity against S. aureus
and E. coli with a reduction percentage of 99.90% and 96.55%
respectively. Lee et al.69 in a more recent investigation have
described deodorising and antibacterial properties of cotton, silk,
and wool fabrics obtained by application of natural dye extracted
from gallnut using water at 90 °C for 90 min with a fixed liquor
ratio of 1:10. It was observed that the dyed fabrics display a
reduction rate of 99.9% against S. aureus and K. pneumonia.
Another important tannin based dye is produced from Acacia
catechu plant. Cutch extract is a brown dye produced by
extraction of the heartwood of Acacia catechu containing mainly
catechin as well as smaller molecules such catechutannic acid.
Catechin with molecular formula of C15H14O6 is reported to be
the chief coloring component in cutch extract. Dyeing properties
of catchu has been investigated on a variety of fibers. It was
reported that dyeing of wool in the presence of transition metal
mordants produces a variety of colors with good fastness
properties for practical dyeing.70 Gupta et al.71 studied the
antimicrobial property of several natural dyes against Gramnegative bacteria and found that Acacia catchu had high activity
against K. pneumonia and P. vulgaris. Singh et al.72 studied the
antibacterial potential of catechu and other dyes against a range
of Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis,
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, and Pseudomonas
functional characteristics to different textile materials. Of all the
tannin based natural dyes investigated, the peels of pomegranate
fruit have attracted huge scientific attention as it produces
colorful shades with antimicrobial activity.13 Pomegranates are
rich in polyphenolic compounds; the main polyphenols that
have been reported include punicalagins, punicalins, gallagalic
acid, gallic acid, and ellagic acid. Gulrajani and co-workers53 used
pomegranate in conjunction with other natural dyes to yield six
basic shades such as blue, yellow, red, black, green, and fawn on
cotton fabrics. Tiwari et al.54 reported the extraction of natural
dye from pomegranate rind using ultrasound; enzyme and
enzyme-mediated ultrasound assisted extraction processes and
studied its dyeing properties on wool and silk fabrics. Sinha et
al.55 evaluated the effect of microwaves in the extraction of
yellow dye from pomegranate rinds. They found that the
extraction time of 90 s, pH 3.5, and 1.48 g of sample are the
optimum conditions for the maximum yield of color from
pomegranate rinds. In another investigation which was
conducted by Adeel et al.,17 the influence of gamma radiations
on both dye extraction from pomegranate peel and their dyeing
properties on silk were determined. Gamma doses of 20, 25, 30,
35, and 40 kGy were used and it was found that gamma ray
treatment of 40 kGy is an effective way to improve extraction and
produce shades on silk with better fastness properties. ShamsNateri56 reported yellow color on nylon dyed with weld and
pomegranate peel extracts. Lee et al.57 reported that cotton, silk,
and wool fabrics dyed with the extract of pomegranate and other
natural colorants showed antimicrobial activity against S. aureus
and K. pneumonia. The phenolics and flavonoid compounds
present in pomegranate have been found to be responsible for its
antimicrobial activity.58 Lee et al.59 observed the excellent
deodorising property against ammonia gas and good antibacterial activity against S. aureus and K. pneumonia of cotton,
silk, and wool fabrics dyed with Punica granatum L. extracts.
Ghaheh and co-workers60 studied the effect of mordant salts on
dyeing, fastness, and antibacterial activity properties of wool
fabric dyed with pomegranate peel and walnut shell extracts. The
antimicrobial activity was carried out against Gram-positive P.
aeruginosa and E. coli, and one Gram-positive bacterium, S.
aureus, and it was found that antibacterial activity of the extracts
is greatly enhanced in the presence of metal salts. Davulcu et al.61
in their research investigation studied the dyeing, fastness, and
antimicrobial properties of cotton fabric treated with thyme and
pomegranate peel extracts. Their study showed that pomegranate peel can successfully be applied on cotton with or without
metal mordants to produce good color fast shades with excellent
antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Prahbu and
Teli41 applied Tamarindus indica L. seed coat tannin as a
biomordant alone and in combination with metal mordant
copper sulfate on cotton, wool and silk fabrics dyed with
turmeric and pomegranate peel to study the color properties and
antibacterial activity of dyed fabrics against S. aureus and E. coli.
They observed higher color strength values for mordanted
samples and also found that the antibacterial activity was
maintained for more than 20 washing cycles. In 2015, Benli et
al.62 screened different natural colorants including pomegranate
peels for dyeing of ozone and ultrasound pretreated cotton to
find their use as alternatives to conventionally dyed cotton and
suggested that the peels from pomegranate could be used as
effective dyeing material with acceptable fastness properties.
Gallnut is another promising antimicrobial natural coloring
dye which finds extensive application in tanning, mordanting,
dyeing, and in the manufacture of ink.21 It is rich in ellagic acid
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Figure 1. Structures of some tannin based coloring compounds.
