T D S R
V O L .
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N O .
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9 9 3
4 7
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G R O W T H A S T R A D I T I O N : B E R N,
A T R A D I T I O N A L S ETT L E M E N T I N C H A N G E
R I C H A R D
D I E T E R
M .
B E C K M A N
A N D
A C K E R K N E C H T
Over the centuries, Bern, Switzerland, has remained remarkably flexible, adapting to numerous
unforeseen changes. Since the city's founding in II90/91 A.D., its original planning concepts (a
legacy of the Counts of Zahringer) have allowed a continuum of new traditional urban forms to
evolve, each a quantum leap beyond the last, in response to changing economic and social
conditions. The result today is the compelling image of Bern's medieval Inner City. In contradiction to the gestalt of 800 years of dynamic growth, however, recent restraints may be draining
the livability of this Inner City. This paper explores Bern's history, examines its growth and
change, and raises the question whether its center is becoming a museum city of false facades
rather than a living organism continuing to respond to changing social and economic forces.
Medieval cities existing today embody a long tradition of
growth and change. In the past an appreciation for the existing
building substance tempered the evolutionary change brought
on by new economic requirements and an ever-changing
Zeitgeist. Not long ago the modernist movement attempted
to promote the tabula rasa idea; that is, it advocated the tearing
down of old b uildings and settlements - defined as a creative
act i n i tself - to allow new creative forces to emerge. By
contrast, old parts of settlements and buildings are today
held in high esteem even if they are of no particular architec­
tural merit . This type ofgenerational conflict can be observed
throughout the history of art and architecture.
R I C H A RD M . B E C KMAN is an Assistant Pro/eJsor 0/ Architecture at
Changing
cultural values and conservatism often conflict with growth
the University 0/ Nevada, Las Vegas; D I ET E R ACKERKNECHT is a
and prosperity, altering the very processes that create
planner with the city 0/ Zurich, Switzerland
settlement patterns worthy of preservation.
48
•
T O 5 R
5.1
Over the last 800 years the urban morphology o f Bern has
been redefined in response to changing economic and social
cond i tions. Each new expression has been a quantum leap i n
form and scale beyond the last. Beginning in the 1950s, how­
ever, regulations were put in place which restricted physical
change in an attempt to preserve the city's historical medieval
character (FIG. D.
This "freezing in time" of an historic
moment contradicts the long tradition of Bern.
Outwardly, the charm of this medieval city, bustling with
residents, workers and shoppers, offers an appealing paradigm
of m ixed use and sustainability . I n the 1 960s Bern's Inner
City was touted as testimony to the genius of planning
concepts instituted by the city's founders, the Counts of
Zahringen. A closer examination, however, suggests that the
social and economic forces of the twentieth century may be
conspiring to reduce the vitality of the Inner City.
The
combination of explosive growth in government employ­
ment and restrictions aimed at preserving the Inner City's
historic facades have u nleashed economic pressures that are
driving out residential uses. Since the 19 50S flats have been
converted to offices , shops have expanded to take over base­
ments and upper floors, and the residential population has
declined drastically. Only the wealthiest residents can now
afford to compete with rents offered by other uses. Mean­
while, local residents comprise only a small percentage of
shoppers i n the Inner City.
I n a 1980s poll, the Bernese
themselves ptonounced that the Inner City's attractivity
HISTORICAL EVENTS IN CENTRAL AND
NORTHERN E U ROPE
factor was declining.
Between 450 and 750 A.D. profound changes took place in
This shift i n uses is reminiscent of the changing urban
Europe. After the fall ofRome i n 476 A.D. , urbanized life, deeply
patterns of other Western cities since World War I I . Only i n
rooted in Italy and around the Mediterranean Sea, survived there
t h e last decade have strides begun t o b e taken to overcome the
in a somewhat modified manner; however, in the north the
resultant isolation and segregation. Enormous effort has gone
decline was definite and drastic.' As different ideologies and
i nto attracting vitality and diversity back to downtown areas
societies with different political and social systems struggled
of the United States. Much of what is seen as desi rable today
for position, a new diversity of regional cultural values appeared.
by neotraditional planners and advocates of sustainability
As a result, the "good town" of tbe ancient world vanished in a
resembles Bern. This raises the important question: is what
turmoil of mass migration. Old, weak societies were replaced
such people are advocating only a facade)
by new forces, and ancient towns were plundered, looted and
devastated.
This paper asks two questions. Can preservation coexist with
Dramatic changes occurred in economic, legal,
cultural, social and administrative power structures, and tbe
vitality and livability in a thriving traditional settlement)
technical progress achieved under the Romans was abandoned
And are there alternatives in Bern to present regulations, ones
as other life-styles and settlement patterns sur£1.ced.
that might, in keeping with its history of dynamic change,
recognize today's changes and permit another quantum leap
"To the free man belongs tbe whole world . . . " was the atti­
for the Inner City)
tude of the new northern ruling societies, writes Ernst Egli . '
Many tribes s t i l l l e d a nomadic life - migrating, moving o n ,
FIGURE I . (ABOVE RIGHT) Bern, Switzerlcmd: tbe JIIedievct/ Inner City viewed
jimn the eClst across the giver AC/I·e. The Jite 0/the original Nydegg (aJtle iJ ill the
joregJ'O!md.
Ilielit.
The miimter, upper left, lies Cit the 'WeJtern ertd 0/the origi!",1 Jettle­
(Photo by
R. Beckmall, [98S. )
worshipping nature i n t b e form o f t h e forest, holy trees, and
landscapes. In general, the forces of nature were admired, and
the newly s urfaci ng pastoral (rural) ideology (gesimztmg) evi­
denced strong anti-urban feelings 3
B E C K M A N / A C K E R K N E C H T . B E R N . 49
New creative forces and self-confidence grew out of this
administrative centers for tax collection, etc.
plundering and liberation. The Celts and Teutons played an
churches and adminisrrative buildings came to occupy either
As a result,
important role. The settlement pattern of the Teutons consisted
central or prominent locations. Marketplaces, v i tal to towns
mainly of scattered single farm houses, hamlets, or tiny
and their h i n terlands, also became important urban form­
villages for large fami lies or separate tribes. Only i n times of
givers. The need for weather- and theft-protection (along with
danger did the population come together in reiilge castles."
accompany i ng functional reorganization) led first to tempo­
Characteristically, no word for c i ty or town existed at this
rary structures, then to permanen t structures such as arcades
time; the closest was hll1g, meaning "castle."5 Within this
and market halls '" Changi ng marketplace typologies have in
context, it took many years for cluster settlements to develop,
general had a particularly dramatic impact on urban form over
usually around topographical features suited to defense.
the centuries.
