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THE MAKING OF GREEN MALAYSIA: BUILDING, NEIGHBOURHOOD, CITY,
REGION AND NATION
Teh Bor Tsong* and Ho Chin Siong
Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
*Corresponding author: tehbortsong@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Global climate is changing; the green dimension of sustainable development particularly in
addressing carbon emission has now becoming the imperative agenda for all countries to pursue. On
the United Nation Climate Change Conference 2009 in Copenhagen (COP 15), Malaysia was
committed to reduce its 40% carbon emission intensity. Subsequent to the national aspiration, many
efforts have been done by Malaysian governments, professional bodies and research institutions in
promoting sustainable low carbon built environment. They are in the form of policy, strategy,
development framework, design guide, assessment and rating tool focusing and looking at the different
spatial level of national settings. This paper presents an overview on the various green initiatives in
Malaysia. Discussion will be focused on green building index, green neighborhood planning guideline,
GBI township tool, low carbon cities framework and assessment system and low carbon society
scenarios.
Keywords: green building, green neighborhood, sustainable township, low carbon city, low carbon
society
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia is a fast developing country situated at the heart of Southeast Asia. Since the
independence from British colonial on 1957, the nation has experienced rapid economic development,
industrialization, urbanization and population growth. Its economy was once exclusively based on
agricultural, forestry and mineral commodities. Today, manufacturing and service based industries are
the major source of the country‘s revenue. The gross domestic product (GDP) in 2010 was 159 billion
USD and estimated continually rose up to 276 billion UDS on year 2020.
With the steady economy development and adequate provision of infrastructures and
facilities, the population and urbanization in Malaysia is growing on a fast rate. The current 28.3
million populations in 2010 were tripled from the number of population in 1970 and will increase to
34 million in 2020. Besides, the 71% urban population in 2010 was also tripled from the 27% urban
population in 1970 and it is anticipated to go up to 80% in year 2020. Population growth along with
fast pace urbanization and industrialization has raised the resource consumption and waste generation
and creating greater pressure on the environment. As Table 1 illustrates the trend of the CO 2 emission
is on sharp increase with the economy, urbanization and population growth. Figure 1 shows Malaysia
come after Vietnam had the second highest growth rate of CO2 emissions in the world from 1990 2006. Its record 7.9% Compounded Average Growth Rate (CAGR) of CO2 Emission.
Table 1: Gross domestic product, population growth, urbanization rate and CO2 emission in
1970 - 2020, Malaysia. [12, 13, 14]
Year
Gross Domestic Product (billion USD)
Population (million)
Urban : Rural (%)
CO2 Emission (million ton)
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
4
25
44
94
159
276
10.8
13.7
18.4
23.3
28.3
34.0
27 : 73
34 : 66
51 : 49
62 : 38
71 : 29
80 : 20
14.6
28.9
59.5
126.5
194.3
328.0
(Year 2007)
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Figure 1: Malaysia Compounded Average Growth Rate, CAGR of CO2 Emission in 1990 - 2006 and
share of 2006 Global CO2 Emission. [15]
In view of the need to address climate change for the future well-being of the planet and
humanity, Malaysian government has made a conditional commitment in COP 15 to reduce 40% of
CO2 emission intensity by the year 2020 as compared with its 2005 levels. In line with national
aspiration in cutting down CO2 emission, many parties from government, profession bodies and
research institutions have actively produced various documents outlining policy and guideline to
reduce CO2 emission. Despite the fact that, there is an abundance of documents available on the
development frameworks to guide and encourage green, sustainable and low carbon development. Yet
until now, there is lack of concerted attempt to provide linkages between them and give a big picture
on the green agenda in Malaysia.
For that reason, this paper explores and presents a summary on the various green initiatives
in Malaysia. It is hope that this paper could provide the basic on the current knowledge and better idea
of sustainable environment in Malaysia.
THE PATHWAY TO ECONATION
National Commitment in Sustainable Development and Global Warming
In the 20th and 21st Centuries, there are mainly two major waves of global environmental
challenges have arise. The first wave is the first remarkable ecological event in the global awareness
history, it was back to 1972 where United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in
Stockholm. The wave was much dealing with the local and in relation to the water and air pollution as
well as toxic and hazardous wastes from industrialization faced by the developed nations. Though,
Malaysia was new to the environmental issues in comparing to the developed nation, yet the lessons
from the event have much diffuse into the country particularly with regarding to the importance of
environment to human. The Protection of Wildlife Act was enacted in 1972, it empowered the
Department of Wildlife and National Parks to manage wildlife reserves on public as well as private
land (within protected areas). Besides, the Environmental Quality Act (EQA), passed in 1974, focusing
on pollution control, provides a legal framework at the federal level and is enforceable throughout the
nation. Two years later in 1976, Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment was formed in
Malaysia.
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First Wave
Second Wave
Figure 2: Commitments of Malaysia to the global environmental issues. [10, 16, 17, 18]
In contrast with the first wave, the second wave which occurs in the late 20 th and early 21st
century now was a direct response to global ecological challenges, such as loss of biodiversity and
global warming. It came in the aftermath of the Brundtland Report in 1987, Rio Summit in 1992,
Kyoto Protocol (Conference of the Parties III) in 1997, Johannesburg Earth Summit in 2002 and the
recent Conference of the Parties XV in Copenhagen, 2010 have bringing in its wake the worldwide
spread of new or revised institutional arrangements for effective environmental protection, with its
new focus on the concept of sustainable development and climate change. In seriously dealing with the
environmental issues, Malaysia has boosted its efforts in promoting greater sustainability over the two
decade. National Environment Policy was established during 1992, it was the national commitment on
sustainable development and local agenda 21 to Rio Summit. The policy was again revised in 2002
into National Policy on the Environment after the Johannesburg Earth Summit. It became more
comprehensive and has provided basics for the nation to integrate the sustainable principles into
development plans and guidelines. Various environment protection strategies and infrastructural
enhancements have been implementing through Malaysia Plan, state structure plans, district local
plans and other development plans. On the other hand, for the case of greenhouse gases engage in
Kyoto Protocol, as a developing country, Malaysia has no quantitative commitments. Yet, Malaysia
has begun to formulate, implement, publish and regularly update national and, where appropriate,
regional programs containing measures to mitigate climate change. In the period of 2004 – present,
attaining sustainability had becoming more and more pertinent in Malaysia. In 2005, National Physical
Plan set up a spatial framework for the general direction of physical development for the nation.
Besides, Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment has been reshuffle to Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment and Ministry of Energy, Technology and Water to effectively
addressing ecological issues and climate change challenges. Thereafter COP 15, the first quantitative
commitment by Malaysia gives great momentum in the promotion of sustainability, particularly
through climatic change related policy, green development guideline and carbon assessment tool.
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SUSTAINABILITY THE MALAYSIA WAY
At present, they are seven documents were founded in encouraging the green developments
in Malaysia. They are namely; national green technology policy, national policy on climate change,
low carbon cities framework and assessment system, green neighborhood planning guideline, green
building index, green building index township tool and low carbon society scenarios. Each of these
frameworks is looking at different element, strategy and spatial context of built environment.
Figure 3: Existing key documents in facilitating the national response to climate change.
[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11]
National Green Technology Policy [9]
National green technology policy was founded by Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and
Water (KeTTHa) and launched in 2009. It is a policy statement in which green technology as a driver
to accelerate the national economy particular through green technology industries and promotion of
sustainable development. The policy is built upon on four pillars of energy, environment, economy and
social. According to the ministry, green technology is define as the development and application of
products, equipment, and systems used to conserve the natural environment and resources, which
minimizes and reduces the negative impact of human activities. To achieve the goal, it seek to enhance
the energy supply and demand side through the green technology; adaptation of the green technology
in building construction, management, maintenance and demolition; application of technology in the
management and utilization of water resources, waste water treatment, solid waste and sanitary
landfill; and incorporation of green technology in transportation infrastructure and vehicles. In
nurturing the growth green technology in energy, building, water and waste management and
transportation, the policy will implement the following five strategies of strengthening the institutional
framework; provide conducive environment for green technology development; intensify human
capital development in green technology; intensify green technology research and innovations and last
but not least the promotion of public awareness.
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National Policy on Climate Change [11]
In ensuring the climate-resilient development to fulfill national aspiration for sustainability,
Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment together with the support from Institute of
Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangasaan Malaysia has develop national
policy on climate change. It was approved by Cabinet Malaysia on 2009. The policy is
comprehensively design to include both adaptation and mitigation approaches. In the policy,
adaptation refers to actions taken to help communities and ecosystems cope with actual or expected
impacts of climate change. On the other hand, mitigation refers to actions taken to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions, which is the one of the main causes of global warming and enhance carbon sinks to
reduce the impacts of climate change. Thus, the national policy on climate change aim to optimize the
management of resources and environment conservation; integrate the responses into national policies,
plans and programs and strengthen the institution and implementation capacity. The ten strategies
which will taken by the policy are harmonize the existing policies to address climate change, low
carbon economy, support climate resilient development and investment, implement balance measures
of adaptation and mitigation, consolidate the energy policy, institutionalize measures to integrate
cross-cutting issues, support knowledge-based decision making, collaboration improvement, increase
awareness and community participation and strengthen involvement in international programs.
Low Carbon Cities Framework and Assessment System [10]
The low carbon cities framework and assessment system is a framework and assessment tool
to assist local authorities, developers and designers in assessing whether development carried out
within the city contributes towards reduction or increment in greenhouse gases (GHG) and the
roadmap design towards the measurable emission target. It was developed by Ministry of Energy,
Green Technology and Water Malaysia with supported from Malaysia Green Technology Corporation
and Malaysian Institute of Planners on 2011. The assessment will be performance based and according
to four main elements namely; urban environment, urban transportation, urban infrastructure and
buildings. Within these four main elements, they are fifteen performance criteria and forty two sub
criteria. During the stakeholders‘ discussion in the process of framework design, they are allowed to
decide either a city based approach or a one system approach. The framework and assessment tool
identify a city based approach is the scheme where it enables local government to lead a development
process that takes into account their specific circumstances including their local ecology. Meanwhile, a
one system approach is another scheme enables cities to realize the benefits of integration by planning,
designing and managing the whole urban system. The low carbon cities framework and assessment
system is currently evaluating on Putrajaya and Cyberjaya.
Green Neighborhood Planning Guideline (Draft) [8]
The green neighborhood planning guideline is a basic planning guideline for state and local
government to formulate the policies, strategies and regulation to promote the development of green
neighborhood. Besides, the document provides design guidance for building and property industries to
develop green neighborhood. It was developed by Federal Department of Town and Country Planning,
Ministry of Housing and Local Government Malaysia. To build green neighborhood, the guideline has
outlined eight planning principles and ten general guidelines. Yet, it is still a draft and under preparation.
Green Building Index [6, 7, 19, 20, 21]
Green building is a kind of building focuses on the resource efficiency of energy, water and
materials, while reducing impact on human health and environment during the building lifecycle,
through better sitting, design, construction, operation, maintenance and removal. The green building
index (GBI) is green rating tool to promote the sustainability at buildings. GBI was developed by
Green Building Index Sdn Bhd, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Malaysian Institute of Architects and
Association of Consulting Engineers Malaysia . The GBI certification process start with an assessment
of the building design by a certifier appointed by Green Building Index Sdn Bhd. The assessment is
based on the six main criteria of; energy efficiency, indoor environment quality, sustainable site
planning and management, materials and resources, water efficiency and innovation. Different
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typologies of buildings and constructions have different set of scores for the criteria above (Table 2).
There are three diverse categories of buildings namely residential, non-residential and industrial. For
each category, it has further divided into new construction (new) and retrofitting (existing).
Depending on the scores achieved; the buildings will be awarded on one of four types of ratings;
certified, silver, gold and platinum (Figure 4). The rating tool was created on 2009 and it has been
revising and improves to include various types of buildings. At this time, there are much properties
getting interest in obtaining certification from GBI. The developers, a part of being commitment to the
sustainable development, the GBI certification it will be a good marketing tool in promoting their
products to home buyers.
Table 2: Typology of green building index score [6, 7, 19, 20, 21]
Figure 4: Ken Bangsar, one of the gold award under GBI certification (category of residential new
construction) [22]
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Green Building Index (GBI) Township Tool [5]
The green building index township tool is another green rating tool introduce by Green
Building Index Sdn Bhd. It was established after the green building index to set out a vision of
sustainability and provide guidance to assist built environment professions to deliver sustainable
township. According to them, sustainable township are livable places that meet the diverse needs of the
community, well planned and designed, safe and secure, and enhanced environment. Similar to GBI, the
GBI township tool certification process start with an evaluation of the planning assessment by a
certifier appointed by Green Building Index Sdn Bhd. The evaluation is based on the six criteria of;
climate energy and water, ecology and environment, community planning and design, transport and
connectivity, building and resources and business and innovation. Depending on the scores achieved,
the buildings will be awarded on one of four types of ratings; certified, silver, gold and platinum.
Since, the rating tool is newly develope on 2011, it is expected that there is only little application on
GBI township tool.
Low Carbon Society Scenarios [1, 2, 3, 4]
Low carbon society is a society that consumes sustainable and relatively low energy as
compared to our present say practice to avoid the adverse climate change. The low carbon society
scenarios is a assessment tool and approach to aid decision makers, policy makers and urban managers
to understand the present actual performance and the future scenario GHG emission and identify the
appropriate policy actions and measures for mitigating GHG at city and region. It set up a clear
roadmap for them to realize their vision. It was introduced and developed by the Malaysian and
Japanese environment experts of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Kyoto university, Okayama
University and National Institute for Environment Studies. The low carbon society scenarios involve
GHG quantification from extended snapshoot tool (ExSS) (Figure 5) and development of roadmaps
from back casting approach. In response to feasibility of the policy actions and measures on cities and
regions of different nations, the ExSS is flexible to be redesign to adapt the different geography and
cultural context. Yet, ExSS is only account for the GHG emission from energy sector. The experts are
currently improving the model through the integration with other Asian Pacific Integrated Model
(AIM) models which taking into agriculture, land use and solid waste. These models are recognized by
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). For the case of Malaysia, low carbon society
scenarios are currently under-research at Iskandar Malaysia (formerly known as Iskandar Development
Region) and Putrajaya.
Figure 5: Extended snapshoot tool (ExSS) [1, 2]
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CONCLUSION
The overview on variety recent green initiatives above draws a more comprehensive
understanding about the climate change responses in Malaysia (Table 3). The climate change issue is
the new emerging issue has caught the attention of every agency in Malaysia, neither public nor
private sectors. The current initiatives have covered a wider range of spatial context except for state
and district. The approaches and methodology are mainly focuses on mitigation and qualitative rather
than adaptation and quantification. Each initiative consists of comprehensive aspects in mainstreaming
climate change and focusing on policy statement, guideline, rating tool, assessment tool and policy
design.
Table 3: Comparative study between the current climate change related initiatives in Malaysia
Though the development of the above green initiatives is new, yet they have provided a good
basic framework to encourage governments and private industries to be in line with the national vision
in achieving greater sustainability and carbon mitigation. To further strengthening the promotion of
green developments in Malaysia, these green initiatives should be incorporate into the statutory
development plan. Besides, for the effectiveness and consistency of these green efforts, there should be
a national committee who could coordinate and provide dialogue between stakeholders above to
understand with each other‘s especially their role and scope. Last but not least, sustainability and
climate change issues are broad and it required multidisciplinary experts for holistic approach.
Therefore, should be more joint effort between different professions of planners, architects, engineers,
educators, policy makers and others involved in the making of built environment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Japan Science Society for the Promotion of Science, JSPS; Kyoto
University; Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development Program,
SATREPS; and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, (GUP Grant No.: Q.J130000.7108.02H11).
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Shimada K., Gomi K., Yoshimoto K. and Janice J.S., 2009, Low Carbon City 2025: Sustainable
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[16] Hezri A. A. and Mohd. N. H., 2006, Towards Sustainable Development? The Evolution of
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[17] Dovers, S., 2005. Environment and Sustainability Policy: Creation, Implementation, Evaluation.
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EFFORTS TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE FROM GLOBAL TO NATIONAL – A
PERSPECTIVE FROM MALAYSIA
Koh Fui Pin, Joy Jacqueline Pereira* and Sarah Aziz
Institute for Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
*Corresponding author: joy@ukm.my
ABSTRACT
In addressing the challenges of climate change, global efforts are required, which should be
concurrently supported by national actions. The aim of this paper is to review national actions on
climate change and to assess if these actions support the global one. By applying qualitative content
analysis, different climate change related actions were identified and categorized. These actions were
found to be similar to key climate change measures defined by the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Thus, it is concluded that Malaysia supports global efforts
in addressing the challenges of climate change.
Keywords: climate change, national efforts, UNFCCC, Malaysia.
INTRODUCTION
The United Nations Conference on Human Environment (UNCHE) which was held in 1972
was known as the first environmental mega-conference[1]. A series of United Nations (UN)-sponsored
climate-related conferences on food, water and desertification were also held in the 1970s after
UNCHE. However, for climate change to reach the UN agenda item by itself, it was a decade later.
The 43rd Session of United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted a resolution which
recognised ‗climate change is a common concern of mankind, since climate is an essential condition
which sustains life on earth’[2]. It was the anthropogenic aspect of a climate change agenda addressed
by the UN which affirmed the human causes to climate change and its consequences on mankind, and
implications for present and future generations[2]. An important outcome from the 43rd Session of
UNGA was the called for a global framework for actions. The preparation for negotiations on a
framework convention on climate change began in 1989. With a series of intensive negotiation session
started in February 1991, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
was finally adopted on 9 May 1992.
The establishment of the UNFCCC shows that global efforts are required to address the
challenges of climate change. It was the first climate change convention of which 200 countries are
party to. These countries consist of developed and developing countries which range from major
greenhouse gases emitters to those countries most vulnerable to the impact of climate change. Actions
are urgently needed to address the challenges of climate change because new natural events have been
experienced by the public in different parts of the world. In this regard, more attention has focused on
the UNFCCC which denotes that changes in climate are due to human activities.
Mitigation and adaptation are key measures for addressing the challenges of climate change.
These measures require the support of technology transfer, research and systematic observation and
capacity building. Such measures are defined by the UNFCCC and they are presented in Table 1
below.
Table 1: Glossary for the main measures for climate change under the UNFCCC
Measures
Definitions
Mitigation
Human intervention to reduce the sources or to enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases.
Adaptation
Natural or human systems adjustment in response to actual or expected climatic
stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.
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Technology transfer
A broad set of processes including the flows of know-how, experience and equipment
for mitigating and adapting to climate change among different stakeholders.
Research and
systematic observation
Promotion of and cooperation in research and systematic observation of the climate
system which has become an obligation of Parties to the UNFCCC.
Capacity building
A process of developing the technical skills and institutional capability in developing
countries and economies in transition in order to assist them in effectively addressing
the causes and results of climate change.
Source: http://www.unfccc.int/ accessed in 2 April 2010.
Objective
Like many countries, Malaysia is not exempt from the impacts of climate change. At the
same time, as a developing country Malaysia has limitation in addressing the challenges of climate
change. Thus, Malaysia ratified the UNFCCC in 1994 and adopted the precautionary and no regret
principles in justifying its rights and capabilities for actions taken to mitigate and adapt to climate
change[3].
The area of concern in this paper is Malaysia‘s actions to climate change. National actions to
address climate change from Malaysia Development Plans and the National Policy on Climate Change
(NPCC) have been identified. These national actions were then compared to the measures defined by
the UNFCCC to determine if they support global efforts.
METHODOLOGY
Content Analysis
Content analysis is a method of assessing information in a systematic manner. A qualitative
content analysis was applied to identify climate change-related actions from the official documents. A
qualitative analysis ―is an approach to documents that emphasizes the role of the investigator in the
construction of the meaning of and in texts.‖ [4]. It stresses on ―allowing categories to emerge out of
data and on recognizing the significance for understanding the meaning of the context in which an
item being analyzed appeared.‖[4]. These definitions of qualitative analysis were adopted in this paper.
Qualitative Analysis
A qualitative content analysis was applied to identify climate change-related actions from the
official documents. The texts were first reviewed for actions related to climate change. Texts were
removed from further analysis if they were climate change related. The remaining texts were further
identified and named by theme.
Basis for Documents Selection
For this purpose, two types of official documents were selected for the assessment. It is a
method known as the collection and qualitative analysis of texts and documents[4]. The selection
process of the documents is critical to ensure the relevance of the selected documents to the research
question[5]. The selected documents were the Malaysia Development Plan and the National Policy on
Climate Change. These documents were obtained from the offices of the Economic Planning Unit and
the Environmental Management and Climate Change Division, within the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment.
The analysis was done on the Seventh Malaysia Plan, 1996 – 2000 (7th MP); the Eight
Malaysia Plan, 2001 – 2005 (8th MP); the Ninth Malaysia Plan, 2006 – 2010 (9th MP); and the Tenth
Malaysia Plan, 2011 – 2015 (10th MP). These development plans were prepared and published after
Malaysia ratified the UNFCCC in 1994. The National Policy on Climate Change which was approved
by the cabinet of Malaysia in 2009 was also analysed. It delineates 43 key actions for implementation.
These key actions are the focus of this paper.
NATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE RELATED ACTIONS
Malaysia Development Plans
This paper identified climate change related actions from the development plans of Malaysia.
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Actions were identified based on their purposes and their direct or indirect relation to climate change.
It was observed that a majority of the actions are only indirectly related to climate change. Relatively
few actions are found to address climate change directly, and these are limited to actions in the 10th MP.
Actions were named by theme and grouped into different categories accordingly. A total of 25 themes
and 9 categories were derived. They are presented in Table 2 below.
Table 2 Categorisation of the themes of the climate change related actions into nine main issues
No.
1.
Categories
Mitigation
2.
Adaptation
3.
Climate Change
4.
5.
Monitoring and Observation
Education and Awareness
6.
7.
8.
9.
Research and Development
Capacity Building
International Participation
Regional and International Cooperation
Themes
Sustainable Forest Management
Soil Conservation
Public Transport Improvement
Sustainable Energy Resources
Efficient Energy Utilisation
Air Pollution Reduction
Solid Waste Management
Climate Change
Coastal Management
Flood Mitigation
Water Management
Health-related Crisis and Disaster Management
Balancing Adaptation and Mitigation
Economic Assessment
Policy formulation
Monitoring and Observation Enhancement
Environment Education and Awareness Programme
Renewable energy (RE) and Energy Efficiency (EE) Education and
Awareness Programme
Cleaner Technology Awareness Programme
Research and Development
Capacity Building
International Participation
Regional Cooperation
South-South Cooperation
Bilateral Cooperation
The category of mitigation comprises of eight themes. The rationale is that these actions
eventually contribute to reducing emissions and enhancing sinks of greenhouse gases. On the other
hand, the category of adaptation comprises of four themes. The rationale of this category is that these
actions address the level of preparedness for occurrence of erosion, tsunamis, floods and their impacts.
A category, climate change, was developed for three themes that address climate change directly from
the aspects of approaches, policy and the economy.
The category of monitoring and observation has only one theme and it focuses on system
enhancement and data integration. The category of education and awareness comprises three themes.
They reflect the main areas of the educational programmes and campaigns. It was observed that the
main areas are the energy sector. Subsequently, there are the categories of research and development,
and capacity building. It was observed that their field of interest has been also the energy sector.
The category of international participation was introduced to specifically denote Malaysia‘s
involvement and principles in the multilateral environmental agreements in order to safeguard national
interests. Meanwhile, a category on regional and international cooperation was introduced to group
three themes with regard to types of environment and climate change cooperation.
Malaysia’s National Policy on Climate Change
The National Policy on Climate Change (NPCC) is an important milestone for Malaysia in
its seriousness in addressing the challenges of climate change. The purpose of NPCC is to ensure a
climate-resilient development that assists the country in meeting its goals for sustainability[3]. It
further outlines five principles to strengthen its ten strategic thrusts that direct national responses on
climate change in all sectors[3]. A total of 43 key actions have been developed and documented in the
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NPCC for implementation.
The focus of this paper on the NPCC is its key actions. In view of the fact that they are all
climate change related actions, they were grouped into different categories accordingly where the
identification process was not applied. Ten categories were derived and are presented in Table 3. There
are several key actions grouped into more than one specific category because they cover more than one
aspect of climate change.
Table 3 Categorisation of the key actions of the NPCC into ten main issues
No.
Categories
Key Actions
1.
Climate Change
Integration
2.
Institution and
Mechanism
Establishment
3.
Mitigation
4.
Financing
Allocation
5.
Technology
Facilitation
6.
Research and
Development
 Conduct systematic reviews and harmonise existing legislation, policies and plans; and
propose balanced adaptation and mitigation measures.
 Incorporate climate change as a priority area in the National Development Planning
Council.
 Integrate balanced adaptation and mitigation measures into development plans.
 Integrate balanced adaptation and mitigation measures into policies and plans on
environment and natural resources.
 Incorporate measures, including mobilising financing and technical assistance into
identified priority areas.
 Identify and recognise the attributes and values of ecosystem services and integrate them
into development planning process.
 Integrate measures into policies, plans, programmes and projects.
 Integrate climate change consideration at the planning level.
 Establish an inter-ministerial and cross-sectoral committee.
 Institutionalise a mechanism to facilitate business and industrial responses which
includes financial incentives; training of experts; technology management; outreach
communication programmes and recognition awards.
 Enhance the coordinating mechanism.
 Establish and implement a national R&D agenda on climate change.
 Institutionalise climate-friendly technology transfer programme.
 Identifying a coordinating mechanism to oversee R&D.
 Institutionalise measures to strengthen effective linking of climate science and policy.
 Establish and institutionalise effective and efficient communication and consultation
mechanisms.
 Establish a register and expand the pool of climate change experts.
 Institutionalise a mechanism for coordinating consultation.
 Conserve and enrich carbon pools and promote rehabilitation.
 Promote renewable energy (RE) and energy efficiency (EE).
 Promote RE and EE to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in the transportation
sector.
 Promote and increase EE in industrial sectors.
 Promote construction of green buildings.
 Allocate adequate financing and appropriate technological measures for promoting low
carbon economy.
 Strengthen investment evaluation mechanisms.
 Incorporate measures, including mobilising financing and technical assistance into
identified priority areas.
 Promote sustainable lifestyles and explore incentives.
 Incorporate and facilitate implementation of climate-friendly measures and technologies.
 Allocate adequate financing and appropriate technological measures for promoting low
carbon economy.
 Incorporate measures, including mobilising financing and technical assistance into
identified priority areas.
 Institutionalise climate-friendly technology transfer programme.
 Promote pragmatic cooperation programmes through effective mechanisms and tools for
technology cooperation; collaborative R&D; support for endogenous development and
diffusion of technology; and regional cooperation on technology development.
 Identify and recommend options towards low carbon economy.
 Establish criteria and indices.
 Identify and recognise the attributes and values of ecosystem services and integrate them
into development planning process.
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





7.
8.
Reporting
Framework
Education,
Awareness and
Participation
9.
Capacity Building
10.
Regional
Cooperation
Develop national carbon accounting systems and baselines studies of forest ecosystems.
Develop multiple national climate and hydro climate projection models.
Stocktaking of current measures and undertake economic evaluation.
Establish and implement a national R&D agenda for climate change.
Strengthen national data repository.
Promote pragmatic cooperation programmes through effective mechanisms and tools for
technology cooperation; collaborative R&D; support for endogenous development and
diffusion of technology; and regional cooperation on technology development.
 Establish a GHG emissions reporting framework for industries.
 Develop and implement plans for public-private, NGOs and communities collaboration
on climate change.
 Empower local communities in basic RE maintenance.
 Strengthen legislative provisions for participatory planning and decision making.
 Promote community-based climate change responses and programmes.
 Adopt systematic and targeted formal and informal education and awareness raising
programmes or activities.
 Promote sustainable lifestyles and explore incentives.
 Strengthen collaborative networks and capacity.
 Institute continuous capacity building programmes.
 Promote pragmatic cooperation programmes through effective mechanisms and tools for
technology cooperation; collaborative R&D; support for endogenous development and
diffusion of technology; and regional cooperation on technology development.
 Promote regional cooperation on climate change.
The aspects of climate change integration and institutionalisation are given emphasises in the
NPCC. Eight key actions were identified proposing a balanced integration of adaptation and mitigation
measures. Integration of climate change is suggested for development plans, policies, plans,
programmes and projects. Meanwhile, there are ten key actions suggesting for the establishment and
institutionalisation of related climate change committees, mechanisms, programmes, and measures.
Key actions related to mitigation were identified and they are focusing on the sectors of
forestry, energy and buildings. The importance of adequate finance allocation and technology
facilitation is outlined in the NPCC. A total of 9 key actions with regard to these aspects were
identified in the NPCC. Research and development is another important aspect particularly for a
developing country. Nine related key actions were identified.
Reporting of greenhouse emissions is a regular exercise under the UNFCCC. It is not
mandatory for developing country Party and it is subject to financial and technical supports.
Nevertheless, one key action was identified with regard to this aspect. Six key actions were identified
to meet the growing needs for education, awareness and participation of all stakeholders towards
climate change. In addition, two key actions were identified with regard to capacity building mainly to
enhance national participation in international climate change programmes. While all the key actions
are developed to enhance national resilient to climate change, two key actions were identified toward
promoting regional cooperation on climate change issues.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This paper aimed to assess national actions in supporting the global efforts in addressing the
challenges of climate change. The assessment was based on an analysis of the development plans of
Malaysia and the NPCC.
A total of 9 categories were derived from the development plans. They are mitigation;
adaptation; climate change; monitoring and observation; education and awareness; research and
development; capacity building; international participation; and regional and international cooperation.
The key actions of the NPCC were given emphasis. A total of 10 categories of actions were derived from
the NPCC. They are climate change integration; institution and mechanism establishment; mitigation;
financing allocation; technology facilitation; research and development; reporting framework;
education, awareness and participation; capacity building; and regional cooperation.
A summary of these results is presented in Table 4 below. Similarities were found among the
categories which were derived from the development plans and NPCC. Their common aspects are
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mitigation; research and development, education and awareness; and capacity building. It was observed
that the aspects of adaptation; monitoring and observation; and international participation are lacking in
policy on climate change. It was observed the policy on climate change complements the development
plans in several aspects and address wider aspects of climate change challenges and needs. The element
of effective participation of stakeholders and major groups is given attention along with education and
awareness raising in the NPCC. The NPCC also gives attention to climate change integration and
institutionalisation; financing allocation; technology facilitation; and reporting framework.
It was observed differences were found between these two categories: regional and
international cooperation; and regional cooperation. The regional and international cooperation was
introduced to encompass actions identified from development plans to encompass Malaysia‘s
cooperation with neighbouring countries on environment and climate change issues. While the category
of regional cooperation identified from the NPCC has stronger called for regional programmes and
cooperation on technology and research and development. The category on international participation
derived from development plans was to denote Malaysia‘s participation in the arena of multilateral
environmental agreements in order to safeguard national interests. However, the element of international
cooperation is not observed in the policy on climate change. As mentioned earlier, climate change
directly actions were limited to the Tenth Malaysia Plan. Thus, a category on climate change was
introduced to encompass these actions.
Table 4: Summary of categorisation of national efforts on climate change from Malaysia
Development Plan and the National Policy on Climate Change
Categories
Malaysia Development Plans
National Policy on Climate
Change
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
-
Mitigation
Education, Awareness and Participation
Research and Development
Capacity Building
Adaptation
Monitoring and Observation
International Participation
Climate Change Integration
Institution and Mechanism Establishment
Financing Allocation
Technology Facilitation
Reporting Framework
Regional and International Cooperation
Regional Cooperation
Climate Change (10th Malaysia Plan)
Remarks:
(√) the category is derived from actions in development plans and/or the NPCC
(-) the category is not applicable for development plans or the NPCC.
When compared to measures defined by the UNFCCC, there are many similarities in national
actions. These relate to mitigation, adaptation, technology facilitation, research and development,
monitoring and observation and capacity building. Thus, it is concluded that national actions to address
climate change also support global efforts.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is partly funded by a study entitled ‗Policy Study on Climate Change‘ under the Ninth
Malaysia Plan. The study was conducted jointly by the Environmental Management and Climate
Change Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia and the Institute for
Environment and Development (LESTARI). This paper has also benefited from funding provided by
UKM (OUP 2011 and Arus Perdana) under the climate change adaptation research group.
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References
[1] Seyfang, G. 2003. Environmental mega-conferences – from Stockholm to Johannesburg and
beyond. Global Environmental Change. (13) 223–228.
[2] United Nations. 1988. Protection of global climate for present and future generations. General
Assembly Resolution 53, 43. UN Document A/43/49. New York: United Nations.
[3] Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia. 2005. Climate change in Malaysia.
[4] Bryman, A. 2008. Social research methods. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[5] Hakim, C. 2000. Research design – successful design for social and economic research. Great
Britain: Routledge.
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NITRITE AND NITRATE CONTENTS OF SOME FRESH VEGETABLE
Ngo Thi Ngoc Thuy*, Huynh Trung Hai
School of Environmental Sicience and Technology, Hanoi University of Science and Technology
*Corresponding author: thuyntn-inest@mail.hut.edu.vn, thuy6681@yahoo.com
ASTRACT
The nitrate and nitrite of 49 vegetable samples, including 07 kinds of vegetable: cabbage,
Chinese cabbage, white-cabbage, water morning glory, water swopt, watercress and lettuce, collected
at six markets in streets in Hanoi, were determined. Nitrate level range between 1.6 and 1654 mg/kg
wet weigh while nitrite levels range between below the limit of detection and 2.2 mg/kg wet weigh.
Key words: nitrate, nitrite, vegetable.
INTRODUCTION
Nitrate and nitrite are natural constituents of vegetables. Nitrate can be reduced to Nitrite in
stomach at low pH. (Radojevic, M. and N.V.Bashkin 1999). Nitrites oxidize the iron atoms in
2+
3+
hemoglobin from Fe to Fe , rendering it unable to carry oxygen, (Santamaria, 2006). Nitrite can
react readily with amines and amides to form N-nitroso compounds, most of which are highly
carcinogenic.(Santamaria, 2006; Yordanov, Novakov & Luber, 2001; )
Vegetables are essential in daily Vietnamese meals. In Vietnam, people often buy foodstuff
from markets in streets, where is cheaper and more convenient but the quality of food is difficult to be
controlled beacause there are may supplied sources. This study focus on research area is Hanoi. The
sources of vegetables for Hanoi are from surrounding provinces and sub-urban areas of Hanoi.
Additional, there is limited research on occurrences of NO3- and NO2- in vegetables.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling and extraction
The samples were collected at six (06) streets in markets in Hanoi, including cabbage,
spinach, watercress, white cabbage, water moring glory, lettuce.
The dead leavies were removed from taken samples that were then cleaned by tap-water and
deionized water to avoid residual nitrates and nitrites from tap-water. Subsequently, they were dried
and treated following to 8160-7:2010 Vietnam standard procedure such as splitted, weighted, put
them in erlenmeyer flash, filled up with boiled deionized water then streamy cooked for fifteen
minutes in order to extract nitrites and nitrates into the water.
Nitrate and nitrite concentration were determined using 8160-7:2010 Vietnam standard.
Briefly, the method consisst in extracting a test portion of the vegetable (20g) with hot water ,
precipitating the proteins by adition of solutions of K4(CN)6 và Zn(COO)2.H2O, and filtering the
precipitate. The nitrate is then reduced to nitrite in a column containing metallic cadmium. The
addition of sulphanilamide chloride and N-(1-Naphthyl) ethylenediamine to the nitrite containing
solution allows the measurement of red complex obtained at 543nm.
Chemical and equipment
- Chemicals:
 Deionized water (18MΩcm-1)
 Nitrite and nitrate standard solution (Merck)
 K4(CN)6 ; Zn(COO)2.H2O, NH4Cl, NH4 N-(1-naphtyl) etylendiamin dihydrochloride,
sulphanilamide chloride. Products of Merck, German
Equipment:
 UV-VIS, Lamda 135, Perkin Elmer
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure1 shows that the concentration of nitrate of the vegetables were below the limit
permition of Vietnamese standard, except the water swopt which were five times higher than
Vietnamese standard and the lowest concentration of nitrate was observed in white cabbage.
Concentration of nitrate (mg/kg wet weigh)
1800
1,654
1600
Max
1400
Ave.
1200
Min
1000
800
600
Vietnamese Standard (300mg/kg)
458
400
200
96
177
135
69
0
95
47
Figure 1. Analytical Result of Nitrate Concentration
Figure 2 shows that the concentration of nitrite of the vegetables was low in which some samples
had level of nitrite below the limit of detection (0.1 mg/kg wet weigh). Chinese cabbage and white cabbage
had lowest level of nitrite while cabbage had the highest level.
Nitrite concentration (mg/kg wet weigh)
Figure 3 made comparision of nitrate concentration among surveyed markets. In generation, the
concentration of nitrate of vegetables colleted from markets is not too much variable except the third
market where the water swopt had relative high value. This might caused contamination of soil, water
suplier and fertilizer however the exact causes need to be realised in further studies.
2.5
LOD < 0.1 mg/kg wet weight
Max
Ave.
2.0
Min
1.5
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.5
0.3
0.0
0.3
0.1
0.1
Figure 2. Analytical Result of Nitrite Concentration
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1000
876
900
800
Cabbage
700
Water morning glory
600
Water swopt
500
Lettuce
400
316
300
228
200
100
162
99
71
153
169
148
134
110
93
68
56
85
13
7
2
33
0
Market 1
Market 2
Market 3
Market 4
Market 5
Market 6
Figure 3. Nitrate Concentration Comparison
Table 1. Quantity of sample collection
Market 1 Market 2 Market 3 Market 4 Market 5 Market 6
Cabbage
n=4
n=4
n=3
n=1
n=5
n=1
Water morning glory n = 1
n =1
n=2
n=2
n=2
n=0
Water swopt
n=1
n=0
n=3
n=0
n=1
n=0
Lettuce
n=1
n=1
n=3
n=1
n=1
n=0
The differences of NO3- and NO2- concentration among surveyed vegetables could be due to
following causes: difference in cultivation areas and techniques; harvest and storage time; biological
properties of each vegetable; the differences in soil types and water used for irrigation.
CONCLUSION
The nitrite and nitrate levels of 49 samples from seven kinds of vegetables were
analysed.Most vegetable samples had low NO2- concentration and few samples were less than limit of
detection (LOD). The concentration of NO3- was higher than NO2- in vegetable samples.The highest
average concentration of NO3- was observed in waterswopt (458.3 mg/kg); and NO2- in cabbage (2.2
mg/kg). The concentrations of NO3- and NO2- were the lowest in white cabbage (NO3-: 47.1 mg/kg and
NO2-: 0.1 mg/kg). The concentrations of NO3- and NO2- were below permitted limit of Vietnamese
Standard, except for one waterswopt sample (1,654.3 mg/kg).
Further studies are needed on occurrences of NO3- and NO2- in vegetables in Hanoi. Effects of
storage time from harvest to end users on variation of NO3- and NO2- in vegetables.
ACKNOWNGEMENT
I would like to take this occasion to express sincere thanks for the facilitation of Hanoi
University of Science and Technology as well as School of Environmental Science and Technology
during carrying out this research.
References:
[1] Nguyễn Văn Tới, Lê Cao Ân, 2007. Nitrate level in fruits and vegetable.
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http://rausach.com.vn/forum_posts.asp?TID=652
[2] R. Michalski, I.Kurzyca, 2005. Determination of species (nitrat, nitrite and amoni ions) in
Environmental Samples by Ion Chromatography. Polish joural of environmental studies vol
15.No1(2006), 5-18
[3] Sarah E.McMullen,2005. Ion Chromatographic Determination of Nitrat and nitrite in vegetable.
[4] Manuela Coreia, Angela Baroso, M. Fatima Barroso, 2010, Contribution of different vegetable
types to exogenous nitrate and nitrite exposure, Food Chemistry 120, 960 – 966.
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SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS TO ADDRESS DOMESTIC DEMANDS
IN ENERGY AND CLEAN WATER
E.Q.B. Macabebe1,2,*, S.P. Granada2, G.L. Tangonan1,2, P. Cabacungan1,2, N. Libatique1,2, A. Favis2,3,
F.R. Cruz1, J.R. Arguelles1,
1
Department of Electronics, Computer and Communications Engineering, Ateneo de Manila
University
2
Ateneo Innovation Center, Ateneo de Manila University
3
Department of Environmental Science, Ateneo de Manila University
*Corresponding author: emacabebe@ateneo.edu
ABSTRACT
This contribution presents two projects undertaken to provide sustainable solutions to
common problems faced today: lack of electricity and water shortage. A photovoltaic system that can
provide lighting, and operate basic household appliances is described as a solution to the pressing need
for electricity in off-grid communities. The inclusion of a filtering system to clean rainwater to potable
drinking water makes the system cost-effective and valuable. To address the issue on water shortage
and water pollution, a constructed wetland was designed and implemented to treat domestic
wastewater from septic tanks. Raw wastewater runs through a reed bed and is UV treated to reduce
BOD and coliform bacteria, by 83% and 99%, respectively, bringing it up to Class C water standard
classification for recreational use, fishery, agriculture, irrigation and livestock watering. Both systems
are solar-powered, therefore, sustainable and are scalable to meet the demands of larger communities.
Keywords: solar power systems, environment, wastewater treatment.
INTRODUCTION
Energy and water are two main issues today that many countries face amidst bigger problems
of pollution, global warming and climate change. Many communities especially in developing
countries experience insufficient supply of electricity, lack of clean water, and are exposed to pollution
due to poor sanitation and improper disposal of waste materials thereby affecting their development
and, specifically, the livelihood, health and, in general, the way of life of the residents.
Due to the archipelagic nature of the Philippines, power distribution remains a problem.
Despite the government‘s efforts to achieve 100% baranggay1electrification by 2008 under the Rural
Electrification Program, the Department of Energy in its assessment has identified 61 missionary areas,
remote municipalities and islands that remain off-grid, which require government attention and
funding. Among these missionary areas, only 12 have an existing 24-hr electricity service provided for
by private power producers [1].
Another major concern for the Philippines is water resources. The availability of water in the
Philippines was found to be the lowest among all the Southeast Asian nations and due to population,
rapid urbanization and improper sanitation, 58% of the country‘s ground water is contaminated [2].
Furthermore, at the rate that the country‘s population is growing, it has been projected that the
country‘s water resources will reach a critical stage before 2025 [3].
Energy and water are issues common to all. Innovations and sustainable solutions to address
these issues are beneficial to many. The systems presented in this contribution utilize solar
photovoltaic modules, a green technology, as source of energy due to the abundance of sunshine in the
Philippines. Moreover, for applications that require low power, low voltage and energy storage such as
home systems and stand-alone systems, solar photovoltaic generators are more appropriate since it can
be directly connected to the battery without the need for additional components to convert energy [4].
1
A village. The smallest administrative or local government unit in the Philippines.
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HOME SOLAR PV SYSTEM DESIGN
The load for an average household in an urban poor or rural area in the Philippines is found
in Table 1. The appliances and devices on the list require low power to show the bare minimum load.
The table also reflects the typical load requirement in remote areas with lighting as the priority. The
UV purifier is added for treating rain water if a rain catchment system exists or for treating water from
deep well or tap water, whichever is available.