(EGCG) are the main compounds reported in tea extract.73
Several research studies have been carried out in recent years to
explore the potential of tea as an effective textile dye. Deo and
Desai74 obtained deep shades with acceptable fastness properties
on jute fabrics using tea as natural dye. In another investigation
which was conducted by Kim,75 the influence of chitosan
premordanting on dyeing and the UV protection property of
cotton dyed with the extract of tea were determined. It was
worth to note that the chitosan treated cotton samples had better
dyeing efficiency and higher UV protection than untreated
fabrics. Moiz and co-workers76 have studied effect of the
mordant salts such as alum, CuSO4, FeSO4, ZnSO4, Na2SO4, and
MgSO4 on dyeing of wool with an aqueous extract of tea using
three different dyeing methods: premordanting, meta-mordanting, and postmordanting. They found that postmordanting
method produces deep shades on wool with good wash and light
fastness. Considering the great potential of tea polyphenol in
dyeing and functional finishing of textiles, Tang et al.77 recently
investigated the adsorption kinetics and thermodynamics of tea
polyphenols on wool, silk and nylon to understand the dyeing
mechanism. They reported that the hydrogen bonding and
electrostatic interactions operating between tea polyphenol and
fibers contribute to Langmuir adsorption, whereas other
interactions (hydrophobic interaction and van der Waals forces)
contribute to Nernst partition adsorption. The chemical
aeruginosa before and after application on wool and found that
the tannins present in catechu are responsible for its antibacterial
effects. Vankar and Shanker25 carried out the ultrasonic natural
dyeing of enzyme pretreated cotton fabric with Acacia catechu
and Tectona grandis natural dyes. The cotton that had been
pretreated with enzyme showed a marked improvement in washfastness and light-fastness. The authors suggested that enzyme
treatment results in better absorbency, adherence, and dyeability
of the dyes on cotton fabrics, therefore could completely replace
metal mordants. Recently Khan and co-workers45 studied the
antimicrobial activity of catechu in solution and percent
microbial reduction after its application on wool samples against
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and
Candida tropicalis by using microbroth dilution method, disc
diffusion assay, and growth curve studies. They found that the
dye shows maximum antimicrobial activity at 20% w/v,
inhibiting the microbial growth by more than 90%. The
hemolytic activity of the dye on human erythrocytes was studied
to exclude its possibility of cytotoxicity and it was found to
possess least toxicity to humans.
Considerable attention has been also focused on tea extract
which is among the other prominent dyes rich in polyphenolic
compounds. Tea polyphenols (TP) such as catechin are
(−)-epicatechin (EC), (−)-epigallocatechin (EGC), (−)-epicatechin gallate (ECG), and (−)-epigallocatechin gallate
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Figure 2. Chemical structures of some flavonoid dyes.
their dyeing effects on wool. They noticed that weld extract
could be used as a viable alternative to synthetic acid dyes.
Recently Nasirizadeh et al.82 analyzed the optimization of wool
dyeing using rutin as a natural dye involving central composite
design method. Their study showed that at optimum dyeing
conditions, rutin resulted in deep shades with acceptable color
fastness properties. In another investigation administered by
Rehman et al.,83 the use of gamma radiations resulted in
enhanced extraction of flavonoid dye from onion shells. They
irradiated onion dye powder as well as cotton fabrics with
absorption doses of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 kGy using Cs-137 gamma
irradiator and found that gamma irradiation at a dose of 4 kGy
resulted in darker shades with improved fastness properties.
Likewise, Adeel and co-workers84 used UV radiation to study
dyeing properties of quercetin extracted from Acacia nilotica
bark. Chemical structures of some coloring compounds
belonging to this class are shown in Figure 2. The natural
dyeing with flavonoid extracts suggests a promising future for
these types of nature colorants in the textile industry.
structures of some potential tannin based colorants isolated from
vegetable sources are shown in Figure 1.
■
FLAVONOID RICH EXTRACTS
Flavonoids and related compounds are the main chromophores
in most of the yellow color yielding natural dyes.78 Many plants
are rich in flavonoids and related compounds ranging in colors
from pale yellow through deep yellow, orange to reds and blues.