W
Eventually, a new i nterlocking of northern and southern
Europe did occur through exchange of goods and knowledge.
Along with the new standard of living, there emerged in late
The new meeting and meld ing of north and south brought
medieval times a will for aesthetic quali ties in the develop­
both the highs and lows of medieval cultural, religious,
ment of build ings and towns, which led to a consciousness
social, legal and political struggle." Wars, travel, trade and
about the total organism of a city and i ts gestalt.
commerce, and foreign ideas all influenced town planning,
contribution of all citizens, as participants in building city
The
urban design, and architectural style, as forei g n influences
form, came to be expected . " Settlements and towns were also
were combined with a revival of i n terest in Roman roots.
viewed as they s u ited their particular site." The medieval
city was considered a whole, spatial, three-dimensional piece
Some 500 years after the fall of Rome both new and revi talized
of arc - a geJCiJlltkll72Jtwerk , or a work of i ts ci tizens. '3 The town
towns flourished again. New towns developed in abundance
was a compos i tion, a setting for i ts main elements.
between 1 0 5 0 and I 500 A.D. R ulers i ntroduced city rights,
community's main functional and symbolic features - its
lead ing to a renewed domi nation of rural populations by c i ty
churches, castles, marketplaces, assembly halls and govern­
dwellers. For example, A . E .] . Morris writes :
A rolfllel AD I200 the Holy Rowelll Empire hael elbollt 250 tOWIlS
weJt 0/the river Elbe emel Oldy IO to the ectJt. Two celltl/rieJ later
there were I,500 to the \Vest e/lld the Jelwe IIll11lber to tbe East. the
The
ment buildings - formed an aesthetic whole together with
i ts general roofs cape of residential buildings '"
Medieval ci ties were built with nartow, winding alleys, cul­
de-sacs, and backyards. The rejection of the straight line and
remIt 0/ emtem expe/llsioll 0/ Gem/emy brol/ght abol/t by lemel
the play with irregularities is still today their trademark."
Jbortelge emel tbe tTlIJelciillg zeet! o/ Tel/tolli<" KllightJ. Jeekillg to
Many urban patterns reflect the original rural, random pat­
eJtelb/iJb CiJristicl17ity ill new areas.
7
tern of old villages, with the irregular positioning of their
houses sometimes resembling late-twentieth-century squat­
ter settlements . '" Bern , i n spite of its basic underlying or­
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEW SETTLEME NTS
thogonal grid, includes such subtle curves and offsets, evoking
similar characteristics.
Changing societal values required different urban forms. A
town was defined by i ts rights. Urban settlements became
Vertically, medieval c i ties became mixed-use conglomera­
places of particular legal and economic privileges - such as
tions, with housing above ground-floor shops. B u t horizon­
rights for defense, markets, a legal system, self-ad m i nistra­
tally, specialized ptofessional areas developed i n particular
t i o n , coinage, etc. New classes of rulers emerged in the secular
streets.
and clerical sectors ( i ndependent of monasteries), increasing
Middle Eastern and Oriental cities.'? In the towns of central
the demand for new residences at di fferent levels of social
and northern E urope only the names of alleys and streets
We can observe sim ilar concentrations today in
hierarchy. The need for physical protection also grew in this
remain, mute testimony to this ancient tradition offunctionaland
t i me of general uncertainty and political instability . Crafts­
professional segregation.'s
men and traders req u i red protection, and fortifications be­
came major form-givers for urban settlements. But there were
other forces at work too.
The exchange and demand for
T H E SWISS CONTEXT
special goods such as precious stones, metals, silk and spices
surfaced. The emergence of skilled craftsmanship, with the
The area that is now Switzerland was first settled around 2500
means for professional specialization, changed social struc­
B . C . The Romans established rowns and m i l i tary camps there
tures and urban morphology.8 Towns i ncreasi ngly became
during their ascendency. B u t after the collapse of the Roman
50
•
T O 5 R
Empire
5 .1
in m i ddle and western Europe, Teutons from the
north conquered the area.
Since these new rulers did not
economic factors. Today Zurich is the area's biggest urban agglom­
eration, followed by Basel, Geneva, Bern and Lausanne (FIG. 3)."
require permanent residences, a rural culture developed, with
single estates, small housing groups, and strategic defensive
forti fications. It was not until the twelfth century that per­
THE ZAH R I N G E R TOWNS
manent seats of government were established. The establish­
ment of secular and religious institutions and market and craft
The twelve new towns founded by the Counts of Zahringen
traditions allowed towns to play a more dominant role. I n
provide a remarkable story within the overall history of urban
Switzerland these settlements often had Roman origins, e.g.,
development in medieval Switzerland (FIG. 4). The under­
Zurich, Geneva, Lausanne and Basel (FIG. 2) . But rulers i n the
takings of the Zahringers became more widely known follow-
I97°
I980
I990
(core city ollly)
ZJtritb
8]2,519
838,664
341,300
BClJel
382,983
366,865
17I, 000
GenellC/
342,554
363,953
167,200
Bel'll
291,597
298,125
134, 600
Lctl/sallne
247,782
253,003
123,200
FIGURE 3. Poplllatioll of !{rball clggtolllercltiolls ill Switzer/fllld. (SOllrfe:
Sratistisches Jahtbuch det Schweiz 1987/88, 1992. )
ing a I964 exhibition in Thun, organized by Paul Hofer to
commemorate that town's 700th anniversary.
Ervin Y.
Galantay of Col umbia University later brought this exhibit
to the United States. In an introduction to a I966 exhibition
catalogue, he writes:
The I2 ZaiJl'inger towm fomlee! a sensible regional system,
FIGURE 2 . A val1(hesIA venticltlu: tlll old orthogo17cd lIrbcm jJatlern of Cln abandoned
distances between them being scalee! to permit fmitftl economic
ditioll? (After Mon'iJ, History of Urban Form, /). 56).
triee! to stabilize their [ontrol over the territOl)l bitt also hopee! to
N01l/CI" Jelt/ell/ent adjacent to c{ Swiss lIlecliewt! .relt/ement. The hirth 0/CI lIew trcl­
illteraaioll.
In promoting these new towns the Dukes not only
become beneficiaries of the de·veloping money-economy by attract­
ing the merchant and craftslllan daJ'Ses with lemd-grants and
area also founded new towns. For example, Bern and Freiburg
were founded by the Counts of Zahringe n .