Table 1. Sample PV System Load
Appliance
Qty
LED Bulb
3
Clock Radio
1
UV Purifier
1
Electric Fan
1
Total Ampere-hr/Wk
Watt
Rating
7
5
9
65
310.8
Hour/Wk
W-hr/Wk
28
168
3
35
Total W-hr/Wk
588
840
27
2275
3730
Given an average of 5.8 hours of sunshine everyday and module temperature of 27.7 oC, the
components required to build the PV system for the given load are listed in Table 2. The calculated
cost, savings and the number of years until return of investment (ROI) is achieved are found in Table
3.
Table 2. List of Solar PV Home System Components
PV System Equipment Specifications
Battery
Battery Type
Days of Autonomy
Battery Voltage
Battery Ampere-Hour Rating
Number of Batteries in Parallel Needed
Lead Acid
2
12
45
3
Solar Panel
Type of Solar Panel
Silicon (polycrystalline)
Power Rating of Panel
150
Ampere Rating of Panel
3
Number of Panels Needed
4
Table 3. Cost of Solar PV Home System and Savings on Electricity Bill
PV System Cost
Total Cost of Equipment (Php)
Meralco Rate (Php per kWh)
Amount saved per month from electric bill (Php)
Return on Investment (in Years)
Considering Amount Saved on Water
Price a family of 4 spends for water in a month (Php)
Return on Investment (in Years)
35,500.00
13.50
143.00
20.00
317.00
6.43
With the UV water purifier, there is no need to purchase drinking water from water refilling
stations. This can contribute towards the household‘s savings, thereby reducing the ROI to 6.43 years.
In far flung areas where the residents are prone to water-borne diseases, the availability of clean
drinking water translates to better health and well-being.
DOMESTIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT
The prototype had six major components which were namely: settling tank, constructed
wetland, carbon & sand filtration, Ultraviolet germicidal device, cistern tank, and solar photovoltaic
module. The configuration of the solar-powered wastewater treatment system is shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Configuration of Integrated Wastewater System.
Results showing reduction in BOD and fecal bacteria levels after reed bed and UV treatment
are shown in Figure 2. The tests were conducted days apart within a month. The first test results for
BOD in Fig 2 (a) show errors in initial test readings. However, succeeding test results show significant
decline in BOD levels especially after UV treatment. Test results for fecal bacteria in Fig 2 (b) show
drastic decrease after reed bed and UV treatment from raw count of 160,000 MPN/100 ml to
18 MPN/100 ml. These levels pass the Class C water standard classification for recreational use,
fishery, agriculture, irrigation and livestock watering.
(b)
(a)
BOD Level (mg/L)
160
160000
Raw
After Reed Bed
After Reed Bed + UV
Bacteria count (MPN/100 ml)
180
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
8 Apr
14 Apr
20 Apr
26 Apr
Test Dates (2010)
120000
80000
40000
80
60
40
20
0
Raw
After reed bed
After UV
Treatment Process
Figure 2. Graphs indicating levels of (a) BOD and (b) fecal bacteria before treatment (Raw), and after
reed bed and UV germicidal treatment.
Several of these solar PV systems for home including clean rainwater systems and
wastewater treatment facilities have been deployed and will be presented in the conference.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the Ateneo de Manila University and the Loyola Schools
Scholarly Works Grant for supporting the implementation of the projects.
References
[1] Department of Energy, 2008, Missionary Electrification Development Plan for 2009-2013,
Available online: http://www.doe.gov.ph/ep/Devp.htm (Accessed on 29 July 2011).
[2] Asian Development Bank, 2007, Country Report: Philippines, Asian Water Development Outlook.
Available online: http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/AWDO.pdf (Accessed on
30 July 2011).
[3] League of Cities in the Philippines, 2006, The Philippines Water Situation Report.
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[4] A. Luque , S. Hegedus, eds, Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, Wiley,
Chichester, England, 2003.
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RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN MALAYSIA: PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES
1
Mohd Amran Mohd Radzi1* and Nasrudin Abdul Rahim2
Green Engineering Sustainable Technology Laboratory (GESTL), Institute of Advanced Technology,
Universiti Putra Malaysia
2
University of Malaya Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), University of
Malaya
*Corresponding author: amranmr@eng.upm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
This paper presents progress and status of rural electrification in Malaysia. Malaysia is
targeting to achieve almost full electrification whether through grid connected system or off grid
system in year 2015. Although Malaysia has enough electrical supply generated from power producers,
high investment cost and unsuitability to construct grid infrastructure may become main challenge to
realize this target. Previous development in rural electrification concentrates on diesel generators
which were not environmental friendly. Therefore, various initiatives have been carried out including
development of renewable energy systems. National Energy Policy is highlighted first, followed by
initiatives done, and further implementation challenges and problems would be discussed. The final
part discusses prospects for rural electrification which include suggestions on technical issues and also
social consideration.
Keywords: rural, electrification, renewable, energy, hybrid.
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia is a developing country showing tremendous growth since 30 years ago. Among the
main improvement is development of main utilities such as electricity and water. Electricity
infrastructures were strongly built to support electricity transmission and distribution to whole country.
Three main electrical utility companies are available in Malaysia. Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) is
the biggest company providing electrical supply to Peninsular Malaysia and for two states in East
Malaysia or Borneo Island, Sabah and Sarawak, Sabah Electricity Sendirian Berhad (SESB) and
Sarawak Electricity Corporation (SESCO) play their roles respectively.
Malaysia is targeting to achieve almost full coverage of electrical supply through whole
country. Table 1 shows current percentage achievement of electrical supply to rural area separately in
Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak [1]. Peninsular Malaysia shows great achievement with less
than 5% of not yet supplied by electricity. Sabah shows great increment up to 80% of electricity and
Sarawak almost closed to 90%.
Table 1. Rural Electrification Coverage in Malaysia [1]
Region
2000
2005
2010
Peninsular Malaysia
Sabah
Sarawak
97.5
67.1
66.9
98.6
72.8
80.8
98.8
80.6
89.6
NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY
Malaysia has announced National Energy Policy to be an instrumental in guiding the future
energy sector development [2]. Three principal energy objectives are supply objective, utilization
objective, and environmental objective. The supply objective is introduced to ensure the provision of
adequate, secure, and cost-effective energy supplies through developing indigenous energy resources
both non-renewable and renewable energy resources using the least cost options and diversification of
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supply sources both from within and outside the country. The second objective is proposed to promote
the efficient utilization of energy and to discourage wasteful and non-productive patterns of energy
consumption. The third objective is further to minimize the negative impacts of energy production,
transportation, conversion, utilization and consumption on the environment.
At the same time, Malaysia has announced the latest 10th Malaysian Plan for development
program from 2011 to 2015. In this plan, one of the major highlights is to provide electrical facilities in
rural areas [3]. Malaysia is expecting to have up to 100% of electricity supply in Peninsular Malaysia
and 99% in Sabah and Sarawak, as shown in Figure 1. The provision of electricity supply in rural areas
will be extended to 6,000 homes in Peninsular Malaysia, 59,000 homes in Sabah and 76,000 homes in
Sarawak. The development considers any possible options of electricity supply rather than too depend
on grid-connected supply.
Figure 1. Rural electricity coverage for Malaysia in year 2015 [3]
Malaysia is capable to produce electrical energy to meet demands from consumers. In year
2008, installed generation capacity for Peninsular Malaysia was 20,235 MW, Sabah was 804 MW and
Sarawak was 1,111 MW [4], [5]. This capacity was enough to support peak demand required in
Peninsular Malaysia for about 14,007 MW, Sabah for 673 MW and Sarawak for 860 MW. However,
the major challenge is not only to generate power, but also to deliver it to the user. Infrastructure for
transmitting electrical power might be difficult to be built in rural areas which are far away from main
roads. High cost investment is required to build this infrastructure as compared to low number of
customers. Thus, potential of implementing dedicated-based power generator may become the best
option to supply electricity to those areas.
Ministry of Rural Link is the main ministry that involves directly in development of rural
electrification. This ministry has introduced Rural Electricity Supply program [6]. This programme is
implemented with the purpose of providing electricity to houses in traditional villages which are
outside the areas under the operation of local authorities throughout the country including long-houses
in the remote areas of Sabah and Sarawak, villages of indigenous people in Peninsular Malaysia,
villages on islands and settlements in small estates which are less than 400 hectares.
The programme is still flexible to two methods, whether directly connecting from grid lines
if possible, or for remote areas which are too far off would receive their supply of electricity through
alternative methods such as via solar energy, generator sets, solar hybrid and the like. In the year 1998,
the government had set up the Electricity Supplies Industry Trust Account under the Ministry of
Energy, Water and Communication. The funds of this account are contributed by all Independent
Power Producers (IPP) operating in Peninsular Malaysia. About 60% of the account‘s funds have been
used for the programme.
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TECHNICAL CHALLENGES AND PROBLEMS
Initial initiative on technology for rural electrification whether by local authorities or local
people is more to using of diesel-powered generators [7]. In the current situation, cost of fuel is quiet
high especially when brought into remote areas. Furthermore, these generators are noisy and require
frequent maintenance which is often neglected in remote areas due to limited resources and know-how.
Pollution may occur from smoke produced by these engines and it may cause uncomfortable
environment to people there.
Renewable energy provides alternative solutions to the mentioned problems. Early initiative
on development of renewable energy system is in early 1980‘s by National Electricity Board (NEB),
which currently known as TNB [8]. In year 1982, a total of 30 houses in a fishermen‘s village in
Kampung Apau, Pulau Langkawi, Kedah began receiving electricity supply from solar energy. NEB
started the use of photovoltaic (PV) system in rural areas as a pioneer project. Similar projects were
implemented in Ulu Tembeling, Pahang and Pulau Sibu.
However, the main issue to the PV system is its performance in tropical regions, especially
on clouds and recent dense haze problems [9]. Besides that, wind system can be proposed but its
performance is also questioned due to that wind available could be too slow or not available, or too
fast especially in South China Sea area. Besides that, after installation of the systems, towers whether
for solar or wind systems are found to attract lightning strikes which can destroy electronic controls,
fungus grows on solar panels, and the multiple electrical connections on PV arrays corrode away in hot,
humid climates [7]. Since the installed systems are stand alone types, battery might be used as storage
element. The main problem with this battery is its charge storage capability has grown weaker over
time.
Apart of challenges and problems related to technical aspects, social aspect may also
contribute to effectiveness of usage those systems. Maintenances are neglected due to limited technical
knowledge, monitoring or training. Besides that, the people there prefer to maintain their own inherited
life culture. Although government already developed new houses from brick walls for them, they
prefer to maintain their own life by rebuilding back the house from natural sources.
PROSPECTS FOR RURAL ELECTRIFICATION
Flexibility and Innovative Energy Systems
Combination of a few types of energy systems to form a hybrid system could be one potential
solution. The diesel generator might be integrated with photovoltaic system [10], [11]. The electrical
energy supply can be supplied up to 24 hours with optimum performance. Initiative on developing
hybrid system combining of diesel generator currently installed in the schools at rural areas and
possible renewable energy system was carried out [12]. This system could save fuel while ensuring
24-hour electricity supply to rural schools, reduce initial investments and time, and cut down burning
of diesel fuel with possibility up to 60 per cent reduction of carbon emission.
Possible hybrid systems are not limited to two types of energy systems. Possible
investigations on various combinations of energies have been carried out. Besides diesel and solar,
hydro and fuel cell are main potential energies for rural electrification. Most of houses in the rural
areas are located near the rivers as their source of water supply, food and transport [7]. The river has
high flow intensity and it is flown from higher level or position due to Malaysia‘s landforms which are
rich with mountains especially in rural areas. Thus, mini hydro with small scale generator installed in
the river area could be possible to supply electricity. Fuel cell is also potential source since it has high
energy efficiency [9]. It could be also useful to supply energy in the hybrid system when other sources
might operate at lower performance with insufficient energy. However, the major challenges are its
cost and complexity in its system especially control part.
Wind energy system is considered new alternative renewable energy in Malaysia. As
mentioned above, application of this system alone would not produce energy effectively. Thus, it can
be integrated together with solar to form hybrid system [13]. Biomass energy is another potential for
rural electrification. Biomass supplies are abundant from agricultural and wood industries. The energy
obtained from biomass is a form of renewable energy and, in principle, utilization of this energy does
not add ‗‗new‘‘ carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, to the atmosphere, in contrast to fossil fuels
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[14]. Development of bubbling fluidized bed gasifiers (BFG) is one the example for this purpose
which is able to handle wide variety of fuels, the main concern being the varying size of biomass used
[15].
Innovative design could be also considered. PV system is rather installed as a fixed type, can
be improved with movable and reflecting approaches [16]. Tracker system could be developed and
performance of solar panels could be enhanced by using reflectors.
Social Development
Although the energy systems might be able to be developed for supplying up 100% of
electricity in Malaysia, but sustainable of the energy system is always an issue that needs to be
highlighted. The initial approach should be started with feasibility study of the possible system that
can be installed in the targeted rural area.
The people of rural areas must be exposed to the energy systems. Proper training program
will help them to understand the system and they can do basic maintenance when necessary. The
system should be adapted slowly with frequent monitoring. Awareness about the systems including its
benefits and advantages can be done too.
CONCLUSION
Malaysia should be able to achieve almost 100% of electrification in year 2015 with proper
planning and implementation. Exploration on hybrid approach through combination of various energy
systems may further improve quantity and quality of electrical supply with possibility of full day
usages of electrical powered equipment. Besides that, development of rural electrification must also
consider social aspect where exposure, training and awareness programs must be included.
References
[1] The Economic Planning Unit, 2006, 9th Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, The Economic Planning Unit,
Prime Minister's Department.
[2] Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water, 2010, National Energy Policy, Available online:
http://www.kettha.gov.my/en/content/national-energy-policy (accessed on 21st July 2011).
[3] The Economic Planning Unit, 2010, 10th Malaysia Plan 20011-2015, The Economic Planning Unit,
Prime Minister's Department
[4] Energy Commission, 2011, Electricity statistics - installed generation capacity by regions,
Available online: http://st.gov.my/images/stories/industry/energy_info/1.2.pdf (accessed on 21st
July 2011).
[5] Energy Commission, 2011, Electricity statistics – peak demand and installed generation capacity,
Available online: http://st.gov.my/images/stories/industry/energy_info/1.9.pdf (accessed on 21st
July 2011).
[6] Ministry of Rural and Regional Development, 2011, Rural electricity supply, Available online:
http://www.rurallink.gov.my/electricity accessed on 21st July 2011).
[7] M. Anyi, B. Kirke, S. Ali, 2010, Remote community electrification in Sarawak, Renewable
Energy, (35) 1609–1613.
[8] Tenaga Nasional Berhad, 2010, Annual Report 2010, Tenaga Nasional Berhad.
[9] M.O. Abdullah, V.C. Yung, M. Anyi, A.K. Othman, K.B. Ab. Hamid, J. Tarawe, 2010, Review
and comparison study of hybrid diesel/solar/hydro/fuel cell energy schemes for a rural ICT
Telecenter, Energy (35), 639–646.
[10] K.Y. Lau, M.F.M. Yousof, S.N.M. Arshad, M. Anwari, A.H.M. Yatim, 2010, Performance analysis
of hybrid photovoltaic/diesel energy system under Malaysian conditions, Energy, (35), 3245-3255.
[11] C.W. Ajan, S.S. Ahmed, H.B. Ahmad, F. Taha, A.A.B.M. Zin, 2003, On the policy of photovoltaic
and diesel generation mix for an off-grid site: East Malaysian perspectives, Solar Energy, (74),
453–467.
[12] BERNAMA, 2011, Sustain electricity vital for Sarawak to become developed state by 2030,
Available online:
http://www.malaysiandigest.com/news/20989-sustain-electricity-vital-for-sarawak-to-become-de
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veloped-state-by-2030.html (accessed on 21st July 2011).
[13] Z.M. Darus, N.A. Hashim, S.N.A. Manan, M.A.A. Rahman, K.N.A. Maulud, O.A. Karim, 2009,
The development of hybrid integrated renewable energy system (wind and solar) for sustainable
living at Perhentian Island, Malaysia, European Journal of Social Sciences, (9) 557-563.
[14] A.A. Bazmi, G. Zahedi, H. Hashim, 2011, Progress and challenges in utilization of palm oil
biomass as fuel for decentralized electricity generation, Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, (15) 574–583.
[15] M.T. Lim, Z. Alimuddin, 2008, Bubbling fluidized bed biomass gasification—Performance,
process findings and energy analysis, Renewable Energy, (33) 2339–2343.
[16] N.A.B. Malek, A.B.A. Rahman, H.B. Hasini, M.N.B.M. Jaafar, 2010, An improved solar PV
system for Malaysian rural electrification, IEEE Student Conference on Research and
Development (SCOReD 2010), Putrajaya, Malaysia.
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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF DIESEL MIGRATION IN POROUS MEDIA
BY THE SIMPLIFIED IMAGE ANALYSIS METHOD
Suwasan Sudsaeng1*, Giancarlo Flores2, Suched Likitlersuang1, Siam Yimsiri3, Takeshi Katsumi4 and
Toru Inui4
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Chulalongkorn University
2
Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Burapha University
4
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University
*Corresponding author: suwasans@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Diesel migration in porous media was experimentally investigated in a one dimensional column
under groundwater fluctuating conditions. One-dimensional column test is used to study the effects of
water table fluctuation. The Simplified Image Analysis Method is used as a non-intrusive and
non-destructive technique to measure temporal and spatial distribution of fluid saturations in a whole
domain. The results show that the water table fluctuation significantly affects the LNAPL distribution
in the ground to the full range of the water table and capillary fringe fluctuating zone. Contaminants can
be displaced upward or/and emerge above the soil surface under the vertical groundwater flow;
therefore, the secondary infiltration effect on LNAPL contaminants needs to be addressed.
Keywords: Diesel, Saturation, Image Analysis, LNAPL, Subsurface Contamination.
INTRODUCTION
Since Diesel has a negligible solubility in water and its density is less than 1 g/cm3, it can be
classified as a Light Non Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL). When a LNAPL is released into the
subsurface after spill or leak from an underground storage tank (UST), it will migrate downward
through the vadose zone, under the influence of gravity, viscous, and capillary forces until it reach the
water table. Causing in subsurface contamination as well as deteriorating the quality of ground water.
In this study, Diesel migration in two different porous media was experimentally investigated using a
one dimensional column and the Simplified Image Analysis Method is utilized as a tool to measure the
distribution of water and diesel saturations in the porous media.
THE SIMPLIFIED IMAGE ANALYSIS METHOD
The average optical density (Di) of a digital image is defined for the reflected light intensity as:
Di 
 Ir
1 N
1 N 
 d ji 
   log10  ji
N j 1
N j 1 
 I 0ji






(1)
where N is the number of pixels contained in the area of interest and, for a given spectral band i, dji is
the optical density of the individual pixels, Irji is the intensity of the reflected light given by the
individual pixel values, and I0ji is the intensity of the light that would be reflected by an ideal white
surface [1]. By applying the Simplified Image Analysis Method, average optical density can be used to
determine Diesel and water saturation values (So and Sw) on three phase (air/water/Diesel) domains.
This method requires three calibration pictures from two cameras with two different band-pass filters
(wavelengths  = i and j), each camera taking a picture of the studied domain fill with dry sand, water
saturated sand, and Diesel saturated sand. The average optical density value for each mesh element of
the study domain is calculated and compared to the corresponding ones for all three cases, and a
matrix of correlation equation sets is obtain,
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







 10
00
01
00
00 
D 
 Di  Di Sw Di  Di So  Di 
i
 
 

 Dj  mn
 D10

 D00
Sw D01
 D00
So  D00
j
j
j
j
j

 mn
(2)
where m and n are the dimensions of the matrix, [Di]mn and [Dj]mn are the values of average optical
density of each mesh element for wavelengths i and j, [Di00]mn and [Dj00]mn are the average optical
density of each mesh element for dry sand; [Di10]mn and [Dj10]mn for water saturated sand; [Di01]mn and
[Dj01]mn for Diesel saturated sand. Water saturation, [Sw]mn and Diesel saturation, [So]mn can be obtained
by solving Eq.(2) using an ad-hoc program written in MATLAB 2007a.[2]
COLUMN TEST
A 3.53.550 cm3 one-dimensional acrylic column with a front transparent glass-wall was
used to study the 1-D migration of diesel in porous medium. Diesel (density of 0.890 g/cm3, viscosity
of 7 mm2/s, and vapor pressure of 0.40 mm Hg) was used in the study. Ottawa#3820 sand and
Ottawa#3821 sand were use as porous media. The physical properties of sand are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Physical property of sand samples
Properties
Ottawa#3820 sand
3
2.64
Soil particle density s (g/cm )
Maximum void ratio emax
0.67
Minimum void ratio emin
0.60
Uniformity coefficient Cu
1.46
Hydraulic conductivity k (cm/s)
2.0210-2
Ottawa#3821 sand
2.63
0.79
0.55
1.56
1.8010-2
Diesel was dyed red with Sudan III (1:10000 in mass) to enhance visual observations and increase its
light absorbance properties. Two digital cameras with two different band-pass filters ( = 450 nm and
 = 640 nm) were used to photograph the column every 30 minutes. Two 250 W floodlights were
installed in the dark room as lighting sources and turned on 30 seconds prior to taking each picture and
turned off 30 second afterwards. A white balance card was located next to the column to provide a
constant white reference. Room temperature was maintained at 20 oC and humidity at 70%. The
experimental set up is shown in Figure.1
Figure 1. Experimental Set up
The testing program can be divided into four stages, each stage taking 24 hours, i.e. 1 st drainage, 1st
imbibition, 2nd drainage, and 2nd imbibition. The column was initially filled with water-saturated
Ottawa#3820 sand in the first experiment and Ottawa#3821 in the second experiment respectively. The
water table in the column was controlled to be 50 cm above the bottom of the column by an external
water tank. During drainage stages, valve B was closed and valve A was open and liquids were drained
to the beaker. The location of the outflow was 5 cm above the bottom of the column. During
imbibition stages, valve A was closed and valve B was open and the water table inside the column
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moved up. During the first 30 minutes of the 1st drainage, 15 g of diesel infiltrated the column from the
top through filter paper. After that, air was also allowed to freely infiltrate into the column. During the
1st imbibition, Infiltrated diesel from the 1st drainage was displaced by water and floated above the
water table then infiltrated into the column during the 2nd drainage. Saturation values were calculated
from Eq. (2) using an in-house developed program written in MATLAB 2007a.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2(A) and (B) show Diesel saturation (So) and water saturation (Sw) profiles in
Ottawa#3820 sand and Ottawa#3821 sand at the end of each stage and Figure 3(A) and (B) show
Diesel saturation values over time in both sand.
(A) Ottawa#3820 sand
(B) Ottawa#3821 sand
Figure 2. Diesel saturation (So) and water saturation (Sw) with time
(A) Ottawa#3820 sand
(B) Ottawa#3821 sand
Figure 3. Diesel saturation (So) at various heights with time
In both sands, Diesel showed a typical LNAPL behaviour under fluctuating water table conditions. It
first migrated downward following the draining water until it reached the equilibrium. During the
imbibitions stages, the raise of water table displaced part of the Diesel, but some of it was entrapped
and became immobile as discontinuous blob and ganglia, occluded by water [3] even though it should
have floated over the water table because of its lower density than water. The second drainage and
imbibition cycles also repeated this behavior.
CONCLUSIONS
Two 1-D column experiments were performed to study diesel migration in porous media under
groundwater fluctuating condition. The Simplified Image Analysis Method is used as a non-intrusive
and non-destructive technique to measure temporal and spatial distribution of fluid saturations in a
whole domain. From 1-D column experiments, it is found that some diesel remained trapped below the
groundwater table during water table fluctuation and diesel infiltrated deeper and faster in
Ottawa#3820 sand than in Ottawa#3821 sand. Moreover, the contaminant could be displaced upward
or/and emerge above the soil surface due to vertical groundwater flow and infiltrated again into the
soil during the lowering of groundwater table, which is called secondary infiltration. In conclusion, the
effects of water table fluctuation are influenced by the hysteresis of the water retention curves and the
fluid entrapment in the porous media and also depend on the wetting and drying history of the sand.
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References
[1] Kechavarzi, C., Soga, K. and Wiart, P., 2000, Multispectral Image Analysis Method to Determine
Dynamic Fluid Saturation Distribution in Two-Dimensional Three-Fluid Phase Flow Laboratory
Experiments, J. of Contaminant Hydrology, (46) 265-293.
[2] Flores, G., Katsumi, T., Inui, T., & Kamon, M., 2011, A Simplified Image Analysis Method to
Study LNAPL Migration in Porous Media, Soils and Foundations (Accepted for publication).
[3] Fagerlund, F., T.H. Illangasekare and A. Niemi, 2007, Nonaqueous-Phase Liquid Infiltration and
Immobilization in Heterogeneous Media: 2.Application to Stochastically Heterogenoeus
Formations, Vadose Zone J., (6) 483-495.
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INCORPORATING ROAD HIERARCHY INTO PEDESTRIAN INDEX
Nabila Abdul Ghani1* and Muhammad Zaly Shah Muhammad Hussein2
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
*Corresponding author: nabilaaghani@utm.my
ABSTRACT
Transport planners are increasingly focusing on pedestrian facilities in order to enhance
public transportation usage and thus develop sustainable transport systems. Unfortunately roadway
design prioritizes the needs of motorists, and pedestrians are put at risk. The objective of this paper is
to incorporate different type of road hierarchy into pedestrian index in evaluating pedestrian facilities.
This is because different road hierarchy serves different purposes. It has different design standard,
different level of road usage, different access management and different scope of pedestrian needs. The
method focuses on four indicators to evaluate pedestrian facilities namely Facility, Mobility, Safety
and Accessibility. It evaluates types of facilities provided at sidewalks and crosswalks such as bollard,
ramp, zebra crossing, traffic signal, pedestrian refuges island and pedestrian warning signage. It comes
together with star ratings that summarize the qualitative value of the pedestrian facilities.
Keywords: pedestrian index, pedestrian facilities, road hierarchy, pedestrian level of service.
INTRODUCTION
As population and vehicle miles traveled continue to grow, transportation planners, engineers
and policy makers are looking to non-motorized transportation, often in combination with transit, to
relieve some of the pressure on the framework of the traditional transportation system. Transport
planners are increasingly focusing on pedestrian facilities in order to enhance public transportation
usage and thus develop sustainable transport systems.
The functionality of a roadway should be balanced with the needs of pedestrians.
Unfortunately, roadway design prioritizes the needs of motorists, and pedestrians are put at risk.
Pedestrians would be well accommodated if they received the same design considerations as drivers.
To accomplish this task, roadway designers must understand how roadway designs impact pedestrians
and prioritize accessible road development. Despite becoming a key policy requirement, no tool is yet
available to measure the effectiveness of pedestrian facilities, particularly in terms of different road
hierarchy.
In this paper, a pedestrian index method was developed based on indicators on the need of
pedestrian facilities for different road hierarchy. Pedestrian facilities can be defined as facilities that
continuously provide pedestrians with safe access to land uses. This paper focused on four indicators
to evaluate pedestrian facilities (1) facility - promote ease of usage, (2) mobility - continuously
available, (3) safety - physically and spatially separated and (4) accessibility - closeness to land uses.
This paper is structured as follows. After this brief introduction, section 2 discussed the
methods of assessment for the quality of pedestrian facilities found in the literature. Section 3 briefly
introduced the calculation of pedestrian index methods and finally section 4 concluded the paper.
BACKGROUND OF PROBLEM
In Malaysia, most of the people killed on road crashes are pedestrians, cyclists and
motorcyclists. Most of them are children. That results most of our streets have become hostile to walk.
In many places, pedestrian facilities are either badly built, poorly maintained and in some cases, it does
not exist at all. Many footpaths are obstructed by holes, garbage, tables and chairs and even vehicles.
Crossing the roads is very difficult and dangerous. Sometimes it feels like the needs of pedestrians are
completely ignored. Noise, fumes, obstructions and dangers from speeding vehicles also makes more
streets hostile and unpleasant to walk on, cycle along or even to live on. No wonder many people who
can afford to drive give up walking.
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According to Jabatan Kerja Raya (1995), the lack of proper provisions for pedestrians to
cross roads or to walk along roads safely is a major contributing factor to the high number of
pedestrian casualties on Malaysian roads. The vulnerability of pedestrians, when they must operate
amongst vehicular traffic is amply emphasized by the high number of traffic accident casualties
involving pedestrians. Table 1 shows the road fatality statistics involving pedestrians. It can be seen
from Table 1 that the number of accidents involving pedestrian increases from 2008 to 2009 with the
difference of 12.8%.
Table 1. Road Fatality Statistics from July 2008 and 2009
Consumer Categories
Passenger/Driver Car
Motorcycle Pillion/Rider
Pedestrian
Pillion/Rider Bicycle
Bus Passenger/Driver
Driver / Lorry Attendant
Driver / Attendant Van
Driver / Attendant Race 4 Wheel
Others Vehicle
Total
2008
2009
Difference
%
102
300
47
21
1
14
12
11
1
509
127
374
53
24
1
16
9
8
6
618
25
74
6
3
0
2
-3
-3
5
109
24.5
24.7
12.8
14.3
0
14.3
-25
-27.3
500
21.4
The road system is based on a simple hierarchy where most trips originate on local roads,
pedestrians are then ferried via collector roads to arterials, which are intended to carry large amounts
of motor vehicle traffic long distances at higher speeds. This system is based on the assumption that
most trips occur by motor vehicle, so most of the facilities are designed primarily for motor vehicle
travel. The system results in road designs that do not serve pedestrians well for several reasons as
follows:
1. They lack pedestrian facilities: Some collector and arterial streets are built with inadequate
or no sidewalks or walkways, discouraging or limiting safe pedestrian movement along streets.
2. They are wide or have multiple lanes that are difficult to cross: Since arterial roads are
designed to facilitate smooth and efficient motor vehicle flow, they often have multiple lanes
in each direction to accommodate high motor vehicle traffic volumes. It has a direct effect on
the complexity of the crossing task and the pedestrian crash risk.
3. They have high speeds: Wide streets encourage and allow higher vehicle speeds, which relate
directly to more severe injuries to motorists and pedestrians when a crash occurs. The majority
of pedestrian crashes and most fatalities occur on higher speed arterials.
4. They have complex intersections: Typically, wide arterial streets have intersections that are
even wider due to the addition of multiple turn lanes. This requires pedestrians to cross longer
distances and watch for more cars in more lanes, an often challenging and dangerous task.
5. They create long delays for pedestrians at intersections: Wide intersections and those with
multiple turn lanes create a long wait for pedestrians. If a crosswalk is closed, the pedestrian is
left with three choices: cross illegally with no signal protection, walk a long distance around
the intersection, or walk to another location to cross.
The generalization model that did not consider road hierarchy will lead to problems. Different
roads serve different purposes, so that the requirement is different. For example for arterial road, the
volume of vehicles is high, so that the facility must have traffic signal. Also physical separation is very
important. On the other hand, volume and speed of vehicles for local road is low, so it is not necessary
to provide zebra crossing. It is important to follow the characteristics and requirements of the road.
Unattractive, inadequate, and poorly designed and maintained facilities can be an unfortunate waste of
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money and resources and a hindrance to community vitality. Until transport planners integrate the
needs of pedestrian facilities for each road of types, the transport system will work in totality.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Methods of Assessment for the Quality of Pedestrian Facilities
This section explores the assessment method of pedestrian facilities by previous researchers
to evaluate pedestrian facilities from different variables and criterion. The limitation or shortcoming of
previous pedestrian level of service model was discussed.
Figure 1. Pedestrian Needs Hierarchy
Figure 1 shows the pedestrian needs hierarchy proposed by Babiano (2003). The diagram has
been adopted based from the human needs concept by Maslow (1968) and Max-Neef (1992). At the
base level, pedestrians need to move from an origin to a destination point. Given that the need for
movement has been satisfied, the next level of need for pedestrians is to feel protected, meaning to feel
safe along walking paths. In the next level, after the need for protection is satisfied, pedestrians would
want to feel at ease while walking. This refers to making walking easier such as secure, comfortable
and convenient walking paths. On a higher level, if pedestrians would feel at ease, he would want to
enjoy his walking experience. This level is dependent on various factors such as location of pedestrian
facility and level of hierarchy of roads. On the highest level is the need for identity. Identity refers to
the concept of being involved with the pedestrian facility.
The attributes indicated on the right side of the figure corresponds to the factors that would
directly fulfill the particular need on the left. There are factors that could satisfy two or three needs at
the same time. It is hypothesized that the basic need of pedestrians is to move. Fulfilling the needs
hierarchy would provide a corresponding increase in the satisfaction level of pedestrians.
The level of service (LOS) concept was first developed for vehicular capacity studies
connected with street and highway design and it was later adopted for pedestrian facilities. Several
methods were then created to evaluate the quality of pedestrian facilities (Sarkar, 1993; Khisty, 1994;
HCM, 2000; Landis, 2001). Different variables and evaluation criteria were considered and as a
consequence, there is a certain difficulty to define a standard method that can be applied everywhere.
Sarkar‘s qualitative attributes of pedestrian environments are described, but not quantified.
The other method by Khisty provides a quantitative measure of pedestrian LOS on a point scale, but
the results from this scale is not easy to interpret. HCM 2000 focuses on ease of movement which bias
to motor vehicles. The model of Landis has been developed for roadway segments only but
intersections have not been considered.
From the literature review, we can see that none of the proposed method takes into
consideration about the need of pedestrian facilities for different road hierarchy. Thus, this research
tries to fill the gap and try to incorporate road hierarchy into the P-Index computation.
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METHODOLOGY
The Pedestrian Index Method
This method is to rate pedestrian facilities utilize an index called the P-index. The index uses
the 5 star rating format where the higher the number of stars, the better the quality of a particular
pedestrian facility. Mathematically, the P-index (P) is a function of the three criteria - Index of
Pedestrian Facilities at Arterial Road (PAR), Index of Pedestrian Facilities at Collector Road (PCR) and
Index of Pedestrian Facilities at Local Road (PLR). The functional relationship between P-index (P) and
the criteria is given in Eq. (1) below:
P  f  PAR , PCR , PLR 
(1)
Assuming that the functional relationship is linear in nature, Eq. (1) can be represented by the
linear equation of Eq. (2) and subjected to the constraint of Eq. (3):
P  b1PAR  b2 PCR  b3 PLR
3
 b 1.0,
i 1
i
(2)
0  bi 1.0
(3)
Where:
P
PAR
PCR
PLR
b1, b2, b3
=
=
=
=
=
Pedestrian Index (P-index)
Index of Pedestrian Facilities at Arterial Road
Index of Pedestrian Facilities at Collector Road
Index of Pedestrian Facilities at Local Road
coefficients representing the weighted value of each of the criteria
The quality of the pedestrian facility can be translated based on star rating shown in Table 2:
Table 2. Interpretation of the P-Index value
P-index Value
Star Rating
Description
0 – 20
21 – 40
41 – 60
61 – 80
81 – 100





Poor Pedestrian Facilities Provided
Inadequate Pedestrian Facilities
Basic Facilities for Pedestrians
Reasonable Pedestrian Facilities
Ideal Facilities for Pedestrian Walkway
Each of the indicators - facility (F), mobility (M), safety (S), and accessibility (A) is
computed individually, as shown in Table 2. The first indicator, facility (F) identifies the provisions of
appropriate minimum facilities for crosswalks. Here, minimum facilities that every crosswalk must
have are (1) bollards on both sides of the crosswalk, (2) ramps on both sides of the crosswalks, (3)
zebra crossing, (4) pedestrian traffic signal, (5) pedestrian refuge islands, and (6) pedestrian warning
signage. This indicator is important as crosswalks are points where potential conflicts between
pedestrians and motorized vehicles take place. Provision of traffic signal can help pedestrian to cross
arterial road safely without long delays. Provision of a pedestrian refuge island can help pedestrian to
cross road in stages because the lane is wide, while installation of pedestrian warning signage can
advising motorists to slow down at the intersection.
The second of the four indicators, mobility (M) describes the provision of a paved,
continuous pathway relative to the total length of roadways for the pedestrians to use. The third of the
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four indicators, safety (S) describes how safe is the pathway for the pedestrians to use. For this purpose,
a safe pathway is defined as pathways that provide both spatial and physical separations between the
pedestrians and the motorized vehicles. The last indicator, the accessibility (A) indicator measures the
closeness or proximity within walking distance of households to selected land uses. This indicator
indirectly measures the attractiveness of walking in the study area.
Table 3. Equations for the mobility (M), safety (S), facility (F) and accessibility (A) indicators
Equations
n
  0.5B  0.5R  Z
FAR 
i
i 1
i
i
 0.5TSi  RI i  0.5WSi 
6n
n
FCR 
  0.5B  0.5R  Z
i
i 1
Variables
i
i
 RI i  0.5WSi 
5n
FAR = facility indicator for arterial road
FCR = facility indicator for collector road
FLR = facility indicator for local road
100
100
Bi = bollard facility
Ri = ramp facility
Zi = zebra crossing facility
TSi = pedestrian traffic signal facility
RIi = pedestrian refuge island facility
WSi = pedestrian warning signage facility
Bi, RIi, TSi, WSi =
n
FLR 
  0.5B  0.5R 
i
i 1
2n
 0.5DC
M 
 D
i
100
Zi, Ri =
2, if available on both sides
1, if available on one side
0, if not available
1, if available
0, if not available
Dc = total length of paved pedestrian pathway, calculated on
both sides of roads (km)

 100

D = total length of roadway, calculated one-way (km)
DSP = total length of spatially and physically separated paved
pedestrian pathway, calculated on both sides of roads (km)
 0.5DSP
S 
 D

 100,

0  DSP  DC
DC = total length of paved pedestrian pathway, calculated on
both sides of roads (km)
D = total length of roadway, calculated one-way (km)
k
A
L
j 1
k
j
100
Lj = percent (%) of households within walking distance to
land uses j, j = 1, 2, …, k
DATA COLLECTION
Data Collection and Study Variables
Primary data are the data obtained through the site survey and inventory. This type of data
obtained through observations and photograph taking from the survey area. The data collection
instruments are measure tape and digital camera. The secondary data and information obtained from
previous journal researches that are related to this research as well as street directory maps, road plans
and Road Traffic Volume Malaysia. For example, data on traffic road volume and types of road
according to its hierarchy for the study area.
The study variables that were collected from the study area are required in order to calculate
the P-Index. The study variables are listed as in Table 4 below:
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Table 4. Data Collection and Study Variables
Data Collection
PRIMARY DATA
site survey, site inventory, observations, photograph
taking.
SECONDARY DATA
previous journal researches that are related to this
research as well as street directory maps, road plans.
Study Variables
Length of selected road segments.
Length of paved pedestrian pathway along selected road
segment for both sides of the road.
Length of physical separation and spatial separation of
pedestrian pathway for both sides of the road.
Provision of facility at the crosswalk for the road segment such
as bollard, ramp, zebra crossing, traffic signal, pedestrian
refuges island and pedestrian warning signage.
Percentage of household within 500m walking distance to land
uses for accessibility indicator.
Research Area
This research was conducted in Taman Bukit Indah, Johor Bahru, Johor. Bukit Indah is a
township located in the heart of Nusajaya, Iskandar Malaysia, Johor. The township was developed by
SP Setia Berhad. Bukit Indah, which was launched in 1997, has a population of over 60,000 with over
10,000 houses. The township has won an array of landscaping awards including emerging the winner
in the Johor State Landscape Award 2001, National Landscape Competition 2001 and Best of the Best
National Landscape Award 2005.
The township draws crowds from Singapore as well as neighboring townships such as Taman
Sutera, Tampoi Utama, Taman Nusa Bestari and Taman Perling, due to the existence of Tesco
Hypermarket and AEON Jusco Bukit Indah Regional Shopping Centre which are located in the
township. Giant Hypermarket is also located adjacent to the township.
Justification of Research Area
The selected area able to summarize the pedestrian condition and can replicate the real
scenario for the whole study area. The rational of choosing the neighborhood as the survey area is
because it is the area where high attentiveness of human activity are most likely to take place and it
consist of mix land uses. Walking is the most convenient mode of movement to be made since
different type of land use was allocated closeness to each other. Besides that, there are also several
hypermarkets and public facilities located within the town center of Taman Bukit Indah. This type of
land use will act as the traffic generator and relatively will have some effect on the local transportation
system. Hence, through planning for pedestrian, it can relief the traffic and encourages more local
resident to use walking as one of the mode of travel within neighborhood.
The study of pedestrian facilities was conducted on selected road segment in the survey area.
The range of selected road segment covered different types of road hierarchy in the survey area such as
Arterial Road, Collector Road and Local Road (refer to Table 5). There are two and four road segments
from each hierarchy that were selected as sample for survey since most of the road segment have the
same design if they are from the same hierarchy. The type of selected road segments is referring to
their road hierarchy. The selected road segments in the research area consist of arterial road, collector
road and local road.
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Table 5. The Detail Information of Selected Road Segments
Road Segment
Road Hierarchy
Road Name
Road Length (km)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Arterial Road (66‘)
Arterial Road (66‘)
Collector Road (50‘)
Collector Road (50‘)
Local Road (40‘)
Local Road (40‘)
Local Road (40‘)
Local Road (40‘)
Persiaran Indah
Jalan Indah Utama
Jalan Changkat Indah
Jalan Indah 15/2
Jalan Indah 17/5
Jalan Indah 18/4
Jalan Indah 10/4
Jalan Indah 10/3
Total
3.16
1.90
1.83
0.71
0.26
0.44
0.52
0.41
9.23
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Data Analysis
This section evaluated the quality of pedestrian facilities in Taman Bukit Indah based on the
study variables of P-Index method. Then, the results were drawn into map to visually display the star
rating of pedestrian facilities whether it is good or bad.
The data required for the computation of all four indicators for selected road segment in
Taman Bukit Indah using the improved method were shown in the steps by steps calculations and also
from Table 6 and Table 7 below.
Table 6. The Calculation of Facility, Mobility, Safety and Accessibility
Road
Segment
F
M
S
A
(F+M+S+A)/4
Rating
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
20.83
20.83
10
40
0
0
0
0
55.54
96.05
0
91.55
0
0
0
0
87.34
192.11
0
0
0
0
0
0
31.81
31.81
31.81
31.81
31.81
31.81
31.81
31.81
48.88
85.20
10.45
40.84
7.95
7.95
7.95
7.95
3 stars
5 stars
1 star
3 stars
1 star
1 star
1 star
1 star
Table 7. The Calculation of PAR,PCR,PLR
Road Type
Total Score
The value of PAR,PCR,PLR
PAR
PCR
PLR
(48.88+85.20)/2
(10.45+40.84)/2
(7.95+7.95+7.95+7.95)/4
67.04
25.65
7.95
The next step is to calculate the coefficient b1, b2, b3. The coefficients were obtained by
dividing the road length (km) for each road hierarchy with the total road length (km). Table 8 show the
calculation of the coefficients (b1, b2, b3).