Flavonoid based colorants derived from some plant species
Allium cepa, Butea monosperma, Reseda luteola, Serratula tinctoria,
Cotinus coggyria, Anthemis tinctoria, Chlorophora tinctoria,
Quercus tinctoria, Myrica esculenta, and Serratula tinctoria have
shown better dyeing properties on different textile materials.13,35,78,79 Guinot and co-workers80 isolated two flavonoid
structures namely patulitrin and patuletin using NMR and
HPLC-MS techniques from the marigold extract and studied
their dyeing properties on wool. Mirjalili et al.81 isolated color
compounds from weld using column chromatography, thin layer
chromatography, NMR, mass, and IR techniques and studied
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Figure 3. Chemical structures of some anthraquinone based colorants.
and fastness properties on cotton and wool. Anthocyanins from
Vitis vinifera leaves extract have been investigated as prominent
natural colorants for wool by Mansour et al.86 They noticed that
the leaves extract of Vitis vinifera exhibited good fastness
properties and provided brown and red shades to wool. More
recently Rym and co-workers,87 likewise, carried out the dyeing
of cationized and noncationized cotton fabrics with an aqueous
Numerous research investigations have also been carried out
to study the dyeing property of natural anthocyanins which are
water-soluble pigments belonging to parent class called
flavonoids. In a research investigation, Bechtold et al.85 extracted
anthocyanins from grape pomace obtained from different
varieties such as Blauer Portugieser, Zweigelt, Blauer Burgunder,
Cabernet Sauvignon, and Blauburger and studied their dyeing
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ylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. They found that the walnut
dye in the presence of ferric sulfate, cupric sulfate, and potassium
aluminum sulfate metal salts is more active against both the
bacterial isolates and observed that the walnut shell dye exhibits
good and durable fastness properties. Based on a research
investigation administered by Sharma and Grover,95 the dyeing
potential of colorants from walnut bark on cotton has been
studied. They reported that the dye from walnut shell in the
presence of common mordants like alum, FeSO4, CuSO4, and
chrome results in development of color fast shades on cotton.
Tutak and Benli96 studied the effect of metal salts on wool,
cotton and viscose dyed with walnut leaves, husk and shell
extracts and found deep shades with satisfactory fastness
properties. The effect of mordants salts on dyeing, fastness,
and antibacterial activity of walnut shells on wool by Ghaheh and
co-workers60 has already indicated that antibacterial activity
against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus is dramatically enhanced by metal salts.
Henna is a prominent dye plant belonging to the family
Lythraceae and is cultivated in India, Pakistan, Egypt, Yemen,
Iran, and Afghanistan. It has been reported that about 90
phenolic compounds are present in different parts of henna plant
with a myriad of pharmacological activities.97 Leaves from this
plant have been identified to contain dyeing principle lawsone
chemically; the molecule of lawsone is 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone having potent antimicrobial activity. The toxicological assessments of 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone by Kirkland and Marzin98,99 and Kirkland et al.100 in a series of
investigations have already indicated that there is no genotoxic
risk in using henna leaves extract as a natural dye. Aqueous leaf
extract of henna was shown to have promising in vivo
antibacterial activity against S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli.
The antibacterial characteristics of naphthoquinones are due to
the formation of adducts between reactive oxygen species
produced by one-electron reduction and the DNA, proteins, and
other cell component of bacteria.101−103 The naphthoquinones
also inhibit electron transport.104 The dyeing compound
lawsone imparts orange color to substrates owing to the
presence of hydroxyl (auxochrome) group in naphthoquinone
structure. During the last few decades, several research
investigations have been focused on studying its dyeing
properties on different textile materials. Henna leaf extract
using 10% alum for a period of 65 min at temperature 80 °C and
pH 4 was found to produce deep shades on silk with satisfactory
fastness properties.105 Mohammad et al.106 developed 30 six
shades ranging from orange-yellow to reddish brown on wool
yarns using combination of ecofriendly mordants such as alum
plus ferrous sulfate and ferrous sulfate and stannous chloride
with colorant extracted from henna leaves. All the shades
developed on wool showed good color fast to light, washing, and
rubbing. Ali et al.107 reported alkaline extraction of natural dye
from henna leaves and studied it dyeing on cotton by exhaust
method using premordanting and post mordanting with iron and
alum. Their results proved that alkaline extracts have much
higher color strength values than obtained in distilled water.
Different irradiation treatments have been employed to enhance
dyeing and functional characteristics of henna leaves extract on
different textile substrates. Iqbal et al.108 used UV radiations for
the enhancement of color strength and fastness properties of
cotton fabrics dyed with the extract of henna leaves. M’Garrech
and Ncib109 reported the use of gamma irradiations for studying
colorimetric properties of cotton dyed with henna. Rehman et
al.110 also noted improvement in dyeing and fastness properties
extract of Vitis vinifera leaves and obtained deep shades with
improved fastness properties on cationized cotton fabrics.
■
ANTHRAQUINONE RICH EXTRACTS
Anthraquinones dyes from biological sources have been used for
textile dyeing since antiquity. They are characterized by good
fastness to light and have been extensively studied due to their
great potential in the field of functional textiles.13 They are
obtained both from insects as well as plants. The structural
diversity allows them to form chelate complexes with metal salts
or and the resultant metal−dye complexes have excellent
fastness properties. The chemical structures of some coloring
compounds from this class are shown in Figure 3.
