LEARNING AND TEACHING GUIDE
On
Critical Thinking
Dr Teresa Leopold, University of Sunderland
Dr Philip Vickerman, Liverpool John Moores University
This series of Subject Specific Guides has been commissioned and funded by the
Higher Education Academy Network for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism
Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Biographies
Dr Teresa Leopold
Teresa has been lecturing in tourism related programmes in New Zealand as well as England
and is currently Senior Lecturer at the University of Sunderland, UK. Teresa is committed to
Higher Education as an active researcher and is engaged in various individual and
collaborative research projects. In particular, she is interested in the pedagogic development
of tourism curricula with particular focus given to the concept of critical thinking in academia.
Dr Philip Vickerman
Philip is Professor of Inclusive Education and Learning and Head of Research for Physical
Education, Sport, Dance and Outdoor Education in the Faculty of Education, Community and
Leisure at Liverpool John Moores University. Philip’s research interests focus around the
training of Physical Education teachers for the inclusion of children with special educational
needs. In addition to research and conference papers, he has advised agencies such as the
DFES on best practice training materials for trainee and qualified PE teachers.
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Contents
Introduction
5
Guide Structure
5
What is Critical Thinking?
6
Defining Critical Thinking
6
Reflection
7
Thinking Skills
7
Personal Development, Experience and Social Situation
7
Learning Outcomes and Assessment Setting
8
Placing Critical Thinking within the Tourism Context
9
Case Study 1: Reflective Engagement
11
Synopsis
Case Study 2: Critical Reading and Writing
11
13
Synopsis
13
Implications for Teaching and Learning
13
Assessment Tips
13
Suggestions for the Development of Assessment Tasks
13
Case Study 3: Reflective Writing
Synopsis
Case Study 4: Learning Journals
15
15
16
Synopsis
16
Advantages of Learning Journals
16
Case Study 5: Peer Learning
17
Synopsis
17
Advantages of Peer Assessment
17
Disadvantages of Peer Assessment
17
Case Study 6: Argument Maps
18
Synopsis
18
Structure of an Argument Map
18
Advantages of Argument Maps
18
Case Study 7: Debate
19
Synopsis
19
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Advantages
19
Debating Tips
19
Case Study 8: Experimental Learning
20
Synopsis
20
Advantages
20
Activities
20
References
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Introduction
Since the 1980s, critical thinking has become a buzz word in educational studies (Fisher
2001), embedded within institutional objectives and curricula development (Potts 1994), and
is seen as a product of liberal undergraduate education (Greenlaw and DeLoach 2003).
However, all to often institutions and teachers merely convey subject content knowledge with
little attention given to underlying thinking concepts. From a teaching perspective there is the
need to encourage critical thinking among students and recognise it as a complex way to
examine students’ process of thinking. This seems particularly relevant in today’s learning
and teaching environment where academic accountability, students’ employability and
graduate marks seem to direct the future of many institutions. However, this implies HE
teachers’ awareness of the complexities of critical thinking. Moon (2008:134) argues, “[s]taff
knowledge and development have a key crucial role in fostering critical thinking”. Thus, this
subject guide aims at being a supplement for teachers in HLST to become involved in a wider
critical thinking debate. In addition, some practical applications of teaching methods to
encourage critical thinking among tertiary students are introduced. To facilitate its adoption,
this subject guide opens up a wider debate and awareness of critical thinking within HLST
curricula and will help teachers as well as students.
Guide structure
This guide aims to provide an introduction to the notion of critical thinking through an overview
of related concepts, activities and case study exercises. It is divided into two main parts, with
the first part exploring reflection, thinking skills, personal development and experience,
learning outcomes and assessment settings, their relevance and cohesion with critical
thinking. The second part introduces the reader to eight case studies of teaching and learning
activities, which are aimed at informing critical thinking.
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is a complex and dynamic process that encourages different thinking skills, all
of which can inform deep learning (Biggs 2003; Ramsden 2003) and complex learning
(Elander et al. 2006). Both, deep and complex learning, reflect a learning process where a
deep approach intend to understand the topic or subject matter is taken through questioning,
researching, comparing and contrasting of the familiar and unfamiliar (Biggs 2003; Ramsden
2003). Thinking skills form the basis for developing critical subject content knowledge as,
regardless of the actual subject areas, the development and furthering of thinking skills lead
to a more critical and thus advanced understanding of one’s subject (Van den Brink-Budgen
2000). In other words, critical thinking is a continued questioning of one’s own understanding
of what to believe and do (Ennis 1987; Tierney et al. 1989).