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Table 8. The coefficient b1, b2, b3
Road Hierarchy
Road Length (km)
Arterial Road
5.06
Coefficients (b1, b2, b3)
b1 =
× 100
b1 = 54.82 % = 0.5482
b2 =
Collector Road
2.54
b2 = 27.52 % = 0.2752
b3 =
Local Road
1.63
Total
9.23
b3 = 17.66 % = 0.1766
100%
From Table 8, b1 = 0.5482, b2 = 0.2752 and b3 = 0.1766, so that the final step is to calculate P,
which is the overall rate of pedestrian facilities using the improved method as shown below:
P
=
+
+
= 0.548 PAR + 0.275 PCR + 0.177 PLR
= 0.548 (67.04) + 0.275 (25.65) + 0.177 (7.95)
P
= 45. 1993 ( 3 Stars)
According to the P-Index method, the three stars rating for pedestrian facility in Taman Bukit
Indah can be interpreted as walkable. (Refer to Table 9)
Figure 2. Ratings of Pedestrian Facilities in the Study Area
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Table 9. P-Index, Star Rating and Associated Color Codes
Color Codes
P-Index value
Star Rating
0 - 20





21 - 40
41 - 60
61- 80
81 - 100
Description
Hostile towards pedestrians
Unfavourable to pedestrians
Walkable
Supportive towards pedestrians
Very pedestrian friendly
CONCLUSION
The P-index is an analytical tool developed to increase the visibility of pedestrian needs in
urban planning policy applications. It encourages urban planners, city agencies, developers and
community groups to use the index and its concepts for transportation and land use planning and as an
evaluation tool.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Particular thanks go to Dr. Muhammad Zaly Shah bin Muhammad Hussien for his assistance,
guidance and patience supervise my work and made it possible for me to complete this paper. My
appreciation and thanks also goes to Prof. Dr. Abdullah bin Ab. Rahman for his assistance. A special
appreciation and thanks also goes to my beloved parents Abdul Ghani bin Abdullah and Zakiah Md
Said and also for the whole family which never failed to support, encourage and inspire me both in my
study and in life.
References
[1] Babiano, I.M. (2003). Pedestrian Space Management as a Strategy in Achieving Sustainable
Mobility, University of St. Gallen.
[2] Botma, H. (1995). Method to Determine Level of Service for Bicycle Paths and Pedestrian Paths.
Transportation Research Record 1502 TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C pp
38-44
[3] Dandan, T. et.al. (2007). Research on Methods of Assessing Pedestrian Level of Service for
Sidewalk, Journal of Transportation Systems Engineering and Information Technology, Science
Direct Volume 7, Issue 5, October 2007
[4] Dixon, L. B. (1996). Bicycle and Pedestrian Level of service Performance Measures and
Standards for Congestion Management Systems. Transportation Research Record. 1538 (1996):
1-9.
[5] Eppell, V.A.T. et.al. (2001). A four level road hierarchy for network planning and management.
Proceedings 20th ARRB Conference, Melbourne.
[6] FHWA (1999). Guidance on the Bicycle and Pedestrian Provisions, U.S.Department of
Transportation.
[7] FHWA (2002). Pedestrian Facilities Users Guide- Providing Safety and Mobility, U.S.
Department of Transportation.
[8] FHWA (2007). Pedestrian and Bicyclist Intersection Safety Indices, U.S. Department of
Transportation.
[9] FHWA (2007). Pedestrian Road Safety Audit Guidelines and Prompt Lists. Final Report. U.S.
Department of Transportation.
[10] Fruin, J.J. (1970). Designing for Pedestrians A Level of Service Concept. Polytechnic Institute of
Brooklyn.
[11] Gallin, N. (2000). Quantifying pedestrian friendliness - guidelines for assessing pedestrian level
of service, Australia: Walking the 21st Century International Conference, Perth, Western
Australia.
[12] ITE (1998). Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities, A Recommended Practice, 1998. Institute
of Transportation Engineers, Washington, D.C.
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[13] ITE (2001). Design of Pedestrian Facilities - Recommended Practices: Providing Safety and
Mobility, Institute of Transportation Engineers.
[14] Jabatan Kerja Raya (1995). Basic Guidelines on Pedestrian Facilities. Nota Teknik Jalan 18/97
[15] Johathan B. et.al. (2006). Comparison of level of service methodologies for pedestrian sidewalks.
Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board 85th Annual Meeting, 2006.
[16] Kaiser, S. H. (1994). Urban intersections that work for pedestrians: A new definition for level of
service. 73rd Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board,
[17] Kar, K. and Blankenship, M.R. (2009). Road Safety Audits for Pedestrian Facilities. Public Roads,
Sep/Oct 2009; 73,2; ProQuest Science Journals pg.22.
[18] Khisty, C. J. (1994). Evaluation of pedestrian facilities. Beyond the level of service concept,
Transportation Research Record 1438, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1994,
45–50.
[19] Landis, B. W. et.al. (2001). Modeling the roadside walking environment: A Pedestrian Level of
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[20] Lopez, A.(2006). Assessment of Measures to Ease Pedestrian Congestion. University of Leeds.
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[21] Mori, M. and Tsukaguchi, H. (1987) A New Method of Evaluation of Level of Service in
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[22] Muraleetharan,T. et.al. (2004). Method to determine overall level of service of pedestrians on
sidewalks and crosswalks based on total utility value. In Proceedings of the 83rd TRB annual
meeting, transportation research board, Washington, 2004
[23] Muraleetharan,T. et.al.(2005). Method to Determine Pedestrian Level of Service for Crosswalks
at Urban Intersections. Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 6, pp.
127 - 136, 2005.
[24] Muraleetharan,T. (2002). A Study on Evaluation of Pedestrian Level of Service along
[25] Sidewalks and at Intersections Using Conjoint Analysis. Hokkaido University
[26] Pedestrian Facilities Guidebook (1997). Incorporating Pedestrians into Washington‘s
Transportation System, Washington State Department of Transportation. September 1997.
[27] Sarkar, S. (1995). Determination of Service Levels for Pedestrians with European Examples.
Transportation Research Record 1405, TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C pp
35-42
[28] Sarkar, S. (1995). Evaluation of safety for pedestrians at macro and microlevels in urban areas.
Transportation Research Record No. 1502.
[29] Sisiopiku, V.P. and Akin, D. (2003) Pedestrian behaviours at and perceptions towards various
pedestrian facilities: an examination based on observation and survey data. Transport. Res. F 6,
249–274 2003.
[30] Sisiopiku,V.P. (2002). Engineering Methods for Designing Safe Pedestrian Facilities, ICTCT
Extra-Workshop. The University of Alabama.
[31] Transportation Research Board (2000). Highway Capacity Manual 2000, National Research
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[32] Yannis, G. (2007). Assessment of Pedestrian Safety Measures in Europe. Institute of
Transportation Engineers. ITE Journal, Dec 2007
[33] Zaly, M. (2008). Pedestrians: The Forgotten People. The CILTM News. Kuala Lumpur: The
Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport Malaysia.
[34] Zaly, M. (2009). Planning for Pedestrian: Why and How? Department of Urban and Regional
Planning. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
[35] Zaly, M. (2010). Rating Pedestrian Facility with P-Index and the Application of Google Map.
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Developing Countries: The cases of Brazil and Malaysia. Lisbon, Portugal: XVI PANAM
Conference, July 15-18, 2010.
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3D SNMR MODELING FOR GROUNDWATER PROSPECTING AND PROTECTION
Warsa1*, Hendra Grandis1, Djoko Santoso1 and Ugur Yaramanci2
1
Applied Geophysics Research Group ITB, Bandung
2
Institut für Geowissenschaftliche Gemeinschaftsaufgaben (GGA-Institut), Hannover
*Corresponding author: warsa@gf.itb.ac.id
ABSTRACT
Groundwater is an important natural resource all around the world. To manage and preserve
the groundwater resources quantifying and qualifying of groundwater and hydro-geological parameter
of aquifer are provided. Furthermore the availability of groundwater resources and how can be exploited
are essential for the sustained socio economic developments of any area, whether urban or rural. It is also
critical to forecast the effects of hazard and risk identification concerning the condition of water
resources and environment.
Surface nuclear magnetic resonance (SNMR) is a new technology which just passed the
experimental stage to become a promising surface measurement tool to investigate directly the
existence, amount and productiveness of ground water [1]. The principle of Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance (NMR), well known in physics, physical chemistry as well as in medicine, has successfully
been adapted to assess the aquifer parameters. The SNMR has been tested on the test site to yield the
geometry, water content and hydraulic permeability of the aquifer. Beside allows more detailed and
reliable assessment of aquifers the SNMR may also be used to detect the change of water content and
hydrogeological parameters caused by subsidence.
For a better understanding and insight of the capability of the method we have calculated the
SNMR response of 2D and 3D models, i. e. the SNMR relaxation signal for various locations of the
antenna loop. This allows to investigate the spatial signal sensitivity of the method and shows the limits
and problems of the 1D inversion and interpretation of 2D and 3D structures.
Keywords: groundwater resources, SNMR, water content, hydraulic permeability, 3D modeling.
INTRODUCTION
Applied geophysics provides a wide range of very useful and powerful tools which, when
used correctly and in the right situations, will produce useful information. In geophysical method,
surface Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (SNMR) is a new method that can be used to determine the
presence of culturally and economically important substances, such as the subsurface water or
hydrocarbon distribution. SNMR allows to determine water content and pore size distribution directly
from the surface. In combination with electrical conductivity and permittivity SNMR will be used
improve the access to the subsurface.
The SNMR method is performed by stimulating an alternating current pulse through an
antenna at the surface confirms the existence of water in the sub-surface. A major advantage of the
SNMR method compared to other geophysical methods is that SNMR involves a parameter directly
linked to the presence of water content. In the future this new method will be applied as an attempt to
bring long-term solutions to the water supply problems. Furthermore, also can be applied as input to
design parameters used to prevent future environment problems [2]. However, in this case the use of
other geophysical method can provide better answer.
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c)
Transmitter
Exciting pulse
Ear
t
field sh’s m
line agne
s
tic
b)
Ear
t
field sh’s m
line agne
s
tic
a)
Ear
t
field sh’s m
line agne
s
tic
METHODOLOGY
The surface nuclear magnetic resonance (SNMR) sounding is a geophysical method that
aims at determining hydro-geological parameters from magnetic resonance measurement. This method
is based on the principle of the proton magnetic resonance in the Earth‘s filed of hydrogen 1H atom,
which contained in the groundwater molecule H2O. An NMR signal, stimulated by an alternating
current pulse through an antenna at the surface confirms the existence of water in the sub-surface as
shown in Figure 1. The amplitudes of NMR signal are directly related to the water content, while the
decay times are linked to pore size, grain size and, therefore, to hydraulic conductivities. The phases
are related to the electrical conductivity, however this is only used qualitatitively (Table 1).
Receiver
Response
Aquifer:
free-water
H-protons
undisturbed
H-protons
excited
H-protons
relaxation
Aquiclude:
adhesive-water
Figure 1. Schematic of surface-NMR field measurements using a coincident transmitter and
receiver circular loop. a) Equilibrium, b) Excitation pulse, and c) Relaxation
The fundamental integral-equation [3] that governs the amplitudes E0(q) of NMR as a function of the
pulse moment q is given by
E (t, q)  E0 ( q)e  t / T2 ( q )   0 M 0  e  t / T2 ( r ) f (r )  B (r )  sin  (r ) dV ,
*
*
(1)
V
in which 0 is the local Larmor frequency of the hydrogen protons and M0 is the nuclear magnetization
of the protons. The water content and the decay time for an unit volume at the point r in the subsurface
are given by f(r) and T2*(r) respectively. B(r) states the component of the exciting magnetic field
perpendicular to the Earth's geomagnetic field. The tilt angle of the protons is given by (r) =
0.5B(r)q. Increasing the pulse moment q (q = I0, where I0 and  are the amplitude and duration time
of the current pulse, respectively) increases the depth of penetration of the method.
Table 1. Physical parameters determined with SNMR
Measured quantity (vs. pulse moment)
Physical parameter (vs. depth)
Amplitude of the PMR signal Eo (q)
Water content
Decay time constant of the signal T2*
Mean Pore size
Phase shift between signal and current 
Rock layer resistivity
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3D SNMR MODELING
Interpreting SNMR data consists in determining the water content of each layer, in the
hypothesis where the underground is stratified at the scale of the loop dimensions. The inversion
consists in processing the raw data for the whole set of pulse moments corresponding to the various
depths of investigation. However, some parameters are well defined such as the product of the thickness
of a thin layer by its water content. The formulation is reduced to a finite dimensional matrix problem by
considering a finite number of cells with constant spin density (water content and decay time). The 3D
forward modelling is then calculated by generating synthetic data for several of spin density distribution.
This allows to analyse the spatial signal sensitivity of the method and shows the limits and problems of
the 1D inversion and interpretation of 2D and 3D structures.
We have introduced a 3D forward modeling of SNMR initial amplitudes and decay times [4,
5]. A prismatic three-dimensional body model is divided into small cubic cells of dimension V =
xyz. The water content f(x,y,z) and the decay times T2*(x,y,z) are assumed to be constant in each
cell. Then the integral equation is approximated by the finite summation
E (t, q)   0 M 0  e  t / T2 ( x , y ,z ) f ( x, y, z )  B ( x, y, z ) sin  ( x, y, z )xyz. ( 2 )
*
z
y
x
From this relation, the complete SNMR signal can be calculated as a function of a three dimensional
distribution of the water content f(x,y,z) and decay time T2*(x,y,z) in the subsurface.
CONCLUSION
Understanding the spatial distribution of hydrogeological properties is a paramount
importance to effective management of groundwater resources. This, however, is a challenging task as
most standard testing techniques result in sparse data that provide a limited picture of subsurface
variability. SNMR measurements have been shown to be quite useful for improving models of
subsurface. The underlying goal of this research was to improve the state of magnetic resonance
sounding (MRS) imaging for near-surface characterization. The goal was embodied in the
development of a 3D SNMR forward modeling code amplitude and decay time. The 3D modeling
simulates several field situations for hydrogeological models of water content and decay time. The
theoretical formulation is an extension of previous work of amplitude 3D forward modeling, that is,
the amplitude response can be written as a linear combination of water content. We have demonstrated
that 3D modeling of SNMR data is necessary to predict the SNMR signal response of aquifers in a
general and reliable way. In the future detailed knowledge on the extent, hydraulic properties, and
vulnerability of groundwater reservoirs is necessary to enable a sustainable use of the resources.
References
[1] Kirsch, Reinhard. 2009. Groundwater Geophysics: A Tool for Hydrogeology. Springer
Verlag-Berlin.
[2] Steeples, D.W. 2001. Engineering and Environmental Geophysics at The Millennium. Geophysics,
vol. 66, No.1, 31-35.
[3] Schirov, M. and Legchenko, A. 1991. A New Non-invasive Groundwater Detection Technology
for Australia. Exploration Geophysics, vol. 22, 333-338.
[4] Warsa, W., Mohnke, O. and Yaramanci, U. 2002. 3-D Modelling of Surface NMR Amplitudes
and Decay Times. In: Water Resources and Environmental Reasearch ICWRER 2002, Vol. III,
Eigenverlag des Forums für Abfallwirtschaft und Atlasten e.V., Dresden, 209-212.
[5] Warsa, W., Mohnke, O., Hertrich, M. and Yaramanci, U. 2003. Sensitivity study of 3-D modelling
for 2-D inversion of Surface NMR. Proceedings of the 9th European Meeting of EEGS, Prague.
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SOUTHEAST ASIA: POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC INTERACTION IN THAILAND
1
Shafinaz Md Ismail1* and Seng Choi Yee2
School of Humanities, University Science Malaysia
2
Ashcroft International Business School, PTPL
*Corresponding author: shafinaz.mdismail@gmail.com, sengchoiyee@hotmail.com
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established on 8th august 1967
which is observed as ASEAN Day later on by signing the document would be known as ASEAN
Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) in Bangkok, Thailand. The founding fathers of ASEAN are
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Five Foreign Ministers of the countries Adam Malik of Indonesia, Narciso R.Ramos of Philippines, Tun Abdul Razak of Malaysia, S.
Rajaranam of Singapore and Thanat Khoman of Thailand sat down together in the main hall of the
Department of Foreign Affairs building in Bangkok, Thailand. It was a short and simply-worded
document containing only five articles that declared the establishment of ASEAN and the aims and
purposes spelled out the cooperation in the economic, social, cultural, technical, educational and other
fields, and in the promotion of regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the
rule of law and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter. It stipulated that the
Association would be open for participation by all States in the Southeast Asian region subscribing to
its aims, principles and purposes. Brunei Darrusalamm later joined on 7th January 1984, Vietnam
joined on 28th July 1995, Lao PDR and Myanmar on 23rd July 1997. The last country joined was
Cambodia on 30th April 1999. It makes today the ten Member States of ASEAN.
The long histories of ASEAN have told the story of their conflict within and also with others
countries which are not part of ASEAN. Against the backdrop of the conflicts, the Founding fathers
had the foresight towards building a community of and for all Southeast Asia states. In short, ASEAN
goal is to create not to destroy, said by the Foreign minister of Thailand, Thanat Khoman. He stressed
"Let it be for Southeast Asia, a potentially rich region, rich in history, in spiritual as well as material
resources and indeed for the whole ancient continent of Asia, the light of happiness and well-being
that will shine over the uncounted millions of our struggling peoples." That was how ASEAN was
established and had been barely 14 months since Thanat Khoman brought up the ASEAN idea in his
conversations with his Malaysian and Indonesian colleagues. In about three more weeks, Indonesia
would fully restore diplomatic relations with Malaysia, and soon after that with Singapore. That was
by no means the end to intra-ASEAN disputes, for soon the Philippines and Malaysia would have a
falling out on the issue of sovereignty over Sabah. Many disputes between ASEAN countries persist to
this day. But all Member Countries are deeply committed to resolving their differences through
peaceful means and in the spirit of mutual accommodation. Every dispute would have its proper
season but it would not be allowed to get in the way of the task at hand. And at that time, the essential
task was to lay the framework of regional dialogue and cooperation. The two-page Bangkok
Declaration not only contains the rationale for the establishment of ASEAN and its specific objectives.
It represents the organization‟s modus operandi of building on small steps, voluntary, and informal
arrangements towards more binding and institutionalized agreements. All the founding member
states and the newer members have stood fast to the spirit of the Bangkok Declaration. Over the
years, ASEAN has progressively entered into several formal and legally-binding instruments, such as
the 1976 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia and the 1995 Treaty on the Southeast
Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone.
The original ASEAN logo presented five brown sheaves of rice stalks, one for each founding member.
Beneath the sheaves is the legend "ASEAN" in blue. These are set on a field of yellow encircled by a
blue border. Brown stands for strength and stability, yellow for prosperity and blue for the spirit of
cordiality in which ASEAN affairs are conducted. When ASEAN celebrated its 30th Anniversary in
1997, the sheaves on the logo had increased to ten - representing all ten countries of Southeast Asia
and reflecting the colors of the flags of all of them. In a very real sense, ASEAN and Southeast Asia
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would then be one and the same, just as the Founding Fathers had envisioned. Through the history,
lessons have been learnt, it has also proven to achieve sustainability and there are strong interactions
between political and economic.
In this paper, Thailand has been chosen out from 10 member states of ASEAN to prove with
real cases that sustainability always achieved by the interaction of three main elements which are
social, environment and economic.
With its capital city Bangkok, Thailand is one of the South East Asia countries. It is ruled by
a king and prime minister. In early 1200, Thai people founded a small kingdom in Lanna, Phayao and
Sukhothai. In 1238, stood fully independent Thai kingdom in Sukhothai ('Dawn of Happiness'). In the
year 1300, Sukhothai kingdom Ayutthaya controlled by, until seized by the Burmese in 1767. The fall
of Ayutthaya is a major blow to the Thai nation, but not long after King Taksin managed to repel the
Burmese and established his capital at Thon Buri. In 1782, the first king of the Chakri Dynasty in
power until today established a new capital in Bangkok. King Mongkut (Rama IV) and his son, King
Chulalongkorn (Rama V), highly respected for his successful rescue Thailand from western
colonization. At present, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy, and now led by HH King Bhumibol
Adulyadej.
The state area is around 514,000 km2. In the west and north, Thailand is bordering Myanmar
and to the north east by Laos, on the east by Cambodia, while in the south with Malaysia.
Geographically, Thailand is divided into six: the hills in the north is home for elephants where the land
and soil is really good for some crops such as strawberries and peaches; broad plateau in the north east
borders the Mekong River; the middle of Thailand has very fertile soil; coastal areas in the east is
commonly used by tourism resorts; mountains and valleys in the west; and a very beautiful southern
regions. Thailand has tropical climate, with the spring from March to May, rainy season from June
until September, and winter from October to February. The average temperature is 28 degrees Celsius.
The population of Thailand is 65.6 million in total (eurometer 2011) with density around
128.2/km2. It is dominated by ethnic Thai and Lao, amounting to three quarters of the entire
population. In addition, there is a large community of ethnic Chinese who are historically has
important role in the economy. The ethnicity includes ethnic Malays in the south, Mon, Khmer and
various tribes in the hills. Approximately 95% of Thai is practicing Buddhism flow Theravada but
there are small minority religion follower of Islam, Christianity and Hinduism. Thai language is the
national language of Thailand, which was written using the characters themselves but there are also
many other local languages. Thailand's economy depends on exports, with export value of about 60%
of GDP. Thaksin who became Prime Minister since February 2001 has the intention to stimulate
domestic demand and reducing Thailand's reliance on trade and foreign investment. Since then,
Thaksin administration has improved the economy by taking economic message "dual track" that
combines domestic stimulus with Thailand's traditional promotion of open markets and foreign
investment. Before the financial crisis, Thai economy has a good production of economic growth with an average of 9.4% for the decade to 1996. Manpower and resources are quite a lot, foreign
investment policy is open, and the encouragement of the private sector is the foundation of economic
success in the years up to 1997. Some services, such as power generation, transportation, and
communications are owned and operated the state, but the government is considering privatizing them
in the beginning of the financial crisis. Although there was a corruption scandal recently which
involved Thaksin Shinawatra and forced him to resign from the position, and Thai government elected
Yingluck Shinawatra in 2011. She was the number one party list candidate for the main opposition
Pheu Thai political party, and has become the country's first woman prime minister after the party's
victory in the 3 July general election. Yet Ms Yingluck, 44, has never before run for office nor held a
government post, and critics have been quick to point out her inexperience. Her primary political
qualification seems to be the fact she is the youngest sister of Mr Thaksin, who was ousted in a 2006
military coup. Despite living in self-imposed exile in Dubai, he still in effect controls the Pheu Thai
party. Ms Yingluck is there to marshal the Thaksin faithful - the many millions who still want their
former leader back - and to woo the undecided with a new look attached to an old name. She
mobilised that base through democratic elections as opposed to the prolonged - sometimes bloody street protests that Thailand has witnessed in recent years. That could give Mr Thaksin a basis on
which to bargain a future role in the country, despite a two-year jail sentence for a conflict of interest
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conviction. Ms Yingluck is the ninth child in a highly political family. She has two degrees in politics undergraduate from the northern city of Chiang Mai, her family's powerbase, and masters from
Kentucky State University in the US. Until now, she has pursued a corporate career, formerly as
managing director of AIS, the telecommunications firm her brother founded, and managing director of
SC Asset Company, a family firm involved in property. In her bid to become the first female prime
minister, Ms Yingluck said she planned to use her attributes as a woman to promote national
reconciliation and asked for the chance to prove herself.
Royal Thai Government welcomes foreign investment, and investors who can meet several
requirements can apply special investment rights through the Board of Investment of Thailand .To
attract more foreign investment, the government has modified its investment regulations. Movement
unions remain weak and fragmented in Thailand. Only 3% of the total labor force unionized workers.
In 2000, the Employment Relations Act-Company State (SELRA) was passed, to give public sector
employees similar rights to those who work in the private sector, including the right to join trade
unions. About 60% of the total labor force employed in the field of Thai agriculture. Rice is the most
important crops. Thailand is a major exporter in the world rice market. Other agricultural commodities
produced in large enough quantities are fish and other fishery products, tapioca, rubber, grain, and
sugar. Thailand has 9-11 million acres paddy field. The field never converted for any other
non-agriculture activity. The field is able to produce 30-31 million tons of rice every year. Thailand
successfully exports 7-9 tons of rice to many countries yearly. Their domestic consumption (with
almost 70 million populations) is 6 – 6.8 million tons every year.
During the last decades, Bangkok was transformed into a modern, attractive and sophisticated
city. Bangkok offers visitors not only the modern amenities they expect from other cosmopolitan cities,
but also a unique treasure cultural attraction. Thailand, in the heart of South East Asia was never
colonized and thus to a unique culture and heritage intact. Bangkok offers visitors the opportunity to
experience an interesting glimpse at the heart of Thailand‟s gentle culture bustle of a big metropolis
and dynamic. Amazingly, this great city has been tremendous success in combining the ancient and the
modern world. For tourist, Bangkok feast of attractions to offer. The city is dotted with 400 glittering
Buddhist temples of great beauty, magnificent palaces, classical dance performance, many shopping
centre‟s and traditional ways of life still exists, especially along the canals and the Chao Phraya River
which winds though the city. Thailand is truly “Venice of the East”.
Sustainable diagram
Thailand’s economic growth over the last three decades has been fueled and
accompanied by rapid industrialization, urbanization, and by intensified
agricultural production and fishing. This growth, which has relied extensively on the
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country’s abundant and diverse natural resources, has degraded land and water quality,
caused the loss of natural habitats, and generated increasing levels of air and water
pollution. In response, the Government and people of Thailand have launched new
initiatives to improve air and water quality, reforest degraded land, adopt energy efficient
technologies and invest in pollution abatement schemes.
Rapid industrial expansion and population growth have outpaced environmental management,
resulting in sharply increased pollution levels (e.g. solid and hazardous waste, air, noise, and water). For
example, fine particles in Bangkok‟s air exceed WHO standards by 2.5 times, and other air pollutants are
also causing major health impacts. Overall, it is estimated that air and water pollution costs the country
1.6 - 2.6 percent of GDP per year.
The Government‟s decision to phase out leaded gasoline has reduced ambient levels of lead, and
there are also signs of greater private sector interest in environmental quality. For example, the country's
oil and gas conglomerate (PTT), is investing in Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), a much cleaner fuel
source, and has said that CNG will account for 10 percent of all fuel used in the next five years.
Volumes of untreated domestic sewage, industrial wastewater and solid hazardous wastes have
risen dramatically in recent years. The result is that roughly one third of Thailand‟s surface water bodies
are considered to be of poor quality. Clearly Thailand needs to focus on more effective enforcement of
environmental laws; stronger institutional capacity, both national and local; and increased investments
in pollution prevention and control, with private sector participation.
Land conversion, slash-and-burn agriculture, and intense exploitation of water have led to
rapid deterioration of natural resources. Forest cover fell drastically from 53 percent in 1961 to
25 percent in 1998. Measures taken by government in the late 1980s to prohibit logging have begun to
pay dividends, and the deforestation rate has fallen to 0.2 percent/year. However, the legacy of
deforestation is creating other environmental problems, such as conversion to dry lands, sedimentation
of rivers, and loss of natural habitats. In the fisheries sector, over-harvesting of marine fisheries has
reduced fishing yields by 90 percent, and coastal areas have been seriously degraded by expansion of
capture fishing, shrimp aquaculture, industry and tourism. Of particular concern is water scarcity,
which occurs against a backdrop of low availability, high pollution, and increasing per capita
consumption. There is tremendous pressure on Thailand's water resources, as the country ranks the
lowest in Asia for annual per capita water availability, but it ranks 14th in the world in industrial
organic water pollution.
In order to improve the balance between conservation and exploitation of natural resources,
the country needs to ensure an integrated approach to sustainable resource management, to eliminate
harmful subsidies (e.g. for pesticides and over-fishing), and to assist in the capacity building of local
institutions and communities. The main platforms for World Bank assistance will be the CDP-E and
the GEF-supported Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Management Project.
The violence of the ethnic separatist insurgency in the southern provinces of Thailand (Pattani,
Yala and Narathiwat) continues unabated, raising the brutality to the level of international terrorism by
targeting foreign tourists. The recent triple bombing attack in the Sungai Kolok district of Narathiwat
province on 16 September 2011 revealed one such purpose of the insurgents. An overview report of
the last one year shows that although there is a considerable decrease in the number of attacks by
insurgents in Thailand, the fatalities and lethality have increased. Violence has now become more
retaliatory in nature and the attacks are professionally done; they are well planned and targeted.
However, hope lies with the change in the political climate in Thailand. With the victory of the Pheu
Thai Party (PTP) in the July 2011 elections, there is a lot of expectation from the new Prime Minster
Yingluck Shinawatra towards bringing peace and stability in the country.
Policies
Thailand's new prime minister said Tuesday that during its first 12 months in office her
government will concentrate on promoting economic stability and reconciliation after years of political
polarization. First-year policies will also focus on cracking down on drugs, fighting corruption and
peace building in the insurgency-plagued south, Yingluck Shinawatra said in her first policy statement
to Parliament. Thailand's first female premier, who was elected in early July, said the government
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would strengthen the nation's domestic economy, which has grown at only modest rates since the 2006
coup that deposed her brother Thaksin Shinawatra, as chronic political instability depressed consumer
and business confidence. Yingluck also said her government would work toward "a more balanced
economic structure," appealing to the masses of rural voters who supported her Pheu Thai party in
hopes of a better distribution of wealth in the country of 68 million. During its first year, her
government will sharply increase the minimum wage, give tax exemptions to people buying their first
home and car, and give tablet computers to primary school students, she said.
Wages
The new starting monthly salary of 15,000 baht ($482) for new university graduates in
government jobs and state enterprises from January up from the current 10,640 baht. The plan has been
approved by cabinet, together with higher living allowances for state employees whose salaries are
below 15,000 baht. The government said the scheme would require 18.9 billion baht in the fiscal year
from 1st October 2011. A daily minimum wage of 300 baht ($10) nationwide, up 35 to 90 percent from
the present minimum set in each province. The government has said this could take effect from January
in seven of 77 provinces, including Bangkok.
Taxes
Tax breaks for first-time buyers of cars and homes. The plans have been approved. First-time
car buyers will get a tax refund of up to 100,000 baht. The car price on which the refund is based is
capped at 1 million baht; the vehicle must have a maximum engine of 1,500 cc and be kept for five years.
The government says this will cost 30 billion baht in lost revenue but could boost demand by 500,000
new vehicles.
First-time home buyers will get a five-year deduction worth 10 percent of the price of the home
in their income tax, or up to 500,000 baht (rather than a deduction in their taxable income as earlier
proposed).The home price is capped at 5 million baht. The government has said this would cost about
2.4 billion baht per year. A 30-year loan of up to 1 million baht with zero interest in the first three years
will be offered to first-time home owners.Corporate tax will be cut to 23 percent from 30 percent in
2012, then to 20 percent in 2013. The government says this could be submitted for cabinet approval this
month. Economists at Morgan Stanley have estimated the first corporate tax cut could cost about 150
billion baht ($4.8 billion). UBS puts the cost at 100 billion baht
New Rice Policy
In July 2011, the international price of rice began to rise as well, intensifying their concerns.
They traced the origins of the increase to Thailand, where the government recently announced a plan to
buy rice from the country's farmers at above-market prices -- a scheme that at least one government
member described as a strategy aimed at winning votes. The government is offering to buy paddy, or
unmilled rice at 15,000 Thai baht ($482.6; £312) per metric tonne, which is a 50% premium on the
current market rate. The government enacted the policy earlier this month and says it will begin the
buying stage in October.
Thailand occupies a key position in the complex web of dependencies that make up the global
food economy. It supplies 30 percent of the world's rice exports, more than any other country. The
dependence on Thai rice is particularly heavy in West Africa, where most countries consume more rice
than they produce. The rest of Africa would likely be less vulnerable to the effects of a spike, with the
exceptions of Djibouti and Somalia. Somalia imports most of its rice from Pakistan, yet a price spike
stemming from Thailand could lead to similar price increases in exports from other countries. Though,
the poor in Somalia consume more wheat and sorghum than rice, a bump in rice prices could prompt
traders of those grains to raise their prices, too.
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FREE TABLET COMPUTERS
Free tablet computers for about 800,000 school children each year and wireless internet
networks, starting as a trial for first-grade students in 2012. But the government will not give tablets to
every school, only those that can show they are capable of making proper use of them, Education
Minister Worawut Ua-apinyakul was quoted as saying in the Nation newspaper on Oct. 6. Yingluck's
party has said the tablets would cost between 3,000 and 5,000 baht ($100 to $160) each and operate with
open-source software, possibly from China.
ENERGY AND OTHER RETAIL PRICES
In August, as promised, the government temporarily removed a levy on some fuels, resulting in
a big fall in the retail price of gasoline and diesel. It said this would run for up to one year and cut
contributions to the state Oil Fund by 3 billion baht each month. But on September 30th, it said it would
reimpose a levy which means it will take 1 baht per liter on 91-octane and 95-octane gasoline and 0.60
baht per litre from diesel from January 16th to help stabilize the fund, which is used to subsidise other
fuels. It will also keep the retail LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) price for households at 18.13 baht per kg
until the end of 2012, extended from September.
The government has extended the excise tax cut for diesel for three months to end-2011, which
will cost about 25 billion baht ($830 million) in lost revenue. The tax was cut to 0.005 baht per litre from
5.31 baht by the previous government as it tried to cap the retail price. The government has broader
plans to revise the whole system of energy price regulation, which is still taking shape. It said in August
it expected to raise excise tax on all fuels in the next 6-8 months to make a more appropriate price
structure. Other than that, the new policies also pledged to hold down prices of consumer goods and
energy. The government has said it will not force operators to cut prices. The Commerce Ministry last
month suggested lower prices for pork and chicken and said sellers of some products such as cement,
fertilizer and water pumps were willing to lower prices. On October 3rd, the cabinet approved the
extension of free public transport until Jan. 15 for certain users and the government said this would cost
2.18 billion baht.
TRANSPORT
As for high-speed rail lines: the plan is to build separate lines from Bangkok to three major
urban centres: Nakhon Ratchasima (260 km/160 miles northeast), Chiang Mai (700 km north) and Hua
Hin (200 km south). Government develop existing rail systems to allow movement of cargo from the
north, northeast, east and south to Bangkok and 10 new elevated rail lines within four years to connect
Bangkok with its suburbs. This will extend a rail link from central Bangkok to Suvarnabhumi airport out
to eastern Chon Buri province, which includes the tourist city of Pattaya. However, little has emerged on
this, including how it will be funded.
SOCIAL WELFARE AND OTHER SERVICES
Universal medical care expenses for patients to pay 30 baht per visit. The government said it
would start from October a three-year household debt moratorium for those with no more than 500,000
baht of debt, which will help about 640,000 farmers and cost the government about 14.2 billion baht.
The government also plans for credit cards for farmers to buy fertilizer and other supplies for
production, and also taxi drivers. However, details were not finalized but the government has said
farmers could be allowed credit worth up to 70 percent of the value of their produce. Annual rural village
development funds of between 300,000 and 2 million baht for each of Thailand's 73,000 villages.
Incentives also being taken for the welfare of their citizen where allowance of 600 baht for citizens
over 60, rising to 700 baht at 70, 800 baht at 80 and 1,000 baht at 90 are being paid per monthly.
(Compiled by Orathai Sriring, Jutarat Skulpichetrat and Martin Petty)
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OTHER INFRASTRUCTURE
Yingluck has promised anti-flooding levees to protect the Bangkok area from tide surges around
the Gulf of Thailand.
Rice Paddy Field in Thailand
Rice paddy farming has been practiced in Thailand for more than 5,500 years. Rice paddy
fields and rice farming has been a principal career of the Thais and rice farmers are named „the
backbone of the country‟. An old saying „In the water, there is fish. In the fields, there is rice which
clearly indicates the fertility and importance of rice fields as „Rice and Water Bowl‟ of Thailand.
Majority of people, especially in the rural areas, rice paddy farming plays an important role for them
in maintaining ecosystem services with special emphasis on biodiversity conservation, provision of
food and medicinal plants, and enhancement of food and health security.
The author has carried out a preliminary documentary research, compilation and synthesis of
data and information related to rice paddy fields and farming practices from a number of different
sources.
85 Importance of rice fields and rice farming
Rice fields are multi‐ resource agro‐ ecosystems within an agricultural landscape, having
significantly high cultural and spiritual, socioeconomic, and ecological values. Culturally and
spiritually, rice fields are intimately linked with the Thai ways of life and settlements, history and
archaeology, beliefs and rituals, religion, culture, literatures, legends, festivals and ceremonies,
folklores and folk arts. Rice field ecosystems are perfect natural classrooms, laboratories, research and
training sites, where children and youth, students and general public can gain life‐ long environmental
education.
Socio‐ economically, for agriculture‐ based developing countries, rice paddy fields and rice
farming activities are vitally important for sustainable development. Rice fields are sources of rice
which is the staple food, sources of fish and many other aquatic animals which are major protein food,
various edible food plants, a wide range of valuable herbal and medicinal plants, and many natural
products which can be collected and used for firewood, fodder, compost and green manure, housing
materials, household utensils, many domestic tools, raw materials for cottage industries, and many
others. Rice fields are not only important for subsistence and sufficiency economy of local people, but
also for the national economic development. Rice fields are sources of occupation and income of
majority of rural households, while producing rice which is the prime export and a major source of the
country‟s revenue. Ecologically, rice fields provide multiple ecosystem services. Ecosystem services
provided by rice fields are such as provision of food resources, provision of medicinal plants, and
conservation of biodiversity, groundwater recharge, flood control, sediment trapping, water
purification, nutrients retention, soil fertility replenishment, erosion control, landslide prevention,
microclimate stabilization, and many others. Rice paddy landscapes are among the most diverse
ecosystems and are important for biodiversity conservation. In rice fields, there is a high diversity of
plants, fish and aquatic animals, birds, small mammals, amphibians, reptiles, insects, and invertebrates.
Such biodiversity‐ rich habitats are important to local farmers and their livelihoods because they are
home to the natural enemies in the fields. Each and every species plays important role as predator or
prey in natural food webs and food chains and keeps rice field ecosystems in balance.
Rice paddy farming practices in Thailand: past, present and future
In the past, almost 90% of Thailand‟s rice fields were naturally flooded for 3 – 4 months every
year, with average depth of 1 – 2 m to 6 – 7 m during October to January. Rice farmers considered this
condition as a naturally annual event supplying nutrients and fertility to their rice fields. During the
mid 20th Century, massive irrigation systems and networks have been developed and water level has
been controlled. A huge area of intensive rice plantation has occurred. Since 1960, Thailand has been
one of the biggest rice exporters in the world. During 1960 – 2000, hydrological changes have brought
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along various changes in Thailand‟s rice fields and rice farming practices and patterns: from natural to
controlled flooding; from rain fed broadcasting native deepwater floating rice cultivation to irrigated
high yield varieties transplanting rice cultivation; from 1 crop/year to 2 – 3 crops/year; from natural
organic to chemical rice farming; and from using intensive household labor and animals to using
mechanized heavy machineries. Average rice yield has increased double to triple times from 280 to
530 – 850 kg/rai/year (1 rai = 1,600 sqm). In 2007, Thailand has approximately 21% of the total
country area under rice fields, and has 10% of the total country area under irrigation which is about
30% of the total agricultural area. At present, rice farmers as well as the general public have started to
be aware of impacts and consequences of changes occurred during the past 5 decades, and increasingly
realized the importance of rice field biodiversity conservation. Intensification of rice cultivation,
over‐ application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and modern mechanization changed the
composition of plant species assemblages and threatened the availability of wild food and medicinal
plants as well as ecological balance in rice fields. Trend of changing back to organic and integrated
rice farming practices have occurred and been widely accepted.
Integrated Rice Paddy Farming in Thailand: A Best Practice for Maintaining Ecosystem Services
In Thailand, organic rice farming started in 1980s. Currently, organic rice farming areas and
networks continuously expand the existed country‐ wide. Organic rice farming has been promoted and
encouraged, providing the rice yield of 400 – 650 kg/rai/year. Price of organic rice is 5 – 20% higher
than of chemical rice. Many people are willing to pay 30 – 40% more for organic rice. Adoption of
organic rice farming with much less or zero application of agricultural chemicals and zero‐ waste
farming system has also made integrated rice farming practices possible. In place of rice monoculture,
integrated rice farming practices maintain the natural species composition and mimic the natural
ecosystems by combining many diverse but compatible farming and cropping activities within rice
fields and avoiding applications of chemical inputs. Integrated rice farming practices are such as
rice‐ fish
culture,
rice‐ fish‐ duck
culture,
rice‐ bean‐ poultry‐ livestock
culture,
rice‐ fish‐ orchard‐ vegetable culture, rice‐ fish‐ agro forestry, and many others. These integrated
farming systems following His Majesty the King‟s Philosophy of Subsistence Economy and the New
Theory, have been widely practiced and increasingly popular. The outcomes not only bring a better
environment and quality of life, lower expense and sufficient benefit, but also reduce the 87risk from
climate variability, cropping failure and problems of low farm‐ product prices.
Research results clearly indicated that rice‐ fish plots had higher available phosphorus and
organic matter contents than rice plots without fish (Khunnarong, 1996). The economic analysis also
indicated that in rice‐ fish culture, the chemical fertilizer application could be reduced by 25%, while
the profit was still higher than rice culture without fish (Kaewvichit, 1996). In terms of ecosystem
services, integrated rice paddy farming helps bring back the healthy ecosystems and their valuable
functions. By maintaining the natural biodiversity of rice paddy fields and less or zero application of
agricultural chemicals, the importance and functional values of rice paddy fields can be significantly
enhanced. Within paddy fields (wet rice fields), there are 3 major types of different habitats: rice
paddy fields, bunds, and ditches. These habitats are home, feeding, nesting, roosting, and breeding
grounds for diverse groups of wetland species. Not only rice plant which is the dominant species, but
also within rice paddy ecosystems there are at least 54 recorded aquatic plant species; large number of
grasses, sedges, broad‐ leaved plant species; at least 69 recorded native forest and tall tree species and
many small trees and bushes; at least 37 recorded fish species and various kinds of other aquatic
animals; at least 33 – 107 recorded bird species (including at least 5 globally threatened and many
critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable species of Thailand); at least 29 recorded odonate
species; and enormous numbers of species of amphibians, reptiles, mammals, insects, and many other
wildlife (Thipaksorn, 1998; Sripen, 1999). The more species diversity is maintained, the more stable
the ecosystems are. Populations of rice pests such as rats, insects, mollusks, are controlled naturally
within rice fields by natural enemies – predators and parasites. Odonate insects are important predators
of rice pests. Birds eat and help reduce insect pests. Birds and ducks help eradicate rice enemies e.g.
golden‐ apple snails. Snakes eat rats. Several native fish species help eliminate rice insect pests.
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Integrated Pest Management is compatible with integrated rice paddy farming. Birds and fish excretes
help improve paddy soil quality. Patches of native bushes and tall trees maintained within rice paddy
fields or surrounding woodlands and swampy areas are nesting and roosting sites of birds. Rice paddy
fields have good characteristics for bird conservation, having plenty of foods such as small fish, frogs,
shrimps, crabs, snails, shells, snakes, rats, insects, worms, spiders, etc.. Many common residents (e.g.
Little Egrets, Cattle Egrets, Little Cormorants, Javan Pond‐ Herons, Storks, Ducks and Gueese, Rails,
Weavers, Kingfishers, etc.) use rice fields as their feeding grounds. Over 41 species of big/tall trees,
such as Crudia chrysantha, Eugenia cumini, Manila Tamarind Pithecellobium dulce, Mango
88Mangifera indica, Tamarind Tamarindus indica, Streblus as per, Bambusa spp., Ficus spp., are used
as nesting and roosting sites by Asian Open‐ billed Stork. Excretes of Asian Open‐ billed Stork is
added into rice fields. Each year, rice paddy fields with Asian Open billed Stork inhabiting tall trees
receive extra amount of N, P, K natural fertilizer plus other nutrient minerals like calcium, magnesium,
and organic matter. Excretes of Little Cormorants also have high N and P organic fertilizer. Birds‟
excretes help improve paddy soil fertility and quality.