Rheum emodi is one of the potential dye bearing plant
belonging to this class which contains a large number of
anthraquinone derivatives such as chrysophaol, aloe-emodin,
rhein I, emodin, and physcion.44 It has been revealed that these
constituents are highly active against a broad range of fungal
pathogens such as Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans,
Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Aspergillus fumigates.88 Cotton
and silk fabric dyeing potential of Rheum emodi has been
investigated.27 Dyeing properties of Rheum emodi on wool and
silk was studied by Das et al.,89 and it was found that dyed fabrics
in the presence of magnesium sulfate, aluminum sulfate, and
magnesium sulfate mordants showed good color fastness to light
and washing. Various shades like yellowish brown, deep brown,
reddish brown and gray shades to olive black have been
developed on jute-cotton and jute-wool union fabrics using
colorants extracted from Rheum emodi.90 It has been also
reported that Rheum emodi has the activity against K.
pneumonia.71 Khan et al.44 investigated antimicrobial properties
of Rheum emodi dye using disc diffusion, growth curve, and
viability assays against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus,
Candida albicans, and Candida tropicalis. They applied Rheum
emodi dye on woollen yarns to produce bright yellowish green
shades with antimicrobial effects. As could be predicted, dyed
wool yarns were found to be highly active against both bacterial
and fungal isolates. The use of metal salts namely ferrous sulfate,
stannous chloride and alum further enhanced the durability of
antimicrobial finish up to several washing cycles. Zhou et al.,91 in
2015, assessed the color, antioxidant properties, and antimicrobial capacity of silk after treatment with Rheum emodi, Gardenia
yellow and curcumin extracts. In their approach, silk fabrics were
also post treated with ferrous and ferric salts in order to enhance
color and functional properties. They found that Rheum emodi
and curcumin dyes were more active against Escherichia coli and
Staphylococcus aureus and could be used as promising dyeing
materials for developing health and hygiene based textiles.
■
NAPHTHOQUINONES RICH EXTRACTS
Alpha-naphthoquinones are originated from flowering plants,
usually in the heartwood. They may also occur in leaves, barks,
seeds, and roots. Two prominent dyes of this class which have
been extensively studied are henna and walnut extracts. Oliveira
and co-workers92 reported that aqueous extract of green husk
from walnut is highly active against Gram-positive bacteria.
Walnut green husks have also been used for silk dyeing.93
Mirjalili et al.94 used column chromatography, thin layer
chromatography, NMR, mass spectroscopy, and IR techniques
to report the presence of dyeing compound in walnut shells.
They studied the coloring potential of isolated compound for
polyamide fabrics and its antibacterial activity against Staph2367
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their use in coloration of textile substrates. Tsatsaroni and
Eleftheriadis115 have studied the dyeing of wool and cotton in
presence and absence of metal salts with an aqueous extract of
saffron containing α-crocin as the main colorant species.
Liakopoulou-Kyriakides et al.116 reported the use of enzymes
such as α-amylase and trypsin, in cotton and wool fiber dyeing
with Crocus sativus stigmas extract. Tsatsaroni et al.117
introduced an enzymatic pretreatment in order to enhance
dyeing properties of crocin for cotton and wool fabrics. They
used alpha-amylase, amyloglycosidase, and trypsin for cotton
and wool samples before being dyed with the safron water
extract as well as crocin pigment isolated from its stigmas. It was
observed that the pretreated samples had better dyeing and
fastness properties. Kamel and co-workers118 assessed the dyeing
properties of cotton fabrics with Crocus sativus flower extract
using ultrasound technology. In their research, ultrasound
dyeing results were compared with a traditional boiling method.
They observed that the dyeing of cotton with an aqueous extract
of Crocus sativus flowers using premordanting method in the
presence of ultrasound results in wide range of vivid shades.
Saffron petals were also used along with other natural extracts in
a recent work by Ghaheh et al.43 and it was found that saffron
petals in the presence of aluminum sulfate mordant induces
antibacterial activity to wool against P. aeruginosa, E. coli, and S.
aureus. The antibacterial activity of aluminum sulfate mordanted
samples was 100% retained even after five washes or exposure to
light for 300 min. They concluded that saffron petals and other
colorants offer a promising potential to be used in value added
products such as sportswear, medical textiles, and textiles for
infants.
Likewise, Bixa orellana is another plant belonging to the family
Bixaceae growing in several tropical countries of the world and is
one of the prominent natural dye plant yielding carotenoid type
pigments.119 Its seeds contain yellow pigments called bixin and
nor-bixin. Annatto colorants are extensively used in the food
industry as nontoxic colorants in many food formulations,
including ice cream cheese, sausages, yogurt, and margarine.120
Many research studies have been published regarding their use in
textile dyeing and finishing. Gulrajani and co-workers121 carried
out the dyeing of nylon and polyester with carotenoid dye bixin
and found that the annatto dye gets fixed on nylon via ionic
interactions while as for polyester nonionic forces control the
adsorption. In addition to synthetic fabrics, dyeing potential of
the annatto pigments on wool and silk in the presence and
absence of different metallic salt mordants has been studied by
Dasa et al.122 They concluded that all fastness properties of the
wool and silk fibers premordanted with ferrous sulfate are better
than those of other mordanted samples. Savvidis et al.123
introduced alum pre- and post- treatment in order to increase
annatto adsorption on the surface of cotton. They studied the
effect of mordanting processes, temperatures and pH and
determined the optimum dyeing conditions by evaluating
fastness and color measurement properties of annatto dyed
cotton. In their research study, printing of cotton fabric with
novel water-based digital printing ink using annatto was
performed by flatbed screen-printing technique and it was
observed that annatto has suitable rheological and physical
properties for printing cotton textiles.