Defining Critical Thinking
Numerous definitions exist which frame critical thinking. Presenting a defining statement of
critical thinking is difficult as it presents different meanings for different people and can be
explored using different approaches, such as logic, development approaches, pedagogic
approaches etc. (Moon 2008). Thus, in order to develop a synopsis of what critical thinking is,
there is the need to explore components of different critical thinking definitions.
The complexity of critical thinking becomes further apparent when exploring a variety of
different definitions (such as Ennis 1985; Brookfield 1987; Paul 1995, cited in Walker
2003:264; Cottrell 2005). Critical thinking thus becomes an umbrella term for different
elements, which can include reflection, different thinking skills, personal development through
experience and social situations. These are now looked at in more detail below:
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Reflection
Critical thinking is closely linked to reflective thinking (Fisher 2001; Moon 2008) so that
Dewey’s (1903, cited in Fisher 2001:2) exploration of reflective thinking still presents a
foundational work for many critical thinking definitions. It defines reflective thinking as
“[a]ctive, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in
the light of the grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey
1903:9, cited in Fisher 2001:2). Comparing Dewey’s definition to other critical thinking
definitions, clear links can be drawn between reflective and critical thinking. In other words,
critical and reflective thinking are active and systematic processes, which explore different
reasons, consider potential implications, influenced by individual’s attitudes (Rodgers 2002;
Fisher 2001). Please note that reflective thinking and writing is also referred to in Case Study
two.
Thinking Skills
Different thinking skills exist, many of which underline definitions of critical thinking, such as
reasoning, recognising, arguing, interpreting, summarising etc., as they can be used to
“manipulate knowledge” through the analysis and questioning of existing knowledge to inform
new knowledge (Moon 2008). Thus, whether critical thinking is taught in a direct or indirect
way, the argument can be made that students engage in various thinking skills which
constitute critical thinking. A closely related concept is Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956), which
argues for a development of different thinking levels (ranging from pure knowledge gain to
evaluation). This is further explored in case study one, which provides an overview of Duron
et al.’s (2006) five step model aimed at encouraging critical thinking through active
involvement in lectures.
Personal Development, Experience and Social Situation
Approaching critical thinking as development process presents it with a longitudinal
dimension, which acknowledges a person’s past and encourages development through
construction of past and new knowledge (Moon 2008). This approach of critical thinking is
closely interlinked with cognitive constructivism and experiential learning in that it sees a
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
person’s knowledge development through questioning of past knowledge and experiences. In
other words, it is particularly one’s construction of knowledge through experiences, social
situation and background, which needs to be questioned to ensure critical thinking to occur.
Placing this within the HE context, there is a need for teacher’s to recognize students’
assumptions, knowledge and beliefs through acknowledgement of their individual pasts. This
can be achieved in different ways, some of which are explored in the following case studies.
Learning Outcomes and Assessment Setting
There are a number of ways to encourage critical thinking among learners, such as
challenging students to think beyond their comfort zone (King & Kitchener 1994; Moon 2008),
the provision of a positive and encouraging class room environment (Moon 2008), the setting
of clear learning outcomes and using assessments as a way to not only encourage learning
but also critical thinking (Moon 2008). Donald (1992:428) argues that, “if we are to promote
thinking in our students, our teaching strategies must reflect that intention”, which includes the
development of appropriate learning outcomes and assessment setting.
Setting intended learning outcomes is crucial, which is reflected in Biggs and Tang’s
(2007:60) statement: “The intended learning outcomes are central to the whole system. Get
them right and the decisions as to how they are to be taught and how they may be assessed
follows”. Different approaches exist with regard to curriculum structure and the setting of
learning outcomes, such as constructive alignment of teaching, learning and assessment
(Biggs and Tang 2007). This approach follows four stages:
1.
Describe the intended learning outcome in the form of a verb (learning activity),
its object (the content) and specify the context and a standard the students are
to attain
2.
Create a learning environment using teaching/learning activities that address
that verb and therefore are likely to bring about the intended outcome.
3.
Use assessment tasks that also contain that verb, thus enabling you to judge
with the help of rubrics if and how well students’ performances meet the criteria.
4.