Dense grasses along paddy bunds and ditches, not only provide habitats for wildlife, but also
maintain soil moisture and help prevent soil erosion. Vetiver plant can be grown and used, not only to
perform this specific function, but also can be used as livestock forage, insect repellant, insecticide,
roof thatch, mushroom cultivation medium, compost, water purification, handicraft material,
medicinal applications, and other uses. Many other native plants, for example Sesbania bispinosa, if
are maintained or grown, can help improve soil quality and enhance soil fertility.
Types of Riceland Ecosystem
Rice farming is practiced in several agro ecological zones (A EZs) although most of the rice
farming occurs in warm/cool humid subtropics (AEZ 7), warm humid tropics (AEZ 3) and in arm
sub-humid tropics (AEZ 2). Cutting across the AEZs, IRRI (1993) has categorized rice land
ecosystems into four types which are the irrigated rice ecosystem; rain fed lowland rice ecosystem,
upland rice ecosystem, and flood-prone rice ecosystem. Apart from the upland system, the others are
characterized by wet rice cultivation. Asia accounts for over 90% of the world‟s production of rice and
almost 90% of the world‟s rice land areas. In the irrigated rice ecosystem, the rice fields have assured
water supply for one or more crops a year. Irrigated lands cover over half of the world‟s rice lands and
produce about 75% of the world‟s rice supply. The rain fed lowland rice ecosystem is characterized by
its lack of control over the water and by both flooding and drought problems. About one quarter of the
world‟s rice lands are rain fed. The upland rice ecosystem varies from low-lying valleys to undulating
and steep sloping lands with high runoff and lateral water movement. The soils vary in texture, water
holding capacity and nutrient status since these could range from the badly leached alfi sols of West
Africa to fertile volcanic soils in Southeast Asia. Less than 13% of the world‟s rice land is upland rice.
The remaining rice lands are classified as flood-prone rice ecosystems (almost 8%), subject to
uncontrolled flooding, submerged for as long as five months at a time with water depth from 0.5 to 4.0
m or more and even intermittent flooding with brackish water caused by tidal fluctuations. Included
here are tidal rice lands in coastal plains.
The main factors affecting the plants in the rice fields are water, light, temperature, soil
nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other minerals) as well as the farming practices. The
rice field flora consists of the rice plants as well as many types of algae and other vascular
macrophytes. The vegetation apart from the rice plants is often referred to as the photosynthetic
aquatic biomass (PAB). The algae alone in a rice field have been reported to develop a biomass of
several tones fresh weight per hectare (Roger 1996).
The aquatic fauna plays an important role in nutrient recycling. Whether as primary or
secondary consumers, animals excrete inorganic and organic forms of nitrogen and phosphorus and it
is a major factor in the exchange of nutrients between soil and water. Among the organisms, the
benthic oligochaetes (family Tubifi cidae) have received special attention because they can move
between the reduced soil (which lies beneath the shallow oxidized layer) and the flood water. Together
with ostracods and dipteran larvae, oligochaetes respond positively to nitrogen fertilizer if applied by
broadcasting, but not when applied by deep placement. Indigenous snail populations on the other hand
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are strongly affected negatively by broadcast application of N fertilizer (Simpson 1994).
Fish plays an important role in the nutrient cycle of the rice field ecosystem. Cagauan (1995)
lists four ways how fish may influence the nutrient composition of the flood water and the oxidized
surface soil as well as the growth of the rice plant. First is by contributing more nutrients to the rice
field through faeces excretion as well as through decomposition of dead fish. Secondly is to release of
fixed nutrients from soil to water when the fish swims about and disperses soil particles when
disturbing the soil-water interface. Third, by making the soil more porous when fish disturb the
soil-water interface, fish increase the nutrient uptake by rice. Finally, fish assist in the recycling of
nutrients when they graze on the photosynthetic biomass and other components of the ecosystem.
More specifically, fish affect the nitrogen cycle in a rice field. Cagauan et al. (1993) found that a rice
field with fish has a higher capacity to produce and capture nitrogen than one without fish (Table 1). At
the same time, fish may help conserve nitrogen by reducing photosynthetic activity (by grazing on the
photosynthetic aquatic biomass and by increasing turbidity) and thus keeping the pH lower and
reducing volatilization of ammonia. This may be important as nitrogen losses through ammonia
volatilization have been estimated to be from 2 to 60% of the nitrogen applied (Fillery et al. 1984).
Changes in global climate would significantly affect human health, natural aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems, and agricultural ecosystems. World-wide attention recently has turned to these
issues and scientists from many disciplines and many countries are working to assess the potential
magnitude and direction of the changes and the risks to the biota. Of great immediate concern to policy
makers and scientists worldwide, are the potential effects of the changes on the world's agriculture. To
meet the demands of a growing human population, agricultural productivity must continue to increase.
If global climate changes, act to reduce food production, serious, long-term food shortages and
aggravation of societal problems could result.
Of all the world's crops, rice is the most important for direct human consumption. It‟s because it
is the staple food for over half of mankind, with at least 2 billion people in Asia alone depending on rice
for much of their daily caloric intake. Due largely to the introduction of improved, high-yielding rice
varieties by the IRRI in the Philippines, and to the increasing availability of chemical fertilizers, world
rice production has increased steadily in the last two decades, managing to keep pace with population
growth. In the last five years, however, production growth has ceased.
By the year 2000, almost two-thirds of the world's population will depend on rice as their
primary food source, if the population growth of developing countries continues at the present rate.
More than 90% of the world's rice production is in Asia, primarily in an area from approximately
40deg.N latitude to 10deg.S latitude, including 19 countries. China and India grow the most rice, with
41% and 20% of the Asian production, respectively, in 1985-87 (IRRI, 1989). Nearly 3/4 of rice
production is from irrigated fields, especially in China.
Enhanced UV-B and global climate change will impact tropical rice growing regions. Although
temperature changes induced by global warming should be more dramatic, at least initially, at higher
latitudes than in the tropics, tropical warming should become pronounced by early in the next century
(Hansen et al, 1988), with significant changes in regional weather likely. Increases in UV-B radiation
are also likely due to ozone depletion. As with temperature changes, the most dramatic percentage
decreases in stratospheric ozone are predicted to occur at high latitudes, but because the ozone layer at
the equator is naturally much thinner than at higher latitudes (a consequence of stratospheric air
circulation), relatively small decreases in the ozone layer over the tropics may cause significant
increases in UV-B.
Rice Response to UV-B and Climate Change
UV-B effects on rice plants
UV-B radiation has been demonstrated to affect some aspects of human health, aquatic
ecosystems, and agricultural and natural terrestrial ecosystems. Effects of UV-B on terrestrial biota,
both direct and indirect, have been demonstrated at every level of biological organization from plant
molecules to entire ecosystems. Among the observed effects is that a number of plant molecules, such as
DNA, lipids, and proteins strongly absorb UV-B and can, in turn, induce specific changes in tissue and
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whole-plant structure and function (Caldwell et al, 1989). UV-B can also reduce plant growth and
yield through reductions in biomass production, seed yield, and yield quality (Barnes et al, 1988). UV-B
can alter plant morphology through reductions in plant height and leaf area, increased tillering, and
changes in plant geometry as well(Barnes et al, 1988).
Plant physiological processes are impacted by UV-B. Photosynthesis is often reduced, and the
production of plant secondary metabolites increased (Renger et al, 1989; Caldwell et al, 1989). Plant
competitive interactions can shift due to the differential sensitivity of competing plant species (Fox and
Caldwell, 1978; Barnes et al, 1988). Pest-pathogen relationships may also be altered due to changes in
plant secondary metabolites (Caldwell et al, 1989).
Few studies have been conducted on the effects of UV-B radiation on rice, and current
information is insufficient to support an assessment of the risks of UV-B to rice production. Research is
currently underway at the IRRI in the Philippines and at the EPA's Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory to fill the critical data gaps and to support the risk assessment process. The direct effects of
UV-B that have been observed in both previous and ongoing studies are that there was a possible trend
towards a reduction in seed yield for one rice cultivar under enhanced UV-B conditions in the field
simulating ozone depletions of 8 to 16% for Florida, USA. However, the results were highly variable
and the UV-B effects were not statistically significant (Biggs et al, 1984). However, the effect of UV-B
enhancement on rice yield under tropical conditions, where ambient solar UV-B levels are among the
highest on earth, has yet to be examined. Rice growth and photosynthesis can be suppressed by exposure
to UV-B under greenhouse conditions. However, few cultivars have been examined and no studies have
examined photosynthesis responses under field conditions where plants are generally more tolerant to
UV-B enhancement (Research in progress at ERL-C).
UV-B can induce the accumulation of UV-absorbing pigments and alter leaf surface
characteristics. It is unknown whether these responses are sufficient to completely protect rice from
increased exposure to UV-B or whether variation in these traits is related to variation in cultivar
sensitivity to UV-B-induced injury (Research in progress at ERL-C). In some cultivars, UV-B can alter
plant morphology without reducing plant biomass. Since some of these morphological traits, such as
tillering, are known to influence rice yield, UV-B could potentially alter grain yield without apparent
reductions in total production (Beyschlag et al, 1988). Substantial variation appears to exist in both the
magnitude and direction of UV-B-response among rice cultivars. Preliminary studies by Vergara at
IRRI indicated that although UV-B generally acted to reduce plant weight, the magnitude of response
was highly cultivar-dependent (Coronel et al, 1990). Thus, identification and/or breeding of
UV-B-tolerant cultivars may be an important means of adapting to the potential effects of ozone
depletion.
UV-B effects on the rice ecosystem
UV-B radiation is likely to have important indirect effects on rice production through effects on
other biotic components present in the rice ecosystem, i.e., important organisms including rice, and key
rice weeds, diseases, insects, and nitrogen-fixers.
The important effects include the results from pilot experiments indicate that UV-B enhancement can
significantly increase the susceptibility of rice to blast disease. The increased potential for blast disease
severity due to UV-B enhancement would exacerbate an already significant disease problem (M.
Bonman, personal communication).
Competition from weeds is able to reduce rice yield by 75% and weed-control measures cost
millions of dollars annually. UV-B enhancement is known to alter the competitive balance between
crops and weeds, with grass-grass mixtures likely to be most affected (Barnes et al, 1988). Because the
principal weeds of rice are other grass species, there is strong reason to believe that competitive balance
between rice and major weeds could be altered under enhanced UV-B conditions.
Effects of CO2 and temperature on rice plants
There have been many experiments on direct effects of CO2 or temperature separately that
indicated potential changes in rice growth and productivity from global climate change. A doubling of
atmospheric CO2 concentration to approximately 660 ppm could produce beneficial effects on rice such
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as increases in grain production by 6-50% depending on cultivar and experimental conditions. It can
also help increases in photosynthetic rates by 20 to 60% (Cure, 1985).
But it will decreases in stomatal conductance and transpiration rates of approximately 16 and
33%, respectively (Cure, 1985). It will increased water use efficiency, but not necessarily a change in
crop water use due to more leaf production (Baker et al, 1988; Cure, 1985). However, further increases
in CO2 concentrations may not have much impact on yields as rice apparently reaches a plateau in terms
of photosynthetic acclimation (Baker et al, 1988).
The range is estimated an increases in rice yield with a doubling of CO2. Yield increases of 6 to
50% were found with an approximate doubling of CO2 to 660 ppm (U.S. DOE, 1989; Baker et al, 1988;
Kimball, 1986; Cure, 1985). The Kimball and Cure estimates are based on earlier research under
semi-controlled conditions. The Baker and DOE estimates are more recent and represent results from
state-of-the-art experiments at Gainesville, Florida. However, the large range in increases of from 6 to
50% reported by the Gainesville group indicates the large amount of uncertainty present regarding the
possible response of rice productivity to increasing CO2.
Other growth, physiological, and biochemical effects in response to enriched CO2 have been
found in rice as other plant species (Strain and Cure, 1985). However, most of the experiments that
determined these effects were not designed to test the potential impacts of global climate change.
Rice production can be dramatically affected by temperature. Traditionally, cool temperatures
have been more limiting for rice production than warm temperatures. In this regard, production areas
could expand with increasing temperature. However, rice plants also respond to high temperatures.
Thus, for tropical areas, increased temperature by itself could lead to grain yield decreases above a
critical temperature greater than 30deg. C (U S DOE, 1989). It will also increased plant growth rate and
decreased growth duration leading to shorter grain filling period which varies from 25 days in the tropics
to 35 days in the temperate zone (Swaminathan, 1984). Spikelet sterility (Yoshida and Parao, 1976),
which becomes very severe near 40deg. resulting in complete loss of crop production. It can increase
respiration but minimal changes in photosynthesis across a broad optimum range in temperatures (Sato
and Kim, 1980).
Effects of CO2 and temperature on the rice ecosystem
Indirect effects of global climate change on rice production will also occur via ecosystem
responses (Barnes et al, 1989; Bazzaz et al, 1985; Oechel and Allen, 1985). Changes in weed
competition, insect infestation, disease severity, nitrogen fixation by symbiotic organisms and other
components of the ecosystem due to increased CO2 and temperature could severely impact rice
production and offset any increases in yield due to the effects of global climate change on rice itself.
However, the direction of these effects is unknown. Examples of the types of changes that may occur are
such as a changed of competitiveness could occur between rice which has the C-3 type of photosynthesis
vs. barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli world's worst rice weed) which exhibits C-4 photosynthesis
as has been found for other crops (Patterson et al.1984). It will help to altered insect and disease
infestations due to enhanced growth rates with increasing temperature.
Interactive effects of CO2 and temperature on rice
The potential interactive effects of CO2 and temperature on rice are also critical for predicting
the effects of global climate change on rice (Acock and Allen, 1985). There are few data on interactions,
but preliminary experiments indicate that CO2 enrichment did not compensate for large reductions in
rice yield due to increased temperature (U.S. DOE, 1989). Complex interactions may also occur for
components of the rice ecosystem which may have profound effects on rice production, e.g., increased
CO2 may overcome adverse high temperature effects on Azolla (Idso et al, 1989; Allen et al, 1988).
The results from the U.S. DOE (1989) report are particularly interesting. In one of the few CO2
and temperature studies, this preliminary information from the USDA/University of Florida indicates
that increased temperatures result in large reductions in rice yield which were not compensated for by
increases in CO2 (U.S. DOE, 1989). Yields with temperatures of 28/2l/25deg. C (daytime, nighttime,
paddy), were 7.9 and 8.4 tons/ha for 330 and 600 ppm CO2, respectively; but with temperatures of
34/27/31deg.C were only 4.2 and 4.8 tons/ha for 300 and 660 ppm CO2. With temperatures of
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40/33/27deg.C rice did not have any yield at either 330 or 600 ppm CO2. These experiments need to be
corroborated by other research, but they indicate the potentially dramatic effects of CO2 and
temperature on rice production.
Finally, while there is at least some information regarding the single effects of UV-B, CO2 and
temperature on rice; the interactive effects of these factors are largely unknown despite the fact that in
the real world they would be expected to change in concert. There have been no reported studies on the
interactive effects of UV-B, CO2 and temperature. Interactive effects between enriched CO2 and
increased temperature have been recognized as important in the prediction of global climate change
impacts, but there have been few actual experiments where both factors have been controlled.
In addition, the indirect effects of global climate change could have even more dramatic effects
on rice production. For example, altered timing and magnitude of precipitation can induce drought or
flood injury (Sastry, 1976). Increased temperatures, and/or changes in precipitation could have dramatic
impacts on rice diseases and insects. Enhanced UV-B, enriched CO2 and increased temperatures may all
alter competition between rice and major weeds, and the contribution of other organisms to nitrogen
fixation in rice fields.
Factors governing the ecology of irrigated rice field ecosystems.
Bambaradeniya (2000a) has discussed in detail the factors that govern the ecology of the
irrigated rice field ecosystem. The hydrologic regime is the primary determinant of all wetland
systems (Gosselink and Turner, 1978). Hence, the hydrologic regime associated with the irrigated rice
fields play a key role as a controller of this man-made wetland ecosystem. The source and the
regularity of water supply are two important attributes of the hydrologic regime that directly affects
the limnology of flooded rice fields. The source of the water supply influences the floodwater
chemistry and composition of the aquatic biota. The duration of inundation and its regularity or
predictability influences the temporal variations in water depth (volume), water chemistry, soil fertility
and the composition of the biotic communities as well. Two rice fields irrigated from the same source
can exhibit marked differences in certain chemical parameters (i.e., conductivity) as well as in the
composition and abundance of certain aquatic organisms (i.e., odonate larvae), in relation to
differences in the regularity of water supply (Bambaradeniya, 2000a).
Besides controlling the rice
field limnology, irrigation water also fulfils the primary hydrologic requirements of the rice plants.
The growth of the rice plants in turn leads to temporal changes in physico-chemical properties of
floodwater (due to shading of floodwater) and rice field biota (due to niche heterogeneity). The
floodwater quality and soil fertility influences the biota (plants and animals) inhabiting water and soil.
The functions of the biota in turn affect the nutrient status in soil and floodwater.
These internal factors of the rice field ecosystem are also influenced by two external
governing factors: climatic regime and agronomic practices. Climatic factors such as solar radiation,
temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity control evapo-transpiration in the flooded rice fields,
while precipitation also contributes to the fluctuations in water chemistry. These climatic parameters in
turn affect the composition of the biota as well as the growth of the rice plants. Agronomic practices
serve as the overriding factor that controls the overall ecology and biodiversity of the rice field
ecosystem. These human interventions govern the hydrology, rice plant growth, water chemistry, soil
fertility and biodiversity of rice fields. Previous studies on rice field ecology (Heckman, 1979;
Simpson & Roger 1995; Simpson et al., 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c; Bambaradeniya, 2000a)
have clearly revealed that agronomic practices change the physical, chemical and biological conditions
in the rice ecosystem, making them less favorable for certain organisms and temporarily more
favorable for others.
Flood Impact on Thai economy as at 13 OCT 2011
The State Railways of Thailand says flood damage will cost it Bt76.7 million in lost revenue
after it was forced to stop all services on the northern line late last month. SRT governor, Yutthana
Tubcharoen, said since 26 September to 10 October it cancelled 306 train services on the northern line
including 580 cargo trains, the segment that makes the most revenue. “We are down Bt43.2 million and
of that Bt33.5 million is the loss on cargo trains,” he said.
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Currently, the northern line from Bangkok to Chiang Mai cut off by floods north of Ayutthaya.
Train services run to Ayutthaya‟s at Bang Pa-in station some 13 km short of the world heritage town.
Meanwhile, Kasikorn Research Centre estimates flood damage since July will cost the country Bt75,000
to Bt113,000 million by the end of the year. KRC said floods had little impact on international tourism
although domestic tourism was down to northern destinations. It estimates losses of around Bt6,500 to
Bt9,500 million for hotels and restaurants mainly in the domestic tourism market.
In addition, the centre said the loss of industrial estates north of Bangkok in Ayutthaya and Lop
Buri provinces, mainly supplying automobile and electronic spare parts, were badly hit and the loss has
been estimated at Bt38,000 to Bt59,000 million in revenue. Agriculture suffered losses of Bt20,000 to
Bt30,000 million in revenue. The centre concluded that Ayutthaya was the most severely damaged
province suffering Bt20,000 to Bt30,000 million in revenue.
Flood assessment on Thailand’s economy
Kasikorn Research Centre is a subsidiary company of Kasikorn Bank, which conducts tourism
and business research mainly on Thailand‟s economy including tourism with reliable recommendations
and indicators on business prospects.
FACTBOX-Thailand's flood crisis and its economy as at 27 Oct 2011
Thailand's worst floods in half a century have killed at least 366 people since mid-July,
damaging farmland and industrial estates and disrupting the lives of nearly 2.5 million. Officials and
economists have sharply slashed their growth forecasts for the year. Rebuilding and repairs could
require billions of dollars. Below is the flood impact on Southeast Asia's second-largest economy and
how the government is coping.
IMPACT ON GDP GROWTH
The government has put the flood damage at 1.0-1.7 percent of gross domestic product. But the
cost to the economy could go far higher if Bangkok, which accounts for 41 percent of GDP, is swamped.
Finance Minister Thirachai Phuvanatnaranubala told Reuters last week the economy could
shrink 1.1 percent in the fourth quarter from a year earlier and growth this year could be just little more
than 2 percent -- down from 3.7 percent seen a week ago. Bank of Thailand Governor Prasarn
Trairatvorakul said the economy could grow less than 3 percent this year compared with the central
bank's earlier forecast of 4.1 percent. It is due to release new forecasts on Friday. Citi said it saw growth
of 2.2 percent this year, rather than 2.7 percent previously. Barclays Capital has cut its growth forecast to
2.9 percent for this year from 3.7 percent.
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IMPACT ON FACTORIES
The floods have forced seven big industrial estates north of Bangkok to close, affecting at least
9,859 factories and about 660,000 jobs. This has disrupted industrial goods, led by autos and electronics,
accounting for 65 percent of total shipments. Agricultural products account for 17-19 percent of the
total.
The Commerce Ministry expects exports -- which are generally the equivalent of more than 60
percent of GDP each year -- to fall 13 percent in the fourth quarter and that exports might grow less than
15 percent next year.
Thailand is the biggest auto market in Southeast Asia and a regional vehicle production and
export base. Toyota Motor Corp said on Monday it would cut output at its Japanese assembly plants this
week and estimated an output loss of 6,000 cars in Japan output for this week. . It would also cut
production in North America as the floods disrupted supply.
The country is also the world's biggest rice exporter but some 1.55 million hectares (3.82
million acres) of farmland have been inundated and the government has cut its estimate of the crop to 21
million tonnes from 25 million. The floods have damaged 3.5 million tonnes of paddy, or around 2
million tonnes of milled rice, and have delayed rice shipments, according to Korbsook Iamsuri,
president of Thai Rice Exporters Association. Rice exports in 2012 could fall as much as 30 percent
from 2011 to 7.0 million-7.5 million tonnes, it said. Tourism Minister Chumphol Silpa-archa said tourist
arrivals could be 500,000 to 1 million below the government's target of 19 million this year. Don Muang
airport, used by budget airlines for domestic flights and by private planes, had to close on Tuesday as the
flooding was making access difficult. At least 295 bank branches have been forced to close, mainly in
provinces north of Bangkok.
GOVT MEASURES TO HELP
Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra said this month the government would spend more than
100 billion baht on reconstruction after the flooding. Earlier this month, the cabinet agreed to a 10
percent cut in current state expenditure, or 80 billion baht, in the current year from Oct. 1 to help with the
floods. It also approved an increase in the budget deficit to 400 billion baht ($13 billion) for the year
from 350 billion.
This week, the cabinet approved a 325 billion baht ($10.6 billion) package to help affected
firms, small vendors and individuals through soft loans to be arranged or partly guaranteed by the
government. It will also consider tax breaks for affected companies. On Tuesday, the government said it
would relax import tariffs and regulations to allow in more imports of food, water and consumer
products that are in short supply. It declared Oct. 27-31 a holiday in 21 provinces, including Bangkok, to
help it cope with the floods. Financial markets will stay open.
MONETARY POLICY RESPONSE
The Bank of Thailand (BOT) decided to leave its policy rate unchanged at 3.50 percent last
week, pausing after more than a year of tightening. Most economists expect the BOT to keep rates on
hold until next year but some say a rate cut may come soon if the economy shows no signs of
improvement. It will next review policy on Nov. 30. On Tuesday, the central bank said it was
collaborating with the Bank of Japan on the provision of liquidity. The BOT would lend baht funds
using Japanese government bonds as collateral. It is also in talks with authorities in the United States,
Britain and Europe about baht funding for foreign firms.
CONCLUSION
Maintaining biological diversity is essential for productive agriculture and ecologically
sustainable agriculture is essential for maintaining biological diversity. Rice paddy fields, the largest
manmade wetlands ‐ complex, dynamic and diverse ecosystems, have significant role in biodiversity
conservation. Maintaining diversity of native/wild/traditional rice varieties, floral and faunal
communities including soil microorganisms and ecological food webs and food chains in rice fields, is
therefore significantly important. Integrated rice paddy farming is one of the best practices which
demonstrate how people respect and live in harmony with nature. Local traditional wisdom of plant
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species use, where to collect them, how to collect and prepare them, and how to use them is an
important knowledge possessed by local communities. Public healthcare systems could benefit from
respecting and incorporating this traditional knowledge.
A sweeping electoral victory for Yingluck Shinawatra in Thailand's weekend election has
allowed the country to avoid immediate social unrest or a possible military intervention, which both
residents and investors had feared. But the incoming government's populist policies are already raising
new concerns about inflation and other problems that could threaten the vibrancy of Southeast Asia's
second-largest economy. The sister of exiled former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra wooed voters
not only with her charisma, but with an array of vote-grabbing promises: An increase of 36% to 89%
in the minimum wage, guaranteed rice prices for farmers, starting salaries of at least 15,000 bahts
($492) for university graduates, tablet PCs for students, and high-speed trains across the country. The
Bank of Thailand has warned that inflation poses the biggest threat to economic growth this year, and
if inflation is pushed higher, it could force the bank to raise interest rates higher than expected, which
in turn would slow economic growth. Prasarn Trairatvorakul said during the election campaign that the
next government needs to maintain fiscal discipline, and that increasing the budget deficit could
threaten fiscal stability.
Standard & Poor's Ratings Services has also raised concerns, saying Tuesday that the new
government's plans could "adversely affect the country's fiscal position" if not matched with "proper
appropriation" of revenues.
Standard Chartered Bank said in a research note that Ms. Yingluck's For Thais party had
indicated its economic policies would cost around 1.85 trillion bahts over the next five years, a level of
spending that could push back plans to achieve a balanced budget by two years to fiscal 2018, after
recent heavy spending to counter effects of the global financial crisis. Optimists argue the potential for
peace in Thailand after several years of political chaos, including violent protests last year that left more
than 90 people dead, could far outweigh any downsides from higher inflation or debt levels. Thailand's
economy has consistently lagged behind others in the region since the military ousted Mr. Thaksin in a
coup five years ago, and the years of instability interrupted major infrastructure projects and scared off
some foreign investors that could return with more political stability, if it can be maintained.
Some economists also note there were similar worries of overspending during Mr. Thaksin's
years as prime minister in the first half of the past decade. But they didn't turn into as much of a problem
as expected, and the country enjoyed higher annual growth rates. Even if costs do rise in Thailand, it
might not lose its competitiveness compared to other Asian nations because wages in China "are rising a
lot faster," says Frederic Neumann, co-head of Asian economics at HSBC. He adds that Thailand's fiscal
position remains healthy enough that it could allow its budget deficit, targeted at 420 billion Bahts this
fiscal year, or some 3.9% of GDP, to widen. Still, the new government will face enormous pressure to
make good on its promises, even if the cost turns out to be higher than can be easily sustained. Members
of Thailand's vast rural population, many of whom are low-income earners, were critical in lifting Ms.
Yingluck's For Thais party to power, and they will expect heavy government spending.
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JAKARTA THE FUTURE OF CITIES: POPULATION GROWTH AND URBAN
SUSTAINABILITY
Rahmat Hidayat
Islamic University of Indonesia
*Corresponding author: profatjeh@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The world is changing faster now than ever before. The dispossessed and the ambitious are
flooding into cities swollen out of all recognition. Poor cities are struggling to cope. Rich cities are
reconfiguring themselves at breakneck speed. China has created an industrial power house from what
were fishing villages in the 1970s (Sudjic n. pag).
The imperative and immediate question in relation to this unprecedented urbanization is: are
cities sustainable?
Currently, of the top ten metropolitan areas of the world only three cities distinguish
themselves by their wealth: Tokyo, New York, and the Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto metropolitan area. Seven
cities of the top ten cities occur in developing nations that have high percentages of urbanization:
Mexico City, Mumbai, Jakarta, Sao Paulo, Delhi, Shanghai, and Metro Manila. Of the top ten cities
with the highest rates of urbanization all occur in developing nations with the highest rate occurring
10.58% in Beihai, China and the lowest rate of 4.29% in Cittagong, Bangladesh (City Mayors n. pag).
In the 1990s urbanization throughout Indonesia was growing at an astonishing rate of 35.9% per year
driven largely by urban economic development contributing nearly half of Indonesia‘s National Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) of which half was centered on the urban development of Jakarta alone
(Firman 69)
In a survey of 151 city mayors conducted in 1997 by the United Nations Development
Program the following urban problems were listed and ranked by percentage as follows:
unemployment (52%), insufficient solid waste disposal (42%), urban poverty (41.6%), inadequate
housing stock (33.8%), insufficient solid waste collection (30.9%), inadequate water/sanitation
facilities (28.4%), inadequate public transportation (26.2%), traffic congestion (22.3%), poor health
services (21.5%), insufficient civil society participation (20.9%), inadequate education services (18.9),
air pollution (17.4), urban violence/crime/personal safety (13.5%), discrimination (women. ethnic,
poor) (6.8%) (UNDP n. pag.). From the survey of the mayors the meaning of sustainability for their
cities falls under quality of life issues, the balance between wealth and poverty, natural and human
resources, the problem of air and water pollution, and the structure of geographic space and place
(traffic, slums, and urban violence). In sum, writes Pie Ntiyankundiye, mayor of Bujumbura of
Burundi, ―All problems stem from poverty,‖ (UNDP n. pag.).
Perhaps no other global metropolitan area in the world exhibits the extremity of the problems
outlined by the UNDP survey of mayors as does Jakarta, Indonesia. Jakarta is the capital, financial,
and communication center of Indonesia. Designated its own province under the name of Daerah
Khusus Ibu Kota (the area of the Mother City), it is the sixth largest metropolitan area in the world
with an estimated population exceeding 17 million people (City Mayors n. pag.). Originally founded
and built as Batavia by the Dutch in 1619, Jakarta was a colonial city until Indonesian independence in
August, 1945, a period of 326 years. It took 329 years, from 1619, when Dutch slaves built Fort
Batavia, to 1948, before the city‘s population reached one million. In the period from 1900 to 2004, the
city‘s population grew by 112% to reach a population of thirteen million and more. This is one-third
the time it took the city to reach its first one million residents. The rapid rise in population was such
that, as Susan Abeyasekere writes:
The majority of new immigrants shared existing housing. The state of affairs is described by
the poet Ayip Rosidi, who arrived in Jakarta as a boy in 1951. Coming from Jatiwangi in West Java, he
was appalled at the place where his uncle took him to live in. It was an alley in Galur sub-district, east
of the Senen Market. The area was only a few years old, very muddy and full of huts with
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grass-thatched roof. Rosidi lived for several years in one of these huts backing onto a river lined with
privies. Houses were built in an unbroken row; his row measured 33 feet by 23 feet, and contained 57
inhabitants. The boy shared a bed with two other men in a small room inhabited by five people. He
later wrote: ‗It was entirely beyond anything I had imagined before actually coming to Djarkarta, and I
felt nauseated. I had never, never thought I could live in such squalor. Yet little by little… I grew
familiar with Djakarta housing, knowing that it was sometimes possible to live in a row of shacks, as
we did, only after some stroke of good luck‘ (Abeyasekere 174).
No less today than in the 1950s are the urban problems of Jakarta as dire. Deden Rukmana
cites a commentary piece by Wilmar Salim published by The Jakarta Post on November 3, 2007:
―…the root causes of [Jakarta's problems] are centered on population pressures and environmental
deterioration. …around 111,000 people move from Jakarta to its neighboring cities annually, as many
as 123,000 migrants come to Jakarta every year from other places in the country… Unfortunately,
many people who move from Jakarta to Bekasi, Tangerang, and Depok still need to commute to
Jakarta everyday for work. Traffic jams at notorious bottleneck areas of the inner city toll road; such as
at Cawang and Tomang are everyday phenomenons… migrants from other regions are trying their luck
in the big smoke. Many are jobless, homeless, unskilled or uneducated and often end up on the streets,
begging, scavenging, or working casually, and living in slums. Many probably didn‘t think of the
consequences of moving to a big city before coming to Jakarta, but the image of the capital city as a
place of opportunity may have persuaded them to come and just try their luck (Rukmana n.pag).
A byproduct of traffic is, of course, air pollution which Jakarta is especially notorious for.
Budi Hartanyo, professor of public health at the University of Indonesia, has stated:
―…that traffic in Jakarta is responsible for 70% of the nitrogen oxide and particulate matter in the
city‘s air. Respiratory inflammation accounts for 12.6% of deaths in Jakarta, twice that in proportion to
the rest of the country. Before 2001, 35% of Jakarta‘s elementary school children had lead levels
higher than WHO (World Health Organization) standards. This has been reduced to 3% as leaded
gasoline has been phased out. However, benzene, a known carcinogen, is on the rise. The city itself is a
major health hazard (Marshall 313).
Currently only 3% of Jakarta‘s 1.3 cubic meters of sewage per day is treated. The figure is
rather staggering and begs the questions of where is it all going, what is it doing to the environment,
and public health? Anton Lucas, writing in the October – December, 2004 issue of Inside Indonesia
Anton Lucas reports that:
Jakarta produces as much as 6,250 tons of rubbish a day. It does not have enough trucks to
collect all the rubbish, let alone enough space to put it. For 17 years the Jakarta administration has
used a 108 hectare tract of land in the neighboring municipality of Bekasi as a dump. The Greater
Jakarta area produces 25,000 cubic meters of solid waste daily, 4,000 cubic meters from traditional
markets alone. The sobering fact is that 70% of the waste is organic and that some 1,400 cubic meters
end up in Jakarta Bay everyday (Lucas n. pag.).
There are those that argue that in the slums of despair are the slums of hope. That, as George
Martine writes in State of the World Population: Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth:
Urbanization – the increase in the urban share of total population – is inevitable, but it can also
be positive. The current concentration of poverty, slum growth and social disruption in cities does
paint a threatening picture: Yet no country in the industrial age has even achieved significant economic
growth without urbanization. Cities concentrate poverty, but they also represent the best hope of
escaping it (Martine 1).
The problems which confront cities under rapid urbanization have been defined; poverty and
slum formation, sanitation and health, housing, traffic, air and water pollution, urban violence and
public safety. The solutions to sustainability are many; employment, education, reproductive health,
housing, human rights, sanitation, clean sources of water, urban agriculture, no car days, recycling, and
economies of scale. Jakarta, for example, has a long history of urban planning and the laws and
policies which would take the city in the direction of sustainability already exist. Perhaps the issue, as
Gary Heinke suggests is one of political will, that ―it is the ability or the inability of those in charge of
cities to provide for the legitimate demands of their citizens‖ which make a city sustainable (Heinke
155). Sudjic states that:
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One of those ―bloody mined obsessives‖ was Indonesia‘s first President, Soekarno. Trained as
an architect at the Bandung Technical Institute, Soekarno had a particular obsessiveness about Jakarta.
Abeyasekere quotes one of his speeches: Comrades from Jakarta, let us build Jakarta into the greatest
city possible. Great not just from a material point of view; great, not just because of its skyscrapers;
great not just because it has boulevards and beautiful streets; great not just because it has beautiful
monuments; great in every respect, even in the little houses of the workers of Jakarta there must be a
sense of greatness… Give Jakarta an extraordinary place in the minds of the Indonesian people,
because Jakarta belongs to the people of Jakarta. Jakarta belongs to the whole Indonesian people. More
than that, Jakarta is becoming the beacon of the whole of mankind. Yes, the beacon of the New
Emerging Forces (Abeyasekere 186).
Abeyasekere knew better than that. Her long detailed study of Jakarta led her to two
conclusions which are directed at the very issue of sustainability. Yes, Jakarta belongs to the people of
Indonesia, just as all cities belong to their citizens. It would prompt her to ask: Is Jakarta the awful
culmination of the nations past or does it in fact mirror Indonesia‘s future? Through out its history its
rulers have certainly intended the latter, but the real city has always taken its own perversely different
path, making it to some extent a microcosm of the country at large – a forum for government policies
at odds with people struggling to make a life of their own (Abeyasekere xvii). And her conclusion was
that ―the central fallacy which has persisted from 1619 to the present is that it is possible to create a
city for the privileged few, cut off from the country side of the majority poor (Abeyasekere 261).
Keywords: Jakarta, Population, Sustainability City, Urbanization.
References :
[1] Abeyasekere, Susan, 1987,Jakarta:A History, Oxford University Press, Singapore.
[2] Burdett, Ricky, and Devan Sudjic, 2008, The Endless City, Phaidon Press, Inc. London.
[3] Firman, Tommy, ‖Indonesian cities under the Krismon: A great urban crisis in
Southeast Asia‖, Cities, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1999. pp. 69-82.
[4] Lucas, Anton, 2004, Jakarta’s Rubbish Nightmare. Inside Indonesia. October – December.
[5] Marshall, J. 2005. Mega City, Mega Mess. Nature. Vol. 437, September 2005, pp. 312-314
[6] Sudjic, Deyan, 2008, Cities on the Edge of Chaos. The Guardian. March
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THE ACCEPTANCE OF ON SITE SYSTEM
WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT SERVICES IN INDONESIA
1,2,3
Hary Agus Rahardjo1* Adri Pontiati2 and Dwi Dinariana3
Graduate School of Civil Engineering, Persada Indonesia University
*Corresponding author: rahardjo30@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Number of E. coli bacteria in the soil water content indicated sludge leaking from the use of
individual septic tank is over the limit. It becomes a serious problem as most people use ground water for
daily activities. On site system waste water management should be managed by local government. This
study analyze willingness to accept and willingness to pay for on site system waste water management
services of Setiabudi District community in Jakarta, Indonesia, using contingent valuation method
approach. The result is related to the physical changes in settlement and environment as a consequence
of on site system improvement. This study results recommendation, that tariff could be divided into 3
(three) rates based on income level. As a conclusion, awareness to the healthy environment and
settlement has to be promoted consistently and the local government has to take part and take
responsibility for this matter.
Keywords: waste, water, willingness, pay, accept.
INTRODUCTION
Jakarta as capital city of Indonesia has many facilities and activities to support and make
people feel comfortable to live. Those situations attract people to move from other city to Jakarta. The
urbanization is tremendously increasing in the last decade. High population growth increases rate of
water needs and also wastewater disposal. At a certain level, at the condition of over capacity, the
environment can not make a self purification anymore. The septic tank built by the community has low
standard of quality and rarely sediment suction. Population density forces to allocate those septic tanks
very close one another and coincide with the house well. This situation makes the quality of ground
water becomes worse. It becomes a serious problem as most people use ground water for daily
activities such as showering, washing, and cooking. Jakarta Living Environment Board stated that 95%
of ground water in Jakarta has contaminated by E coli bacteria. Number of E. coli bacteria in the soil
water content indicated sludge leaking from the use of individual septic tank is over the limit. It shows
that some areas have poor individual septic tank management system. In order to overcome this
problem, the local government has to actively take part and take responsibility for this matter. The
local government has to have a wastewater management services for serving the communities. This
action is in line to the local government general policy in raising people prosperity. The offering of
wastewater management services to the communities is in the form of operation and maintenance of
the on site facilities such as sediment suction in regular basis and monitoring the quality of processed
wastewater. Solving bottle neck and any other clogging of the facilities will be included in these
services. The next problem is the operations and maintenances services cost. The cost is planned to be
bearded by the communities. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the response of the communities
using contingency valuation method. This method can figure out the willingness to accept and the
willingness to pay of the communities according to the wastewater management services provided.
After doing interpretation base on the data collected, we can conclude about the acceptance of on site
system wastewater management services in the study area.
LOCATION OF STUDY
Location of study is in Setiabudi District Jakarta, Indonesia. In Figure 1 below we can see the
map of Jakarta and the Setiabudi District area which is located in south side.
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Figure 1: Setiabudi District, Jakarta
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research is focus on collecting primary and secondary data, starting with exploring the
Government Policy and regulation, and the fact of wastewater management condition in Jakarta which
reveals poor and well wastewater management system. To the settlement with poor and individualized
wastewater management system, research continue to get more information about education, social
and economy condition of the community in study area, perception on the facilities, facilities
characteristics, and physical conditions of the settlement. Beside those aspects, this research also
discovers the response of on site system wastewater management offering. By analyzing willingness to
accept and willingness to pay of the community and get an interpretation, finally we have a
conclusion.
Study on :
-Policy & Regulation
-Existing
Waste
Water Management
in Jakarta
Survey & Observation on :
- Community’s Waste Water
condition
- Aspect of Social &
Economy
Evaluation on:
- Waste water maintenance
system
- Adequacy of waster water
facilities
Analysis on:
- Willingness
Accept
- Willingness
Pay
to
Interpretation &
Conclusion
to
Figure 2: Research Methodology
LITERATURE REVIEW
Contingent valuation is a survey-based economic technique for the valuation of non-market
resources, such as environmental preservation or the impact of contamination. While these resources
do give people utility, certain aspects of them do not have a market price as they are not directly sold.
The willingness to pay (WTP) is the maximum amount a person would be willing to pay, sacrifice or
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exchange in order to receive a good or to avoid something undesired, such as pollution. Several
methods have been developed to measure consumer willingness to pay. These methods can be
differentiated whether they measure consumers' hypothetical or actual willingness to pay and whether
they measure consumer willingness to pay directly or indirectly. Willingness to accept (WTA) is the
amount that а person is willing to accept to abandon a good or to put up with something negative, such
as pollution. It is the minimum monetary amount required for sale of a good or acquisition of
something undesirable to be accepted by an individual. The price of any goods transaction will thus be
any point between a buyer's Willingness To Pay and a seller's Willingness To Accept. Meanwhile, A
septic tank is a key component of the septic system, a small-scale sewage treatment system common in
areas with no connection to main sewage pipes provided by local governments or private corporations.
Wastewater is used water. It includes substances such as human waste, food scraps, oils, soaps and
chemicals. In homes, this includes water from sinks, showers, bathtubs, toilets, washing machines and
dishwashers. Businesses and industries also contribute their share of used water that must be cleaned.
RESULTS
The result is related to the culture, educational level, and the response of physical changes in
settlement and environment as a consequence of on site system improvement. This study results
recommendation, that tariff could be divided into 3 (three) rates based on income level. As observed,
people living in this area are mostly have an educational level of senior high school (53%), 10% have
three years college degree, and 23,3 % have university degree. It is showed in Figure 3 below. This
level of education makes their understanding and needs to the healthy environment at a certain level
which is correlated to the willingness to accept to the waste water management services offered and
willingness to improve their sanitation condition. Figure 5 shows that majority or more than 40% are
still doubtful to choose the sanitation improvement. In the other hand, levels of the community‘s
income are also widely spread, so that generates a variety of willingness to pay for maintenance and
service fee collected for the waste water management services. Figure 4 indicates level of income of
people living in Setiabudi district.
Figure 3: Educational level
Figure 4: Level of income
The awareness to improve their sanitation system tends to be low as indicated in figure 5. This
situation is in line with the reality that 63% of their septic tank are never been suctioned. Figure 6
below shows that only 19% of their septic tank are suctioned every less than 2years, and 18% of them
are suctioned every more than 2 years.