Competition
between differen t authorities andlor rulers flourished, each
pri'vileges, /lot lmlike governments of underdeveloped regions
today anxiollS to attract investment ane! new indmtries by tax
abatement and other incentives.
22
seeking economic rerurn. Swiss towns were located on river
loops, at river crossi ngs, at lake ends, on hills or other natural
In the same catalogue, Hofer explains:
feature favorable to trade and defense, and were often built on
Roman ruins.
The ZaiJringian town is l<omartesque. The researcher who sees in
ROJilanesqm architecture the lelst authentic ajJpearance of the
Although only fourteen towns existed at the end of the twelfth
antique world perhaps Ji1llplijtes but hardly falsifies the history
century in the German part of Switzerland, the number grew
of emhitecture.
ro about 88 by the end of the fourteenth century.'9 The increas­
Zithringer ideogram at the time of urban expansion and hyper­
At this /Joint the ftrther development of the
ingly democratic system of federal and state governments fa­
trophy in the I3th and early I4th century can be as little sketched
vored the growth of many, independent towns, so that none
as the rise of contrasting types: the cross market, square central
could become predominant.20 Depending on circumstances,
market, and radioconcentric developments. . . . Whoever walks
the towns grew differently over the centuries. Size varied with
through the Martinst01' Gate in Freiburg, Gemzany, through the
the fortunes of rulers, wars, the plague, and other social and
B lack Tower in Rottweil, 0" th,'ough the B ern Gate in Murten
BERN
B E C K M AN/AC K E R K N E C H T '
a II/cll'ket thol'Ollghjell'e. 75 t o
100 feet
·
51
wide I'lIIlIIillg the jit/I
lellgth 0/ the t011 '1l betic-em the gelteJ'; 2, the elbmlce 0/ other
il/terior JjNlee.\"; 3- tbe me of tbe hOllmteetd (elrea) etS
eI plCfllllillg
fffoclffle Cflld elX: 4- the telxeltion Imit; 5. all ortbogollC!1 geofffetl),
(gridiroll) DC/xis 0/plelll. ill belmiollic jJroportiollJ of 2:3 alld 3.'5;
6. 10cC/tioli 0/pllblic ullildillgs away from the life/ill lIlC!rket­
Jtreet; J. p/m'illg 0/the/ortreH at et comer or Cit cl side lI 'elll; allcl.
8. comtmaiol/ 0/a sell'elge J)lJtem. 0/theJe e!elllelltal "'Iall's'" tbe
1lI0st illlporte mt by/etr was tbe lltetrket-Jtreet. not olily the raison
cI ' i'rre 0/ the tOWIi Vllt etlso the IJoillf 0/ c!epCfrtllre /01' the emire
plall. Colitral)' to /l Ihelt ll 'tIJ !!Jffet/ ill eI llIeclievet/ tOll'll. et strollg
tOWll; it Ilrovelhly hClC/ llo Illore them eI timberpet/i.rctde emd fffoat.
eJlcirdillg stOlle Weill WeIJ IIOt et COlltj!01!e!1t IJClrt of Cf Zilhrillger
StoliefortijiceltiollJ" were etdded CI/ter the Zilh"illger period. 25
Galantay ampl ifies one of these points: "The central idea of
the Zahringer plan is the spinal importance of the wide .
market street, reserved exclusively for market use and the
FIGURE 4.
The ZdhriJlger Icwd!".' the tudve Ziihrillc�er
t-olt 'IlJ Cllle! Ilew t()UIJIJ,
subordinate lateral relationship of church, city hall and other
public buildings."'6 "This d isposition is expressive of the fact
Of/mberg ( 1061): Freiberg, Gerlllall), ( 1091) : \li//illgell ( [07S): /?beill(e/dm
tbat the market was indeed the prim!!!I! mobile of the founda­
( [090-1130): /?ot/lI'ei! ( [07S): Freiblfl:�, Swilzer/alld (Friholfl'!i) ( 1090):
tions."'? Galantay further expands on Morris:
TOU 'IIJ, " /1, 31, )
Nmmbllrg ( IIp-nSI): Zm'ilb ( II73): I31f1'!idol! ( II27): 11 111rlell ( II79-II91),
(ColII/JIIler dr'/!llillg a(ter Hager, " A Sborl HiJ/olY oftbe
Tbe ebarelcteristie jletttem 0/ JtreetJ ef1/c! lots formed
eI
100Jely
orthogollal grid ClrtimlCltec! by the GetHe1!IlICfrkt. the wiele elxial
into the ZcIiJl'iJiger f!larket thol'ollgh/al'e, /orgetJ the theO/)! emd
typology of 1IIedievct/ tOLUJI pletJl1ling,
With the /ol'ce 0/ all et/I­
pervading thollght, the appeem:l1Ice 0/a Jtl'Ollg, completely cloJed
JjJclce, /tIll 0/diJciplined mel'gy telkeJ hold 0/him; the imlJ//iJe
emc! pro/tlJ"i011 of COlltemporctl)! li/e bOllnd ill the 800 yeC!1' old
contelinel' which emily holdJ its OWl!, Even the heelviest tm/jil,
the destroying enew), 0/ old tOlUm, Cetll110t deJtro), these J"paces,
\.1!"e feel comfortethle Illldel' these cool, shelded CIrCe/des stretching
ellmoJ"t cewlelll), into the distetJtle,
The twelfth and tlVelltieth
centllrieJ llIeet emd JIIppOl't aile another m i/ it were the lItost
JjJelce 0/tbe lI!cllket, cllld eI millor clxis gelleret/ly o/leHer widtb.
the
,t/igItIlJelil
0/ its two etrlllJ slightly sbifted ciS if to IIlarR. its
secolldal)! illfportell/ce.
Tbe 1I10cllt/CII ' flC!ttel'l! shows relllClrkelhle
flexihility ellfd by idellticet/ iJtterJfe/1 diJjJositioli tbe jleriphel), 0/
the tOlUm vetries comiderab!y witb respect to the topogrCfphic
28
detel'll,iualtts.
Wberever po,rJihle, tbe overet/I shetpe
Fribolllg. the xbetpe 0/ the Jite.
. .
llle/J
a rect,mgle. III
, Ilfodijied tbe htlJic sbetpe to cl
Tbe polygon,t/ or ovet/oid peripberies o[ tOlUm like
Rottweil, Villi ligen alld FreiulIIg eire dm to eX/}{/llJioli efllcl
29
collJtmctioll o/ rillg wetlls alld/ortijiccltiom.
trelpezilllll.