Transform these judgments into standard grading criteria.
(Biggs and Tang 2007:54f)
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Such an interlinked and aligned approach to teaching, learning and assessment within a
module is crucial as, to encourage autonomic learning, expectations have to be clearly
articulated and students have to gain an understanding of why they are given a certain
assessment method (Ramsden 2003). In other words, learning outcomes should encourage
and reflect students’ ability to think critically. Even though the subject content is linked to the
learning outcomes, it is important that skills are recognised, particularly as a transfer of skills
“is most likely to occur when a person understands the underlying principles” (Brown et al.
1997:35), which could be presented through learning outcomes.
While a variety of reasons exist for assessing students, providing formative feedback and
summative grading are the two most prominent rationales, though both have different
underlying purposes (Biggs and Tang 2007). Formative assessment provides students with
feedback during the teaching and learning process, with the aim to improve one or both
aspects. Differently, summative assessment is used to grade students’ performance and
learning. Various assessment methods are discussed as tools to encourage critical thinking
below, such as student peer assessments, debating etc.. All of them can be applied as both
formative and summative assessments. However, whether an assessment method
encourages critical thinking largely derives from assessment criteria (Elander et al. 2006) and
feedback (Gibbs et al. 2003). In other words, assessment criteria and the quality, quantity and
timing of feedback all determine whether an assessment supports learning (Gibbs et al.
2003).
Placing Critical Thinking within the Tourism Context
Research on tourism education over the last decade has often been informed by the
interdisciplinary nature of tourism programmes and can be largely divided into curriculum
design (such as Tribe 2002; Cooper 2002; Inui et al. 2006; Zehrer and Mössenlechner 2008),
students’ employability (see Hjalager 2003) and the programmes’ link to the industry (such as
Zehrer and Mössenlechner 2008; Conceição and Skibba 2008; Lee 2008). Thus, the result
might be that even though thinking skills are taught, these are often not recognised enough
due to a focus on repeated subject content rather than reasoning processes (Van Courland
Moon 1986). The following case studies provide different examples of teaching and learning
approaches aimed at encouraging critical thinking.
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
To conclude, the above discussion has discussed different dimensions of critical thinking,
such as cognitive learning, underlying thinking skills and the role of an individual’s knowledge,
experience and understanding of critical thinking. However, these dimensions are interlinked
with each other, which provides for the complexity of critical thinking.
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Case Study 1: Reflective Engagement
Synopsis:
Critical and reflective thinking are closely linked so that reflective enquiry can be seen as a
key skill of critical thinking (Fisher 2001; Moon 2008). Thus, both critical thinking and
reflection is a meaning-making process and requires active engagement of the learner
(Rodgers 2001; Rodger 2002; Duron et al. 2006). Based on the need for students to take
charge of their learning, Duron et al. (2006) developed a five-step model aimed at
encouraging critical thinking through active involvement in lectures (see Figure 2).
-
-
Step 1: Determine learning objectives
Define behaviours students should exhibit
Target behaviours in higher order thinking
Step 5: Provide feedback and
assessment of learning
Provide feedback to students
Create opportunities for selfassessment
Utilise feedback to improve instruction
Step 3: Practice before you assess
Choose activities that promote
active learning
Utilize all components of active
learning
-
Step 2:Teach through questioning
Develop appropriate questions
Employ questioning techniques
Encourage interactive discussion
-
Step 4: Review, refine and improve
Monitor class activities
Collect feedback from students
Figure 2: 5-step Model to Move Students toward Critical Thinking (Duron et al. 2006)
As illustrated in Figure 2, to start the process of critical thinking among students and teachers,
key learning objectives for a particular module have to be clearly defined. Ideally, these
should reflect critical thinking skills such as analysing, summarising, arguing etc. Step two
within the process focuses on the need to explore topics via well-phrased and purposeful
questions, which encourage student engagement with the topic. Step three calls for active
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
learning through assessment practices such as reflective dialogue, discussion of primary and
secondary sources and other critical thinking activities. This should be underlined by
continued evaluation and refinement of courses through teacher reflection and student
feedback, identified as Step 4. The final step refers to the provision of feedback regarding
students’ assessments and learning processes. Duron et al. (2006) conclude that following
these steps would encourage commitment to active learning processes, also in large groups.
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Case Study 2: Critical Reading and Writing
Synopsis:
Critical writing and reading underline most assessment techniques in higher education.