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45.00
41.11
40.00
35.00
30.00
26.27
25.00
20.00
18.89
15.00
12.22
10.00
5.00
0.00 0.01
strongly disagree doubtful agree
strongly
disagree
agree
Figure 5: The Willingness to improve sanitation (%)
19%
18%
63%
< 2 y e a r> s2 y e a rn se v e r
Figure 6: Sediment suction frequency
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Individual system
Connecting Fee
Service Fee
62,800
23,000
25,000
5,000
75,000
30,000
Communal system
Connecting Fee
Service Fee
67,895
20,000
35,000
10,000
100,000
30,000
Table 1 : The Willingness to Pay for On Site Facilities (Rupiahs/month)
CONCLUSION
People living in Jakarta as capital city of Indonesia has a variety of educational, social and
economy level. People living in this study area still have a doubt about the importance of well
wastewater management system. They are not very much aware about a healthy environment. They do
not strongly need to improve their living area. According to the service charge, tariff could be divided
into 3 (three) rates based on income level. As a conclusion, awareness to the healthy settlement and
environment has to be promoted consistently and the local government has to take part actively and take
responsibility for this matter.
References
[1] Agency, Japan International Cooperation, (March 1991). The Study of Urban Drainage and
Wastewater Disposal Project in The City of Jakarta
[2] Kodoatie, Robert, J., (2005). Pengantar Manajemen Infrastruktur (Edisi Revisi). Jogyakarta :
Pustaka Pelajar
[3] Moon, Wanki., Rimal, Arbindra. (2004). Willingness to Accept and Willingness to Pay for GM and
Non GM Food : UK Consumer. Denver, Colorado : Annual Meeting of American Agriculture
Economics Association.
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[4] Morteza (2005). Contingent Valuation Method Journal Ashgabad. California State University,
Fullerton
[5] Statistical Bureau of DKI Jakarta Province (2008). Evaluasi Rukun Warga (RW) Kumuh DKI
Jakarta 2008. Jakarta : BPS Provinsi DKI Jakarta.
[6] Statistical Bureau of DKI Jakarta Province (2008). Jakarta in numbers 2008.
[7] Provinsi DKI Jakarta, Gubernur (19 Oktober 2005). Peraturan Gubernur Provinsi DKI Jakarta
Nomor 122 Tahun 2005 tentang Pengelolaan Air Limbah Domestik di Provinsi DKI Jakarta.
[8] The Governor of DKI Jakarta Province (2010). Rancangan Peraturan Daerah Provinsi DKI
Jakarta Tentang Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah DKI Jakarta Tahun 2030.
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ASEAN HERITAGE SITE :
INTEGRATED TURISM OBJECT TO SUPPORT ECONOMIC OF KERINCI’S
PEOPLE BY ENVIRONMENT AND CULTURAL CONSERVATION SYSTEM
1
Abdul Rahman Putra1* and Dewi Citra Sari2
Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Bogor Agricultural University
2
Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural University
*Corresponding author: abdul.rahmanputra@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Kerinci Seblat National Park (TNKS) is located in Kerinci Seblat National Park area, consists
of swamp and lake areas that maintain its beauty and natural ecosystem. Not only it, but also Kerinci
Seblat National Park has high biodiversity and unique culture. This causes a high potential for TNKS
become an international tourist attraction. Environmental degradation because illegal logging and land
conversion to agriculture national parks and the increased globalization is the greatest threat in the
conservation of national parks and local culture. So, it need a coservation step to handle this problem.
This paper will explain the potential of Kerinci Seblat National Park become an international tourist
attraction, the threat to environmental sustainability and cultural Kerinci residents, as well as
conservation measures undertaken to promote and make TNKS as natural and cultural attractions of
international standard.
Keywords: TNKS, Conservation, illegal logging, environmental degradation, tourism object
INTRODUCTION
Kerinci Seblat National Park (TNKS) is a national park that have an important role for the
balance of the ecosystem and buffer areas of central and southern Sumatra , in addition TNKS has high
biodiversity [5]. TNKS has mountain, lakes, caves and also waterfalls that very beautiful, so it will
not be surprised if it appears a saying "Do not die before visiting Kerinci". TNKS is not only known
for its natural beauty, but also known for its unique culture of the surrounding residents. However, the
influx of foreign cultural in this globalization era make local culture began eroded.
In the global era the degradation not only occur in the community culture, almost all forest
areas are also experiencing the threat of damage. Ironically the damage often caused by the local
people ,either directly such as illegal logging or indirectly such as conversion of forests into fields .
In addition there is no synergistic yet between the local government regulations with central
government regulation regarding the management of natural resource . Approximately 52% of the total
area of Kerinci district includes in TNKS area, so the people around the area to fulfill the needs of
their life is highly dependent on the existence of the region[1]. For this reason, an integrated
system that not only can preserve the national park and cultural community, but also able to increase
the income of local people so that illegal logging and land conversion to commercial purposes can be
minimized. One of the wise way to realization it, by introduce and make TNKS as natural
attractions and cultural heritage is integrated not only domestically but also internationally.
DISCUSSION
Kerinci Seblat National park (TNKS) is a national park that have an important role for the
balance of the ecosystem and buffer areas of central and southern Sumatra are based on the Decree No.
901/Kpts-V/1999 has an area of 1,375,349.867 Ha. TNKS has a high biodiversity [5]. These include
species of wildlife and vegetation of tropical rain consisting of 4000 species of flora, 37 species of
mammals, 139 bird species, 10 reptile species, six amphibian species and 6 species of primates [1].
TNKS land is dominated by Andosol soil, this reason that made TNKS land have at a high
level of fertility. It is supporting the establishment of high biodiversity [2].
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Socio-economic state of society is closely associated with the use of land and illegal logging is
carried out citizens. Adnan research results in a thesis entitled The Change Land Cover of National
Park Kerinci Seblat and Factors Influencing The Kerinci Regency, Jambi said that the number of
family members and family income level has a positive effect on land-clearing activities into farm
fields. According to the Directorate General of Forestry (1983), that the greater the need for land for
agriculture, the greater the level of disturbance to the forest area of security. In Adnan research (2004)
note also that the income level is still low and it ranged between Rp. 150.000, - to Rp. 400.000, - so we
can conclude that will always illegal logging activities and national park land conversion into arable
land to increase income residents there. Area of forest encroachment in the national territory until
January 2000 for 341.5 ha with a number of players at 250 family. The greatest encroachment is on
―Bukit Tapan‖ resort of 57 hectares in area the Nyanyuk River.
Areas that sustain natural ecosystems by empowering culture for tourism development into the
potential for recreational development of the natural character of the original culture of the people of
Kerinci. Development and management of recreation areas are also seen from the easy accessibility
and reach out to the area, supported by the means of transportation. With a relatively flat topography,
has the potential to be developed as a tourist area as compared to tread the steep and hilly [4].
Tourism has a big role as the locomotive of economic development, as well as a generator of
social and cultural development. Erawan (1994) mentions that the benefits of the tourism, among
others is diversify sources of income, diversification of employment, and increasing foreign
exchange earnings. It has been shown to boost the economy in Bali but also can protect nature and
culture that flourished there. Therefore, the promotion TNKS as a international tourism object is
expected to be alternative solutions to improve the economy of citizens. High rate of economic
growth is not only perceived by a group of people, but also by the villagers, especially tourism-related
industries such as handicrafts. Increased the rate of economic citizens can minimize illegal logging and
land conversion of TNKS.
As mention before, the Kerinci Sebelat National Park is a national park located on the island of
Sumatra, Indonesia. Kerinci Sebelat name taken from 2 name of mountain that is Kerinci Mountain
(Sumatra-highest mountain in 3805 msl) and Sebelat Mountain . The existence of Kerinci Sebelat
National Park in Sumatra, are located in four provinces in Indonesia. There are Jambi Province
(Kerinci), West Sumatra province, Bengkulu Province, and South Sumatra Province. However, most of
TNKS region are located in Jambi province especially in Kerinci district . Kerinci Sebelat National
Park is representative of lowland rain forest ecosystem types to sub-alpine ecosystems, even some
unique ecosystems such as peat swamps, freshwater marshes and lakes that intact and still stay in
eternal . Kerinci Sebelat national park is a national park that has a function as the lung of the world. In
addition Kerinci Sebelat National Park is also one of the national parks are recognized internationally
as an ASEAN Heritage Site and the ASEAN heritage park. Kerinci Sebelat National Park,also recognized
the UN as one of the most well maintained National Parks and beautiful in Asia.
Figure 1. Kerinci Seblat National Park
Kerinci Sebelat National Park keeping natural resources and also the rich biodiversity. They
include the flora and fauna, even very often found that endemic flora and fauna in the Kerinci Sebelat
National Park. Fauna such as the Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus), Sumatran Tiger
(Panthera tigris sumatrae). Flora such as the Raflesia Arnoldi Flower as The biggest and most famous
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beauty flower . Biodiversity Wealth figures are very high is caused by ecosystem in the Kerinci Sebelat
National park still maintained . Kerinci Sebelat Nasioanl Park has many mainstay tourism object ,
among of them like Kerinci mountain which is the highest mountain in Sumatra and Indonesia's
highest volcano mountain which is still active. Kerinci National Park also has an asset namely
mountains Tujuh mountain/seven mountain (2700 msl), this mountain is unique, because the seven
mountains around and encircle a lake in the peak. It was incredibly beautiful and everyone was very
impressed with the seven mountain which unique, exceptional, and really extraordinary.
Beside the gorgeous mountain, Kerinci Sebelat National Park also has some beautiful lakes.
They are lake Kerinci, Lake Belibis, lake Kaca (clear as glass), and also exotic one namely lakes
lingkat. All lakes in Kerinci include the wide lake, moreover the lake in Kerinci have myths story that
make all lake in Kerinci more interested for visiting.
Beautiful Waterfall is also a valuable asset in Kerinci, complementary assets paradise called
Kerinci. Waterfalls in Kerinci include Pancaro Rayo waterfall, Telun Berasap waterfall, Pincuran
Gading waterfall, Tujuh Tingkat waterfall, and also Pendung waterfall. Anything else makes Kerinci is a
very decent place to visit, because the existence of Natural Hot Spring .There are very many spots of
Natural Hot Spring that can be visited, among other Semurup Hot Spring, Sungai Medang Hot Spring,
and Gila Hot Spring. Kerinci is indeed true worth paradise for visiting. All the tourists who've been come
to Kerinci Kerinci had always felt that the world is the obligatory sights to visit, because it is a beautiful
natural sights, complete, and thus has a cheap enough price to achieve it. Kerinci has the potential are
worth visiting. So there is the slogan that said "Do not die before visiting Kerinci"
Developing TNKS as objects of nature and cultural tourism object in integrated System is
the best alternative solution to overcome land degradation and culture degradation. By the promotion
TNKS as a national and even international tourism object, all people will better appreciate the cultural
richness that develops so will indirectly support the Kerinci local society to preserve it. In addition, the
increase in job vacancy for the locals due to rapid advancement of tourism in the area can indirectly
minimize illegal logging activities and national park land conversion to agriculture.
As we know before, that TNKS has considerable potential. Not only the richness and beauty of
nature that can be enjoyed by local and foreign tourists, but they can also enjoy the unique culture that
flourished there. With potential, not a difficult thing to introduce TNKS as an international tourism
object . However the cooperation between local people, government, and NGOs are necessary to support
these promotional programs. In order for recognition TNKS as an International tourism object, it must
be supported by an integrated management system . Management involves controlling of these sites are
included in terms of cleanliness and provision of facilities that stand standards
CONCLUSION
Natural and cultural conservation in Kerinci is very necessary. A step to accelerate the
conservation of nature and culture of Kerinci is by introduce the culture and tourism object of
Kerinci, like Kerinci Sebelat National Park to be a national and international tourism object. By the
promote TNKS as a national and international tourism object, people will give more appreciate for the
cultural richness that develops so will indirectly support the Kerinci local society to preserve it. In
addition, the increase in job vacancy for the locals due to rapid advancement of tourism in the area can
indirectly minimize illegal logging and national park land conversion to agriculture.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to convey our best appreciation to all parties who are willing to support the
implementation our paper and contribute to this study. Thank you for God, IPB, and also
TNKS.
References
[1] A. Adnan, 2004, Changes in land cover Kerinci Seblat National Park and the Factors Influencing
the Kerinci regency, Jambi, Thesis, Department of Conservation of Forest Resources, Faculty of
Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University.
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[2] Anonymous, 1999, Law - Law No. 41 1999 On Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,
Jakarta.
[3] N. Erawan, 1994, Tourism and Economic Development Bali For Case, Upada Literature,
Denpasar.
[4] H. Miandy, 2010, Floating Plan and Landscape Management Area Attractions: Lake Kerinci,
Kerinci regency, Jambi, Indonesia Landscape Journal, (2) 2010.
[5] P. Suminar, I. Hidayat, A. Aminudin, 1997, Factors that influence the behavior of forest
conservation in the enclave villages Kerinci Seblat National Park (TNKS) in Bengkulu Province,
Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, University of Bengkulu.
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PERCEPTION OF SAFETY IN NATURALISTIC URBAN PARKS
Sara Farbod1*Mustafa Kamal, M.S2.
1
Islamic Azad University, Neyshabur Branch
2
Graduate School Universiti Putra Malaysia
Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Design and Architecture, Universiti Putra Malaysia
*Corresponding author: sara_f_y_b@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The loss of biological diversity is a major global environmental problem. Although,
biodiversity rich landscapes are truly needed especially in urban areas, it is noteworthy that they seem
to be perceived as unsafe by the urban public. Many scholars have mentioned a significant relationship
between perceived safety and use. It is, therefore a major concern when people do not favor the
biodiversity rich landscapes. This paper derived from literature discusses perceived safety in urban
environment with emphasis on naturalistic style of urban parks. It provides suggestions on how to
make these parks feel safer for users and yet maintain a richer urban biodiversity.
Keywords: biodiversity, landscape, perceived safety, urban environment
INTRODUCTION
The earth‘s rich variety of life forms—plants, animals, and microorganisms as well as the
genes they contain and the ecosystems they form—are global assets of immeasurable values. The
values of biodiversity can be divided into ethical, esthetic, and direct or indirect economic values
(Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1992), or more simply into resource and non-resource values (World
Conservation Monitoring Centre 1992). The value of certain birds and mammals as potential pets is
one of the non-resource values. Urban biodiversity also provides possibilities for following
phenological events such as bird migration, which can probably be best categorized as a non-resource
benefit (Vuorisalo et.al, 2001).Despite this, human activities continue to result in the extinction of
species worldwide; threatening the biological diversity on which life depends on (Williams & Cary,
2002). Due to mentioned issue the conservation and values of urban wildlife are becoming
increasingly important study objects (Vuorisalo et.al, 2001). This issue has made landscape architects
worldwide putting forth the idea of creating more urban parks that are ecologically friendly and appear
to be more natural. The essence is to preserve nature, keep disturbance to nature to a minimum, and
restore, create, or emulate nature where it does not exist. In contrast, artificial features have been
trimmed in landscape design. This approach could help to sustain or enhance nature in urban areas and
contribute to sustainable development in the long run (Jim and Chen, 2006). This style is termed
naturalistic.
It is argued that, orientation and attraction toward nature are important aspects of human
experience (Kellert, 1997). However, three decades of research concerning human responses to
different types of natural landscapes (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989) raised the possibility that the most
natural environments may not be the most preferred by a large part of the urban population. Landscape
architects have noted that natural ecosystems are often considered less attractive than more manicured
environments. There have been too few studies investigating the reasons behind this view of natural
landscapes. Some of these studies point to the fact that natural looking landscapes create the feeling of
unsafe (Forsyth, 2003; Parsons, 1995; Ulrich, 1986; Luymes&Tamminga, 1995; Nurhayati & Manohar,
2009; Schroeder, 1989).
THE IMPACT OF PERCEIVED SAFETY IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT
Many scholars have pointed out that users‘ perception of safety correlates strongly with their
avoidance of certain public parks (Jorgensen et.al, 2002; Molnar et.al, 2004; Jacobs, 1961). By
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emphasizing the importance of perceived safety, Glass et.al (1994) states that user‘s perception of
personal safety in urban recreation parks is more important than visual attractiveness of urban
recreation parks. This is supported further by Fisher & Nasar (1992), who found that fewer people are
found in areas considered unsafe on college campuses. Also, Westover et.al (1980) reported that 30
percent of Ohio state park visitors avoid Ohio‘s urban parks because of concern for personal safety and
security. Madge (1997) concluded that fear is a significant factor structuring the use of public parks in
Leicester.
Estabrooks et.al (2003) found that perceived safety is one of the most influential external
factors in the decision to engage in physical activity. The decline in park uses contribute directly to the
decline in urban residents physical activities and this contribute to urban health problems such as
increase in obesity cases, hypertension, and heart diseases.
PERCEIVED SAFETY IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT
Perceived safety has been studied in different contexts such as: urban parks (Jorgensen et.al,
2002; Egan, 1991; Schroeder & Anderson, 1984), urban environment (Luymes & Tamminga, 1995),
residential (neighborhood) landscapes (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001), exterior environment of college
campus (Fisher & Nasar, 1992).
A systematic review of these studies reveal that the factors influencing perceived safety can
be classified to four categories. These are termed visual-physical, social, demographic and other
factors. Since visual- physical characteristics are more related to design, these factors will be
highlighted the below and then the concept and influence of each factor in the literature will be
discussed:
Prospect
Prospect is a concept suggested by Appleton (1975) in prospect- refuge theory. Based on
Appleton definition ―Any feature of situation which directly facilitates observation or indirectly
suggests an opportunity to extend the field of vision fits into the category of a prospect‖. Appleton‘s
theory uses an experiential and strategic approach that is sensitive to perceptions of personal safety, to
explain human environmental preferences.
Schroeder &Anderson (1984), concluded that the farther one can see in the scene, the higher
the rated security. Their finding is confirmed by Altman & Zube (1989). They found that to be able to
see in, make people to feel more secure. In their investigation about fear of crime in a campus Fisher &
Nasar (1992) reported that prospect (open space) was positively associated with perceived safety from
crime. Kaplan et al (1998) found that semi-open forests give a better view and sense of safety than
dense forests, and openings in a forest provide perceptible space and visual access to more distant
areas. Also Herzog & Chernick (2000) found negative relationship between openness and perceived
danger.
Luymes & Tamminga (1995) suggested the principle: visibility of others. This principle
follows Appleton‘s definition of prospect: the ability to see one‘s surroundings clearly. The ability to
appraise and recognize strangers, and the ability to survey visually approach directions and areas in
close proximity to one‘s position are key factors in enhancing the perception of safety for users,
particularly those who feel most vulnerable to assault or harassment.
Visibility (lighting) which is actually a kind of prospect, has been examined as a predictor of
perceived safety. Egan (1991) and Wekerle (1991) mentioned that preliminary findings in the literature
indicate that lighting contribute to the safety of urban parks. Lowen et.al (1993) concluded that scenes
in which any of the three features (light, open space, and access to real refuge) was present were
perceived to be safer than scenes from which the feature was absent. Variation in light had more
pronounced effects on perceived safety than variation in accessibility or open space.
Jorgensen et.al (2002) mentioned that lighting affect user‘s perception of safety in urban
parks. Yücel (2008) pointed out that lighting will make the park feel safe for all users. Also some
scholars (Angel, 1968; Newman, 1971; Hassinger, 1985; Kirk, 1988) demonstrated that visibility is a
factor in actual, not only in perceived, vulnerability to crime.
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Refuge
Refuge is the other concept of Appleton‘s theory. ―Any feature of situation which affords, or
symbolically suggests an opportunity to hide or to attain shelter fits into the category of a refuge‖
(Appleton, 1975). Reviewing literature suggest that there is negative relationship between refuge and
perceived safety.
In the study of perceived safety on a university campus, two factors most often chosen as
making an environment appear unsafe were 'poor lighting' and 'places for attackers to hide' (Kirk,
1988). Also Fisher and Nasar (1992) argued that individuals would feel least safe passing by places,
such as alcoves and tall, dense shrubs that afford offenders refuge and victims limited prospect. They
concluded that refuge was negatively correlated with perceived safety from crime. The positive
relationship between refuge and perceived danger in the study conducted by Herzog & kutzi (2002)
confirms previous findings.
Access to help
Altman & Zube (1989) found that an ability to gain assistance in times of crisis make people
feel more secure. A situation representing concealment or access to help for oneself, without a hiding
place for potential predators (termed Unambiguous Refuge) was found to be a predictor of perceived
safety in the study conducted by Loewen et.al (1993).
Proximity of the built environment
Jorgensen et.al (2002) mentioned that Proximity of the built environment affect user‘s
perception of safety in urban parks. In the study of Muderrisoglu & Demir (2004) and Schroeder &
Anderson (1984) regarding safety, the majority of the raters associated high security with developed
parks, long view distance and access to nearby streets and buildings.
Territoriality
Territoriality is one of the components of Newman‘s defensible space theory. According to
Newman (1972, 1996) the main effect of creating ‗defensible space‘ is that it provides residents with a
system that allows them to control areas surrounding their homes, including streets and grounds
outside their premises, as well as common areas within shared premises such as apartment buildings.
Newman defines territoriality as ‗the capacity of the physical environment to create perceived zones of
territorial influences‘ (Newman 1972). Territoriality, therefore, is the cornerstone of Newman‘s theory,
upon which all the mechanisms of defensible space rest. Newman (1972) explains that the sub-division
of space into zones of influence and control should result in a clear delineation between public, private
and semi-private space. These zones of control are created through the use of barriers – both real and
symbolic – that disrupt movement between public and private spaces. Newman (1972, 1973)
suggested the use of fencing, gateways, burglar-proofing, locks and walls as examples of real, physical
barriers that would reduce both crime and fear of crime in residential areas. These types of physical
barriers work in conjunction with symbolic barriers, which do not physically restrict entry to an area
but, rather, psychologically convey the message of private or restricted access. Symbolic barriers can
be created through the use of plantings or landscaping around houses, territorial markings and signage
(Newman 1972, 1973). The creation of these boundaries results in the emergence of spheres of control,
within which the behaviour of users of the space is limited by what residents (or controllers of the
space) define as the norm (Newman 1972).
The literature points to a range of mechanism that help articulate zone of influence; for
example the creation of clear boundaries between areas through landscaping (Brower et. al., 1983) and
street design (Appleyard and Lintell, 1972). These measures promote development of a mental map of
one‘s neighborhood and mutual awareness among residents all of which are hypothesized to encourage
proprietary attitudes.
Increasing levels of territorial definition from public, semipublic, semiprivate, and private are
communicated by real (e.g., walls) or symbolic (e.g., change of paving) features of the environment
(Brown and Altman, 1981). The more public a space, the greater the range of behavior and people
tolerated and the greater the likelihood that deviant users will go undetected and unchallenged.
Taylor (1988) defines the concept of 'territorial functioning' as a broad class of transactions
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between the environment and group or individual cognitions, behaviors and sentiments with the
primary purpose of controlling behavior in a particular place. Territorial functioning depends in part on
the presence of physical markers which carry non-verbal messages of ownership, monitoring and
protection, and a separation between one's self or family and 'outsiders' (Taylor & Stough, 1978;
Shumaker & Taylor, 1983).Territorial markers include the planting of gardens, trees, and shrubs, or the
display of yard decorations or name signs as a way of beautifying and 'personalizing' one's home or
community.
Surveillance
Embedded within Newman‘s concept of territoriality is the idea that natural surveillance is
one of the keys to maintaining resident controls over their space. Newman (1972) defines ‗natural
surveillance‘ as the ‗capacity of physical design to provide surveillance opportunities for residents and
their agents‘.
Preliminary findings in the literature indicate that surveillance contribute to the safety of
urban parks (Egan, 1991; Wekerle, 1991). Luymes & Tamminga (1995) suggested the principle:
visibility by others. According to them this principle is developed from the findings of Jacobs (1961),
Newman (1972), and Whyte (1988). It asserts that people feel safer in cities when they are not isolated
from contact with the larger urban realm. The ability to be seen allows casual surveillance by others
who may defuse or be of assistance in threatening situations. This principle is related to Appleton‘s
concept of refuge, where the larger public realm functions as an effective refuge from real and
perceived danger.
The literature for the most parts supports the defensive role of overlooking windows and
doors (e.g., Jacobs, 1961; Pablant and Baxter, 1975).there is some evidence that there is a relationship
between high levels of lighting, frequency use of streets for a range of activities, and low crime
occurrence (e.g., Jacobs, 1961; Newman, 1972).The greater part of the literature that discusses the
visibility aspect of surveillance attributes a crime deterrent role to high visibility (e.g., Mawbya, 1977).
Macdonald and Gifford (1989) also proposed, on conceptual grounds, that surveillability
should be divided into two types: surveillability from the external perspective, such as that from the
road and neighbors' homes, and surveillability from an internal perspective, such as the ease with
which a resident can scan for approaching potential intruders from inside the house. Specifically, road
surveillability refers to the ability of passers-by and neighbors to view a house and property. The
number of windows visible from the road and whether a neighbor's house is visible are examples of
cues within this category (Macdonald & Gifford, 1989). In contrast, occupants' surveillability has to do
with residents' abilities to view their property and outside activity. Cues belonging to this category
include the number of blocked/unblocked windows (e.g. by drapes or blinds), which can restrict or
permit residents to view their yard and the approach to their house, and whether noise would be
created by someone nearing the house (Macdonald & Gifford, 1989).
Escape
According to Altman & Zube (1989) to be able to escape easily make people to feel more
secure. Fisher and Nasar (1992) hypothesized that feeling of safety may be affected by judgment of the
ease with which one can escape or get help if confronted with an offender. And they found that escape
is an important design feature contributing to feelings of safety.
Choice and control
According to Luymes & Tamminga (1995) the ability to control one‘s environment is closely
linked with perceived safety. Choice and control are principles that allow individual freedom of access
and action in public space (Carr et al., 1992). Control may be manifest in choices for free movement
within a place, to avoid isolated or entrapment places and to escape threatening or annoying social
encounters. Choice and control are strongly linked to Appleton‘s concepts of prospect and refuge, as
these both imply the ability to control one‘s environment visually, as well as the ability to achieve a
position of refuge. Also Altman & Zube (1989) found that an ability to feel a sense of control over a
space make people to feel more secure.
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Environmental awareness and legibility
Environmental awareness refers to the ability to place one‘s self in the surrounding
landscape; to be able to see and understand the immediate environment (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989;
Wekerle and the City of Toronto, 1992). Legibility is the clarity of the surroundings- how easy it is to
understand and find one‘s way through a landscape without becoming confused or lost (Kaplan and
Kaplan, 1989). These related principles point to the importance of allowing the user to be in control, of
knowing how to avoid and escape potentially dangerous places and being aware of connections and
routes to safe places. These principles are related to both prospect (the ability to clearly see) and refuge
(the ability to reach safety) (Luymes & Tamminga, 1995).
Spatial arrangements
Spatial arrangement of vegetation is essentially a means of varying and framing view
distance. View distance has long been recognized as a crucial factor in landscape preference studies. It
is implicit in evolutionary models of landscape preference, e.g. Appleton‘s Prospect/Refuge theory
(1975), and in some psycho-evolutionary models (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989; Ulrich, 1986, 1993).
Jorgensen et.al (2002) found that spatial arrangement of vegetation is more critical in
forming public perception of safety than variation in vegetation type. However, spatial definition had
no effect on preference and an inconsistent effect on safety, in another study using computer-based
photo simulation. This study conducted by Kuo et al (1998), examined the impact of introducing trees
into the courtyards separating high-rise public housing blocks in Chicago.
Edge treatments
Jorgenson et.al (2002) systematically examined the interaction between spatial arrangement
and vegetation structure in their relationship to perceived safety in the context of an urban park. They
found that Perception of edge treatment varied significantly according to variation in spatial
arrangement in ratings for both safety and preference. There was no significant difference between the
safety ratings given to the different edge treatments at ―partial enclosure‖ (partial enclosure in this
study is defined as: vegetation on one side with a single tree on the other). Also The edge treatment,
―dense understorey‖ reversed its position from most unsafe at ―full enclosure‖, to most safe
(effectively) at ―no enclosure‖.
Man made features
Appleton (1975) and Goftman (1971) believed that features of the physical environment may
well convey signals of threat or safety. Some manmade feature, seem to enhance perceived safety (e.g.,
facilities, cars, and features outside of the park) (Schroeder &Anderson, 1984).
Yücel (2008) mentioned that Accessible public telephones are a high priority for urban park
safety. Signage in the form of maps and descriptive text promotes in park trails a greater sense of
safety because people feel greater control over their environment when they know where they are and
how to get to where they want to go. The openness and the presence of playground features appear to
have special importance in alleviating the fear of danger which was implied in some of the less
manicured scenes in the study conducted by Talbot & Kaplan (1984).
Meanwhile, the presence of substandard facilities is also considered a source of danger in a
park (Sanesi and Chiarello, 2006). The safety aspect in urban parks, particularly on the facilities,
should also be considered as a part of the performance or quality of any parks in order to foster a safer
environment.
Landscape features
The visible amounts of woody vegetation and shrubs are negatively associated with
perceived security. Also the amount of grass visible has a strong positive association to perceived
security (Muderrisoglu & Demir, 2004). It appears that open areas with few trees are perceived as the
safest. The farther one can see in the scene, the higher the rated security.
Dense vegetation has also been linked specifically to fear of crime. In safety ratings for 180
scenes of parking lots, the more a photo was covered by vegetation, the lower the perceived security
(Shaffer & Anderson, 1985). And in research examining fear of crime on a university campus, dense
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under stories that reduced views into areas where criminals might hide were associated with fear of
crime (Nasar&Fisher, 1993). In these and other studies, view distance seems to be an important factor.
Fear of crime is higher where vegetation blocks views (Fisher & Nasar, 1992; Kuo, Bacaicoa, &
Sullivan, 1998; Michael & Hull, 1994).
The findings from residential settings are in direct contrast to those obtained in studies of
nonresidential settings: In residential settings, the more the vegetation is, the less is fear of crime (Kuo
and Sullivan, 2001).
Maintenance
Setting care (maintenance) taps into the broken-windows hypothesis and thus draws support from the
wide range of studies implicating maintenance as a predictor of fear of crime (e.g., Perkins, Meeks,
&Taylor, 1992; Perkins,Wandersman, Rich, &Taylor, 1993; Schroeder &Anderson, 1984). As a rated
predictor, setting care was shown to have a negative relation to perceived danger for urban settings by
Herzog and Chernick (2000). Anderson & Stokes (1989) emphasized on the maintenance of pavement,
structures and vegetation, for increasing perceived safety. Nassauer (1995) emphasized the importance
of ―cues for care‖ in enhancing the acceptability of the ―messier‖ landscapes associated with natives
and prairie plantings.
The characteristic of recreation parks
Muderrisoglu & Demir (2004) Found that the characteristic of recreation parks (urban,
semi-urban, natural) are effective on perceived beauty and safety. Undeveloped parks received
extremely low perceived security judgments but also the highest scenic quality rating. Schroeder &
Anderson (1984) concluded that the majority of observers seem to perceive greater safety in developed.
Urban parks and feel least safe in densely forested areas.
Visibility of park entrances
Anderson & Stokes (1989) mentioned that visibility of entrances is important in perceived
safety. Also Research by the Toronto Safe City Committee (Wekerle and the City of Toronto, 1992)
along with research in Bryant Park, New York (Nager and Wentworth, 1976) indicates that the physical
characteristics of parks which contribute to perceptions of safety include high levels of imageability
(that is, a clearly understood visual environment), clearly visible entrances, visual openness within the
park itself and between the interior and exterior of the park, as well as no areas of the park which are
secluded and hidden from view.
Movement pattern
A physical attribute of open space that may inhibit safety is the lack of route choice for users,
resulting in movement patterns that are predictable and inflexible. These ‗movement predictors‘ are
defined as ―predictable or unchangeable paths that offer no choice to pedestrians‖ (Wekerle and the
City of Toronto, 1992), leaving them vulnerable to stalking by a potential attacker.
THE GAP
Although different contexts including urban parks have been studied regarding perceived
safety, there is not enough study for perceived safety in urban parks which have biodiversity rich
landscapes. To our knowledge, the only published research in mentioned context is carried out by
Jorgensen et.al (2002) and examines spatial arrangements and edge treatments.
Some scholars argued that perceived visual quality and preference depend on the context (e.g.
Purcell et al. (2001); de Groot & van den Born, 2003). However there is no study to show that
perceived safety is a context dependent variable. Therefore there is a need to study the relationship
between visual-physical characteristics and perceived safety in naturalistic landscapes in urban parks
to determine the effective visual-physical characteristics and to find out whether the role of
visual-physical characteristics in mentioned context is the same as other contexts.
SOME RECOMMENDATION TO IMPROVE PERCEIVED SAFETY IN URBAN PARKS
Although naturalistic landscapes are associated with fear in the urban environment, many
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scholars have mentioned that feeling of safety can be increased by design. So, based on what
mentioned above, the following guidelines are suggested to design and management of urban parks
including naturalistic landscapes to make people feel safer.
Lighting
Where pathways are programmed for night use, lighting should be provided to a level which
will allow a use to recognize another person‘s face at a distance of 25 m.
Signs and maps
The awareness of where one is in relation to one‘s surroundings is an important component in
feeling secure. Signs and maps must clearly communicate routes and destinations, where to go for
assistance, and where key landmarks are in relation to the user‘s current location.
Vegetation design and management
Planting design should be grounded in an understanding of plant morphology and succession
stages. Along public paths, designed plant communities should allow clear sightlines between knee
height and eye level. Care should be taken to ensure that these clear sightlines are maintained as plant
communities mature, and as the natural succession occurs. Where this is impossible to achieve, careful
and sensitive pruning should accomplish these same objectives, while allowing multi-tiered tree
canopy development and ground flora.
Reducing shrubs and raising tree canopies improve visibility at ground level leading to an
increase in perception of safety, while preserving a feeling of naturalness. Providing the spatial
condition that vegetation is in one side only (no enclosure) converts feeling unsafe due to dense
understory to feel safe. Very high levels of unmanaged vegetation of the site tended to detract from
security. Removing dead materials in naturalistic landscapes increase the sense of safety while doesn‘t
disturb the biological value of landscapes.
Movement options
A variety of entrances and exits should be provided to avoid entrapment places and to reduce
the incidence of movement predictors. Options for free movement permit users to escape threatening
situations, and allow the user to control his or her experience.
Locating activity generators
Activities provide opportunities to encourage use. It is well documented that use of public
space tends to lead to more use. Activities that draw people are perhaps more important than physical
design in enhancing real and perceived safety from the threat of crime.
Nearby features
When the structures appear to be easily accessible, whether commercial or residential the
sense of safety will be increased. This will be achieved when there is a view of the front or street side
of the structure, the structure is nearby, and entrances to the structures are highly visible. Also when
surrounding property appears to have high rental value, whether for commercial or residential
purposes, the sense of safety will be increased (Anderson & stokes, 1989).
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[C-042]
TOWARDS RELIABLE TIMBER REPAIR: THE ADHESIVE-VACUUM METHODS
1
Yulianto Prihatmaji1, 2*, Akihisa Kitamori1, and Kohei Komatsu1
Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Japan
2
Department of Architecture, Islamic University of Indonesia, Indonesia
*Corresponding author: prihatmaji@uii.ac.id, prihatmaji@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Valuable traditional wooden buildings in Indonesia tend to be dismantled after suffering
earthquake attack, even though only the joints at core structure were partially damaged. Therefore an
appropriate partial repair technique for the joints of traditional buildings are demanded. An
experimental study is presented concerning the bending strength of scaled specimens of glued Acacia
and Acacia wood beams. They were bent until failure under three-points bending in the first step, then
repaired with three types of bond (epoxy adhesive, acrylic resin and epoxy resin) and three methods
(vacuum, brush and drain), and tested in bending again. The epoxy adhesive-vacuumed method and
epoxy adhesive-brushed method in full cover condition were thought to be appropriate and bending
strength has 50% recovery.
Keywords: Javanese wooden house, Timber repair, Bending strength, Adhesive-vacuum methods,
Acacia wood.
INTRODUCTION
Many traditional Javanese wooden houses have been destroyed by major recent earthquake.
Several of them tend to be dismantled due to a high cost of reconstruction and a lack of repair
technique even though many of members were still free from sever damages except the joint. In the
repair of a historic structure, ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites) said that
replacement timber can be used with due respect to relevant historical and aesthetical values, and
where it is an appropriate treatment to the need to replace damaged members or their parts [1].
Reconstruction must be carried out using same material and appropriate techniques that
comply the local wisdom and the minimum standards of structural strength [2]. If the original
materials are not usable due to damage, they should be substituted with suitable equal material [3].
Now, to provide Jati wood in sufficient size is difficult, because of limited quantity and very expensive
price [4]. In order to preserve this disappearing building as valuable and tangible culture, an evaluation
and improvement of timber structures has been studied [1]. Especially in this paper, an appropriate
repair method for damaged traditional joints without metal equipment was investigated. In this study,
comparison of bending strength between before and after repair was carried out and the effectiveness
of the method was evaluated.
An experimental study is presented concerning the bending strength of scaled specimens of
glued-Acacia wood and Acacia solid wood beams. They were bent until failure under three-points
bending in the first step, then repaired with an epoxy adhesive-vacuumed method [5]. Furthermore, the
ICOMOS said that contemporary materials, such as epoxy resins, and techniques, should be chosen
and used with the greatest caution [1]. In this study, comparison of bending strength between before
and after repair was carried out and the effectiveness of the method was evaluated.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
In this study, a total of 54 specimens of beams made of Acacia wood (40x40x425 mm) and 6
specimens of beams made of glued-Acacia wood (40x40x425 mm) were tested in 3 point bending. All
of specimens before test were put on chamber and set on temperature 22oC and humidity 60% for 2
weeks. During the test, part of the specimens taken form same members were oven dried on
temperature of 105oC for 1 week. Moisture content was obtained from the difference between weights
after and before drying. Density was calculated from the weight after chamber divided by volume.
~ 653 ~
[C-042]
In first stage of the experiment was bending test and the set-up of test as shown in Figure 1.
Glued-Acacia wood is composed of several layers of dimensioned timber glued together by
compressing several small pieces of wood. Finger joint was arranged 3 units in average to unity each
member horizontally. Instron 100 kN were used to apply the static load at the center of the 2 supports
(span= 360 mm) with speed of 0.5mm/min. The specimens were set so that the glue line of each
lamina were arranged horizontally. The load was applied until failure and the load return to zero. Then
specimens were repaired by epoxy resin.
a.
b.
Figure 1. Bending test set-up (a), real test specimen (b)
The second stage of the experiment focused on 48 of beams made of Acacia solid wood
(40x40x425 mm). The specimens (Acacia wood) came from several small timber markets in West Java,
Indonesia and they were chosen from the available material. Acacia wood has been stored for 2 years
in outdoors with cover. Fig. 1A and 1B show set-up of bending test. Set-up of bending in Figure 1A
intended to obtain bend damage at mid span. Fig. 1B show set-up of bending test expected to get shear
damage at the end of beam. Both of bend and shear damages represent the failure mode observed in
the preliminary research [1]. Instron 100 kN was used to apply the static load at the centre of the 2
supports (span= 360 mm) in A setup, and at the 1.5 time of specimen‘s height distant from one support
in B setup with speed of 0.5mm/min. The load was applied until failure and the load return to zero.
Then specimens were repaired by adhesive.
Figure 2A: Set-up of bending test to obtain bend damage and 1B: shear damage.
Figure 3 show repair preparation of damaged beams by epoxy adhesive-vacuumed method.
Specimen A was split from the edge and it‘s full covered by fiber and plastic sheet. Specimen B was
crack at the bottom center and it‘s spot covered by fiber and plastic sheet. A plastic bottle as glue
container put on the top center of damaged area. After the bottles filled by epoxy resin (commonly
used for concrete repair, E206W), the bottles were vacuumed for 1 hour so that the resin permeates
along the bending cracks due to the air pressure. The adhesive-vacuumed method was adopted cause
of material availability and machinery, and metal free ideology of traditional community. After curing
for 3 days, the repaired specimens were tested again in 3P bending. The same loading methods were
used before and after repair. After all loading program was over, all of specimens were cut to confirm
the epoxy adhesive was able to fill surely by vacuum method. After test, part of all specimens was
oven dried on temperature of 105oC to obtain moisture content of specimens.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Figure 3. Damaged beams covered by fiber (a, b), it‘s covered by plastic sheet (c), repair by epoxy
adhesive-vacuum method (d, e)
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[C-042]
Fig. 4a show specimens A1 and B1 that were repaired by epoxy-adhesive (E206W) with
vacuumed method [2]. The split and crack damages on the specimens were covered by fiber and
plastic sheet. A plastic bottle as glue container was put on the top center of damaged area. After the
bottles were filled by epoxy resin, the bottles were vacuumed for 1 hour so that the resin permeates
along the bending cracks due to the air pressure. Fig. 2b show specimens A2, B2, and A4 B4 that were
treated by epoxy-adhesive (E206W) and acrylic resin (JUST) respectively, with brush method. The
epoxy-adhesive and acrylic resin were applied with brush along the bending crack. Fig. 2C show
specimens A3 and B3 that were repaired by epoxy resin (ALPHATEC 380) drained with pipette
method. Then, all of specimens were re-bent with clamps to reform them straight.
a
b
c
Figure 4a: Vacuumed method (A1 and B1), 4b: Brushed method (A2, B2; A4, B4), 4c: Drained method
(A3 and B3)
After curing for 6 days, the repaired specimens were tested again using the same loading
method used before repair. Then, all of specimens were cut to confirm each adhesive was able to fill
surely by vacuum and brush methods. These methods were adopted because of material availability,
machinery, and metal free ideology of traditional community.
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
Load- Deformation Behaviour
The curve of bending-deformation between both specimens of glued acacia before and after repair
is shown in Figure 5. From this figure, it can compare that the bending strength of specimen A after
test is higher than specimen B. The bending strength of both specimens after repair shows that
permanent deformation occurs at the structural components at lower stage than before repair. The
degradation of type A show that P max after test smaller than type B. It can be said that full-cover
method (A) fill crack area larger than spot-covered method (B).
Figure 5. Curve of bending and deformation (a: left and b: right)
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[C-042]
The load-deformation curve of specimens Acacia solid wood A and B before and after repair
is shown in Fig. 5a and 5b. From these figures, it can compare that the strength of epoxy-vacuumed
method specimen (A1, B1) after test is the highest among all type of glue method. The bending
strength of fourth specimens after repair shows that permanent deformation occurs at the structural
components at lower stage than before repair.
a
b
Figure 6a: Load-deformation curve of specimen A, 6b: Load- deformation curve of specimen B
The degradation of type-A1 and type-A2 show that P-max after test was smaller than
type-A3 and type-A4. It can be said that epoxy-adhesive (vacuum and brush methods) has adhesion
larger than the others in both bending and shearing failure.
Mechanical Properties
Tables 1 show mechanical properties of specimens of glued Acacia wood tested before and
after repair. The MOE determine by slope of 0.1 and 0.4 P max divided by moment of inertia. The
MOR obtained from M max divided by modulus of section.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of glued Acacia wood tested
No
A1
A5
A6
ave
SD
CV
B1
B5
B6
ave
SD
CV
Density
(Kg/m3)
631.26
606.09
634.83
624.06
15.66
0.03
580.79
588.78
611.08
593.55
15.70
0.03
Moisture content
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.00
0.02
0.09
0.11
0.09
0.10
0.01
0.12
Before
MOE
MOR
(kN/mm2)
(N/mm2)
15.13
102.92
18.01
114.56
23.58
126.06
18.91
114.51
4.30
11.57
0.23
0.10
20.47
129.65
18.77
76.91
20.11
117.88
19.78
108.15
0.90
27.68
0.05
0.26
After
MOE
MOR
(kN/mm2)
(N/mm2)
13.41
69.33
11.51
66.99
20.44
93.79
15.12
76.70
4.70
25.93
0.31
0.34
17.29
28.93
15.54
40.64
11.68
30.06
14.84
33.21
2.87
6.46
0.19
0.19
A: specimens damage at the edge, B: damage at the bottom center.