Likewise, we applied seed extract of Bixa orellana on wool
along with ammonia, as a post-treatment agent, to study the
colorimetric properties of dyed wool yarns in terms of lightness
(L*), red−yellowness (a*), blue−greenness (b*), chroma (c*),
hue (ho), and color strength (K/S). Our results confirmed that
of lawsone on cotton by irradiating cotton fabric as well as henna
dye powder with irradiation doses of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 kGy using
Cs-137 gamma irradiator. Dev et al.42 investigated the dyeing
and antimicrobial activity of henna dye on wool in presence and
absence of chitosan. The henna extract dyed wool showed good
dyeing and antimicrobial property, however the wool fabric that
was pretreated with chitosan showed improved dye uptakes and
also enhancement in its activity against S. aureus and E. coli. The
antimicrobial mechanism was attributed to the interaction of
positively charged chitosan with negatively charged bacterial
residues which results in disruption of membrane properties and
induces leakage of intracellular substances and finally leads to
eventual death of bacteria.
Yusuf and co-workers46 investigated antibacterial and
antifungal potential of leaves extract of henna before and after
application on wool yarns. They observed that leaves extract of
henna in solution is highly active against common human
pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and
Candida albicans and retains its activity after application on wool
yarns up to several washing cycles. Likewise, in 2015 the same
research group also reported a study for the dyeing of wool yarns
with henna and madder using stannous chloride as a
pretreatment agent. They found that henna dye results in
production of beautiful orange−brown to light yellowish−green
shades on wool with a significant amount of antifungal activity
against Candida glabrata. Furthermore, the shades developed
showed satisfactory fastness properties.111 Figure 4 depicts
chemical structures of some alpha-naphthoquinone coloring
compounds.
Figure 4. Chemical structures of some alpha-naphthoquinone dyes.
■
CAROTENOID RICH EXTRACTS
A large number of carotenoid pigments have been isolated from
various natural sources including plants, fungi, and prokaryotes
to date.112 These include carotenes and xanthophylls.
Carotenoids owe their color to the presence of long conjugated
double bonds in their structures. Over the past few decades,
carotenoid pigments emerge as an attractive alternative/
copartners to synthetic dyes and their application in textile
dyeing and finishing has witnessed huge interest in light of their
environmental friendly attributes and potential dyeing properties.113 Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) has been valued as a source of
natural dye among the promising carotenoid dye yielding plants
which imports yellow or orange hue depending upon the
mordant used. The stigmas of this plant has shown the presence
of more than 150 components including crocin-1 which is the
main dyeing principle belonging to carotenoid group.114 Saffron
stigma extracts have attracted significant scientific attention for
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Figure 5. Chemical structures of some carotenoid dyes.
plant species. Gulrajani et al.125 observed the high affinity of
acrylic fibers with berberine yellow colorant extracted from the
roots of Berberis aristata. They found that berberine produces
yellow shades on acrylic fibers. Because of its cationic nature, it is
worthy to note that berberine has more ionic interaction with
protein fibers such as wool and silk than with cellulosic
substrates. To overcome this problem, Kim and co-workers126
studied the dyeing effects of berberine onto cellulosic fibers that
were pretreated with an anionic agent containing a dichloro-striazinyl reactive group. The anionic agent treated fibers showed
higher dye exhaustion. This was attributed to the creation of
more anionic sites onto the cellulosic substrates which resulted
in more electrostatic interactions with the berberine dye. In a
subsequent publication, Kim and Son127 carried out the dyeing
of cotton with cationic colorant berberine pretreated with same
anionic agent and found that the dyed cotton is highly active
against Staphylococcus aureus. Ravikumar et al.128 studied dyeing
process optimization of polyamide fabrics with berberine
colorant using central composite design method. Aminoddin129
used berberine extracted from Berberis vulgaris wood as a natural
colorant for wool that was previously pretreated with the extract
of roots of Rumex hymenosepolus as a biomordant. The treated
through ammonia post-treatment annatto dyed wool displays a
variety of sober and elegant shades with variation in hue and
tone. Furthermore, shades developed on wool had not changed
after acidification with acetic acid.16 More recently, in 2015,
Chan-Bacab et al.124 reported a study for the dyeing of ordinary
cotton cloth with 23 potential dye bearing plants of Mayan area
Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, and found that out of all the plants
selected only Bixa orellana displayed low toxicity when used
without mordants. They further concluded that there is more
need to search for biological mordants in order to make natural
dyeing more environmental friendly. The chemical structures of
some potential dyes belonging to carotenoid group are shown in
Figure 5.