Tierney et al. (1989) explore the notion whether a combination of both activities, critical
reading and critical writing, would lead to more critical thinking than engagement with only
one of these activities. Empirical data shows that a combination of reading and writing can
encourage students to extend their thinking and question their reasoning processes (Tierney
et al. 1989).
Implications for Teaching and Learning:
•
Focus should be given to the reasoning and thought processes of students with regard
to various critical thinking activities such as questioning, debating, discussing etc.
•
Acknowledgment of the reflexive nature of thinking with consideration given to time and
contextual features of students’ thinking processes
•
Recognition of the dialectic nature of reading and writing
Assessment Tips
•
A combination of critical reading and writing activities should be incorporated into each
module to encourage students’ exploration of a topic
•
Critical reading and writing exercises should acknowledge critical thinking as a
development process, which incorporates different thinking skills e.g. summarising,
arguing, discussing. Thus, assessments could be built upon each other as this
encourages reflection and exploration:
Suggestions for the Development of Assessment Tasks
Please note that this could/should be a combination of formative and summative
assessments:
1. Students are asked to write an annotated bibliography of a certain topic
2. Students are asked to write a critical summary based on the annotated bibliography
3. In groups, students are asked to discuss, compare and contrast their summaries
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
4. Students are asked to submit a reflective document regarding how their thought
processes have developed
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Case Study 3: Reflective Writing
Synopsis:
As discussed above, critical thinking is closely linked to reflective thinking (Fisher 2001; Moon
2008), which should thus be encouraged and acknowledged in teaching and learning
techniques. Sharples (1999: 7) developed the following figure to illustrate the “engagement
and reflection that forms the cognitive engine of writing”.
Contemplate
Form ideas, explore and transform conceptual spaces
REFLECTION
Interpret
Review and interpret the
written material
Figure 1: The
Specify
Select and organise ideas
and language
cycle of engagement
ENGAGEMENT
Generate
Produce written
text
and reflection in writing (Sharples
1999)
This figure clearly shows how different thinking skills, such as selecting, specifying,
interpreting and contemplating are part of a reflective thinking process. While different
assessment methods have been explored with relation to encouraging reflective thinking
processes, for the purpose of this subject guide, learning journals are discussed as
pedagogical tool to promote learning (Moon 2006).
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Case Study 4: Learning Journals
Synopsis:
A learning journal encourages a learner to reflect on his/her social and subject-specific
consciousness through different activities, such as set questions, development frameworks,
argument mapping (this is further explored in case study six) (Moon 2006). This type of
assessment can be used for different reasons such as project development, experiential
learning and personal development planning as it centres on learners’ reflection and thus
aims at enhancing critical thinking. In other words, through an accumulation of existing and
new knowledge, learners are encouraged to develop a cognitive structure of a particular
subject matter (Moon 2006).
Advantages of Learning Journals
•
Learning journals encourage learners to reflect and think and thus learn independently
•
Learning journals can lead to an increased sense of ownership of a learner’s
development and thought processes
•
Learning journals encourage writers to acknowledge their emotional involvement and
feeling in learning
•
Learning journals can challenge learners to deal “with ill-structured material of learning”
•
Learning journals can encourage a greater awareness of the process of learning
•
Learning journals “enhance learning through the process of writing”
(Moon 2006:26)
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Case Study 5: Peer Learning
Synopsis:
Peer assessment learning provides students with the opportunity to share their learning
experiences through an exchange and discussion of feedback (Vickerman 2008). It is often
seen as a tool to encourage students’ active involvement in and awareness of their learning
and thinking processes and thus advocates student-centre learning and critical thinking
(Macpherson 1999). However, peer learning assessment requires supportive tutors and clear
assessment guidelines (Lindblom et al. 2006). Vickerman (2008: 2, adapted from Race 1998
and Zariski 1996) summarised various potential advantages and disadvantages of peer
assessment (see below).
Advantages of Peer Assessment
•
Greater sense of autonomy and ownership of assessment, which encourages
motivation
•
Students are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning and development
process
•
Clear focus on learning so that peer assessment tasks are seen as opportunities rather
than failures
•
Peer assessment encourages development of transferrable skills
•
Recognition and awareness of the process of learning
•
Peer assessment leads to deep learning
Disadvantages of Peer Assessment
•
Validity and reliability of peer assessment has to be taken into consideration
•
Students’ inexperience in marking has to be considered
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Case Study 6: Argument Maps
Synopsis:
Mind or argument maps are tools to help learners construct, deconstruct and reconstruct
arguments. In other words, they encourage cognitive learning processes through an
exploration of reasons. Computer software has been developed, such as Reason!Able, which
provides clear layouts to help learners rearrange and reflect on arguments as well as add new
knowledge (Twardy 2004).