From the comparison of mechanical properties between before and after repair, it was found
that average MOE and MOR of repaired specimens showed 76% and 49% of original value,
respectively. Especially in terms of MOR, the coefficient of variety became rather large after repair.
Tables 2 show mechanical properties of specimens of Acacia solid wood tested before and
after repair. In this study, the apparent MOE (MOEa) which includes the influence of shear was
determined by the slope of 0.1 and 0.4 P max divided by moment of inertia. Similarly, the apparent
MOR (MORa) was also obtained from M max divided by modulus of section for easy comparison.
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[C-042]
Table 2. Mechanical properties of Acacia solid wood tested.
No
A1
A2
A3
A4
B1
B2
B3
B4
Density
(kg/m3)
523.2
541.4
518.8
499.8
529.6
541.8
516.5
547.9
Before
MOEa
MORa
(kN/mm2)
(N/mm2)
11.6
74.8
11.9
81.1
11.6
77.0
11.3
75.0
8.0
61.5
8.1
57.0
7.8
57.3
7.4
58.2
After
MOEa
(kN/mm2)
10.2
10.3
8.7
8.5
4.5
4.0
2.5
3.0
MORa
(N/mm2)
41.9
36.7
25.9
24.8
34.7
27.4
15.9
21.0
Ratio
MOEa
MORa
(kN/mm2)
(N/mm2)
0.88
0.56
0.87
0.45
0.76
0.34
0.75
0.33
0.56
0.56
0.49
0.48
0.32
0.28
0.41
0.36
From Table 2, it was found that average MOEa of repaired specimens A1, B1, A2, B2, A3,
B3, A4, B4 showed 88.35%, 55.91%, 87.12%, 50.82%, 75.61%, 32.27%, 75.06% and 41.35% of
original value, respectively. The repair by bonding was more efficient for bent damage than shear
damage. The coefficient of variety of MOEa and MORa tend to become rather large after repair.
Failure Mode
Figure 7 show 2 main failure mode of specimens before repair; crack in bottom center and
split from edge. The later mode was brought due to rather short span in 3 points bending, and
represents a shear failure which commonly can be seen in the actual failure mode of the traditional
joint [2]. Failure of specimens after repair occurred at almost same position with before repair and
progressed by following previous damage.
Figure 7. Failure modes before repair (left), after repair (right)
Fig. 8 show failure modes of specimens before-after repair; crack in bottom center (A), split
from edge (B).
A
B
Figure 8. Failure modes before repair (A), after repair (B)
The later mode was brought due to rather short span in 3 points bending, and represents a
shear failure which commonly can be seen in the actual failure mode of the traditional joint [1]. Failure
of specimens after repair occurred at almost same position with before repair and progressed by
following previous damage.
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[C-042]
Adhesive permeation
The degradation of bending strength after repair was due to the ability of adhesive
permeation into small cracks of damaged beam. Figure 9 show the damaged beam fulfilled by epoxy
adhesive. Around 50 % of adhesive permeation was observed.
Figure 9. Epoxy adhesive filled area at the damaged beam
CONCLUSIONS
54 scaled-specimens of glued-acacia beam were tested in bending and effectiveness of repair
of damaged beam by epoxy adhesive-vacuumed method was investigated. Two failure modes of
glued-acacia beams by bending test were crack in bottom center and split from edge. Different
covering method was used for them.
MOE of type A (glued Acacia wood) showed fairly good recovery after repair. However in
comparisons both specimens between bending strength before and after repair remarkable degradation.
The epoxy adhesive-vacuumed method in full cover condition was thought to be appropriate and
bending strength has possibility to increase more. The reason is adhesive is difficult to permeate the
crack inside of the beam, they can permeate mostly from the surface.
Apparent MOE on type-A (Acacia solid wood) loading showed fairly good recovery after
repair, while insufficient against type-B loading. The drain method on epoxy resin and brush method
on acrylic resin could achieve rather lower recovery in comparisons between bending strength before
and after repair. The epoxy adhesive-vacuumed method and epoxy adhesive-brushed method in full
cover condition were thought to be appropriate and bending strength has 50% recovery. Other half of
the expected percentage would be covered by other metal-free method, i.e. insertion of wooden plate.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The study was funded by the Directorate of Higher Education; Ministry of National Education
Republic of Indonesia (DIKTI-Batch 3a). Satoru Murakami for helping to prepare the specimens.
References
[1] Y.P. Prihatmaji, A. Kitamori, S. Murakami, and K. Komatsu. Bending Strength of Glued-Acacia
Wood Beams Repaired with an Epoxy Adhesive-Vacuumed Methods. In AIJ Annual Meeting,
Tokyo, Japan, page 275-276, 2011.
[2] M. Karube, T. Hayashi, and M. Harada. Repair and the Effect of Decompression of Filling of
Epoxy Adhesive of GLT Beam-to-Column Drift Pin Joint. AIJ J. Technol. No 20, page 93-98,
Dec 2004.
[3] JHS (Jogja Heritage Society), 2007. Kotagede Heritage District, Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Home
Owners‘s Conservation Manual, UNESCO Bangkok-UNESCO Jakarta, p 121-145.
[4] ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites), 1999. Principles for the Preservation
of Historic Timber Structures. The 12th General Assembly in Mexico, October.
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[AT-001]
EVALUATING THE EFFECT OF DISPLAY TYPE, PLAY-REST SCHEDULE AND
GAME TYPE FOR VIDEO GAME PLAYING ON VISUAL FATIGUE
Chih-Long Lin1* and Mao-Jiun J. Wang2
1
Department of Crafts & Design, National Taiwan University of Arts, Taiwan, R.O.C.
2
Department of Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, National Tsing Hua University,
Taiwan, R.O.C.
*Corresponding author: CL.Lin@ntua.edu.tw
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the effect of display type, play-rest schedule and game type on visual
fatigue for both genders during one hour Wii game playing. The study results showed that the display
and game type had significant effect on all the measurements. The use of plasma display to play video
games improved critical flicker fusion (CFF) frequency threshold, but it also caused greater subjective
eye fatigue rating. Subjects with a 5 min break for every 10 min playing had less subjective eye fatigue
rating than with a 10 min break for every 20 min playing. The gender effect was not significant on all
the measurements. Implications of the results regarding video game playing in terms of display and
game type are discussed. Playing video games with frequent short breaks is suggested for reducing
visual fatigue especially the intensive video games.
Keywords: Critical flicker fusion frequency; visual fatigue; TV display; video game.
INTRODUCTION
Computer and video games have become among the most popular leisure time activities for
people in recent years. The mean age of game players is thirty-five years old and they spent about one
hour playing on each day [1]. The main purposes of video game playing are stress relieving and
enjoyment. However, playing video games may increase visual fatigue. Miyao et al. reported that the
video game playing caused the increase in myopia [2]. Takahashi compared the display effect on visual
acuity after one-hundred minutes TV program watching, and found that watching LCD display had a
significantly higher decrease in visual acuity than that of watching plasma display [3]. The behavior of
TV program watching is different from TV game playing, and the users tend to have higher motivation,
attention and concentration on video game playing.
In 2006, Nintendo Company Ltd. launched a new generation of video game console, Wii.
Unlike the traditional hand-held video games, Wii adopts a motion-sensitive technology that requires
players to act out their characters‟ activities, such as swinging the game controller like a tennis racket.
The “Wii Sports” game allows the users to virtually play the game with a real physical exertion.
Graves et al. reported that the energy expenditure in playing “Wii Sports” was at least fifty percent
greater than playing the traditional sedentary games. But, it is not the same level of energy
consumption as playing the sports itself [4]. For this new generation console, the effect of playing the
intensive and dynamic video games with the new type of display on visual fatigue and mental
workload is unclear and needs further investigation. Thus, the objective of this study is to evaluate the
effect of display type, play-rest schedule and game type on Wii players‟ visual fatigue. The results of
this study can provide very useful information for guiding video game playing for both genders.
METHOD
Subjects
Ten male and ten female subjects participated in the experiment. For male subjects, the
average age was 26.7 (±4.7) years, the average body weight and height was 67.8 (±13.2) kg and 172.7
(±5.6) cm. For female subjects, the average age was 27.3 (±4.2) years, the average body weight and
height was 56.5 (±9.3) kg and 162.6 (±4.0) cm. All subjects were right-handed and had no previous
~ 659 ~
[AT-001]
experience in playing Wii games.
Experiment design
The independent variables included gender (male and female), display type, play-rest
schedule and game type. Subject was a random factor and nested in gender factor. Two display types
(Figure 1), a 32-in CRT display (SC-32WS2) and a 32-in plasma display (PD3231), were used for
evaluation. Moreover, two different play-rest schedules, i.e. 10 minutes play with 5 minutes rest and
repeated 4 times (P10R5); 20 minutes play with 10 minutes rest and repeated 2 times (P20R10), and
two Nintendo “Wii Sports” games (boxing game and tennis game) were specified in the study. Each
subject played a total of 40 minutes and rested 20 minutes in the one hour game playing. A nested
factorial design was employed and a total of 8 experiment combinations were conducted by each
subject.
32-in plasma display
Resolution- 852 x 1024 pixels
Brightness- 650 cd/m2
Contrast- 500: 1
Aspect ratio- 16: 9
32-in CRT display
Synchronization- 15,734 kHz
Dot pitch- 0.82 mm center
Aspect ratio- 16: 9
Figure 1. The display types used in this study
Dependent variables
The critical flicker fusion (CFF) frequency was measured by a CFF tester (TAKEI TK502) to
assess the subject‟s visual fatigue and visual sensory sensitivity. CFF is a psychophysical test of the
visual temporal resolution. The flicker frequency was measured in two different ways: (1) the
frequency was increased from 5 to 60 Hz until the subject perceived fusion; (2) the frequency was
decreased from 60 to 5 Hz until flicker was detected. The average frequency of the two tests was taken
as the CFF measure in a certain condition. The CFF was tested at the beginning and the end of each
experiment session. The change in Hz prior to and after experiment was calculated. An increase in
CFF threshold indicates an increase in visual sensory sensitivity. On the contrary, a decrease in CFF
threshold indicates an increase of visual fatigue. The subjective visual fatigue level was assessed by
using a 1-20 rating scale, with 1 denoting „nothing at all‟ and 20 denoting‘extreme fatigue‟[5]. The eye
fatigue rating was taken at the end of each experiment session.
Experimental procedure
The experimental procedure involved preparation, playing and ending phases. In the
preparation phase, the objective visual fatigue measure (CFF) was taken as the baseline data for
comparison. In video game playing phase, each subject completed a training session for both tennis
and boxing games. The subject was allowed to freely adjust the viewing distance while playing. In the
ending phase, the subjective visual fatigue rating and CFF measures were taken. The CFF difference
prior to and after the experiment was calculated.
~ 660 ~
[AT-001]
RESULTS
The analysis of variance results reveal that the effect of display type was significant on CFF
change (p<0.001) and eye fatigue rating (p<0.01). Table 1 presents the mean values of the four
independent variables and shows that the CFF increase was higher for game playing with plasma
display than with CRT display. Playing video game with plasma display produced an increase of 17%
eye fatigue rating than playing video game with CRT display. The effect of play-rest schedule was
significant on CFF change and eye fatigue rating (p<0.001). The results in Table 1 show that playing
with P10R5 schedule produced about 70% of the CFF change and 85% of the eye fatigue rating as
comparing to playing with P20R10 schedule. The effect of game type was also significant on both
response measures (p<0.001). The change in CFF for playing the intensive boxing game was almost
doubled than that of playing the less intensive tennis game. On the other hand, playing boxing game
produced about 75% more eye fatigue feeling than playing tennis game. It seems that the exposure to
the more dynamically changing images and moving objects while playing the intensive boxing game
induced a higher level of visual fatigue. The gender effect was not significant for all the measures.
Table 1. The response measurements under different level of the
independent variable.
Display type
CRT display
Plasma display
Play-rest schedule
P10R5
P20R10
Game type
Tennis
Boxing
Gender
Male
Female
CFF change(Hz)
Eye fatigue rating(scores)
1.02 (0.61)
1.37 (0.81)
3.86 (1.94)
4.50 (2.09)
1.01 (0.62)
1.39 (0.79)
3.85 (1.80)
4.51 (2.21)
0.78 (0.48)
1.62 (0.70)
3.10 (1.54)
5.26 (1.90)
1.23 (0.75)
1.17 (0.72)
4.11 (2.13)
4.25 (1.95)
(), standard deviation
CONCLUSION
The objective of this study is to evaluate the effect of display type, play-rest schedule, game
type, and gender on visual fatigue for the Wii players. The study results showed that the better display
quality (plasma display) and the more intensive game (boxing game) increased players‟ motivation and
visual sensitivity (CFF threshold increased), but it also caused an increase in eye fatigue. Thus, it is
necessary to adopt the frequent break schedule while playing the more intensive game such as boxing.
References
[1] ESA, 2008, Essential facts about the computer and video game industry. Entertainment and
Software Association (ESA) report. Available online:
http://www.theesa.com/facts/pdfs/ESA_EF_2008.pdf
[2] M. Miyao, S. Sugiura, T. Sakata, H. Ishigaki, 1997, The visual effect of video game on school
children. Proceedings of the International Conference on Work With Display Units (Tokyo).
[3] M. Takahashi, 2006, Ergonomic issues in picture quality improvement in flat panel TVs. In:
Nikkei Microdevices' Flat Panel Display: 2006 (pp. 58-63): InterLingua Educational Publishing.
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[4] L. Graves, G. Stratton, N.D. Ridgers, N.T. Cable, 2007, Comparison of energy expenditure in
adolescents when playing new generation and sedentary computer games: cross sectional study.
BMJ: British Medical Journal, (335) 1282-1284.
[5] M.J.J. Wang, C.L. Huang, 2004, Evaluating the eye fatigue problem in wafer inspection. IEEE
Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing, (17), 444-447.
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TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE HOMECARE SOLUTIONS FOR AN AGING SOCIETY
Carsten Röcker* and Martina Ziefle
Human Technology Centre, RWTH Aachen University
*Corresponding author: roecker@humtec.rwth-aachen.de
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses necessary steps and requirements for developing sustainable homecare
technologies and illustrates the importance of a user-centered design approach for the long-term
success of future care concepts.
Keywords: demographic change, sustainable healthcare solutions, technology acceptance, user
requirements, living lab research.
INTRODUCTION
Social, economical and environmental consequences caused by a continuously aging
population are commonly reported as major challenges most industrialized countries will have to face
in the coming years. Especially in Japan, where the overall population growth is nearly zero, the
population's average age is climbing rapidly. Already today, nearly 25 million Japanese are over 65 and
approximately 20.000 citizens are over 100 years old [1]. What once was considered a population
pyramid, has long started to change towards a cone shaped population structure in Japan. The World
Health Organization [2] estimates that the original shape will have inverted to an up-side-down
pyramid by 2035, with persons aged 80 and above accounting for the largest population group. If this
development continuous, it is expected that by 2050 the number of kids who can care for their aging
relatives is not sufficient anymore [3]. Other Asian countries show similar trends. For example in
Singapore it is expected that within the next 30 years 20% of the population will be over 65 years or
older [4]. And also in emerging economies, such as India or China, the dependency ratios are expected
to increase considerably until 2050 [5]. Especially China is currently experiencing an immense
increase in the number of elderly citizens, with nearly 140 million people already being 60 years or
older [6]. Compared to approximately 400 million people aged 60 and above today, the World Health
Organization [2] expects this number to increase for developing countries to approximately 840
million in 2025, which would represent 70% of all older people worldwide.
As a consequence of these ongoing developments, more and more elderly people are
expected to require care in the coming years. At the same time, the demographic change will also
result in a reduction of the number of people who can provide care to older and disabled people [7].
Hence, Adam et al. [8] argue that the demographic and financial constraints that most industrialized
nations will be facing, will unavoidably lead to a situation, which makes it increasingly difficult to find
enough caregivers for the growing number of elderly people. This apprehension is shared by various
institutions and authors, including for example ATA [9] or Wilkes [10], who expect that the healthcare
industry will be facing a critical shortage of public resources, nurses and other healthcare personnel
within the next decades.
Technology-supported homecare environments are often cited as a promising solution to take
care of the growing number of elderly and disabled people [11][12][13][14]. By providing a wide
variety of medical services and support features (see, e.g., [15] or [16] for a detailed overview of
state-of-the-art systems) intelligent homecare applications bear the potential of bringing medical,
social and economical benefits to patients and caregivers alike.
SUSTAINABLE HEALTHACRE SOLUTIONS
Retrofitting homes with the necessary information and communication technologies requires
not only significant financial investments, but also consumes substantial resources to build and
considerable energy to be operated and maintained. Hence, it is essential to develop „green‟ systems,
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which have minimal ecological impact on the environment. With development cycles of new
technologies becoming constantly shorter, eco-friendly manufacturing and recycling processes are
gaining more and more importance. While minimal resource consumption is unquestionable important
with respect to sustainability, it is as important to ensure that existing systems are efficiently used. This
requires that the relation between the perceived user benefits and invested resources are optimized.
Today, the majority of research concentrates on the technical features of future healthcare systems.
However, it is equally important to take user interests into account to guarantee full and efficient usage
and thereby optimize the functional return of the technical investments.
PRIVACY AS A MAJOR DESIGN CHALLENGE
Ensuring a widespread diffusion of technology-enhanced homecare solutions requires
fundamental acceptance criteria to be met in the design of new systems. In this context, especially
privacy-related problems have to be addressed in an early phase of the development process in order to
guarantee broad acceptance of smart healthcare services. Empirical evidence suggests that the
acceptance of new technologies is largely influenced by the individually perceived concerns, rather
than the actual technological risks. Hence, it is crucial to gain a detailed understanding about the
concerns of potential end users and identify the factors influencing their perception prior to the actual
design process. This is especially important as technology-enhanced homecare systems will be
considerably different from existing information and communication technologies. With respect to
user privacy, the two most important differences are the always-on nature of the devices and the
invisibility of the technology. With traditional computer systems the duration of data collection - and
potential surveillance - is clearly limited to the time a person uses the system. This clear distinction
between „online‟ and „offline‟ might not longer be possible in technology-enhanced environments. At
the same time, the integration of computers into everyday objects is likely to lead to the disappearance
of sensory borders, and thereby could make common principles of privacy protection useless. Those
problems are of particular importance as smart homecare environments will be mostly inhabited by
users, who lack detailed technical knowledge about the computational processes, which take place in
the background.
Previous work on technology-enhanced work environments (see, e.g., [17] or [18]) indicates
that there might be different types of concerns associated with the usage of context-aware technologies.
Some concerns refer to immediate consequence, while others represent long-term problems without
direct effects on the individual user. In addition, many long-term consequences can not be influenced
by the personal usage behavior. When a critical mass of people uses a specific technology, individual
users might experience the consequences of this usage even if they chose not to employ the technology
themselves. For example, if other people use wireless communication devices within a shared
environment, all inhabitants are exposed to the radiation in a nearly equal manner. Currently, only
direct consequences are addressed in the design of systems, while the influences of indirect
consequences are largely unexplored and their effects on the adoption process are therefore still
unclear. The same studies also showed that there are considerable differences regarding the perception
of threats among different groups of users. In order to adequately address these concerns in the design
of new systems, it is not only necessary to identify the concerns and perceived threats of potential end
users, but also to analyze how the temporal scope of the consequence influences the perception process.
Another important factor that needs to be explored is the value of personal information in
technology-enhanced spaces. For their operation, intelligent homecare applications rely on appropriate
and sufficient information from users. Previous work (see, e.g., [19], [20] or [20]) showed that the
willingness to provide personal information is significantly influenced by a variety of factors,
including individual characteristics of the users, their cultural background, or the level of control they
have over the data capturing process.
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Only if these research questions are appropriately addressed in an early stage of the design
process of future technologies, it will be possible to design trustworthy and accepted systems for the
home domain. Understanding the different factors and their interrelation is crucial for developing
privacy-enhancing homecare solutions and guaranteeing the long-term success of sustainable care
concepts.
LIVING LAB RESEARCH
Today, most studies investigating privacy issues in digital environments are based on fictive
usage scenarios. While this is a widely used technique, recent evidence suggests that results gained in
scenario-based evaluations are only of limited validity. For example, Acquisti and Grossklags [22]
conducted an online survey on privacy in e-commerce applications and observed a tendency in test
participants to overrate the value of personal privacy compared to their actual behavior. A similar
tendency was observed in our own studies exploring the acceptance of computerized healthcare
solutions in smart home environments. Hence, it is important to study users in realistic usage situations
in order to gain valid information about their actual behavior in specific contexts. In order to do this,
we conceptualized and developed the Future Care Lab, a simulated smart home environment at
RWTH Aachen University [23]. Figure 1 shows the initial technical concept and the final realization of
the living lab space.
Figure 1. Technical concept (left) and realization (right) of the Future Care Lab.
The lab provides a full-scale technical infrastructure, consisting of different mobile and
integrated devices, and allows using various immersive systems in different test settings. The setup of
the lab enables in-situ evaluations of new homecare concepts and smart medical technologies by
observing different target user populations in realistic usage situations. As the lab relies on a modular
technical concept, it can be expanded with other technical products, systems and functionalities, in
order to address different user groups. By this the lab has the potential to be sensibly adapted to new
technical developments as well as societal changes and needs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was supported by the excellence initiative of the German federal and state governments.
References
[1] T. Stadlmayer, 2009, Weiblich, ledig, alt - und unabhängig, Financial Times Deutschland, June 8,
2009, Germany.
[2] WHO, 2002, Active Aging: A Policy Framework, World Health Organization, Geneva,
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[3] J. Nehmer, M. Becker, A. Karshmer, R. Lamm, 2006, Living Assistance Systems: An Ambient
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[4] J. Chen, J. Zhang, A. Kam, L. Shue, 2005, An Automatic Acoustic Bathroom Monitoring System,
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[5] EU, 2006, The Demographic Future of Europe - From Challenge to Opportunity, Commission
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[6] J. Coughlin, L. A. D'Ambrosio, B. Reimer, M. R. Pratt, 2007, Older Adult Perceptions of Smart
Home Technologies: Implications for Research, Policy & Market Innovations in Healthcare,
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[8] S. Adam, K. S. Mukasa, K. Breiner, M. Trapp, 2008, An Apartment-Based Metaphor for Intuitive
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HCI: People and Computers XXII: Culture, Creativity, Interaction, 67-75.
[9] ATA, 2004, American Telemedicine Association‟s Home Telehealth Clinical Guidelines,
American Telemedicine Association, Washington, DC.
[10] B. Wilkes, 2009, Gender-Spezifische Produktentwicklung für AAL - Notwendigkeit oder
Übertreibung, Second German Congress on Ambient Assisted Living, Berlin, Germany,
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[11] M. Ziefle, C. Röcker, 2010, Acceptance of Pervasive Healthcare Systems: A Comparison of
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Technologies for Healthcare, Munich, Germany, CD-ROM.
[12] R. Bruegel, 1998, Patient Empowerment - A Trend That Matters, Journal of the American Health
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[13] A. van Berlo, 2003, Smart Home Technology: Have Older People Paved the Way?
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[14] T. Saizmaa, H. C. Kim, 2008, A Holistic Understanding of HCI Perspectives on Smart Home,
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Management, 59-65.
[15] C. Röcker, 2011, Smart Medical Services: A Discussion of State-of-The-Art Approaches,
International IEEE Conference on Machine Learning and Computing, Vol. 1, Singapore,
334-338.
[16] C. Röcker, M. Ziefle, A. Holzinger, 2011, Social Inclusion in AAL Environments: Home
Automation and Convenience Services for Elderly Users. International Conference on Artificial
Intelligence, Las Vegas, NV, USA, pp. 55-59.
[17] C. Röcker, 2010, Living and Working in Automated Environments - Evaluating the Concerns of
End-Users in Technology-Enhanced Spaces. International IEEE Conference on Computer and
Automation Engineering, Singapore, 513-517.
[18] C. Röcker, 2010, Social and Technological Concerns Associated with the Usage of Ubiquitous
Computing Technologies. Issues in Information Systems, 11(1), 61-68.
[19] C. Röcker, 2009, Design Requirements for Future and Emerging Business Technologies: An
Empirical Cross-Cultural Study Analyzing the Requirements for Ambient Intelligence
Applications in Work Environments. Driesen, Taunusstein, Germany.
[20] C. Röcker, 2010, Socially Dependent Interaction in Smart Spaces: How the Social Situation
Influences the Interaction Style in Computer-Enhanced Environments, International IEEE
Conference on Mechanical and Electrical Technology, Singapore, 314-318.
[21] C. Röcker, 2010, Why Traditional Technology Acceptance Models Won't Work With Future
Information Technologies. International Conference on Intelligent Systems, Tokyo, Japan, 1-8.
[22] A. Acquisti, J., Grossklags, 2005, Privacy and Rationality in Individual Decision Making. IEEE
Security and Privacy, 3(1), 26-33.
[23] C. Röcker, W. Wilkowska, M. Ziefle, K. Kasugai, L. Klack, C. Möllering, S. Beul, 2010, Towards
Adaptive Interfaces for Supporting Elderly Users in Technology-Enhanced Home Environments.
Biennial Conference of the International Communications Society: Culture, Communication and
the Cutting Edge of Technology, Tokyo, Japan, CD-ROM
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NATURAL HAZARDS INDUCED SOCIO-ECONOMIC VULNERABILITIES OF
CHAR-WOMEN IN BANGLADESH
1
Sultana Taufika Akter1*, Shahnaz Huq-Hussain1 and Mohammad Najmul Islam2
Department of Geography and Environment, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
2
Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
*Corresponding author: staufikaa_geo@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Bangladesh is recognized worldwide as one of the most vulnerable country to the
natural hazards. In the dynamics of erosion and accretion, sandbars are emerging as island on the
river channels which is locally known as char-land. The char people in Bangladesh are most
vulnerable to several natural hazards like flood, river erosion, storm surge, drought etc. These hazards
affect the lives of the char-dwellers more frequently and intensely than the people in other parts of the
country and affecting the social and economic life of the char-women in particular. The purpose of this
paper is to assess the socio-economic condition and to identify the natural hazard vulnerabilities on
char-land women in Bangladesh. This study looks into two different kinds of char area: one is the
riverine char and another one is the coastal char. The first half of this paper provide a brief overview
of the socio-economic status of char women and the second half of the paper emphasizes the natural
hazards vulnerabilities on char women in Bangladesh based on empirical study. The findings
indicate that the study area is socio-economically backward compared to other areas of the country and
the people earn their livelihood from diversified economic activities. The survey results suggest that
the natural hazards vulnerabilities are not always same for women and men and it affect them
differently. Women in char communities constitute the poorest and the weakest group, bearing the
burden of care for the children and family. A char woman is more insecure than a char man and she is
more vulnerable to different crisis events because of her less economic strength, negligible level of
education and lower social status. As such she has less capability of coping with crisis induced by
natural hazards.
Keywords: char-land, natural hazards, vulnerability, char- women
INTRODUCTION
Bangladesh is frequently visited by natural disasters such as flood, riverbank erosion, tropical
cyclone, storm surge, drought and tornadoes. It is recognized worldwide as one of the country
that is most vulnerable to the impacts of natural hazards. Bangladesh is also recognized
as a poor and highly dense country in the world. In Bangladesh about 600,000 people live on
riverine islands and bars, locally known as chars [1]. Chars are the areas of new land formed through
the continual process of erosion and deposition of sediments in the rivers and coastal areas. These
islands and attached bars created new opportunities to establish settlements and pursue agricultural
activities for the poorest and most vulnerable communities in Bangladesh. The inventory of main river
char-lands estimated their total area at 8,444 sq km or almost 6 percent of Bangladesh. In 1992-93, this
comprised 33 percent of unprotected mainland and 67 percent of char-land [2]. The char-lands are
highly vulnerable to several natural hazards like frequent floods and bank erosion due to shifting river
channels. The physical characteristics inherent in the ecology of char formation make the char-lands
one of the most fragile environments in the world. This vulnerability of the physical environment
makes chars risky and disaster-prone places [3]. The hazards affect the lives of the char dwellers more
frequently and intensely than the people in other parts of the country, dominating the social and
economic life of the char-dwellers especially the char-women. Women headed households are often
impoverished and socially isolated, less able to receive or act on disaster warnings or recovery
information [4].
Note: This conference paper is based on the preliminary findings of ongoing Ph. D research of the first author.
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As such women are main victims of natural hazards. During disaster like floods and storms
they have been confronting crisis in their daily lives. According to a recent report from the Women‟s
Environment and Development Organization [5], women and children are 14 times more likely to die
than men during disasters. Following the cyclone and flood of 1991 in Bangladesh, the death rate was
almost five times as high for women as for men. During disaster like floods and storms they have been
confronting crisis in their daily lives. In rural areas, the difference between men and women is huge in
living life. The poverty rate of women headed households is higher than that of men in the agricultural
districts. Also, there is a difference between genders over the completion rate of primary and
secondary education. With all such limitations women are actively taking care of the entire household
chores, child care, rearing livestock and homestead gardens [6]. The participation and support of rural
women in their household level is very high. But in disasters, these women are the main victims to
face various types of problems, difficulties and challenges. The women‟s suffering are twofold first,
they have to work hard to save their families from the disasters and afterwards second, when men
leave for the urban areas for cash earning, after disasters, women are left alone for caring the children
and elderly family members. Besides gender inequality is a major factor contributing to the increased
vulnerability for women and girls in disastrous situations.
Some researchers have conducted study on char-land in different perspectives. Baqee [7]
focused on the uncertainties of the lives of char-land inhabitants as well as the survival strategies of
them during natural and man-made crises in Bangladesh. Chowdhury [8] examined issues such as
disaster mitigation, but very little has been written about natural hazards induced vulnerability
focusing on char-land women. The purpose of this paper is to assess the socio-economic condition and
identify the natural hazards vulnerabilities of char-land women in Bangladesh. It is expected that this
study would be useful to undertake future development program and policy formulation for the
char-dwellers in Bangladesh.
METHODOLOGY AND DATA COLLECTION
To fulfill the objectives of this study, information have been collected from both primary and
secondary sources involving quantitative and qualitative data. Preliminary surveys of the selected sites
have been made by the researcher to get rapid appraisal of the situation. Based on the findings of the
preliminary survey, an in-depth household questionnaire survey supported by Participatory Rapid
Appraisal (PRA) and interview with key Informants have been conducted at various time periods
during the monsoon (July to September) and the dry season (February to April) in 2010 and 2011. Of
the surveyed 300 households 180 households have been selected systematic randomly from
Kunderchar (KC) union- a riverine char, and 120 households from Char Chandia (CC) union- a
Coastal char and included all women headed households in the survey. Collected data and information
have been scrutinized and being entered into SPSS and MS Excel program for making necessary
analyses. The sample of char people have been categorized in two groups on the basis of household
head‟s sex viz. male headed and female headed. Then each group is divided into two sub-groups such
as farming and non-farming household.
PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA
Only the char-land where different types of natural hazards like flood, cyclone, bank erosion,
storm surge and drought caused major damages every year have been selected as study area. The
impact of natural hazards may be different in river basin area and coastal area due to different
geomorphologic pattern. Considering the different impacts of natural hazards in the different regions
of Bangladesh, the study looks into two different types of char and the author finally selected one of
the most vulnerable administrative union from both study area; one is the riverine char of Padma river
namely Kunderchar Union in Zanjira Upazilla under Shariatpur district and another is the coastal char
of Small Feni River in Megna estuary namely Char Chandia Union in Sonagazi Upazilla under Feni
district (Figure 1).
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Figure1. Location of the study area
Source: Disaster Management Information Center, CDMP, Bangladesh.
Kunder Char (KC) Union is located in an attached bar (adjacent char) on the right bank of the
river Padma, 78km away from Dhaka city. It belongs to agro-ecological zone-10 (AEZ) and active
Ganges Floodplain of the mighty river Padma. The study villages are located in the char-land of
Maowa-Sureswar downstream reach at the confluence of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra (Jamuna)
river at the central and southern parts of Bangladesh. This area typically experiences various natural
hazards such as severe flood, river bank erosion, cyclone etc. and detached from the main land. Due to
geographical location, the most of the study area situated in a low land where seasonal river water
stays almost four to six months in a year. During this time char dwellers are unable to involve
themselves in crop farming activities. The KC union had an area of about 10000 acre, but 92 percent of
the area was eroded away by river bank erosion hazard by 2004 [9]. The estimated population was
9670 in 2001. Total number of households of this union is 2182 (BBS, 2001). The average family size
of KC is 5.59 persons while the average labor force is 2.45 person per household. The average annual
income is Tk 82700 per household.
The Char Chandia union falls under the AEZ-18which is at the Young Meghna Estuarine
Floodplain. The map of Char Chandia shows it as a marginal bar or attached char, attached to the
south bank of Little Feni River of Meghna Estuary and situated in the south-east part of Bangladesh. It
is located in the unprotected mainland on the right bank of the river Feni. Its distance from Sonagazi
upazila is about 5 km and 22 Km from Feni district. It has an area of about 10642 acres and the
estimated population for 2001 was 39392. The total household of this union is 6518 [10]. The present
study found the average family size is 5.17 persons, average labor force is 2.53 persons/ household,
average annual income is 74700 BDT. The major sources of income are agricultural labor and
livestock rearing.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CHAR WOMEN
Category of households
The households of the study area are headed by male and female in both categories .The study
revealed that 92 percent households of KC and 82 percent of CC union are male headed and others are
women headed. The major economic activities are both farming and non-farming. In CC, 18 percent
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households are female headed and almost all are involve in non-farming activities. The women became
household head either of their husband‟s death or have been deserted by their husbands who have
failed to provide for the family. Some of them are abandoned when the husband went for a second or
third marriage. Besides some female house hold‟s husbands or son‟s are living in abroad.
Figure 2: Status of Households in KC;
Figure 3: Status of Households in CC;
Demographic situation
Total sample population of KC is 1007 from selected 180 households. Among them 527
members are male, 470 members are female and the average family size is 5.6 person per household.
On the other hand, Total sample population of this union is 620 from selected 120 vulnerable
households where 328 are male and 292 are female and average family size is 5.2 persons per
household. The sex ratio of KC and CC are respectably 115 (male):100 (female) and 112 (male):100
(female) where as the national sex ratio is 106: 100 (BBS, 2001). The average number of labor force is
2.4 persons per household in KC and 2.53 persons per household in CC.
Educational status
According to field survey, a large percentage of respondents are illiterate (respectably 29.8
percent and 40 percent) in both study area and most of them are female. It was observed that 52
percent of total illiterate members are female in KC where as it is 55 percent in CC union. In KC and
CC have inadequate number of educational institutes which are not well equipped due to lack of fund,
mismanagement and also teachers are not enough for the huge number of students. Besides due to unstable
land, vulnerable location, frequent migration, and increasing educational expenses are the major causes for
lower literacy rate in both char land areas. But the average year of schooling is higher in KC than CC
(respectably 2.18 and 1.49) though the communication system of CC is comparatively better then KC.
Figure 4: Educational status of KC;
Figure 5: Educational status of CC
Land holding
Table 1 shows the land ownership and holding of the study households. The study revealed that
there is a significant difference of homestead land holding between man and women headed households in
both study area. In KC, average homestead area of male headed household was 8.26 decimal where as
women headed household was 6.69 decimal only. On the other hand, the difference of average homestead
area between men and women headed households are quite high in CC area where male headed household
have 17.59 decimal but women headed household have only 6.41 decimal. Same situation were observed in
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the case of holdings of farm land and pond area also.
Table 1: Average land size of different household groups in the study area
Name
of
the study
area
Riverine
Char
(Kunder
char)
House
hold
Head
Types
of
House holds
Male
Headed
Farming
Female
Headed
Non-farming
Sub-total
Farming
Non-farming
Sub-total
180
households
Male
Farming
Headed
Non-farming
Total
Coastal
Char (Char
Chandia)
Female
Headed
Sub-total
Farming
Nonfarming
Sub-total
120 households
Total
Farm Land
(in decimal)
Total
8.14
Own
5.4
Leased
2.74
Own
73.17
Rented
97.8
Operated
171
Pond/
Ditch
Area in
decimal
1.99
8.34
8.26
1.57
3.21
6.76
5.05
0
31.23
0
41.76
0
72.99
0.34
1.04
0.21
0.87
10.67
4.3
6.69
7.33
1
3.38
3.33
3.31
3.33
l107
0
40.12
0
0
0
128.4
0
40.12
4.5
0
1.69
3.33
0.3
1.2
8.12
3.22
4.89
32.02
38.04
70.07
1.1
0.89
20.74
20.39
0.34
86.3
4.34
65.43
6.61
17.48
16.63
17.59
16.52
17.43
0.11
0.16
16.52
38.51
0.11
1.02
16.62
15.36
2.17
3.21
6.24
8.88
---6.41
---4.68
---1.73
---5.68
---0
---0.14
---1.13
---2.55
6.41
4.68
1.73
5.68
0
0.14
1.13
2.55
15.54
15.09
0.45
32.49
0.83
12.57
2.83
7.72
Homestead land
(in decimal)
No.
of
Trees
1.74
Source: Field survey in 2010-2011.
Physical structures
The physical structures of char dwellers of both study area are predominantly kuncha. In KC and
CC respectably 31 percent and 81 percent houses are made of bamboo, 21 percent and 01 percent
respectively are made of thatch (Straw) and 18 percent of CC is made of CI Sheet. The floors of some
houses of KC are found wooden standing on platform which is usually made as a strategy for flood
proofing. But in coastal area CC, the roofs of the houses are mostly sloping downward to protect the main
structure from high wind during cyclone hazards. However these depend on the financial condition of the
owner of the house. The distribution of main house of the dwelling households by type of structure are
presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Distribution of main dwelling house by type of structure (In average number)
Union
House Hold Headed
Male Headed
Types of House
hold
Farming
Non-farming
Sub-total
Female Headed
Farming
Non-farming
Sub-total
Total
Farming
Male Headed
Non-farming
Coastal Char
Sub-total
(Char Chandia)
Female Headed
Farming
Non-Farming
Sub-total
Total
Source: Field survey in 2010-2011.
Riverine Char
(Kunder Char)
Type of house
Tin sheet
0.79
0.59
0.68
0.5
0.3
0.38
0.65
0.43
0.28
0.31
--0.14
0.14
0.28
Bamboo Fence
0.56
0.41
0.47
0.5
0.4
0.43
0.69
0.61
0.64
0.61
--0.36
0.36
0.57
Major occupations
The people of KC and CC lead their livelihood through farm and non-farm wage labor, farming,
livestock rearing, fishing etc. The study revealed that the people who have no land, no livestock or
fishing capital, they are fully dependent on day labor KC dwellers are more involved in wage labor than
the CC and they worked not only in their own village but also other nearer villages, union as well as in
~ 671 ~
[NH-021]
urban areas mostly in capital city Dhaka. Some women of CC work as day labor for their livelihood. The
women of Hindu community in CC are involved in the agricultural fields for cleaning weeds.
Table 3: Average household annual income and their sources
Name of
the study
area
Riverine
Char
(Kunder
char)
House
hold
Head
Types of
House
holds
Male
Headed
Farming
Non-farm
ing
Female
Headed
Total
Agriculture
Live
stock
Fishing
Service
Small
Trading
Wage
Remittance
87100
43500
6000
4500
2700
6900
10400
13900
52.2
82300
0
4600
5900
9900
8100
27800
23200
Sub-total
91.1
84300
18600
5200
5300
6800
7600
20400
19200
Farming
Non-farm
ing
3.3
85800
24300
2800
1700
0
0
7000
50000
5.6
53100
0
3100
0
11400
4000
13200
21400
Sub-total
8.9
5400
9100
3000
600
7100
2500
10900
32100
Total
Male
Headed
Coastal
Char
(Char
Chandia)
Female
Headed
Household annual income (Average value)
Total
House
Hold
(%)
38.9
Farming
Non-farm
ing
Sub-total
Farming
Non-farm
ing
Sub-total
Total
100
82700
17700
5000
4900
6900
7100
19500
20400
19.2
93600
38300
13500
3900
9600
2400
6100
22500
62.5
79800
0
3200
9900
10700
10300
18800
28200
81.7
0
83000
----
9000
----
5600
----
8300
----
10400
----
8400
----
15800
----
26900
----
18.3
37500
0
4100
0
3300
4400
19900
10000
18.3
37500
0
4100
0
3300
4400
19900
10000
100
74700
7300
5300
6800
9100
7700
16600
23800
Data source: Field survey in 2010-2011.
laborer. But Muslim women are rarely found in this work because of their conservative attitude. Some
women involve themselves in some government programme such as „Goat Rearing‟, „Food for Work‟
(village development program) and so on where they work as a day labor. Though agriculture is the
major source of income, but after facing frequent river erosion, landless people can not mention their
occupation as a farmer. Due to river erosion, KC and CC people suffer severe loss of their land hence
they have very small size of land or not enough land for crop farming. As such they had to come out from
the dependency of crop farming and take up another economic activity that is suitable for this riverine
and coastal environment. Open water fisheries are an important source of livelihood of KC and CC‟s
dwellers. A large number of households of CC are involved in fishing from the Meghna estuary and the
Bay of Bengal.
Transportation and communication
Usually the char dwellers of both study area move on foot in nearer places or within the
char-land and they use country boat or engine boat to cross the big river for going to mainland. In KC
union, there are some island char villages where country boat (Khea) are used all the year-round as a
mode of transport what are available from sunrise to sunset. But attached char or unprotected bank line
char dwellers of KC and CC usually use the boat as transport only in monsoon. There is no good road
and communication network in this riverine KC union. But there is narrow road network is found
inside the villages of CC union and some auto-rickshaw run on rented basis. But the conditions of all
the part of the road are not in good condition. That‟s why; the people of CC have to suffer for their
movement specially women who are older, pregnant or weaker need to move at risk.
Sources of drinking water and sanitation status
Drinking water is one of the major crises for the char dwellers. It increases the vulnerability
for their char livelihood. By the help of Water Aid and SDS (NGOs), some deep tube-wells have been
set in the both study area. There are 40 percent house holds of KC and 61 percent house holds of CC is
fully dependent on common DTW which situated in front of the village school and flood shelter of KC.
Some are situated in front of the village mosque. As a result, most of the time the village women
cannot collect drinking water from this DTW due to religious and social obligations. Then they
become bound to depend on their children or other male member of the family. The study revealed that
semi-pacca, pacca, ring-slab and open toilets are commonly used in both study area where as 71
~ 672 ~
[NH-021]
percent dwellers of KC and 69 percent of CC use ring slab toilet which are provided by the help of GO
and NGOs.. But respectably 5 percent and 2 percent HH in KC and CC have no toilet and 17 percent
and 16 percent households have open latrine what are very unhygienic for environment.