Ileltltl'ell thing ill the world. The Zilhringel' towm are thm IIOt
poetic rellInelnts 0/ the lVIiddle Ages, They li've/o nef" lIy Oil
etJ
Bern, occupying a narrow peninsula, seems to bave combined
em Il1lelJJ"elilelhly lise/hie setting /01' e/ completely chaJiged social
the fortunes of topography with the maturity of the planning
li/e, certainly 0111' inhel'itel1lce, hilt, elt the sallIe tillie,
2J
dimellJ"ioll and diJ"telllt beginning 0/0111' pl'ese1!t, too,
concept. The narrow shape served to direct and funnel growth,
Bern, founded by Berchtold
v
eI
deellel'
maintaining a cohesive development that expanded westerly in
an orderly and linear fashion.
i n II90/9 I , along with Thun,
were the last two towns founded by the Zahringers, This
Galanray further emphasizes the importance of the original
paper is primarily concerned with Bern 's development, bur
homestead area that facilitated growth and change over time:
Rolf Hager provides a short history of all the towns in the
catalogue referred to above.'"
Morris, drawing on Hofer's
work, describes the essence of Zahringer planning legacy:
The petttem et/sO proved to he C/dC/ptClhle to chCII!gilig letl/d llxeJ" Cf."
the origilletl IC/rge bomesteClds luere SOOll JjJlit ililo IlCII"}'OII'. deel}
lots to he reelJ"xellfb!ed etgCfili /01' llIodem COllllllel'Cietl me. ,
Eight bmic elemellts govemed the layollt 0/ the ZClhl'illger tOli !1lJ"
in theil'/t;/Iy developed stette elt the elld 0/ the tlNI/th celltmy:
I.
The
flexibility withill thefretlllework 0/et ciisciplined overet/I J"tmc­
]O
tllre is tbe dJie/ Cjl/et/ity 0/ the origillCfI plelll.
52
•
T O 5 R
5 .1
In time, even though parcels were combined i n a variety of
defined the maximal size of the town from the outset, the
configurations, the massive parry walls left their impri n t ,
l inear markets of the Zahringer towns were capable of
forci ng contemporary merchants t o adapt to long, narrow
growth."l4 And he compares the percentage of land devoted
spaces. Residential u n i ts also had to conform to rigid contain­
to market activity in a typical bastide (3.2 percent) with the I I
ers which over time became less and less suitable for con­
percent devoted t o the market i n Bern a n d its ability t o
temporary life-styles. Galantay adds that (beside the institution
maintain t h i s favorable ratio a s i t extended westward.
of a sewage system) the development of a central water supply
Galantay the bastide represented " . .
To
[a] self suffocating
in the middle of the street was also i mporranr.)' Finally: "The
checkerboard . . . a 'closed system' while the Zahringer plan is
military importance of the Zahringer towns was subordinate to
essentially 'open-ended. ' Today [1967] , the combined popu­
their market function. They even thrived without the ptotec­
lation of the Zahringer 1 2 new towns exceeds 500,000 [more
tion of the ring wall for long periods after their founding. ")'
than one million if the figure were to i n clude Zurich, which
the Zahringers enlarged considerably] ; while the more nu­
One may return to Hofer to understand the Zahringer achieve­
merous 'bastides' hardly muster a combined population of
ment in its proper h istorical context:
90,000 . .
Not a single one of these eight laws is new al'ollnd IISO.
.
. ''35.)6 Galantay cont i n ues:
The
Further, the ZaiJringel' "homestead" was not a lot for a single
l"ectangttlar plan, the cross-axis, the moddar Itnit, and the
family btlt a developllletlt Itnit, a "mperplot" meant to be
Stlbordinate placing of jiublic buildings existed in the classical
subdivided or recombined according to demand, but the legetlly
plans at the tillle of the early Roman emperon. . . . The life arteries
fixed proportiom of the plots gltaranteed the mrvival of the rhythm
of the ZaiJringer towns, the wide, continllom market thorollgh­
fareJ were missing in the i?oman garrison towns. . . .
of the original order. 37
The
The ZaiJringer towm provide convincing exampleJ of what
"ct
adJievement is one of synthesis and deve/o/mlent. For thefirst time
Edmltnd Bacon calfJ:
diffuse existing elements are broltght together into a Jtrong
injlJtencing aaion. " They are the living jJroof that design ideas,
relettionship. The decisive quality is the energy with which theJe
elemetlts are combined.
The recognition of nettltretl limitations
set of e!esign /Jrinciples capable of
expressee! in a few lucid guie!elines, can be both the carriers of
hereelity ane! afJo the determinants of the city's future. 38
etnd a dear concept of town p/etnning mesh together like cogs. In
The Zahringer towns . . . are notable not only for their plan
the intuitive sense of Greek conception, the inner logic of et theory
gives rise to et non-,-igid system. Its Pl-etcticetl worth iJ shown in
etnd spatial impact, but also as dassic examples of an end1t1"ing
Sftcce.rs in city planning . . . remarkably similar for all, . . . a
the jlexible adaptation of a small number of mlttable elements to
gradual development of the model . . . call be traced to its final
constantly chemging sites: a river bank ol- Ioop in the I-iver, jlett
formulation in Bern. 39
lemd, slopes, or hill-tops. In this respect the ZaiJringietlZ towns
ciS
tmbreetketble aJ it is elastic,
While each of the Zahringer new towns embody to some
whoJe basic geometric pattem chcmges clccording to the location,
degree or another the above original principles, each has
without relinqllishing etnything: an ideogram not etn ideology
survived to this day only through growth, change and adap­
or rigid sdJolastic doctrim. The essentietl is separated etnd dearly
rebuilt (Neuenburg, Germany); to barely recognizable rem­
mety be competred to a string mt,
Jize, Jtmcture, and p,'ofile of the budding site. It cetn be modified
ordered without pedatltry, bitt also without mbterfltge.
The
tation.
Their presen t configurations range from totally
nants (ZLirich, much altered and enlarged); to perfectly pre­
etbsolme size of the town emd the ring walls, mostly built in the
served (Murten).
tlJirteeJlth century is not defined The sClcred and profane pltblic
opportu n i ty to explore the nature of growth and the inherent
tema. The market thoroughfare remctim the basic raison cI ·etre.
abil i ty to change.
buildings, bemished to the side streets, are of secondary illlpol-­
Bern is special in that it provides an
With it, the main achievellle17t of the IIth centJJrY, the large scale
ctxict! and urban spClce, becomeJ the governing factor of a logicetlly
CHARACTERISTICS OF BERN: WHAT IS SPECIAL?
developed town-planning concept. 33
According to Galantay:
Along with the compact nature of the plan, Galantay s tresses
the flexibility of the Zahringer plan. The plan , as noted above,
Visitors to Benz, Switzer/Clfld, are smprisee! botb by tbe Wlllpel­
adapts to a variety of topographic conditions. It is this i nternal
ling imetge of tbe old town Clud by the ttJIique vitality it fosters.
flexibility he contrasts with the character of another contem­
Arcbitects and planners bewme evell more intrigued when tbey
porary development, the bastide.