■
ALKALOID RICH COLORANTS
Alkaloid compounds extracted from medicinal plants have
shown promising results as dyeing materials in textile and other
industries. Berberine which is a quaternary ammonium salt is
one of the extensively studied natural dyes belonging to the
alkaloid class. It is mainly extracted from Berberis vulgaris,
Berberis aquifolium, Berberis aristata, Coptis chinensis, and other
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Figure 6. Chemical structures of some alkaloid natural dyes.
Opuntia ficus-indica. The isolated compounds were utilized as
coloring agents in the dyeing of modified acrylic fabrics and were
found to give deep shades with good fastness properties. More
recently, the same group led by Guesmi employed power
ultrasound to extract betanin natural dye from Opuntia ficusindica plant and to investigate its dyeing properties applied
chlorophyll-a for the first time as pretreatment agent on wool.
They observed encouraging results and found good fastness
properties of dyed wool samples toward washing, light, dry, and
wet rubbing. Guesmi et al.20 also used sonicator for dyeing of
modified acrylic fabrics using indicaxanthin as a natural dye
isolated from fruits of Opuntia ficus-indica. They compared their
results with conventionally dyed samples and found that there
was about 46.62% more dye uptake with ultrasound method.
Figure 6 shows chemical structures of some coloring compounds
falling under alkaloid group.
wool showed acceptable color fastness properties and was highly
active against Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumonia
bacterial strains.
Betalains are other important indole-derived pigments which
have attracted attention for their use in textile dyeing and
finishing. Ali et al.22 extracted betalain pigment from red prickly
pear and studied its dyeing properties on wool. They used a
number of metal salts to develop wash resistant and color fast
shades and observed that betalain dyed wool inhibits the growth
of E. coli, B. subtilus, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus. Maran and
Manikandan130 studied the effect of extraction temperature
(30−50 °C), time (20−120 min), and mass of prickly pear fruit
(0.5−1.5 g) by applying Box−Behnken design under response
surface methodology. At optimum conditions viz 40 °C,
extraction time of 115 min and mass of 1.44 g, they were able
to obtain maximum yield of 13.435 mg/100 g for betacyanin
pigment and 22.2922 mg/100 g for betaxanthin, respectively.
Guesmi et al.131 studied the effect of mordants salts such as KAl
(SO4)2, MnSO4, CoSO4, FeSO4, ZnSO4, and CuSO4 on wool
dyed with indicaxanthin and betanin colorants extracted from
the fruits of Opuntia ficus-indica. They found that indicaxanthin
dyed wool exhibited good fastness properties and that the
premordanting with KAl (SO4)2 and CoSO4 gave good light
fastness properties. Likewise Guesmi et al.132 used UV−vis,
HPLC, and LC−MS techniques to identify betanin and
indicaxanthin dyeing compounds from mature red fruits of
■
CURRENT CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTION
Natural plant extract raw materials have attracted attention and
significant progress has been made over the past few decades in
their reintroduction as coloring agents for different textile
materials. However, most of the current research on natural
colorants from plant extracts is conducted on laboratory scale
and there are many factors impeding its development to pilot
scale.
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however many researchers have investigated that there is no
evidence about the possible toxicity of natural colorants to
animals/humans.142,143 Considering the consumers enhanced
awareness of eco-safety, further research is needed to know more
about antimicrobial mechanisms and toxicity of active dyeing
principles which can be a driving force for scientists to develop
colorful textiles with antimicrobial properties for aesthetic,
medical, and hygienic applications.
One of the constraints is that some heavy metals salts as
mordants are involved in dyeing with vegetable derived colorants
which may be found in dyeing waste waters. Heavy metals have
lethal effects on the environment and human health. Some of the
heavy and red listed metal mordants include copper sulfate,
potassium dichromate, etc.21 This metal mordanting step would
also limit their use in clothing that directly comes in contact with
human skin. To address this issue, more research is needed for
the search of ecofriendly alternatives/copartners to the synthetic
and toxic finishing agents. Recent research in the area of natural
dyeing has shown encouraging results by using natural mordants
derived from some plant species such as Acacia catechu, Emblica
officinalis, Terminalia chubula, Quercus infectoria, Punica granatum, Rumex hymenosepolus, Eurya acuminata, Pyrus pashia, and
Emblica officinalis.13,133,134 Existing studies are confined mainly
to their role in the development of various shades on different
textile substrates; however in-depth work is required on the
antimicrobial activity of biological mordants which can further
boost their role to develop multifunctional textiles on large scale
in the near future.