Structure of an Argument Map
Argument maps reflect different claims related to an argument, where “arguments constitute a
body of evidence in relation to some proposition (an idea that is true or false)” (Van Gelder
2005:4). These claims can be presented in a diagram format and arranged depending on
whether or not they present reasons for a particular believe, with one end of the map
presenting the final conclusion of an argument (Twardy 2004). Thus, a map is produced
which illustrates why a particular conclusion was reached by clearly outlining its reasons and
objections. Critical thinking is stimulated as argument maps encourage learners to question
truth claims, which thus leads to cognitive development (Van Gelder 2005; Harrell 2007).
Advantages of Argument Maps (Van Gelder 2005)
•
Reasoning process are clearly laid out, which allows students to focus on questioning
and thinking processes
•
Learners can more easily recognise areas, which still need to be explored to justify a
conclusion
•
The layout of argument maps encourages learners’ understanding of critical thinking
procedures
•
Argument maps encourage a comprehensive understanding of learners’ thought
processes and enables teachers to provide detailed and effective feedback
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Case Study 7: Debate
Synopsis:
Following on from various critical thinking aspects discussed before, and with particular
reference to critical thinking as a process in which one questions the own understanding,
debate is now introduced as a critical thinking assessment. Debates encourage the learner to
not only employ different thinking skills, such as questioning, arguing, judging, reasoning,
clarifying and evaluating, but also active participation of the learner. Thus, debating introduce
learners to an assessment technique or classroom activity, which goes beyond memorisation
of facts to encourage thinking on the spot (Halonen and Gray 2001).
Advantages:
•
Debate encourages usage of different thinking skills
•
Debate allows for learners’ individuality
•
Debates encourage students to present their own understanding of a topic and thus
allows for deep learning experiences
•
Students develop their verbal communication skills
(Coogan and Pawson 2006; Alford and Surdu 2002)
Debating Tips:
•
Debates can be organized based on different sources such as:
o case study scenarios e.g. debatable community development where students are
divided into different stakeholder groups
o academic papers e.g. all students read an article, which is then discussed in
class; then different reasons and propositions are formulated which are allocated
to the various groups, which then have to collect information to strengthen their
arguments
•
Assessment should focus on various aspects such as argument and debate content,
strategic presentation of arguments, verbal communication skills and argument style
(Coogan and Pawson 2006)
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
Case Study 8: Experiential Learning
Synopsis:
Fieldtrips and experiential learning activities encourage critical thinking as one’s construction
of knowledge is challenged and informed by new social experiences and understandings.
This is closely related to cognitive constructivism in that learners actively construct concepts
based on their past and new knowledge and experiences (Stewart 2004). Experiential
learning refers “to a spectrum of meanings, practices and ideologies which emerge out of the
work and commitments of policy makers, educators, trainers, change agents, and ‘ordinary’
people all over the world” (Weil and McGill 1989:3). In other words, an individual’s
experiences inform the construction of his/her knowledge, while acknowledging that each
individual’s experiential learning has diverse meanings as situational challenges (such as in
personal life, education etc.) impact and define these experiences (Weil and McGill 1989).
Thus, Train and Elkin (2001) argue that learning is most effective when grounded on
experiential learning experiences.
Advantages:
•
Situational experiences, which provide students with a critical understanding of
contextual situations
•
Learning of transferrable skills such as leadership and adoption of change
•
Deep learning experiences through a combination of industry experience and
application of classroom learning
•
Identification and achieving of individual learning outcomes associated with
experiential learning
Activities:
•
Work based learning placement – students experience day to day activity within an
industry setting
•
Project-focused work placement – students gain industry experience by working on a
specific project within an industry setting
•
Short term Fieldtrip – to provide students with a contextual meaning of a certain
subject area
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
•
Long term Fieldtrip – to provide students with a longitudinal experiential learning
situation to encourage application of classroom knowledge
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Learning and Teaching Guide: Critical Thinking
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