Sources of lighting
Most of the part of both study area have no electricity. The working hour of most of the
households fully depends on sun-light at day time. At night they usually use oil burner lamp which is
found 88 percent households in KC and 92 percent households in CC. But it is quite costly to them to
use long time. In riverine char KC, some solvent households are using solar energy (12.2 percent) for
their lightening. Recently an NGO (Grameen Shakti) is providing solar energy technology at the cost
of 13000-50000 BDT which have to pay by installment. Still it is not affordable for the common poor
char-dwellers.
Credit services
Most of the households of KC and CC are not solvent. The study revealed that respectably 50
percent and 66 percent dwellers of KC and CC need to borrow for many purposes like char dwellers
become unemployed in rainy season, after any natural hazards, before crop farming as farmers‟ needs
capital for cultivation, emergency medical treatment for family members or to purchase fishing
instrument during monsoon etc. The sources of borrowing of KC and CC are commonly found
schedule bank, micro-finance institutes or NGO‟s, co-operative societies, village mohajon and
relatives. Many women of KC and CC borrow from the Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs) because
these organizations give priority to the women.
NATURAL HAZARDS INDUCED VULNERABILITY ON CHAR WOMEN
Let us first clarify what we mean by the term „Natural Hazard‟ and „socio-economic
vulnerability‟. We mean by the term „Natural Hazard‟ an event or hazard in nature, the built
environment, or social life that may cause harm to persons, assets, or livelihoods. The concepts of
vulnerability used in these studies relates to the natural hazards. Various scholars have defined
vulnerability in different ways. Aysan [11] listed some combinations of adjectives and the noun
„vulnerability‟ in her keynote address that appears in the 1993 collection “Natural Disasters: Protecting
Vulnerable Communities”: „disintegration of social patterns can be identified as social vulnerability
and lack of access to resources can be considered as economic vulnerability‟. Valdivia and Gilles [12]
noted that water, land, livestock, crops and knowledge all play significant roles in the livelihoods of
most of the world‟s rural households. In chars, the vulnerability created by natural hazards such as
flood and riverbank erosion plays a dominant role in the livelihoods of inhabitants who are largely
excluded from mainland services and infrastructure, as loss of land and other assets complexly
destroys their survival base. This study revealed that the poor households living on the char are
vulnerable to natural calamities such as floods and riverbank erosion, or to socio-economic factors
such as a fall either in production or in the market price of crops, or to illness. The participation and
support of rural char women in their livelihood is very high. To assess the socio-economic
vulnerabilities of char-women in the study area, the following heads were mentioned:
Vulnerability on household physical structures
Natural hazards are a severe threat to the dwelling house of both study char area. The
homesteads stand on raised mounds in KC and CC like others flood prone areas in Bangladesh. All the
homesteads fully submerged during floods in KC and storms hazards in CC. Waves battered the
foundation of their homesteads and they lived in fear that homestead might be washed away. Some
households and physical infrastructures are displaced by frequent river erosion of KC and CC. That
time soil become loose and high current which are flown from water make erosion of top soil. There is
also high risk to crack down of homestead of land and high possibility to damage houses by strong
wind of cyclone attack. The poor char women have less access to move to heed evacuation warnings.
Then they become bound to stay in their house at high risk. Though they sometime go to shelter or any
other neighbors or relative‟s house to save themselves, but they have to face a lot of difficulties,
sufferings or challenges. The women have to work hard to protect the family and belongings from the
disasters and afterwards especially when men leave the house for cash earning. Then women are left at
home caring for the children as well as the family.
~ 673 ~
[NH-021]
Vulnerability on cooking
A woman‟s main role is to do household chores and gather and cook food for the family.
During disaster like floods and storms they have been confronting crisis in their daily lives. Houses are
under water but they still need to cook and look after their family. Char dwellers fully depend on
chopping wood, dry branches of trees, Jute stick, dry cow dung, straw etc as fuel for cooking. But
during disaster, it is tough to collect from nature. That‟s why, some of the char women preserve fuel in
sealing, caught for crisis situation. Most of the char-dwellers have not enough space or extra house to
preserve fuel for 4-5 months in monsoon or flood. Then the women are to suffer for fuel crisis. During
flood and storm surge, the cooking place or kitchen submerged or damaged. Then a temporary
platform which is made by bamboo, rope and wood and Chouki (Sleeping caught which made by
wood) are used as cooking place in both char areas. Sometimes the women bound to cook food on the
boat using CI sheet and portable earthen woven. They cook food once in a day and eat it three times as
their meal and they have no scope to preserve this food more than 12 hours in 30-40°C temperature.
Vulnerability on drinking water
Hand tube-well is the only one source of drinking water in KC and CC. Severe flood causes
the dwelling houses go under water. During flood, hand tube-well and other safe water sources became
submerged; as a result, the char-dwellers are to face scarcity of drinking water. Sometimes dwellers of
KC raise the tube well heights during flood hazards which cost huge money to purchase extra pipe and
necessary tools. Most of the char dwellers have no financial and technical ability to raise the tube-well
head during flood. Then they collect drinking water from others houses whose have high tube well.
Otherwise the char women of KC were obliged to use flood water for household purposes though this
flood water becomes highly polluted and fatal for health. In coastal Char Chandia, storm surge attack
frequently and suddenly and most of the time, char dwellers don‟t get time to reserve water; whereas
sudden storms attack washed away their all belongings including water Jar and cookeries etc. Then
they become bound to drink the polluted saline water for several hours. At this they become sick in
water born diseases especially children suffer more. As a result, the char women have to pay extra
labor, time and attention for caring their family members and to collect pure drinking water from
distance place.
Vulnerability on sanitation
In char-land areas of KC and CC union, usually the toilet is located in a corner to lower place
then the ground level of homestead. Sanitary system collapse during natural disasters such as flood,
storms, river bank erosion etc. When toilets submerge by water in flood or storms, then the male may
go for their natural call to a hidden place of embankments, road side, and a tree branch or on boat. But
it becomes more difficult for a woman especially pregnant or older women to use such way for their
physical, cultural and religious constrain. Sometimes the women bound to defecate toilet under water
or inside their house shed.
Vulnerability on household income
It is often become necessary for women to perform income-earning activities for the poor
households living in the chars. During erosion and flood crises, men and women work together to
ensure the families, house and animals‟ safety. Frequent natural hazards affect not only the livelihood
of char people but also to their income. Most of the male people of KC and CC lead their livelihood as
day labor, agricultural labor, livestock rearing, fishing etc. During disaster they lose their job. Some
farm based households lose their crops as well as their source of income destroyed severely. The study
revealed that most of the households drastically change their source of income from farm-based wage
labor and farming into non-farm wage labor, rickshaw-van puller, fishing and boating. Especially
during the flood peaks household income of many farm-based and wage labor households were
drastically decreased and they suffered much. The study revealed that 18.3 percent households of CC
are female headed who are engaged in wage labour-based livelihood.
Vulnerability on food security
Natural disasters cause severe damage to cultivated land and agricultural products.
According to this field survey and observation all the agricultural and fallow land in the study villages
are submerged in water level of 3.5 meter at KC. In coastal CC union, lands go under water when
storm surge occur and make the agricultural land unsuitable for production by saline water intrusion.
~ 674 ~
[NH-021]
As a result, all the family members suffer in economic crisis. After an attack of a disaster, they face
serious shortage of capital to survive or even to cultivate crops, to buy seed, fertilizer, power tiller, etc.
Most of them become helpless to manage the capital and loss a lot in their crop production. The study
revealed that the dwellers of KC union need to purchase rice 9 months in one year, where it is 11
months in a year in CC union and rest of the time they can consume their own produced rice.
Sometimes the male member can‟t manage the money to buy family daily needs and the women of the
households are to face more difficulty to provide the food to their children as well as others.
Sometimes the women of households remain starve and try her best to provide food for children and
other household members. During hazards they have no scope to collect vegetables from homestead
garden or surrounding areas.
Vulnerability on child care
Child cares become very difficult during disasters for rough environment of both study char
area. The study revealed that women remain busier for their survival, and then they cannot fully
concentrate for child caring. As a result, children suffer more disease. Many children died in snake bite,
sinking in water etc. Sometimes when the male become unemployed after natural hazard, they go to
urban area for searching job, then the women remain alone to look after the family which made her
more loaded by household affairs.
Vulnerability on homestead gardening
Usually the char dwellers don‟t need to buy vegetable or fruits to provide nutrient for family.
Because the char-women plant various types of vegetables in a corner of their homestead vita
surrounded by the bamboo fence to meet the food crisis. Some char-dwellers plant vegetable by earth
rising from the homestead vita level, so that they can prevent vegetable plant from inundation in
monsoon. But when land submerged by flood or storms water these plantation are damaged and causes
food crises for the family members. At these the char-women fall in vulnerable condition to provide
food for their members and sometimes the members are to suffer in malnutrition what makes the
women more worried for caring family members.
Vulnerability on health care services
Frequent natural hazards in KC and CC increase the vulnerability of diseases on char-dwellers.
But due to disruption of communication system during and after hazards, the dwellers cannot able to
move for better treatment in upazila health complex or so on. Lack of medical services many women
died for their pregnancy complexity in disastrous period, many people died by snack bite during flood,
many children died by sinking in water. During disaster the women become busy for their survival.
Sometimes they cannot take any protection for their birth control and ultimately they conceive and
they have to carry it as usual. The people of both study area frequently suffer in various seasonal
diseases in all the year round. The most common diseases are diarrhea, dysentery, jaundice, typhoid
and scabies etc. There is no good health care center or certified doctor in both Char area. Most of the
people go to the local medicine shop or non certified doctors shop of the locality.
CONCLUSIONS
The char-women of both study areas are suffering much due to frequent natural hazards like
flood, cyclone, storm surge, river erosion etc. When the men go away for labour, some either never
returns. When the men are away, along with the children, women have to take care of the house and its
surroundings to make sure of keeping everything intact. In such situation they are very vulnerable in
disaster. Apparently the poverty rate of women headed households was found higher than that of male
headed households in the both study areas. Although divorce rate is very low in these areas but it
doesn‟t mean that women are not always very satisfied in their family and conjugal life. Poverty and
natural hazard causes a lot of problems to them. In spite of this, they try to lead a happy life with their
family to be free from social insecurity and religious obligation. Son is preferable to daughter in the
riverine challenging livelihood. The char-land women are taking care of the entire household chores,
childcare and rearing livestock. But when disaster hit these char-lands, women are the main victim to
face various types of problems, difficulties and challenges. During floods, a large percentage of char
people especially women and children are highly vulnerable. They have only the polluted water of the
river to drink as most of the hand tube wells get submerged. Fuel is in short supply during flood; the
~ 675 ~
[NH-021]
opportunity for boiling the drinking water is quite impossible. Thus, shortage of pure drinking water is
a problem in chars during catastrophic events. The problem of storing and cooking food and of
drinking water leads to malnutrition and diarrhoea. Other diseases such as dysentery, pneumonia, and
scabies are very common as an after effect of flood and the water borne diseases also increase. The
char-women often struggle to earn for the family but do not enjoy significant additional power because
of prevailing social norms. In brief, we found that natural hazards affect women more adversely than
men particularly in terms of life expectancy during child birth. What this means is that natural disasters
on average kill more women than men or kill women at a younger age than men. In this study it was
observed that the women who have some literacy knowledge and solvency of economic condition are
less vulnerable for natural hazards. Gradually they become capable to cope with natural hazards by using
local resources with manageable capacities of local knowledge and wisdom. Still the char-lands and
their hazards are largely ignored by public services and reluctant to develop any GO and NGO projects.
So it is also needed to take necessary steps to enhance their educational facilities, communication
networks and overall socio-economic condition through active participation by GOs-NGOs at
sub-national and local level in the riverine and coastal char areas in Bangladesh.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Sarker M. H., I. Haque and M. Alam, 2003, Rivers, Chars and Char dwellers of Bangladesh, International
Journal of River Basin Management, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 61–80.
Irrigation Support Project for Asia and the Near East (ISPAN), 1993, Charland Study Overview: Summary
Report, The Flood Plan Coordination Organization, Dhaka.
Samanta, G., and K. L. Dutt, 2007, Marginal Lives in Marginal Lands: Livelihood Strategies of
Female-headed, Iimmigrant, Households in the Charlands of River Damodar, West Bengal, „Livelihoods
and Citizenship in India‟, Sage, New Delhi, pp. 99-120.
Enarson E., 2000, Gender and Natural Disaster, Working paper: In focus Programme on Crisis Response
and Reconstruction, Recovery and Reconstruction Department, Geneva, September2000.
Araujo, A. and Quesada-Aguilar, A., 2007, Gender Equality and Adaptation, USA: Women‟s
Environment and Development Organization (WEDO).
Yoshitani J., N. Takemoto and, T. Merabtene, 2007, Factor Analysis of Water-related Disaster in
Bangladesh, The International Center for Water Hazard and Risk Management, Ibaraki-Ken, Japan, pp.9.
Baqee, A., 1998, Peopling in the Land of Allah Jaane: Power, Peopling and Environment, The Case of
Charlands of Bangladesh. Dhaka: the University Press Limited.
Chowdhury, M., 2001, „Women‟s Technological Innovations and Adaptations for Disaster Mitigation: A
Case Study of Charlands in Bangladesh.‟ Expert Group Meeting on Environmental Management and the
Mitigation of Natural Disasters: A Gender Perspective. Ankara, Turkey: 6-9 November.
Islam, M.N., M. Z. Islam, and S.T. Akter, 2006, “Bank erosion hazards of the Padma river at
Zanjira- socioeconomic impacts”, Indian Journal of Power and River Valley Development, Vol. (56), No.
3 & 4, pp. 123-130.
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), 2001, Population census-2001, Community series: Zila Shariatpur,
Dhaka.
Aysan, Y., 1993, Keynote. In Merriman, P. A. & Browitt, C. W. A. (eds.) Natural Disasters: Protecting
Vulnerable Communities, pp 1--24. London: Thomas Telford.
Valdivia, C. and J. Gilles, 2001, „Gender and Resource Management: Households and Groups, Strategies
and Transitions.‟ Agriculture and Human Values 18(1): 5-9.
~ 676 ~
[EnE-007]
THE ACCEPTANCE OF
ON SITE SYSTEM WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT SERVICES
IN BEKASI – INDONESIA
(Study on Willingness to Accept and to Pay of North Bekasi District Community)
1
Hary Agus Rahardjo1
College of Engineering, University of Persada Indonesia
Corresponding author: rahardjo@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The usages of groundwater for daily activities directly are very common in Bekasi, Indonesia.
But, in the other side, there is sludge leaking from existing individual septic tank built by the
communities themselves. This situation is indicated by number of E-Coli which is increasing. One of
the solutions is conducting waste water management services for this on site system. The local
government in Bekasi is trying to initiate this service to handle this leaking problem by offering
communal septic tank system as an alternative solution. The purpose of this study is analyzing
willingness to accept and willingness to pay for on site system waste water management services of
North Bekasi District community using contingent valuation method approach. As a result, willingness
to accept of this community tends to be low. This is related to the culture, educational level, and the
needs of physical changes in dwelling and environment as a consequence of communal system
improvement. Although the willingness to pay of this community also tend to be low, this study results
recommendation, that tariff could be rated based on income level. The conclusion is that community
empowerment especially awareness to the environmentally healthy, has to be promoted consistently and
the local government has to take responsibility for this matter.
Keyword: management, waste water, on site system, willingness to accept, willingness to pay
INTRODUCTION
The usages of groundwater for daily activities directly are very common in Bekasi, Indonesia.
They are using swallow well or “sumur” as a site where they can get water for bathing, washing,
cooking and others. But, in the other side, there is sludge leaking from existing individual septic tank
built by the communities themselves. It is indicated by number of E-Coli which is increasing. This
situation becomes a serious problem for the community’s health. It is happened because of the
population density in this study area, North Bekasi District. One of the solutions is conducting waste
water management services for this on site system. The local government in Bekasi is trying to initiate
this service to handle this leaking problem by offering communal septic tank system as an alternative
solution. This alternative is considered as the best solution since the communal septic tank system can
be controlled more easily in term of maintenance matters. The purpose of this study is analyzing
willingness to accept and willingness to pay for on site system waste water management services of
North Bekasi District community using contingent valuation method approach. Figure 1 below shows
the swallow well or people so called “sumur” and the standard septic tank.
~ 677 ~
[EnE-007]
Figure 1: Swallow well and septic rank
Location of Study
This study is conducted in the Bekasi Residence, especially in the North Bekasi District,
West Java, Indonesia. Geographically, Bekasi is located at 106055’ ET and 607’ – 6015’ ST with total
area of 210.49 square kilometers, adjacent to Jakarta, capital city of Indonesia. This area are in the 19
m above sea level. Figure 2 below indicates the location of study area.
Figure 2: Location of Bekasi Regency, West Java - Indonesia
Study Framework
The study is focus in collecting primary and secondary data, starting with exploring the
government policies and regulations in the level of national, provincial and local. Rough information
reveals the fact about waste water system and management conducted in the study area, and also the
condition of their septic tank as a consequence of population density occurred in Bekasi residence. The
study continue to get more information about social and economy condition. Beside those aspects, this
study also discovers the response of communal on site waste water management services offered.
Analysis is conducted with contingent valuation method approach to get an interpretation on
willingness to accept and willingness to pay to the services offered. Figure 3 below shows the study
framework.
~ 678 ~
[EnE-007]
Collecting
Data
Government
Policy and
Regulation
Wastewater Management in
Bekasi
Poor and
Individualized
Managed
Data Analysis and Interpretation
- Education, Social and
Economy condition
- Perception on
Sanitation facilities
- Sanitation facilities
characteristics
- Settlement
characteristics
On Site Communal
Wastewater
Management services
offering
Conclusion
Willingness
to Accept
Interpretation
Conclusion
Willingness
to Pay
Figure 3 : Study Framework
LITERATURE REVIEW
Wastewater treatment, is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater and
household sewage, both runoff (effluents) and domestic. It includes physical, chemical, and biological
processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce an
environmentally-safe fluid waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste (or treated sludge)
suitable for disposal or reuse (usually as farm fertilizer). The willingness to pay (WTP) is the
maximum amount a person would be willing to pay, sacrifice or exchange in order to receive a good or
to avoid something undesired, such as pollution. Several methods have been developed to measure
consumer willingness to pay. These methods can be differentiated whether they measure consumers'
hypothetical or actual willingness to pay and whether they measure consumer willingness to pay
directly or indirectly. Willingness to accept (WTA) is the amount that а person is willing to accept to
abandon a good or to put up with something negative, such as pollution. It is the minimum monetary
amount required for sale of a good or acquisition of something undesirable to be accepted by an
individual. The price of any goods transaction will thus be any point between a buyer's Willingness To
Pay and a seller's Willingness To Accept. The net difference between WTP and WTA is the social
surplus created by the trading of goods. The willingness to pay level of the community is depend on
their perception to the benefit or even intangible benefit of the product offered such as waste water
services compared with their sacrifice given to get this service. Unlike WTP, WTA is not constrained
by an individual's wealth. For example, the willingness to pay to stop the ending of one's own life can
only be as high as one's wealth, while the willingness to accept compensation to accept the loss of one's
life would be an extremely high number, perhaps approaching infinity. Contingent valuation is a
survey-based economic technique for the valuation of non-market resources, such as environmental
preservation or the impact of contamination. While these resources do give people utility, certain
aspects of them do not have a market price as they are not directly sold.
RESULTS
Population growth in Bekasi is increasing during the last five years from 1999 to 2003 as we
can see in Figure 4 below. In conjunction with this situation, residential development is increasing. In
fact, land availability is limited. People are trying to build their house as large as they can, occupying
their land that they own. This condition makes minimum building coverage of the residential complex.
Figure 5 below shows building coverage of their houses in average. Problem following this condition
is condition of wastewater system or septic tank which is not built meets the standard.
~ 679 ~
[EnE-007]
Figure 4:Population Growth in Bekasi
Figure 5: Building coverage
The local government offers a communal on site waste water system which is managed by local
enterprise to improve the sanitation and environment condition. Figure 6 indicates the difference
between individual and communal system.
Figure 6: Individual and communal septic tank
Figure 7: Level of Education
Figure 8: type of employment
Figure 9: Willingness to accept
From figure 9 above clearly indicates that most people are still don’t want to accept new system such
as on site communal system of waste water and their services. It is caused by their understanding of
healthy environment which has correlation to their educational level and their economy capability
which has correlation to the employment condition in Bekasi.
~ 680 ~
[EnE-007]
CONCLUSION
People living in Bekasi have a variety of educational, social and economy level. People
living in this study area still have a doubt about the importance of well wastewater management
system. They are not very much aware about a healthy environment. They do not strongly need to
improve their living area. According to the service charge, tariff could be rated based on income level.
As a conclusion, awareness to the healthy sanitation system and environment has to be promoted
consistently and the local government has to take part actively and take responsibility for this matter.
Refferences:
[1] Morteza (2005). Contingent Valuation Method Journal Ashgabad. California State University,
Fullerton
[2] Ruijgrok, ECM., Nillesen, EEM. (2000). The Socio Economic Value of Natural Riverbanks in The
Netherlands. Rotterdam, The Netherlands
[3] Virjee, Kameel. (2005). Customer Willingness to Pay For Changes in Water, Waste Water and
Elektricity Services in Trinidad and Tobago-Survey. Canada : Regulated Industries Commision
[4] Simarmata, DJ.A. (1993). Analisa Proyek Publik dan Pemerataan. Jakarta : Fakultas Ekonomi
Universitas Indonesia
[5] Kodoatie, Robert, J., (2005). Pengantar Manajemen Infrastruktur (Edisi Revisi). Jogyakarta :
Pustaka Pelajar
[6] Statistical Bureau of Bekasi (2005). Jakarta in numbers 2005.
~ 681 ~
[A-003]
NOODLES MADE FROM GANYONG (Canna edulis Kerr) WITH THE ADDITION
OF RED PALM OIL (RPO) AS A FOOD SOURCE OF CARBOHYDRATE AND
PRO-VITAMIN A
Ibnu Malkan
Undergraduate Student of Community Nutrition Department, Faculty of Human Ecology,
Bogor Agricultural University
*Corresponding author: iebe.03@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Ganyong (Canna edulis Kerr) is a local root crops that have high carbohydrate content of
about 22.6 to 24.6% and production capacity from 2.5 to 2.84 kg / plant, but unfortunately still under
utilized. To maximize the potential of ganyong tubers, can be used as base material for noodles.
Ganyong flour noodles have a high carbohydrate content but low in vitamins and minerals, so it needs
to be fortified with red palm oil (RPO) as a source of micronutrients. Noodles with the addition of
RPO 75% of the vegetable oils can increase the vitamin A content up to 79.5% of the RAE and meet
100% RDA in infants. The results of this study is expected to produce local food as a source of
carbohydrates and micronutrients, especially pro-vitamin A and can reduce wheat production. In
addition, this product can be used as an alternative for the prevention and cure for deficiency of
vitamin A.
Keywords: ganyong, noodles, red palm oil, vitamins A, carbohydrate.
INTRODUCTION
The food crisis which is happening in the world have an impact on high food prices. In the
current food crisis, developing countries are expected to utilize local food in order to be able to feed its
population. One of the local food that has not been exploited is ganyong (Canna edulis Kerr). Ganyong
is a plant that originated from America which are widely grown in the tropics, and now is spread
across Australia, Polynesia, Africa, and Asia one of Indonesia. Ganyong content of starch in tubers at
90% and sugar content of 10%, thus ganyong is not too sweet [1]. The content of carbohydrates in
ganyong tubers is high enough, which is equivalent to other tubers around 22.6 to 24.6% that makes it
suitable as a source of energy [2]. But in the utilization ganyong still low.
Ganyong can be processed as flour. Ganyong flour can be used for the manufacture of noodles.
To maximize the potential of noodles, ganyong has a potential to increase the value through ganyong
noodles. Increased use of value is expected to address the problem of nutrition and health. One health
problem that often occurs is a deficiency of vitamin A. Case vitamin A deficiency in preschool children
approximately 127 million, in pregnant women vitamin A deficiency more than 7.2 million in the
world and another 13.5 million have low vitamin A status. Roughly 45% of defisiensi vitamin A and
xerophthalmic children and pregnant women live in South and Southeast Asia [3]. Vitamin A
deficiency leads to the keratinization of the mucous membranes that line the respiratory tract,
alimentary canal, urinary tract, skin and epithelium of the eye. Clinically, these conditions manifest as
poor growth, blindness caused by xerophthalmia, corneal ulceration, or occlusion of the optic foramina
from periosteal overgrowth of the cranium. Xerophthalmia involve atrophy of the periocular glands,
hyperkeratosis of the conjuctiva, and finally, involvement of the cornea, leading to softening
(keratomalacia) and blindness[4].
Basic ingredients of flour noodles with ganyong have a high carbohydrate content but low in
minerals and vitamins A, so it needs to be fortified to contain a source of vitamin A. Appropriate
fortification is the addition of red palm oil (RPO). RPO was chosen because it has the highest vitamin A
activity, which is 15 times more of carrots and 300 times that of tomatoes. In addition, RPO was chosen
because the use of beta-carotene in the RPO is lacking, this is due to the processing of crude palm oil
into cooking oil beta-carotene which eliminated a lot of oil to be clear, so a lot of beta carotene were
wasted. Noodles with the addition of red palm oil (RPO) 75% of the vegetable oils can increase the
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vitamin A content of 79.5% in the RAE and meet 100% RDA in infants [5]. The results of this study is
expected to produce local food as a source of carbohydrates and micronutrients, especially pro-vitamin
A and can reduce wheat production. In addition, this product can be used as an alternative for the
prevention and cure deficiency of vitamin A. Processing ganyong noodles made from flour with the
addition of RPO is expected to promote local food ganyong so as to overcome the food crisis problem
without bringing food from abroad.
STAGE OF RESEARCH
The research was carried out in several stages. Stages of the research presented in the flow
chart in Figure 1,
Ganyong
Crude Palm Oil
Slicing, soaking, drying, sieving
Degumming, netralisasion, sentrifugasion
Ganyong Flour
Red Palm Oil (RPO)
Formulasion ganyong and
wheat
mixing
CMC, Alkali, Salt, Water, RPO and Formulation
Analysis
Figure 1. Stage of research
Process Making of Ganyong Flour
Ganyong flour is made by soaking method with Na-metabisulfite and drying ovens. Ganyong
freshly washed and cleaned of impurities attached to the outer shell and shelled. Ganyong sliced (2
mm) using a Slicer. Ganyong already sliced and then soaked in a solution of Na-metabisulfite 0.3% for
5 minutes. Immersion of Na-metabisulfite is intended for the prevention of browning reactions. After
that, ganyong drained and then put in a drum dryer for an hour. The resulting dry ganyong then pureed
and then sieved to 60 mesh. Below is the flow chart of the process of making ganyong flour which can
be seen in Figure 2,
Tuber Ganyong
slicing (2mm)
soaking with a solution of Na metabisulfite0,3% (5menits)
Drying with a drum dryer for 1 hour
Sieving (60 mesh)
Ganyong flour
Figure 2. The process making of ganyong flour
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Process Making of Red Palm Oil
In the process of degumming the temperature that is used is 60o C. The goal is to minimize the
loss of carotenoids due to heating. Degumming also facilitate the purification process and reduce the oil
is lost during the refining process, especially in the neutralization process using caustic soda [7]. The
process of separation of gum needs to be done before the process of neutralization, the grounds of the
soap formed from the reaction of free fatty acids with caustic soda in the neutralization process will
absorb the gum that is hindering the process of separation of soap (soap stock) of oil and oil
neutralization which still contain gum will increase the particle-in-oil emulsion, thus reducing
triglyceride [8]. In the degumming process phosphoric acid (H3PO4) 85% is added as much as 0.25%
w/w of the weight of CPO. Heating is carried out with the bath to 60oC while stirring using an agitator.
Temperature of 60oC maintained for 20 minutes. After that the oil is filtered for the separation of gum
formed. The screening process is done by a vacuum pump and filter paper in hot conditions.
Neutralizing process performed on palm oil that has been degummed called degumming red
palm oil (DRPO). The heating is carried on until the temperature DRPO ± 59oC then added NaOH
11.1% of the amount determined based on free fatty acid levels of CPO. Temperature and time used in
the neutralization process must be carefully considered and chosen so that the soap formed in the oil
settles to the compact and fast (Ketaren). A slow deposition process will increase the loss of oil
because most of the oil will be absorbed by the soap, while the high temperature and long process that
will damage the carotenoids.
Soap is formed separated for 25 minutes, stirring constantly. Stirring is done by agitators.
Agitator fitted with wiper arms, each of which consists of a paddle which serves to push the liquid up
during the stirring. Once that was done soap separation by centrifugation. Centrifugation using a high
speed so affected by centrifugal force. Centrifugal force will bring together the compounds have the
same density, compounds that have a high density would be below the centrifuge tube under the
influence of gravity. At the end sentrifusi NRPO obtained which consists of two separate factions,
namely the solid fraction (stearin) and liquid fraction (olein). Stearin fraction and the soap has a higher
density than the olein fraction, and therefore under the tube. The fraction used for further research are
olein fraction, which will then be added to pembutan instant noodles. Flow chart of the process of
making RPO can be seen in Figure 3,
CPO
H3PO4 85%
Heating (60oC, for 20 menits)
DRPO (Degummed Red Palm Oil)
Heating (59oC, For 25 menit)
Sentrifugasi 2500 rpm 25’
NaOH 11,1%
Soap
RPO
Figure 3. The process making of RPO
Process Making of Noodles
The materials used in making noodles is CMC, Alkali, Salt, water and vegetable oil. Water
serves as a medium between the carbs with a gluten reaction, dissolve the salt and form a rubbery nature
of gluten. The water used should be ranging pH 6-9. The higher the pH of the resulting water then the
noodles are not easily broken due to absorption of water will increase with increasing pH. The amount of
water added in general about 28-38% of a mixture of materials to be used. If more than 38%, the dough
will become very sticky and if less than 28% of the dough will become brittle making it difficult to be
printed [6].
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Alkali serves to accelerate the binding of gluten, improve elasticity and flexibility of noodles,
improve smoothness texture and enhance the properties of chewy [6]. Alkali consists of a mixture of
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), potassium carbonate (K2CO3) with a ratio of 1:1 by weight of wheat flour,
and added sodium polyphosphate. These compounds when heated will release the CO2 that would lead
to the development of the dough. CMC (Carboxy Methyl Cellulose) is also added to the developer in the
manufacture of noodles. Another addition is salt. The function of salt is gluten as a binder during the
mixing process so that the dough expands a little salt and also gives the effect of flavor on the noodles. In
addition, salt can also inhibit the activity of protease and amylase enzymes so that pasta is not sticky and
does not swell excessively [6]. The following table the composition of materials used in the manufacture
of instant noodle formula,
Table 1. Material composition formula of instant noodles per 100 grams of flour
Composition
Wheat
Ganyong
CMC
Vegetable oil
RPO
Soda Ash
Water
Weight [gram]
0-100
0-100
1
25
75
0,4
36
Oil used in this study a maximum of 10%, due to the use of oil more than 10% produces a
wet noodle dough because of the oil out of the dough. The use of vegetable oil on the dough to soften
the texture of the noodles are noodles and noodle dough to prevent sticking. In this study of 10% oil,
vegetable oil which is used only 25%, 75% is the RPO. The addition of RPO by 75% from the use of
vegetable oils in instant noodles can improve the vitamin A content of 79.5% in the RAE and meet
100% RDA in infants [5].
Determination of noodles ganyong RPO formula based on a comparison of wheat flour used.
Wheat gluten is able to form when moistened with water. Elastic properties of gluten in the dough
caused during the printing process noodles and cooking noodles produced are not easily broken. In this
study used high protein flour, medium, low. In order to obtain a formula F100GT0TG control (100%
high gluten ganyong flour 0%), and 10 formula noodles ganyong RPO, namely F75GT25TG (75%
high gluten ganyong flour 25%), F50GT50TG (50% high gluten ganyong flour 50%), F25GT75TG
(25% high gluten ganyong flour 75%), F75GS25TG (75% gluten flour is 25% ganyong), F50GS50TG
(50% gluten flour is 50% ganyong), F25GS75TG (25% gluten flour is 75% ganyong), F75GR25TG
(75 % low gluten ganyong flour 25%), F50GR50TG (50% low gluten ganyong flour 50%),
F25GR75TG (25% low gluten ganyong flour 75%), and F100TG (100% ganyong flour).
The first stage in the process of making noodles is weighing the materials and the manufacture
of salt solution and the solution of ash. The next stage is the mixing of materials, the formation of noodle
sheets, slitting, steaming, drying in the oven and cooling. Mixing the material begins with the mixing of
salt and ashes with water, then put into place the stirrer in which there is wheat flour. Mixture is stirred
until the dough is evenly distributed, the old process is about 15 minutes. The process of mixing
ingredients (mixing) aims to distribute ingredients uniformly and form a dough that has a moisture
content sufficient [9]. At this stage there is very little gluten development, development of new gluten
occurs when pressing. The expected soft dough is formed, soft, and compact [6]. Formula ganyong
wheat and flour and liquid ingredients are mixed little by little, stirring constantly with the mixer
speed was. The addition of water interspersed with the addition of vegetable oil and RPO. Starch and
gluten will expand the presence of water. The more water is absorbed, noodles become not easily
broken. The optimum amount of water will form a good pasta dough that will either facilitate the
process of pressing a sheet - the sheet. During stirring, the mixture flour and alkaline solution to form
flakes with a color that has not been homogeneous. Near the end of mixing, the dough will form small
clumps with a homogeneous color. Once the dough is homogeneous, velocity increased to the highest
speed mixer. After the dough is formed into a circle and rested 10 minutes. Furthermore, the dough is
formed into sheets.
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Noodle sheet forming process aims to create texture in the same direction netgluten evenly so that
the sheet becomes soft and elastic dough. Grinding the dough into a sheet form made repeatedly (7-10
times) until the sheet is formed smooth, compact, and has the desired thickness. At first used a large
roll distance (1.4 mm), then roll gradually lowered until it reaches a size of 0.2 mm. The addition of oil
to the noodle dough causes the dough is easily formed, so the dough does not require grinding a long
time. At the end of this process, the resulting noodles shaped sheet with a thickness of 0.2 mm and has
a smooth surface. The next stage is to slitting. At this stage the dough is cut into noodle strands using a
roller slitter. Noodles made that was made in the form of wavy strands because it can accelerate the
rate of evaporation due to heat conduction [6]. At the time of printing, the distance between the toll on
the slitter adapted to the thickness of the sheet (0.2 mm). The goal is that its thickness did not change
after the dough into strands of noodles.
After the noodles are printed next to do the cooking process which includes steaming and
drying. Steaming process is done by using steam hot water 95-100oC during the 100-110 seconds. This
process aims to cook raw noodles into solid noodle. In this process, will occur gelatinasi process of
starch and gluten that causes coagulation noodle strands are solid. In addition, with perfect
gelatinization will be produced noodles that have a soft texture, soft and elastic [6]. The final stage in the
manufacture of refrigeration before noodles are packaged noodles. Noodles require immediate cooling
[9]. If the cooling process is not perfect, the remaining water vapor will condense and stick to the surface
of the noodles so that spurred the growth of mold [6]. Water content of noodle dough lowered by
drying. In this study carried out by hot air drying is in the oven. This method was chosen with
consideration to keep the content of carotene contained in the noodles. The tools used to dry the noodles
is a cabinet dryer with a temperature of 60-70oC for 1-1.5 hours. In this tool there are tray-tray to place
the noodles. The tray has many small holes underneath so that heat can be on the bottom of the noodles.
Dried noodles have been called if there is no longer a part that is still soft, and if broken will sound crisp.
RESULT
This study has not been completed, are still under trial and error stage. Preliminary results in
this study, the formula noodles ganyong F100TG RPO can not form the noodles, because the dough is
destroyed and can not get sticky. Other formulas that fail are F25GR75GT, F50GR50TG, and
F25GS75GT. Formula that can form into noodles is F75GR25TG, F50GS50GT, F75GS25GT,
F25GT75TG result noodles brittle, less elastic and less chewy. The best formula for this is semenatra
F50GT50TG, F75GTS5TG. Chemical and physical analysis of the noodle is not yet dillakukan. In the
next study will try to increase its elasticity and malleability along with chemical analysis, physical and
hedonic test in children under five years old.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Research noodles made from ganyong with the addition of red palm oil has received research funding
from Indofood Riset Nugraha 2011-2012.
References
[1] M. Falch, F. Rumawas, 1996, Plant Resources of South East Asia, Backhuys Publisher, London.
[2] N. Damayanthi, 2002, Karakterisasi Sifat Fisiko Kimia Tepung dan Pati ganyong (Canna edulis
Kerr) Varietas Lokal [thesis], Technology Agricultural Faculty, Bogor Agricultural University,
Indonesia.
[3] K. West, 2002, Extent of Vitamin A Deficiency among Preschool Children and Women of
Reproductive Age, Available online: http://jn.nutrition.org/content/132/9/2857S.long (accessed on
1st July 2011.
[4] L.K. Mahan, S.Escott-Stump, 2004, Krause’s, Food Nutrition, & Diet Theraphy 11th edition,
Elsevier, United State Of America.
[5] N. Rucita 2010. Pemanfaatan Red Palm Oil (RPO) sebagai sumber provitamin A alami pada
produk mi instan untuk anak balita [thesis], Departemen of Nutrition, Bogor Agricultural
University, Indonesia.
[6] M. Astawan, 1999, Membuat Mie dan Bihun, Penebar Swadaya, Jakarta.
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[7] B. Djatmiko, S. Ketaren, 1985, Pemurnian Minyak, Bogor: Fakultas Teknologi Pertanian IPB.
[8] S. Ketaren, 2008, Minyak dan Lemak Pangan, Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia Pr.
[9] SK. Kim, 1996, Pasta and Noodle Technology, Krunger JE, Robert BM & Joel WD (ed). USA:
American Association of Cereal Chemist, Inc.
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ESTIMATION OF YIELD USE SEVERAL
SAMPLE METHODS ON SAGO PALM
Edi Wiraguna1*, M.H Bintoro2, Iskandar Lubis2, Pasril Wahid3, and David Allorerung3
1
Bogor Agricultural University
2
Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural University
3
Center of Research and Development for Estate Crops, Indonesia
*Coresponding author: echi1906@yahoo.co.id
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to determine the appropriate method for yield estimation
(number of trunk). Yield estimation of sago palm used several method samplings. They were diagonal
sampling (north-east, middle, south-west), diagonal sampling (north-west, middle, south-east),
randomization of six lines, and six sample plots in the block. This method used by 1.2% sample and
applied t test for data analysis. From t test, all methods could be used in Meranti district, since Meranti
district had similarly macro and micro climates.
Keywords : yield, sampling, sago palm, macro climate, micro climate
INTRODUCTION
Sago plant is one of staple food consumed by some of Indonesian inhabitants. According to
Haryanto and Pangloli (1992), Moluccas archipelago uses sago as a major crop plants. Irian Jaya,
Sulawesi and Mentawai archipelago (West Sumatra Province) also use sago as a major crop and staple
food.
Sago has several advantages and all of its part from leaves to trunk could be utilized. The
leaves can be used as roof for material construction, leaves bone can be used as walls, broom stick and
the skins can be used as flooring materials. Since sago consists of highly carbohydrate contents,
therefore it could be made as flour or starch. A pulp, which is waste from starch processing, could be
used as animal feeds. Furthermore, waste from starch processing could be used as a growth medium
for mushrooms or other agricultural crops. Moreover, waste of sago can be made as fertilizer. The end
product of sago processing (sago starch) can be used for various purposes, such as: bio-fuel (ethanol),
food flavoring ingredients (monosodium glutamate), basic materials of liquid sugar, the basic
ingredients of eco-friendly plastics and animal feed (Bintoro, 2008).
Recent condition in Indonesia, there is limited technology to estimate number of yield trunks.
Therefore, it is important to find yield estimation method which later be used to determine the number
of sago be harvested. According to Henanto (1996) in Bengkulu Province, sago palm can be harvested
11 trunks/ha.
Yield estimation methods are carried out in 4 divisions. One division has 1 000 ha (hectares).
Plant spacing is 8 m X 8 m for those divisions. Plant spacing properly will result enough starch.
Tightly of plant spacing will result low yield in starch.
GEOGRAPHICAL, ADMINISTRATIVE POSITION AND CLIMATE
This experiment did in P.T. National Timber and Forest Product (NTFP) Unit HTI Murni Sago,
Tebing tinggi, Riau Province. NTFP lies between 0 0 31' – 1 0 08' North Latitude and 101 0 43' 103 0 08'
longitude and slope 0- 8% (flat farm). Based on administrative positons, P.T. National Timber and
Forest Product Unit HTI Murni Sago lies in several villages. The villages are Tanjung Sari, Kayuara,
Sungai Pulau, Kepau Baru, Tanjung Gadai, Teluk Buntal and Sungai Tohor. P.T. National Timber and
Forest Product Unit HTI Murni Sago is located in Tebing Tinggi district, Meranti Level II Regional
District, Riau Province.
Soil type in NTFP is Organosol and Alluvial. Organosol has solum (layer of fertile soil) that
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more than 100 cm in depth from the surface soil. Texture in bottom layer is clay and top layer is hemik
(medium level of weathering). Consistency soil is sticky and soil reaction is classified as acid that
range of pH between 3.1 until 4.0. Organosol soil is 19 820 ha or 96% of total farm and Alluvial soil is
80 ha or 0.4% of total farm. Total area NTFP is 19 900 ha (NTFP, 1997). Sago palm is planted from
1996 to 1997. From 1996 until 2009, NTFP has used manual and chemical techniques for weed
control. According to Amarillis et al (2009) weed controls use chemical and manual techniques have
no different. Therefore, both of those weed controls can still be used in Meranti district.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Result
This experiment (Table 1) used systematic sampling method. According to Coochran (1991)
systematic sampling methods are easier to take a sample and are often more easily implemented
without error. Systematic sampling methods also save time.
Table 1. Sampling methods result used trunk as variable
No.
Tall Criteria (m)
Pull Method Sample
0-2
2-4
4–6
>6
NY
.... plant average every ha (%)...
22.01
31.99
9.96
0.00
29.05
29.05
12.74
3.69
6.03
1.79
0.36tn
7.80
1.21tn
0.00
1.28tn
30.01
Six sample slot
Row random
23.68
Diagonal cross from north-east
15.34
11.55
38.43
23.10
3.79
to south-west
4.
Diagonal cross from north-west
28.02
24.07
31.93
12.04
3.95
to south-east
Informations :
BD
= Buang Duri (thorn disappear)
NY
= Nyorong (maputih masa)
tn
= sampling method was not significantly different (T-test level 5%)
1.
2.
3.
T-test
Value
BD
0.61tn
Fern (Nephrolepis biserrata Schott) has tall 2 m and grow around sago. Harjadi (1996) stated
that the most important of radiation is radiation energy (sun light). Sunlight will be maximized, if the
plants are not shaded. Sago palms are shaded, therefore sago growth is depressed and can’t grow till
15 m. In Meranti district, the average sago trunk is harvested 6 m.
Water canal level keeps between 30 and 50 cm from the surface of land (Rahman et al., 2009).
If water canal level is more 50 cm or less than 30 cm, the growth of root will not be optimal. Small
amount of roots will reduce ability to absorb nutrients. Hence, level of water canal must be maintained.
Meranti sago palm has low pH (3.1- 4.0). According to Soepardi (1983) fixation of nutrient will be
inhibited if the pH less than 5. Therefore, Sago needs to be fertilizing to provide nutrients. Dewi et al
(2009) stated that applied of leaves fertilizer do not have significant affect in sago palm sucker.