" [Unlike] . . . the French
'bastides,' where the fixed size of the central market square
learn tbat the town
WClS
fotme!ee! ill II90 CIS tbe remIt of a re­
gionClI "New Towns /Jolicy ". . . . Bem offers ct clcmic example of
B E C K M A N / A C K E R K N E C H T : B E R N . 53
tbe mrvival and J/Iccess of cl plmmed collllllJlIlity. By tbe r 6tb
road station today defines the western limits of the I n ner
Century, tbe s1llall, medieval town betel become tbe most powerfttl
City, some 4>400 feet from the Nydegg. The peninsula only
city state nortb of tbe Alps, and in I84 8, mpital of Switzerland
widens here to a maximum of 1 ,300 feet. This restricted,
Tbrougb all tbese political and econolllic cbanges, tbe original
highly walkable area defines the I nner City. In comparison,
core cbcmged bllt little; in plall cmelspclticd concept, it still retains
Leon Krier describes the ideal city in terms of urban quarters,
tbe essence of tbe origined foundation. Yet it is IlOt a mere tottrist
which " . . . must i ntegrate all daily functions of urban life
precinct; tbe olel town elccomltlodates beavy 'vebimlar traffic ane!
(dwelling, work, leisure) within a territory dimensioned on
ClJ'simi/cltes space-devol/ring /lelU activities ane! land IIses, ane! its
prosperotlS retail core is worth the elttention of the designers of
shopping cellters. In fact, the /IIeelieued tOWIt is still the lmdispllteel
the basis of the comfort of a walking man; not exceeding 3 5
hecrares i n surface and 1 5 , 000 inhabitants. "<' Krier shows that
the first planned development of Bern was 17 hectares, and its
center of a city of qo, 000 people cme! of el large I/rban region. One
population from the twelfth to fourteenth centuries is esti­
i.r telllptee! to evaluate mch a fi.vefy historic city simply by
mated to have been between 4,500 and 5,000.
applying modem pel/ormance criteria; it is a systelll that jtmc­
tions, cl stmcture tbat bas proven adaptable to presmres unfore­
seen by the fOJlllden. Yet Sltcb all elllpi-riCClI elpproctch could riot
THE DEVELOPMENT OF BERN
explain the phenolllenon of Bern. 40
The original development began near the eastern tip of the
Bern follows the pattern of all the Zahringer new towns and,
peninsula, west of the Nydegg castle and extended westward
being the last, perhaps represents the ultimate refinement of
some 2,000 feet. This 2,000-foot-long by 700-foot-wide area
Zahringer planning. Beyond general plan n i ng concepts, each
was planned as one entity consisting of 104 homesteads.
new town responded to i ts topographical conditions. Bern
Forty-six were built in the i nitial phase between II91 and 1210.
occupies a peninsula, located on a loop some 30 meters above
The second phase consisted of 62 homesteads constructed
the Aare River. The north and south edges were clearly de­
lineated by steep cliffs rising ftom the river (FIG. 5). To the
FIGURE
5. (ABOVE)
Cross-section throllgh the Be/,11 jJeuillJlllc/
between 1220 and 1230 (FIG. 6).43 Here the central market
street, today's Gerechtigkeitsgasse and Kramgasse, rise from
tit tbe Jite ofthe origillct! cleve/oIJlI/cU! ill //90. A t this j}oint the jJellillJl//c( iJ (lj)jJroxiIJlClleiy 300 iltelel:r wic/e
(meL 30 lIteters ahove river level. The clark blli/clings inc/icc/te the origillCli relerl iOl1JhijJ to the Jile. witb .fllbJeqllcllt cxjJC/wions JlljJerilllj)()secl. (Drc/{{ling by /I' ferriil Kie//er,
FIGURE 6. (BELOW RIGHT) The[tnt deve/o/)lIIe!/1 0/ /3el'll. 104 homeslead lois. 100[eel wide by 60[eel deep. l/' ere jilCIIllled CIIICI deIJe/o/mi ill 111'0 /)bmeJ. Tbefinl 46 011 Ibe
after !-Io[er. "SIr/lktl/rClIlCllyse. " I). 24; clIld Divorm.
etlJlert/ elltl 0/ the j}enill.wia were begllli
ill 1I91,
Berne er les vi lles. /). 87- )
Bela'eell 1220 Clllel [230 the next 62 were bllilt. \Voodell ll'edls secllred the weslerll
(ComjJl/ler drawing after !-Io/er. "Sll'IIklllrclllctiyse. " p. IS: ClIle! Divol'lle.
Berne er les vi llos. /1. 87- )
east, at the tip of the peni nsula, a s i ngle access by ford was
originally defended by the Nydegg castle, built by the Dukes
ofZahringen around II90. The first bridge was not built until
1260.
Although the m i l i rary significance of the Zahri nger
new towns is m i n i mized by Hofer and Galantay, Bern from
the ourset offered a sense of military security. Evidence now
exists that wooden fortifications were constructed during the
earliest phase of development.41
The peni nsula, only 700 feet wide at the location of tbe first
development, served to restrict lateral growth, channeling
and rei n forcing the central marketplace, or spi ne. The rail-
\
flt/Ilk cit botb xtt/ges ofdeve/Oj,,"elll,
54
•
T O 5 R 5.1
the Nydegg t o a final elevation 30 meters above the river (FIG. 7).
In I46I the street was lowered some three meters to ease the con­
nection with the new bridge. The excavation opened up base­
ment levels to street access, which today are occupied by a variety
of commercial activities. The covered arcade continues at the
upper level, requiring the addition of stairs co street level 44
The planning module - lots IOO feet wide by 60 feet deep ­
was uncommon at the t i me.