High production cost of dyes obtained from direct forming is
another possible difficulty to prevent their exploitation on an
industrial scale; a lot of chemicals and energy inputs are involved
in cultivation of dye yielding plant species. For the sake of
sustainability and commercial utilization of natural colorants in
textile industry, a project entitled “Sustainable Production of
Plant-derived Indigo Research & Development” was completed
by European Union in 2004 aimed to introduce the indigo
yielding plants in European agriculture and to make them fit for
modern dye-houses.13,135 A number of other prominent natural
dye plants such as madder, weld, Canadian Golden Rod, Dyer’s
Chamomile, and Dyer’s Knotweed have achieved the agriculture
criteria for sustainable cultivation, besides providing a
worthwhile route to increase the income through harvest and
sale of these agricultural crops.136 To lower the costs involved in
natural colorant production nowadays introduction of dyeing
materials from wastes and byproducts of other industries such as
food, timber, and beverage into textile dyeing and finishing
applications are in demand.21 Scientists are engaged all around
the globe in the process of identifying colorants mainly from
inexpensive raw materials such as peels,29 pressed berries,2
barks,137 shells,138 husks,96 and other distillation residues.139
This approach adds value to wastes, is expected to keep dyeing
industry sustainable, and offers full potential for commercialization in the near future.
Furthermore, in addition to natural colorants, the technologies involved in natural dyeing are being constantly revived in
view to keep dyeing industry sustainable. Recent investigations
on plant derived colorants involve use of some novel pre- and
postsustainable technologies including enzyme treatment,
ammonia treatment, and chitosan treatments for improving
color strength, fastness properties, and other functional
properties.16,25 Additionally, high-energy radiations pretreatments such as gamma, plasma, ultrasonic and ultraviolet which
have the advantages of low energy use and high treatment speed
are nowadays gaining more popularity for sustainable coloration
and functional finishing of textile materials dyed with natural
colorants.140
Also natural colorants are generally considered as safer dyes
because they are mostly isolated from plants that have
traditionally been used to combat various infections and are
endowed with a wide-range of pharmacological activities.97,141
Toxicity data on active dyeing compounds is very limited,
■
CONCLUSION
■
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Plant extracts have been used for coloring of textile substrates
since antiquity. In view of their biodegradable and environmental friendly nature they have been investigated and
reintroduced, once more as coloring and functional agents.
Furthermore, scientists have discovered that natural colorants
result in the production of textile surfaces with novel properties
including antimicrobial activity and have opened new interesting
field for textile and polymer researchers. Despite the notable
progress made in natural dye applications, there is still a long way
to go before colorants from plants can be considered as viable
alternatives/copartners to synthetic counterparts. Plant derived
colorants needs further research on their toxicity, safety, and
quality for commercial utilization.
Corresponding Author
*Phone: +91-9350114878. E-mail: faqeermohammad@
rediffmail.com.
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
Biographies
Shahid-ul-Islam is a doctorial student doing research work in Dr. Faqeer
Mohammad’s group at the Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia
Islamia (Central University), New Delhi, India. His research is focused
on natural colorants, biopolymers, green chemistry, and functional
textiles. He has numerous academic publications in International
journals of high repute to his credit and has also contributed to several
internationally recognized books published by John Wiley & Sons,
Springer, and Studium press LLC. His research papers are cited in wellreputed scientific journals published by Nature, The American
Chemical Society, and The Royal Society of Chemistry. Additionally
two of his papers appeared in ScienceDirect’s Top 25 hottest articles
from the Journal of Cleaner Production in 2013, 2014, and 2015.
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(14) Islam, S. u.; Mohammad, F. Emerging Green Technologies and
Environment Friendly Products for Sustainable Textiles. In Roadmap to
Sustainable Textiles and Clothing; Muthu, S. S., Ed.; Springer: Singapore,
2014; pp 63−82.
(15) Joshi, M.; Ali, S. W.; Purwar, R.; Rajendran, S. Ecofriendly
antimicrobial finishing of textiles using bioactive agents based on natural
products. Indian J. Fibre Text. Res. 2009, 34, 295−304.
(16) Islam, S. u.; Rather, L. J.; Shahid, M.; Khan, M. A.; Mohammad, F.
Study the effect of ammonia post-treatment on color characteristics of
annatto-dyed textile substrate using reflectance spectrophotometery.
Ind. Crops Prod. 2014, 59, 337−342.
(17) Ajmal, M.; Adeel, S.; Azeem, M.; Zuber, M.; Akhtar, N.; Iqbal, N.
Modulation of pomegranate peel colourant characteristics for textile
dyeing using high energy radiations. Ind. Crops Prod. 2014, 58, 188−
193.
(18) Bhatti, I. A.; Adeel, S.; Jamal, M. A.; Safdar, M.; Abbas, M.