Macro and micro climate in Meranti has a similarly environment. Therefore, all sampling
methods were not significantly different (Table 1) and can be used in Meranti district.
Discussion
According to Wiraguna et al (2009) sampling could be used by 1.2% sample. Therefore, four
methods (diagonal sampling that cross from north-east to south-west, diagonal sampling cross from
north-west to southeast, randomization of six lines, and six sample plots in the block) in this
experiment used sample 1.2% with 8 m X 8 m as plant spacing. According to Rahman et al (2009) the
best plant spacing for sago palm was 8 m X 8 m. Proper of plant spacing made sago did not shade each
other and photosynthesis would be going well. Sago would produce enough starch if had well
photosynthesis. Testing for this experiment used t test and showed that all methods could be used for
yield estimation (trunk as variable).
NTFP planted sago in the same year, hence reached same growth stage. Sago palm could be
harvested at 12 years (BPPT, 2005) and achieved in physiological maturity. Physiology maturity
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(Figure 1) of sago is classified in four stages. They are Wela, Maputih, Maputih Masa and Siri Buah.
In 12 years sago palms were included maputih stage. In maputih stage sago would grow slowly and
could be harvested because starch content was getting to increase. In NTFP sago palms had age from
12 to 13 years, so they could be harvested.
Figure 1. Sago palm physiology maturity
CONCLUSION
Based on the t test, all methods were not significantly different with error level 5%. Therefore,
all sampling methods could be used in Meranti district, since had similarly macro and micro climate.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was funded by Institute of Research and Development, Department of Agricultural
Republic of Indonesia. I wish big thank to Institute of Research and Development, Department of
Agricultural Republic of Indonesia and PT. National Timber and Forest Product for providing
experiment location. My thanks are extended to my best friend, especially Ratih, Ruri, Shandra, and
Aditya for helping this experiment.
References
[1] A. Rahman, I. Lubis, M.H Bintoro and D. Allorerung 2009, The Effect of PlanSpacing on Sago
Palm (Metroxylon spp.) Growth. Proc. International Symposium and Seminar : The Holistic
Interaction Between Living Organism and Environment for Better Quality of Living, 14 – 15
November 2009. Bogor.
[2] B. Haryanto, P. Pangloli, 1992, Potensi dan Pemanfaatan Sagu. Kanisius. Yogyakarta. 140 p.
[3] BPPT, 2005, Tanaman Penghasil Pati, Available online : http://www.IPTEKnet.com. (accessed
on 4th Agust 2009).
[4] E. Wiraguna, M.H Bintoro, I. Lubis, P. Wahid, and D. Allorerung, 2009, Number of Trunk
Estimation in Sago Palm Plantation. Proc. International Symposium and Seminar : The Holistic
Interaction Between Living Organism and Environment for Better Quality of Living, 14 – 15
November 2009. Bogor.
[5] G. Soepardi, 1983, Sifat dan Ciri Tanah.IPB Press. Bogor. 591 p
[6] M.H. Bintoro, 2008, Bercocok Tanam Sagu. Bogor Agricultural University (IPB) Press. Bogor.
71 p.
[7] NTFP, 1997, Studi Diagnosik HPH Bina Desa Hutan. Natoinal Timber and Forest Product :
Pekanbaru.
[8] R.K. Dewi, M.H Bintoro, I. Lubis, and D. Allorerung, 2009, The Effect of Folair Spray
Application on Young Sago Palm Growth at PT. National Timber and Forest Product, Selat
Panjang, Riau. Proc. International Symposium and Seminar : The Holistic Interaction Between
Living Organism and Environment for Better Quality of Living, 14 – 15 November 2009.
Bogor.
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[9]
S. Amarillis, M.H. Bintoro, A. P. Lontoh, I. Lubis, and D. Allorerung, 2009, Influence
Combination Manual and Chemical Weeding Application for Sago Palm Growth at PT. National
Timber and Forset Product, Meranti District, Riau Province, Indonesia. Proc. International
Symposium and Seminar : The Holistic Interaction Between Living Organism and Environment
for Better Quality of Living, 14 – 15 November 2009. Bogor.
[10] S.S Harjadi, 1996, Pengantar Agronomi. Gramedia. Jakarta. 197 p.
[11] W.G. Coochran, 1991, Teknik Penarikan Sampel. Translation of : Sampling Techniques.
Translator : Rudiansyah. Third edition . UI-Press. Jakarta. 488 p.
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WATER CRISIS, CHALLENGES OF WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Muhammad Fadli
Bogor Agricultural University
*Corresponding author: fadlimuhammad2@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Water is the origin of all forms of life on planet earth. Life originated from water and because
water civilizations grow and develop. The simple logic, no water will recede civilization and even life
would be destroyed because the planet will become a giant ball of rock and sand is extremely hot,
massive, and floating in the universe toward extinction. Water sustains human life, including life and
sustainability of the food chain of living creatures on earth.
The water is very quickly becoming an increasingly scarce resource and there is no source of
replacement. About 70 percent of the Earth's surface is occupied by water, but 97 percent of it is salt
water and cannot be directly consumed by humans. From the small amount that may be utilized, the
man still faces a fundamental problem. the seasonal variations of water availability and spatial
inequality. In the rainy season, some parts of the world have an abundance of water is unusually large
compared with other parts of the resulting flooding and other damage caused. In the dry season, water
shortage and drought become a terrible disaster in some parts of the world which resulted in famine and
death.
In addition, the limited amount of fresh water on the planet that can be explored and consumed,
while the number of a growing world population causes fresh water consumption has increased
drastically, and the environmental damage including damage to water resources occur consistently.
Increasing world population will not only dramatically increase the world's fresh water consumption,
but also the need for food which in turn also require more water for agricultural, industrial, and clean
water all of which lead to water needs more. Our planet is estimated to save approximately 1,400
million cubic kilometers of water, but only 35 million cubic kilometers of which are available in the
form of fresh water (freshwater) which can be directly consumed by humans. Even then, most of the
fresh water can not be accessed directly by humans because it trapped in the form of chunks and
icebergs at the poles, glasier, and groundwater is very deep.
Taking into account world population growth and the accompanying need for water, the future
of global water balance, availability of infrastructure and water resources are likely to become so lame
and sensitive. Meanwhile, population distribution and availability of fresh water resources are unevenly
distributed on the surface of the earth adds to the intensity problem of water scarcity.
This paper aims to provide an overview of the global water crisis in the form of water scarcity
(water scarcity), water quality (water quality), and water-related disasters (water-related disaster).
Water scarcity caused by the imbalance of the amount of water availability with consumption needs in a
region, which is mainly caused by high population. Implications of water scarcity on drought, food
shortages and poor nutrition / health problems. While the crisis caused by the quality of the water
quality of water available does not suit its needs. The crisis of water quality resulted in water pollution
that can impair human health. Meanwhile, disasters related to water issues such as flood, drought, and
pollution.
Water resource management is necessary in order to overcome the water crisis. One of the
water resource management is the management of watershed ecosystems. Where the purpose of the
watershed ecosystem management is to conduct monitoring and protection of water resources both in
quality and quantity as well as water-related disaster.
Keywords: water scarcity, water quality, water resource-related disasters, management of water
resources and watershed management.
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COMPOST UTILIZATION OF EMPTY FRUIT BUNCHES OIL PALM TO
INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY IN RICE PLANTS IN PEAT LAND
LUBUK SAKAT VILLAGE, KAMPAR REGENCY, RIAU PROVINCE
1
Indra Purnama1*, Prantino2, and Agri Septiadi2
Graduate School of Chemistry Education, Riau University and Bina Agro Mandiri
2
Student of Agriculture, Riau University and Bina Agro Mandiri
*Corresponding author: prnm_indra@yahoo.com or purnama.indra007@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Rice production in some villages in Riau province is only about 1-2 tons / hectare
(interviews with farmers in the village of Kampar). This suggests that the condition of land in Riau
Province was classified as less fertile marginal lands due to the many, one of which peat soil. On the
other hand, oil palm waste in the form of empty fruit bunches (EFB) are very abundant. Based on
information from the Chief Plant Sei Palm Galuh PTPN V Prov. Riau, EFB generated is 21% of the
total fresh fruit bunches (FFB). Assuming a palm oil mill with a capacity of 30 tons FFB per hour and
operates for 20 hours per day, it will produce as much as 126 tons of EFB per day. The treatment in
this study is the dose of compost TKS. The treatments were: D0 = NPK fertilizer (urea 200 kg / ha;
SP-36 150 kg / ha; KCl 150 kg / ha); D1 = 5 tons compost / ha; D2 = 10 tons of compost / ha; D3 = 15
tons of compost / ha; D4 = fertilizer NPK + 5 t compost / ha; D5 = NPK fertilizer + 10 t compost / ha.
Treatment was obtained from 18 beds. The results showed that D3 treatment increases production by
50%.
Keywords: compost, empty fruit bunches oil palm, productivity, rice, peat
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is estimated to have a broad marginal land, especially peat. Potential turf widest
among tropical countries, which is about 21 million ha, spread mainly in Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Papua
[1]. Peatland is a land that has a layer of rich soil organic matter (C-organic> 18%) with a thickness of 50
cm or more.
Riau Province is one area that has a fairly extensive peatlands with low productivity. The total
area of peatland in Riau about 4 million hectares, but only about 19% viable for agriculture [1]. Peat
acidity level is too high (pH 3-5) and the limited availability of nutrients is the main constraint to
agricultural utilization of peat moss or planting. According to Taher, et al. (1991), without washing, and
liming, rice planted on peatlands many died [2]. Thus, it is necessary amelioration efforts to raise the pH
and nutrient content, so the media rooting plants in peatlands can be improved [3].
Development of agriculture into marginal lands, such as peatlands are not as worthy choice, but
rather a requirement of the future because of availability of fertile land is limited and land use from
agricultural to nonagricultural continues to increase rapidly along with the development of society [4]. So
that the implementation of extensification and intensification of peatlands is felt necessary to get to food
security. Riau, which has a population of around 4.7 million people with 114 Kg of rice consumption /
capita / year, have not been able to produce rice to meet the needs of society [5]. This is due mostly in Riau
land classified as marginal land, one of the peat soil.
Provision of organic compost can improve soil quality peat, especially in increasing soil pH and
nutrients needed rice. That's because the presence of alkaline compounds and macro elements in compost.
One of the compost that has the potential to be developed into amelioran is composted oil palm empty fruit
bunches (EFB). This is because their numbers are very abundant and its high alkaline content.
According Darnoko and Sutarta (2006), compost TKS (% dry weight) has a composition of 0.022% P;
3.45% K, 0.72% Ca; 0.54% Mg; 29.76% C, 1.98% N ; 15.03% C / N, and 54.39% water [6].
Compost from EFB is the result of decomposition of EFB. Based on information obtained from
the Head of the Oil Palm Factory (MCC) Sei Galuh PTPN V Prov. Riau, TKS generated is 21% of the total
fresh fruit bunches (FFB). Assuming a palm oil mill with a capacity of 30 tons FFB per hour and operates
for 20 hours per day, it will produce as much as 126 tons of EFB per day. Waste has not been utilized
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optimally, even burned as happened in the MCC Galuh Sei. So that the utilization of compost from the
EFB can not only solve the rice crisis in Riau, but also reduce the impact of climate change by not
burning EFB.
METHODOLOGY
Before it is applied to land, EFB compost prepared in advance. After that, this research
experimentally implemented consisting of six treatments with three replications. The treatments were:
D0 = NPK fertilizer (urea 200 kg / ha; SP-36 150 kg / ha; KCl 150 kg / ha); D1 = 5 tons compost / ha;
D2 = 10 tons of compost / ha; D3 = 15 tons of compost / ha; D4 = fertilizer NPK + 5 t compost / ha; D5
= NPK fertilizer + 10 t compost / ha. Treatment was obtained from 18 beds. Yields are calculated
using the formula:
Figure 1. EFB composting process
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]
Figure 2. Implementation Process of The Research
RESULTS
Table 1. Nutrient content of EFB compost
Description
Amount
P (%)
0.55
K(%)
1.51
Ca (%)
3.00
Mg (%)
0.60
C(%)
11.50
N(%)
0.55
C/N
20
Water (%)
60
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[A-020]
Figure 3. Absorption of nutrients N, P, K by the roots of rice plants at the age of 48 days
Table 2. Production of rice plants
D0
2.5
D1
2.7
Production of rice plants (tons/ha)
D2
D3
3.0
5.0
D4
3.9
D5
4.5
CONCLUSION
In D3 treatment shows that rice production is higher than other treatments. However,there
needs to be improved by increasing the quality of compost used, as well as the use of dose variation
EFB compost is more appropriate.
References
[1] BB Litbang SDLP.(2008), “Laporan Tahun 2008, Konsorsium penelitian dan pengembangan
perubahan iklim pada sector penelitian”, Balai Besar Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumber
Daya Lahan Pertanian, Bogor.
[2] Taher, A., A. Yusuf, Z. Hamzah, dan Z. Zaini.(1991),“Sumber Daya Rawa Indonesia dalam
pengembangan pertanian tanaman pangan,” Badan Penelitian dan pengembangan Pertanian.
Sukarami.
[3] Agus, F dan Subiksa.(2008), “Lahan Gambut: Potensi untuk Pertanian dan Aspek Lingkungan”,
Balai Penelitian Tanah dan World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Bogor.
[4] Noor, M.(2004),“Lahan Rawa”, Jakarta, Raja Grafindo Persada.
[5] Humas Riau.(2009),“Potensi Daerah Riau Dalam Bidang Pertambangan,” tersedia di
http://riau.go.id. (diakses 25 Desember 2009).
[6] Darnoko dan Ady S. S.(2006), Pabrik Kompos di Pabrik Sawit. Tabloid Sinar Tani, 9 Agustus
2006.
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[A-024]
ECO-FARMING WITH CROP LIVESTOCK SYSTEM TO FACE THE TWIN
CHALLENGGES, FOOD SAFETY AND CLIMATE CHANGE:
CASE STUDY IN JAMBI PROVINCE
1
Evi Frimawaty1, Adi Basukriadi2, Jasmal A.Syamsu3, T.E.Budhi Soesilo4
Doctoral Student of Environmental Science Study Program, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
and staff of Jambi Province Government, Indonesia
2
Faculty Mathematics and Science, University of Indonesia
3
Animal Husbandry Faculty, University of Hasanuddin
4
Environmental Science Study Program, Postgraduated Program, University of Indonesia
*Corresponding author:
frimatop@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The objective of this study is to determine the availability of rice straw as cattle feed resource and
cattle manure as compost to support the integration of cattle and paddy as a kind of crop livestock system
to realize eco-farming. This study used secondary data from the previous research and related institutions
like beef cattle population, and the total area of rice harvest, in Jambi Province, to analyze cattle and
paddy performance, potential sources of rice straw as cattle feed, and potential of manure as compost. The
analysis revealed over the last five years (2005-2009) the total area of rice harvested in Jambi province
increased by 0.28% per year. However, the amount of paddy production produced a substantial increase of
2.79% per year. Based on the carrying capacity, beef cattle population can be increased about 30% in
Jambi Province with efficiency in land use forage.
Keywords: integration of cattle and paddy , rice straw, beef cattle, eco-farming
INTRODUCTION
The agricultural sector in Indonesia is the leading sectors in supporting the national economy. It
can be seen from the role of agriculture to GDP in 2010 increased from 14.5% to 15.3% [1] . Agriculture
plays in meeting the needs of animal and crop food commodities such as cattle and rice, to reach national
food security. According to Diwyanto and Haryanto [2], there are three dimensions that are implicitly
contained in the food security, food avaiability, food stability, and food accessibility. Crop livestock system
in Indonesia is known as integration of cattle and paddy. Integration of cattle and paddy program is to
optimize the utilization of local resources such as the use of straw as livestock feed and manure can be
processed into organic fertilizer which is very useful to improve the nutrients soil that plants need. With the
integration of rice and livestock systems, is expected to realize zero waste condition from the both of farm
[3] .
Agriculture development is strongly associated with the development of a region. In supporting the
integration of cattle and paddy, Jambi province is one of the potential province in Indonesia as a agricultural
region for food development. As an illustration, the number of cattle population in Jambi province in 2008 is
about 149,042 head, and the total area of paddy is 143.034 ha [4] and showed an increase in growth each
year.
METHODE
The research was conducted in Jambi Province by using secondary data. Secondary data obtained
from the results of previous studies related to the conversion rate of livestock populations of beef cattle and
the average production of rice straw waste. The analysis carried out as follows:
a. Cattle and paddy performance. To determine the role of cattle and paddy, an analysis cattle and
rice performance in the last five years (2005-2009), by calculating the rate of growth of livestock
numbers, number of livestock production (meat), the area under paddy and rice production. The
growth rate was calculated according to the formula Riethmuller [5].
b. Rice straw production. Based on the data area of the rice harvest, carried out the calculation of dry
matter production of waste rice straw, according to Syamsu, et al [6].
c. Carrying capacity of rice straw as cattle feed. Carrying capacity of rice straw as cattle feed was
calculated using the formula according to Syamsu et al (2005), and used the assumption of ruminant
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livestock feed requirements, ie one livestock unit (1 LU) average ruminants requires dry matter
(DM) is 6.25 kg / day [7].
d. The Increased capacity of Cattle Population (ICCP). ICCP values in a district is calculated as the
difference between the carrying amount of feed rice straw to cattle production, based on the potential
carrying capacity of feed is 30% (Syamsu et al[6].
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Performance of cattle such as the cattle population and meat production, and paddy performance
such as harvested area of paddy and rice production in Jambi province over the last five years (2005-2009),
as shown in Table 1.
Description
Harevst area of paddy
(ha)
Rice Production (ton)
Cattle Population (head)
Meat Production (000 ton)
Tabel 1. Cattle and Rice Performance
Years
2005
2006
2007
2008
154.941 140.613
149.888
143.034
2009
155.802
579.635
113.678
544.597
118.160
586.630
125.114
581.704
149.042
644.947
164.256
2,79
9,68
2,86
2,96
3,16
3,55
3,86
7,81
Growth
(%)
0,28
Tabel 1 shows that within the last five years (2005-2009) the total area of rice harvested in Jambi
Province showed an increase of 0.28% per year. However, the amount of paddy production produced a
substantial increase of 2.79% per year. On the other hand, the number of cattle population showed an
increasing trend each year that is equal to 9.68% per year, and the population is followed by an increase in
the amount of meat production by 7.81% per year.
Production and carrying capacity of rice straw
Carrying capacity of rice straw is the ability of a region to produce or provide a feed in the form of
waste rice straw that can accommodate the needs of a population of beef cattle without the treatment. Table 2
shows that the production of rice straw in dry matter is 849,622 tons in Jambi Province. Based on rice straw
production can be calculated the carrying capacity of rice straw as a source of cattle feed. Carrying capacity
of rice straw as cattle feed sources as much as 1,937,139 LU. Thus, the number of cattle that can be added
based on the potential carrying capacity of the feed that is 30% and the population of cattle at this time (412
229 LU), amounted to 1,067,439 LU.
Implications Development of Cattle and Paddy Integration Based Eco Farming
In the context of the availability of waste rice straw as a feed source in Jambi Province, showed that
rice straw can support the development of the integration patterns of cattle and paddy with eco farming
approach. Utilization of rice straw as feed source of cattle that will decrease waste of paddy and overcome
environmental problems.
By utilizing rice straw as feed in the integration of cattle and paddy, so that the eco farming system
can be achieved based on the concept of eco farming proposed by Egger [8], (1) Utilization of local
resources to the maximum but still pay attention to sustainability, (2) Use minimal external input, the use
just as a replacement if local resources are not available. Leahy [9] said that transformation to eco farming
is the only way to end hunger and face the challenges of climate change and rural poverty.
CLOSING
Total production of dry matter of rice straw in Jambi Province is 849,622 tons (DM), with a
carrying capacity as cattle feed sources as much as 1,937,139 LU. Application of the use of rice straw as
feed, a few things to note are a). optimization of application of rice straw waste feed technologies by
strengthening the capacity of farmers through increased knowledge, attitudes, and skills, b). build feed
industry based raw materials rice straw waste, c) providing means of transport and storage (silos) of rice
straw in the countryside, and d) capital support from government and financial institutions through
institutional cooperation with farmers.
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Reference
[1] Badan Pusat Statistik. 2011. Berita Resmi. Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta.
[2] Diwyanto, K. and B. Haryanto. 2001. Importance of integration in sustainable farming system. In:
Integration of Agricultural and Environmental Policies in an Environmental Age. KREI/FFTC–ASPAC,
Seoul, Korea. pp. 97−111.
[3] Diwyanto K, Prawiradiputra BR, Lubis D. 2002. Integrasi tanaman-ternak dalam pengembangan
agribisnis yang berdaya saing, berkelanjutan dan berkerakyatan. Wartazoa, 12 (1) : 1-17.
[4] Badan Pusat Statistik. 2008. Jambi dalam Angka. Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi Jambi, Jambi
[5] Riethmuller P. 199. The Indonesia feed anf livestock sector: a statistical overview. Di dalam: Livestock
industries of Indonesia prior to the Asian financial crisis. RAP Publication 1999/37. Bangkok: FAO
Regional Officer for Asia and the Pacific. Hlm 107-198.
[6] Syamsu, J.A., L.A.Sofyan., K.Mudikdjo., E.Gumbira Sa'id. E. B. Laconi. 2005. Analisis potensi limbah
tanaman pangan sebagai sumber pakan ternak ruminansia di Sulawesi Selatan. Jurnal Ilmiah Ilmu-ilmu
Peternakan, Vol.VIII (4).
[7] National Research Council. 1984. Nutrient reqruitment of beef cattle. 6th rev.ed. National Academy
Press, Washington DC.
[7] National Research Council. 1984. Nutrient reqruitment of beef cattle. 6th rev.ed. National Academy
Press, Washington DC.
[8]Egger,K.1990. Ecofarming: a Synthesis of old and new. www.Metafro.be/leisa/1990/6.2.3pdf (diakses
15 Juli 2010).
[9] Leahy S. 2011. Eco-farming: Ending hunger without harming the climate. Global Information Network.
Document View- ProQuest. http//proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=o&srd= 1&srching=1&vin…
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[A-044]
SUSTAINABLE CONTROL OF FRUIT FLY TO IMPROVE QUALITY OF MANGO
IN INDONESIA
Agus Susanto1*, Tati S. Syamsudin2, Agus D. Permana2, RCH. Soesilohadi3 and Hiroichi Sawada4
1
Entomology Laboratory, Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas
Padjadjaran
2
School of Life Science and Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung
3
Entomology Laboratory, Faculty of Biology, Universitas Gajah Mada
4
School of Environmental Science, The University of Shiga Prefecture
*Corresponding Author: susanto1971@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Mango is one of the leading national commodities in Indonesia. Fruit flies becomes major
pest on mango orchard around the world, including in Indonesia. The purpose of this study was is to
find out the best method to control fruit flies in mango orchard, particularly in West Java, Indonesia.
Control efforts that have been made among others as follow: regulation and policy; verification of the
type of fruit flies; sanitation, and trapping. Overall, these support mango orchard management
program to control fruit flies more effectively and efficiently.
Key words: sustainable, control, fruit flies, mango, Indonesia
INTRODUCTION
Horticultural plays a role as important export commodities in Indonesia, including Mango
(Mangifera indica L.), with 1.4 million tonnes yield production and 176,000 hectares harvested area
[6]. In 2006, export volume of Indonesian mango reached 1,182 tons, equivalent to U.S. $ 1,160,642
[4]. Fruit flies, Bactrocera spp. (Diptera: Tephritidae) become a research focus in the world. It is a
major pest on horticultural commodities in the world which make it very important to be studied [20].
These pests become key pest on mango orchard in around the world [13], including in Indonesia[15].
Several types of fruit flies such Bactrocera dorsalis Complex cause the highest lost production of
fruits. Fruit damage can reach 100% [20]. Sustainable control of fruit flies is very important to
suppress fruit fly populations on mango orchard.
Types of Fruit flies in Indonesia
Fruit fly belong to the order of Diptera, family of Tephritidae, subfamily of Dacinae, tribe of
Dacini. In the world, the number of Tephritidae approximately 4,000 species and grouped into 500
generas. This amount includes the largest among the types of flies are economically important Diptera
[15]. Tribe of Dacini morphologically divided into three generas, genus of Bactrocera, Dacus, and
Monacrostichus [20]. Family Tephritidae easily recognized from the it’s characteristic features of
imago which characterize by wing vessels with beautiful colorful patterns. Tephritid fruit flies usually
found perching on a leaf or flower in the daytime. The adult (imago) can be collected by using the lure
trap or culturing the infected fruit [15].
The results of the fruit fly monitoring conducted by the Centre for Agricultural Quarantine
since 1979/1980 showed that fruit flies were found almost in all regions in Indonesia. Currently there
were 66 species of fruit flies, but only a few species known on it’s host plant, namely B. dorsalis
Hendel which attacked more than 20 kinds of fruits such as starfruit, mango, orange, guava, banana,
red chili. B. cucurbitae Coq. that attack cucumbers, melons, and some plants of family
Cucurbitaceae. B. umbrosus F. which attacked jackfruit and some plants from the family Moraceae,
and B. F. caudatus which attacked several plants of the Cucurbitaceae family. The main target of fruit
flies attack was rose apple, guava, mango, jackfruit, watermelon, and chilly [5]. Not all species of
fruit flies are economically detrimental, only about 10% considered as a pest. Knowledge regarding
the species as potential pest, either endemic or exotic must be mastered. For example in the
Indo-Pacific region have reported 800 species of fruit flies, but only 60 species was identified as
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important pest species [20].
CONTROL EFFORTS
Efforts to support control programs, among others :
1. Regulations and Policies
The cornerstone of government policy in the protection of plants based on approach systems
of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) which is implemented in the law No. 12 of 1992 on Plant
Cultivation System, Government Regulation No. 6 of 1995 on Plant Cultivation System and the
Minister of Agriculture No. 887/Kpts / OT.210/9/1997 Guidelines for Control of Plant Pest
Organisms. Fruit flies including Quarantine Plant Pest Organism. Under Law No. 16 of 1992 Plant
Quarantine, aims (1) preventing the entry of foreign pests into territory of Republic of Indonesia, (2)
prevent the spread of pests from one area to another within the territory of Republic of Indonesia, and
(3) prevent discharge of certain pests from territory of Republic of Indonesia. Thus governed by the
Law No.16 of 1992 was focused on the control and quarantine of plant pest organism.
2. Verify the type of Fruit Flies at Mango Orchard
The result showed that fruit fly species which attack mangoes in Sumedang and Majalengka
was Bactrocera papayae fruit flies. It is supported also by observations of morphological characters
(wings, thorax, abdomen, legs and head length) and the measurement of genital organs (aedeagus) and
wing cell dm. The average wing length of a female fruit of Gedong variety was 6.16 mm, 6.17 mm for
Arumanis variety and 6.18 mm for Cengkir variety. The length of the vertical heads of fruit fly female
was 1.78 mm for Gedong variety, 1.79 mm for Arumanis variety and 1.79 mm for Cengkir variety.
The thorax of female fruit fly of three mango varieties showed no medial vittae and
postsutural postsutural seta vittae pass it, on the abdomen dark edge line on the tergit III and V. There
was no spot on the front leg femur and middle legs of tibia were black and bright, rear leg of tibia was
black. The result of morphological observations indicates conformity with the character of
morphological characters B. papayae standard identification of Drew and Hancock (1994).
The measurements result of aedeagus length and wing cell dm range from 2.69 to 3.21 mm
in length that shows the range of aedeagus in accordance with the results of Iwahashi (1999) (2.68 to
3.34 mm) and the ratio of the length of aedeagus and wing cell dm range from 1.39 to 1.40 according
to the research [10] (1.40 ± 0.03). Aedeagus long measurement range of the catch in Sumedang and
Majalengka range from 2.40 to 3.49 mm. Aedeagus length measurement results showed that fruit flies
which attack mango fruit is B. papayae (100%), fruit fly from trap in Sumedang is B. papayae
(89%), B. carambolae (5%) and fruit fly species which has not been identified (6%), whereas in
Majalengka B. papayae (86%), B. carambolae (6%) and fruit fly species which has not been
identified (8%).
3. Sanitation
The aim of sanitation was to break or interrupt the life cycle of fruit flies, hence the
development of fruit fies can be suppressed. Sanitation was conductef by collecting the fruits were
attacked by fruit flies, both already fall or still hanging on the tree, then they were destroyed by
burning or burried in the soil. Thus, the larvae that still present in the fruit were not able to continue
their life cycle become pupae in the soil. The result will be more effective if control of fruit flies by
sanitary method was used by all the farmers widely expanse and simultaneously. The results of several
studies on soil media showed that fruit flies could still survive on the sand within 25 cm depth, 10
cm depth in clay soil and 40 cm depth in silty soil. Hence, it became a reference for farmers in
burying attacked fruits.
4. Trapping
The usage of traps with bait was intended to observe fruit fly populations in the field or detect
species of fruit flies. Control of fruit flies using traps with attractant trap will give a good result
when it is conducted continuously with a large numbers. Traps with bait composition were hung on a
twig of branch with 1.5 to 2 meters height above ground or at the lowest canopy of plants [12, 16].
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Effect of Trap Fitting Locations
The set up of trap locations will affect the number of fruit flies which will be cought. Attractants
plays an important role in this method. Three attractants were often used in this method as folloe: cue
lure, trimedlure, and methyl eugenol [9]. The suitable attractants for fruit flies B. dorsalis complex on
mango fruit was methyl eugenol [7]. The dominant species of fruit flies attacking mango fruit is B.
papayae and B. carambolae [10]. Both the male fruit flies B. papayae and B. carambolae attracted by
methyl eugenol [7, 17]. Trap set on the edge of mango orchard will catch more fruit flies tthe traps set
inside a mango orchard. The data showed the same conclusion with research [1], where the number of
catched fruit flies on the edge higher than the inside of the mango orchard. It can be assumed that the
trapped fruit flies come from planting vegetation that surround the mango [1, 2, 3]. It can be proofed by
the abundance of hosts around the trapping site. The implications of these results can be used as a
reference in the placement of traps in the "mass trapping" to suppress fruit fly populations.[8],
suggested for treatment of mass trapping placed 100 traps/ha and perform the replacement attractant
every 4 weeks.
In Sumedang, was found some hosts in the vicinity of the fitting of the trap-like plant jackfruit,
guava, peppers and rambutan which could become an alternative host for fruit flies when mangoes are
not available. In the North around the trapping site was bordered by a very large mango plantation. The
edge trap in Sumedang, catched fruit flies estimated mostly from the mango orchard in the north and
east of the trapping sites. In Majalengka, the edge trap, catches fruit flies from mango orchard in the
west and from guava in the south of trapping sites. The availability of other hosts around the mango
crop, affecting the catchment of fruit flies. Fruit flies migrate to search suitable habitat for shelter,
making process of mating, laying eggs and eating [12]. Male fruit flies which originate from outside
mango orchard will approach to the nearest source of methyl eugenol first before mating with a female
fruit flies. It provides greater opportunity for traps set on the edge to catch more fruit flies.
CONCLUSION
Regulations, policies and sanitation are preventive effort for suppressing populations of fruit
flies in mango orchard. The fruit flies species which attack mango fruit was Bactrocera papayae,
whereas catched species identified in Sumedang and Majalengka mango orchard were B. papayae, B.
carambolae and an unidentified one. Location of trapping affect the total catches of fruit flies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Director General of Higher Education, Ministry of National Education
Republic of Indonesia on Scholarship of Program Academic Recharging (PAR) In 2011, Efrilia,
Agri Kadati and Hikmat Sumantri for discussion and input.
References
[1] Aluja M., Hurtado, H.C., Liedo, P., Cabrera, M., Castillo, F., Guillen, J., dan Rios E. (1996) :
Seasonal Population Fluctuation and Ecological Implication for Management of Anastrepha Fruit
Flies (Diptera : Tephritidae) in Commercial Mango Orchard in Southern Mexico. J. Econ.
Entomol. 89 (3) : 654 – 667.
[2] Appiah E.F., Afreh-Nuamah, K., dan Obeng-Ofori, D. (2009) : Abundance and Distribution of
the Mediterranean Fruit Fly, Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae) , in Late Valencia Citrus
Orchards in Ghana. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 29 (1) : 11–16.
[3] Copeland RS., RA. Wharton, Q. Luke, MD. Meyer, S. Lux, N. Zenz, P. Machera and M. Okumu.
2006. Geographic Distribution, Host Fruit, and Parasitoids of African Fruit Fly Pest Ceratitis
anonae, Ceratitis cosyra, Ceratitis fasciventris, and Ceratitis rosa (Diptera : Tephritidae) in
Kenya. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 99(2) : 261-278.
[4] Deptan, 2010. Basis Data Ekspor Impor Komoditi Pertanian.
http://database.deptan.go.id/eksim/eksporKomoditi.asp. Download pada 17 Agustus 2010.
[5] Deptan. 2002. Panduan Lalat Buah. http://www.deptan.go.id/ditlinhorti /makalah /lalat_buah.htm.
Diakses 13 September 2005.
[6] Ditjen Hortikultura. 2004. Peningkatan Daya Saing Mangga Melalui Kerjasama RI – IJEPA.
DEPTAN. Jakarta.
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[7] Drew, R.A.I.,dan Hancock, D.L. (1994) : The Bactrocera dorsalis complex of fruit flies
(Diptera:Tephritidae:Dacinae) in Asia. CAB INTERNATIONAL. United Kingdom. 98 p.
[8] Epsky N.D., Espinoza, H.R., Kendra, P.E., Abernathy, R., Midgarden, D., dan Heath, R.R. (2010)
: Effective Sampling Range of a Synthetic Protein-Based Attractant for Ceratitis capitata (Diptera:
Tephritidae) . J. Econ. Entomol. 103 (5) :1886 – 1895.
[9] Israely N. dan Oman, S.D. (2005) : Effect of Combined Insecticide Sprays and Sanitation
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Mountains of Israel.. J. Econ. Entomol. 98(3) : 793-748.
[10] Iwaizumi, R., Kaneda, M. dan Iwahashi, O. (1997) : Correlation of Length of Terminalia of Males
and Females Among Nine Species of Bactrocera (Diptera : Tephritidae) and Differences Among
Sympatric Species of B. dorsalis Complex. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 90 (5) : 664 – 666.
[11] Mziray, H.A., Makundi, R.H., Mwatawala, M., Maerere, A., dan De Meyer, M. (2010) : Host Use
of Bactrocera latifrons, a New Invasive Tephritid Species in Tanzania. J. Econ. Entomol. 103 (1)
: 70-76.
[12] Peck, S.L., dan McQuate, G. T. (2004) : Ecological Aspects of Bactrocera latifrons (Diptera:
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1722-1731.
[13] Pena JE., AI. Mohyoudin and M. Wysoki. 1998. A Review of the Pest Management Situation in
Mango Agroecosystems. J. Phytoparasitica. 26(2) : 1-20.
[14] Robacker D.C. and D. Czokajlo. 2005. Efficacy of Two Synthetic Food-Odor Lures for Mexican
Fruit flies (Diptera : Tephritidae) Is Determined by Trap Type. 2005. J. Econ. Entomol. 98(5):
1517-1523.
[15] Siwi SS., P. Hidayat, dan Suputa, 2006. Taksonomi dan Bioekologi Lalat Buah Penting,
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Bioteknologi dan Sumberdaya Genetik, Bogor.
[16] Susanto, A., 2010. Estimasi dan Dinamika Populasi Lalat Buah, Bactrocera dorsalis Kompleks
(Diptera: Tephritidae) pada Pertanaman Mangga. Disertasi, Program Pasca Sarjana, ITB.
[17] Susanto, A., and TSS. Subahar, 2008. Response of Fruit Fly, Bactrocera dorsalis Complex on
Methyl Eugenol Derived From Basil Plant, Ocimum sanctum L. International Seminar of
Chemistry, Bandung – UNPAD, 29 – 30 October 2008.
[19] Vargas RI., JD. Stark, B. Mackey and R. Bull. 2005. Weathering Trials of Amulet Cue-Lure and
Amulet Methyl Eugenol “Attract-and-Kill” Stations with Male Melon Flies and Oriental Fruit
Flies (Diptera:tephritidae) in Hawai. J. Econ. Entomol. 98(5) 1551-1559.
[20] White IM and MM Elson-Harris, 1992. Fruit Flies of Economic Significance : Their
Identification and Bionomics. CABI and ACIAR, UK.
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[A-047]
FERMENTED MILK YOGURT WITH ANTIOXIDANT BASED ON FIKOSIANIN
BIOPIGMENTT FROM Spirulina fusiformis
Neng Tanty Sofyana1* and Rayhanah Bey Nasution2
Department of Aquatic Product of Technology, Bogor Agricultural University
2
Department of Animal Production Science and Technology, Bogor Agricultural University
1
*Corresponding author: tantysofyana@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Yogurt is a fermented dairy product that contains vitamin D and calcium with high enough potential
in reducing the prevalence of degenerative diseases such as cancer. World Health Organization (WHO)
estimated that 85% outside of the body such as carcinogenic factors, obesity, and lack of physical activity
contributes 30% risk of cancer and other degenerative diseases. Spirulinafusiformis can produce blue
biopigmentfikosianin with simple cultivation on Zarouk media. Fikosianin known to boost the immune
system, a natural food colorant, has antioxidant activity (as anti-cancer), cosmetics and medicines. The
component of Spirulinafusiformis that play a role in this function is antioxidant such as PUFA, fikosianin,
phenol. Therefore, with simple processing technology, the addition of fikosianin, is expected to increase
antioxidant activity in yogurt products and reducing the use of synthetic pigments in the yogurt industry.
This research is expected to increase cultivation of Spirulinafusiformis developments in Indonesia and
production of fikosianin with simple technology can be applicated for food products.
Keywords: antioxidant, degenarative diseasses, fikosianin, Spirulinafusiformis, yogurt
INTRODUCTION
Spirulina is one of the microalgae species which can produce blue biopigment (fikosianin)
with simple cultivation on Zarouk media. Fikosianin known to enhance the immune system, as natural
colouring food, have antioxidant activity (as an anti-cancer), cosmetics and medicines. Spirulina
components that play a role in this regard is the activity of antioxidant component containing such as
PUFA, fikosianin, phenol.
Yogurt is a fermented milk products and fortified with vitamin D and calcium are high
enough and potentially in reducing the prevalence of degenerative diseases such as cancer. by simple
processing technology, the addition of fikosianin, is expected to increase antioxidant activity and
reducing the use of synthetic pigments in the yogurt industry.
Figure 1. Spirulina fusiformis
METHOD
Implemantion of phase I
The first phase of preparation made raw materials, supporting materials and equipment
preparation. After that, fikosianin obtained by cultivation of Spirulina fusiformis and then extract the
dry weight. Determination of growth curves and measured levels obtained fikosianin.
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Implementation of Phase II
After obtained the fikosianin then do research to find out the form formulations that suitable
for comparison yogurt and pigmentt fikosianin and appropriate storage temperature, then look for
comparisons with the highest fikosianin composition. Comparison of yoghurt and fikosianin in this
study conducted at concentrations fikosianin in yoghurt2, 5%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30% were seen
based on the functional properties of the material in the most optimal yogurt.
Implementation of Phase III
The third stage of the methods is analysis of yogurt products in each treatment. The analysis
conducted are
a. Antioxidants Tests of fikosianin biopigment and yogurt formulations best results with the
DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazil)
b. Organoleptic test (Overall)
Fresh milk and
scim milk
Dry Spirulina
Mixture cooking until
85-900C temperature
Sucrosa
solution
Fermentating in room temperature (±18 hours)
Extracting in fosfat buffer solution, pH 7
Cooling (50C)
Sentrifusing in 3500 rpm, 100C, 5 second
Adding liquid fikosianin and cooled at chilling
temperature
Decantation
Packaging and storage in room temperature
Yogurt with fikosianin
Liquid fikosianin
Fig 2. Methods of fikosianin extraction procedure and yogurt production procedure
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RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Growth of Spirulina
Culture harvested when the age of Spirulina is 7 days and in logaritmic phase (OD 480 nm) to
produce the best fikosianin pigment.
logaritmic phase
declination
phase
stationer phase
death phase
Figure 3. Growth Curve of Spirulina fusiformis.
Absorbance of Extracted fikosianin pigment
Fikosianin is extracted with fosfat buffer from Spirulina that dried at room temperature (25-30°C)
by fan. Fikosianin that produced has absorbanec in memiliki absorbansi in 619,9 nm wave length nm that
suitable with c-phycocyanin standard absorbance in 615-620 nm wave length and fikosianin content
(8,090%).
Figure 4. Absorbance of Extracted fikosianin.
Organoleptic Analysis
At the 95% sigfnificance level . Yoghurt with 10% fikosianin is the most formulations that almost panelis
like.
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3,95
3,67
3,28
4,00
Tingkat Kesukaan
2,51
2,45
3,00
2,00
1,00
0,00
F 2,5%
F 5%
F 10%
F 15%
F 20%
Percentage of fikosianin
Figure 5. Organoleptic analysis result.
CONCLUSION
Obtaining the best results in the formulation with the addition of yogurt is fikosianin with the
best texture (visually) like softness (with tasting) and homogenity of coagulant; pH, syneresis, color, time
of coagulation (F 10%). Tests for antioxidant activity using DPPH with fikosianin yogurt, yogurt control
(negative control without fikosianin), and fikosianin (positive control) showed a positive inhibitory activity.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. a) Fikosianin Pigment, b) Yogurt formulations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank to Allah. We thank to our parents who have motivated, Department of Aquatic Product of
Technology, Department of Animal Production Science and Technology, Bogor Agricultural University,
Ir. Iriani Setyaningsih, MS., Nur Madina S. Pi, Bogor Agricultural University, and The Ministry of
Fisheries and Marine.
References
[1] Adams M. 2005. Superfood for Optimum Health: Chlorella and Spirulina. New York: Truth
Publishing International, Ltd.
[2] Kikuzaki H, Nakatani B. 1993. Antioxidants effect of some ginger constituent. Journal of Food
Science 58(6):1407-1410. Klinkenberg G, Listad KQ, Levine DW, Dyrset N. 2001
[3] Richmond A. 1988. Spirulina. Di dalam Borowitzka MA dan Borowitzka LJ, editor. Micro-algal
biotechnology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[4] Romay C, González R, Ledón N, Remirez D, Rimbau V. 2003. C-phycocyanin: a biliprotein with
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. Current Protein and Peptide Science
4:207-216.
[5] Tietze HW. 2004. Spirulina Micro Food Macro Blessing. Ed ke-4. Australia: Harald W. Tietze
Publishing.
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MAP OF SUSTAIN’2011 CONFERENCE
Kihada Hall (Uji Obaku Plaza)
Uji Campus, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
Kihada Hall (front and backside view)
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MAP OF SUSTAIN’2011 CONFERENCE
Kihada Hall (Uji Obaku Plaza)
Uji Campus, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
SR#1 (Anoa)
SR#3 (Cenderawasih)
Kihada
Hall
SR#5 (Komodo)
SR#2 (Badak)
SR#4 (Harimau)
SR : Seminar Room
Room for PosterSession & Parallel Session (Oral Presentation)
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SUSTAIN 2011 CONFERENCE
Organized by
Co-hosted by:
Supported by
KBRI - KJRI
PPI Jepang
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