However, numerous sources
seem co concur that the homesteads were i ntended from the
beginning to be subdivided. Thus, the present narrow parcels
may be attributed either to the Zahringer's flair for real-estate
development, to the fact that narrow longitudinal patterns
were fashionable for new towns and rural subdivisions in the
hilt toward the original site ofthe Nydegg castle alld tlx river. Views opellillg 0111
twelfth century, or to the result of inheritance laws (FIG. 8).
at the edge ofthe Iliner City are tYI}ieal. The steel} J/olJe ofthe origil/al GClSJeJllIlCIrkt
Spi ro Kostof writes :
FIGURE 7. The arcaded IJletill street! now tbe GereciJtigkeitsgtlssc, curvc.r down the
was lowered sOllie three llIeters in 1461. IcaviJlg the cIIY({c/e level raised above the street.
these bcrJClIleilt leve/s are lIlorc creecHible here. (piJoto by 1(. Beck1l!cll7. 1985- )
NUlJlerol{s sbojJS and theaten OCClt!JY basemeJlt levels throllgholll the IlIncr CitYI hltt
The Ilrbc/il shiftfrom an agriwltural to a c01llmercial economy .
. . {was} infull swing by the md ofthe I2th centttry, jr01ll F lanclers
ancl North Germany to the Sicily of the Hohemta1Jfen.
mtlltber offarms (area) allotted to thefounder's dependents. Eelch
Typi(al of all the ZaiJringer towns was the division into a set
buildings, institutions, or open spaces interrupt the flow of
commercial activity.
member was aJJigned one yard to be divided into lots for homes
(casali a}.
The dilllensio1Z5 of the yards were variable, tbe
While the city's expansion built on original patterns, over the
standard proportio1Z5 being 2:I cmd 3.-;; the long side was
years changes in use and technology resulted in changing
parallel to the stlYet. The 171tmber oflots was etlso variable - 2,
5, or 7-
urban forms and building typologies . As the city grew to the
. . This bmically rttral systelll wm slowly jJJtsbed ClSide
west, build i ngs grew vertically as well as horizontally, ex­
from the llZid-I2th century, as strip lots redefined an Itrbcltl
tending over the market-street right of way (incorporating the
.
framework mitable for a lllercbant economy, with tbe etgriml­
original market stalls) 4? To the rear the buildings ultimately
tural co1lZponent now deady seconcla1Y. Tbe proportiollS of these
connected across rear yards in the seventeenth century to
23 by I15feet (1 by 53 111. ) in Bern, and 23 by 2I3feet (1 by 65
create the very deep properties alluded to by Kostof. Changes
The tall narrow homes, !JJtsbed It!} to the
tween the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries and again in the
lzew parceIJ could be extreme: I3 by I50feet ( 4 by 611Z. ) in Base!,
111. ) in Geneva.
building line, remade the character of tbe streets. 45
to the twelfth-to-fourteenth-century buildings occurred be­
eighteenth century. The Gassenmarkt was reduced in width
(extending over arcade "air rights"), and the height of the
In the case of Bern, lots 23 feet wide by 175 feet deep could not
buildings on either side i ncreased , representing a new quan­
have occurred until well i nto the thirteenth century 46 (Al­
tum leap in scale, proportion and character (FIG. II). 48
though i t is appealing to think that the original planning
concept foresaw and regulated these subdivisions, today's
Hofer identifies the first building type in Bern as a two-story
plot patterns bring this thesis i nto question. The irregular
row house with a stall in front, built on a narrow, subdivided
divisions may have owed more to the i mpact of i nheritance
lot. B ut it might seem logical co speculate that an even earlier
laws and market forces than
construction may have consisted of a single house on the
CO
the original proportions
prescribed by the founders . )
original IOo-by-60-foot parcel. This land may then have been
divided for inheritance purposes or under market pressures,
I n a series o f orderly developments, Bern expanded westward
from the original plan (FIG. 9). Each subsequent development
signaling an earlier quantum leap from rural to urban scale.
followed on the original pattern, maintain i ng the importance
of the market spine.
As the city grew, the Gassenmarkt
BERN, 1 230 TO 1 950
continued u n interrupted by noncommercial use. Today the
4AOO-foot-long axial market terminates near the train station
From 1230 to I250 expansion occurred to the north of coday's
and is marked by continuous arcades (FIG. IO).
Rathausgasse, incorporating Brunngasse; and co the south
No public
B E C K M A N /A C K E R K N E C H T : B E R N
FIGURE 8.
.
55
The original homesteads. 100feet wide and 60 feet deel). were sllbdivided illto slIIaller IMrce/s o'ver tillle. Volllllletric exlJctllsion also oC(llrred. The bllildings 0/ the
first pbetse 0/expansion in the /oregrollnd (del)irted bere as omtl)ying 2S-/00t-wide sltbdivided parcels) were typi(crlly two stories bigh and 30 feet deel), witb a 30-/00t rectr
grctted into the iJttildings, /orllling the arcaded tyl)ology 0/ today. At the satlle tillle building del)ths increased to arotmd 52feet, and rea'r yards were redllced to 20feet. Tbe
)lewd. They indltded portc{.ble JJlc(rket stet/Is that arcH/Jied 121ee! 0/the street, The scwnd blli/ding exjJansion intO/porated 12 feet ofthe street, CIS the market stalls were inte­
!lext phctJe pushed higher ctlld deeper (buildings becettlte 62/eet deep), reducing rear yet/·ds to only 10 feet. In the seventeenth (elltllry tbe rear yards were genercttly infitled com­
CIS parcels
TbiJ last qltctnttt1l1 leetp ctt/owed petrce/s alld dwellings to extend/rom street to street. (Drawing by IVlerili Kei/Jer, ct/ter Hofer, "Strttktttretilerlyse, " pp. 24-25- )
pletely with !J/lildings CIt grottnd level (not shown)
were reconfigured and buildings connected (/cross the original alleys cmd the now-covered sewclge-collcctor system.
56
•
T D S R
5.1
According to Galantay, Bern, " . . . rhis venerably ancient 'New
Town ' [is] one of the most modern in rerms of accessibility . "
[It} confirllljjj the existence . . . of one of the world's pleelJCtntest
and livelieJt Jhopping enviroillllelltJ.
.
. . 117 Bern, most through
trctjjic by-paJSeJ the core on CI weJtern tel1lgent, and vast parking
ft/cilitieJ have been comtmcted 011 top ofthe !leW rctilroad JtCltiOIl,
which still semibly fidfillJ the role of gate to the town in this
historic locellion.
FIGURE
9. (ABOVE)
II)
Developl/le!lt phmeJ Of Bem:
I)
III Cldc/itioll, IlIldergrolllld storClge faci/itieJ
hetVe been built for the CClI'S of the federed bllretlllo"Cll),. For the
IV)
Tbe city'Jfollilc/illg ill fI9I.