Influence of gamma radiation on the colour strength and fastness
properties of fabric using turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) as natural dye.
Radiat. Phys. Chem. 2010, 79, 622−625.
(19) Guesmi, A.; Ladhari, N.; Sakli, F. Ultrasonic preparation of
cationic cotton and its application in ultrasonic natural dyeing. Ultrason.
Sonochem. 2013, 20, 571−579.
(20) Guesmi, A.; Ben hamadi, N.; Ladhari, N.; Sakli, F. Sonicator
dyeing of modified acrylic fabrics with indicaxanthin natural dye. Ind.
Crops Prod. 2013, 42, 63−69.
(21) Shahid, M.; Shahid ul, I.; Mohammad, F. Recent advancements in
natural dye applications: a review. J. Cleaner Prod. 2013, 53, 310−331.
(22) Ali, N. F.; El-Mohamedy, R. S. R. Eco-friendly and protective
natural dye from red prickly pear (Opuntia Lasiacantha Pfeiffer) plant. J.
Saudi Chem. Soc. 2011, 15, 257−261.
(23) Ludin, N. A.; Al-Alwani Mahmoud, A. M.; Bakar Mohamad, A.;
Kadhum, A. A. H.; Sopian, K.; Abdul Karim, N. S. Review on the
development of natural dye photosensitizer for dye-sensitized solar
cells. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 2014, 31, 386−396.
(24) Adeel, S.; Bhatti, I. A.; Kausar, A.; Osman, E. Influence of UV
radiations on the extraction and dyeing of cotton fabric with Curcuma
longa L. Indian J. Fibre Text. Res. 2012, 37 (1), 87−90.
(25) Vankar, P. S.; Shanker, R. Ecofriendly ultrasonic natural dyeing of
cotton fabric with enzyme pretreatments. Desalination 2008, 230, 62−
69.
(26) Vankar, P. S.; Shanker, R.; Srivastava, J. Ultrasonic dyeing of
cotton fabric with aqueous extract of Eclipta alba. Dyes Pigm. 2007, 72
(1), 33−37.
(27) Vankar, P. S.; Shanker, R.; Verma, A. Enzymatic natural dyeing of
cotton and silk fabrics without metal mordants. J. Cleaner Prod. 2007,
15, 1441−1450.
(28) Vankar, P. S.; Shanker, R.; Dixit, S.; Mahanta, D.; Tiwari, S. C.
Sonicator dyeing of modified cotton, wool and silk with Mahonia
napaulensis DC. and identification of the colorant in Mahonia. Ind.
Crops Prod. 2008, 27, 371−379.
(29) Hou, X.; Chen, X.; Cheng, Y.; Xu, H.; Chen, L.; Yang, Y. Dyeing
and UV-protection properties of water extracts from orange peel. J.
Cleaner Prod. 2013, 52, 410−419.
(30) Grifoni, D.; Bacci, L.; Di Lonardo, S.; Pinelli, P.; Scardigli, A.;
Camilli, F.; Sabatini, F.; Zipoli, G.; Romani, A. UV protective properties
of cotton and flax fabrics dyed with multifunctional plant extracts. Dyes
Pigm. 2014, 105, 89−96.
(31) Grifoni, D.; Bacci, L.; Zipoli, G.; Albanese, L.; Sabatini, F. The
role of natural dyes in the UV protection of fabrics made of vegetable
fibres. Dyes Pigm. 2011, 91, 279−285.
(32) Zhang, B.; Wang, L.; Luo, L.; King, M. W. Natural dye extracted
from Chinese gall − the application of color and antibacterial activity to
wool fabric. J. Cleaner Prod. 2014, 80, 204−210.
(33) Baliarsingh, S.; Panda, A. K.; Jena, J.; Das, T.; Das, N. B. Exploring
sustainable technique on natural dye extraction from native plants for
textile: identification of colourants, colourimetric analysis of dyed yarns
and their antimicrobial evaluation. J. Cleaner Prod. 2012, 37, 257−264.
(34) Islam, S.-u.; Shahid, M.; Mohammad, F. Future Prospects of
Phytosynthesized Transition Metal Nanoparticles as Novel Functional
Faqeer Mohammad is Senior Assistant Professor in the Department of
Chemistry, at Jamia Millia Islamia, (A Central University), New Delhi,
India. He received his M.Sc, M.Phil., and Ph.D in 1975, 1979, and 1982,
respectively, from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, UP, India.
During his Ph.D. he was awarded with JRF and SRF Research
Fellowships from UGC and CSIR. He has published numerous research
articles, reviews, and book chapters all in the journals of international
repute. He has until now supervised 20 graduate M.Sc and 4 Ph.D
thesis. His research interests are in the field of natural dyes and their
applications.
■
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Shahid-ul-Islam is grateful to University Grants Commission,
Govt. of India for providing research fellowship through Basic
Meritorious Fellowship for Science students.
■
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