I255-1340: v) 1344-[370. filla! lI'eJill'Clrd expClllsioll elllc/ illji!! a!ong tbe river:
phase la:
VI)
PhetJe lb. I220-I230; Ill) Pbme 2, [255-I265:
Nyc/egg illfil!.
thirteen//)- emeljOtlrtecnth-rcnlllry infil!. III the Jevell/eenlh ten/I/IY Bal"oqllc
III the sevellteenth {md eighteenth centuries JOllie COIlJlrJlctir)}l oeo/Freel ill the
blf/tl'Clrks were hl/ilt to the west emd defensive l(){;//S u'cre delclecl a/OJl8 the river
edges,
arca ofthe train station (not showll).
(CampI/tel' eire/wing {�(ter Hofer
i'Strt1ktlt/,clIlalyse, " p. 16; emd Divol"lIe, Berne et les vi lies, p. I95. J
FIGURE 10. (RIGHT) Viewfrolll the llliillJter looking CctJt. In the right !oregrolmd
(elJl be Jeen the (oJ/dition which oCCllrred elfter the seventeenth celltlt1)' when jJrojJcrtieJ
began lillking arron the original crlleys, creatillg dlcellingJ sjJclflnillg from street to
street,
To the left is the GaSJen!!lclrkt cIS this arcaded .rhop/Jillg street winds dOlUll
to the river. The !!Iedievct! chClrclcter of Berll is reddily di.rcerJlClble ill thiJ CIIWl,
pelrt of the orig/lleI! phClSe I plclIlned developlllent.
(Photo by !?. Becklllelll, 1985. )
along today's Herrengasse, essentially i nfi l l i ng between the
1220-30 development and the river (REFER TO FIG. 9). In
1 25 5/ 5 6 Bern expanded westward again. A new west wall was
built where the Kiifigturm gate-tower is now located. The
streets in this area, following the Marktgasse (Zeughausgasse
and Amtshausgasse), diverge as the peni nsula widens. Here
for the first time we see the possi bility of the deep lots alluded
to by Kostof From 1255 to 1340 development occurred in the
area previously occupied by the Nydegg castle, which was de­
stroyed between 1265 and 1272. The gently curving streets here
ascend the hill and impart a medieval character, as the loose
orthogonal grid stretches and adapts ro topographical conditions.
Between 1344 and 1370 B ern again extended west, building
yet another new wall and gate along today's Bollwerk. Devel­
opment also occurred along the river's edge south of the
filtllre, CldditiollClI garages are planned lmder the old tOWIl, with
Nydegg. After the disastrous fire of 1416 facades were moved
dirertpedestrian cOImeetioll to the ClrceldeJ above. . .
forward the width of the market stalls and a new building
ofthe Bern pClttern is remarkable. Unlike other old towm where
The ejjicie11l)'
typology, incorporaring arcades, emerged, representing a new
vehiatletr tmjjic hClJ had to be reJtricted, Bern's streets are open to
q uantum leap. In 1461 a stone bridge replaced the wooden
etll kindJ oftret/fic at ail tillles. The old block pClttern has proven
one and the grade along the Gassenmarkr was lowered.49
eqllally ClclClptClble to chemge.r alld pressllres creCited by increClJed
Between 1 622 and 1 634 Baroque bulwarks were added in the
collllilenial a1ld office me, indtlding the velst Cl1llOll11tJ of spelce
area that is now the railroad station. Other major defensive
daillled by the city, canton andfederal governments whose officeJ
walls, reflecting changing warfare technology, were built
along the river in 1 63 9 and 1 642.
are interwoven with JhoPJ, cellar theelten and Clttic stlldioJ ill
KClfkClesq1te complexity. 50
B E e K M A N IA e K E R K N E e H T
BERN
• 57
support a core area in excess of 200 CliTeS. it is clear that the IOO­
Since eVell towns of the order of two millioll inhabitants relrely
acre area of the old town not only J1Iffimfor tbe cOl'e-/tl llctiom of
Bern bJlt permitJ in addition themrvi'val ofa very high percelltage
of the arect ill reJie/emictl me. 54
Galantay uses no statistics to back up his assertion.
The
population of the Inner City declined from 6,268 i n 1970 to
4,781 in 1980.55 (Herat, Afghanistan, a nontypical Middle
Eastern c i ty and regional marketing center for a population
of one million, had six miles of markets along two intersecting
FIGURE I I . Blli/ding section sholt'illg the scale 0/ blli/dill!!) a/ollg the GC/JselllJlarkt
market streets i n 1967 and provides an i n teresting compari­
from the twelfth to fOllrteeJlth centlfries: /roJII the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries: ClIld
son with Galantay's statistics on shopping areas and popula­
from the seventeellth celltlll)' to the j)reJeJlt. Each vertira! eXj)clIlsion rej)resellted a
tion base. 56)
qllclIltlflll leaj). altering the scale aud character 0/the IIrhan /orJII. The central lJIarket
Kieffer. a/ter Hofer, ·'Strllktllrcmalyse. " /). 24: and Divome, Bern e e[ les v i l les.)
Jj)ine today iJ vel)' di[fermt thall when originally planned. (Drawing by Merritl
By the nineteenth century the twelfth-century planni ng
module - 60-by-roo-foot parcels, further subdivided into
buildings 25 feet wide or less, separated by massive firewalls
- discouraged the development of large department stores
(If private vehicular traffic was not restricted in 1967, it was
and preserved the linear arcaded shopping spine (FIG. 13). The
At that time limitations were
urban structure forced the retail pattern ro adjust to existing
placed on when and where private vehicles could be used.
conditions. Small specialized retail stores, all highly acces­
Excellent public transportation, extensive use of bicycles,
sible and visible, continued to abound (which were, however,
severely curtailed by 1 9 8 5 .
and the walkability of the I nner City now ameliorate the
not unlike the divisions of vast spaces in department stores
perceived impact of these restrictions.)
into smaller boutiques).
Galantay compares Bern to New York from 42nd Street to
While the form of many Western cities, responding to new
Central Park, a distance equivalent to the 4AOO feet of Bern's
technologies, first developed large department stores, then
market street.
regional shopping centers, Bern maintained a pedestrian­
oriented , vehicular-accessible shopping area. Furthermore,
The Jtreet pattern of Bern shows some dililemionetf similarities
the large governmental employment base, the increasing
to the familiar grid of ivIanhattan, bJlt Bem's pattern seems
importance of international business, and the expanding
more semible, Jin(e there are notably fewer irltene(tiollJ along
tourist trade has created the market in the Inner City for a
the principal arteries. Along the emt-west axiJ one (etll drive
greater variety of goods than would otherwise have been
em etverage of 750 ft. without ha·ving to bother about cross­
I
traffic/
available to its residents. As late as 1975 the Inner City was
considered to have an exemplary mixture of uses, with cellars
for small theaters, etc.5l B u t by 1 9 8 5 shops were beginning to
This, of course, was written before Jane Jacobs' message began
take over areas other than their traditional locations on
to be heard in plann i ng circles. However, numerous pedes­
arcaded streets and l i nking passageways. I n many areas of the
trian cross-connections had been created to link the arcades.
Inner City residential use has now been replaced by office and
Galantay quotes Swiss architect Martin Geiger: ".
commercial uses.
the
mediaeval arcades and covered cross-connections, modern
passageways and shopping concourses amount to a system of
5 m i les of weather-protected pedestrian ways"F (FIG. 12) .
Was it the i nsightful plann i ng of the Zahringers eight cen­
turies ago, the will of subsequent rulers, or pure accidem
through an evolutionary process that has preserved this
Galantay also compares Bern to Montreal's four-mile under­
shopper's paradise I From the twelfth to eighteenth centuries
ground syste m , which serves 44 acres of that city's 200-acre
the population grew, but urban scale and form always re­
downtown: " . . . a ratio of 550,000 inhabi tants for each one-half
sponded in dynamic fashion. At each developmental phase a
m i le of protected pedestrian shopping . "5) Bern, on the other
new tradition emerged, complete with regulations that main­
hand, has a roo-acre core area, with a ratio of one half m i le of
tained appropriate and harmonic relationships between nega­
covered arcades for every 34,000 residents.
tive and positive spatial configurations, and which ensured a
58
•
T D S R
5.'
i ng parts, i ncluding roofs (material and overhang), windows
(size and proportion), facade subdivision (proportions), dor­
mers (size and number), use of materials (sandstone, etc.), and
use of color. Significant modifications to the earliest building
regulations were adopted i n 1539, 1 61 5 and 1786.
Beyond the rules, the city's population has evinced a general
will to build within the image of the city. There have been a
variety of techniques to obtain compliance from owners who
were unwilling to follow the rules, or who were financially
incapable of doing so. These have ranged from political pres­
sure, to subsidies, to inexpensive loans; and they have been
used to ensure the i ntegrity and quality of the overall design
of the city.60 Design was not left to chance. As change oc­
curred , each succeeding ruler and/or generation of the city's
population evolved new regulations that responded to new
social conditions and technology, creating the Bern gestalt.
CHANGES I N THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Alarmed by recent changes in Bern, two native Bernese set out
to document the old and the new. In spite of what they saw
as the undesirable change and wanton destruction of the old,
Erdman Schmocker and Berchtold Weber were able to reach
the following conclusion in 1982:
FIGURE 1 2 . (ABOVE) One of the IllllllerOIlJ all-weather jJcdestrictn jJaJSages that
streets. (Photo by J(. Becklllan, I985. )
link the arcades ofthe llltliJl lllarket street (Gasscmnarkt) with arcades on other
FIGURE 13. (RIGHT) The original homestead jJctrce/s, 100 feet wide by 60 jeet deel',
were typicct/!y slIhdivided in two, jOllr, five or seven smaller lots. Over timc these
j)tf.rce/s were recolI/bined, joined ?{(TOJS alleys, Clnd f;trther slIbdivided. The configu­
firewctlls that tire diffi(!t!t to Ilenetrate or remove. ThiJ llMP sholUs the division of
ratiolls of lItan), petree/s were frozen ill time by the cumln/etian of hec,v)' II/CHonry
property within the first deve!ojJliumt jJiJase CIS it exists today. (Colll/Jltter drawing
((/tel' Hofer, IIStUtktllrclIlctiyse. " j), fO; Hager,
(lA
I}. 18; etnd Divome, Berne er les vi lies, p. 87 )
Short History ofthe TOLVIlJJ II
"high quality o f proportions. "58 The i mage o f the Inner City
is now defined by a great diversity of buildings and architec­
ture from different periods.
However, harmony exists in
diversity because each building is subordinate to a whole
system and to the strong framework of the original plan.59
Freedom of design has been l i m i ted in every period. Rules
have i ncluded regulations on s ubdivision, plot size, set­
backs, height, requ i red firewalls, and arcade i ntegration.
Architectural regulations have concerned the form of build-
The enor1JlOllJ growth of the Ie1st IOO years from a population of
30, 000 to I50, 000 oa:llrred largely olltside the oiel core. During this
time the oiel city trctnsforilled itselffrom a residential area into a
B E C K M A NjAC K E R K N E C H T ' B E R N
.
59
central bminess district. Despite these rhanges in the city core, the
strtlcttlral character relllains, and, most important, tbe seme and
sj}irit of Bern(e} 's medieval origin bas been kept alld preserved.
61
In 1955, 1975 and again i n 1980, the Bernese imposed rules to
restrict change (to retain existing facades, to maintain existing
dwelling floor area surface, etc . ) , instead of attempting to
develop new rules perhaps encouraging a fourth (or fifth?)
quantum leap in harmonic volumetric expression. The intent
has been to preserve the Inner City i n its medieval form.
We have so far recorded numerous testimonies to the delights
of the archi tecture, space, and urban structure of Bern. Is i t
possible that t h e city, a s Galantay described i t i n 1 9 67, can be
frozen in time? Is it possible that Bern - the central business
district and regional core of an urban agglomeration of nearly
300,000 persons, the capital of Switzerland, and the seat of a
canton - can fulfill a growing number of local, national, and
i n ternational functions within a container that can no longer
In this rellrocil/clio)} 0/ tl 1970 lllel/) the sCjJcll'atioll between the lllller
grow, expand or change' Market forces being what they are,
FIGURE 14.
the highest and best use (that most capable of paying increas­
City CIne! slIbseqllcJlt deve/aJm/ent is dearly ilillstrated. Urban jJctfterm 0/ tbe
i ng rents) will drive out other uses. As Bern continues to grow
nineteenth and tweJ1tieth celltllries etrc a/iell to Zcr/Jringer collce/l/s. The [(jver Aare
as a government center, the demand for office space is placing
served to jJ/"otect Old Berll, allowing the lIIedieva! city to J"fII"vi've wbile (/ JlCW IIrbaJl
increasing pressure on the l i m i ted space of the I n ner City.
/JcllterJl eJJlel��ed in tbe hillter/cwcis to cojle with the Cllorll/OHf growth over the laxI
The tendency for growth i n the city's service sector shows no
100 yean. (Collt!Jllter elrc/wing a/tel' DivorJle. Berne et les villes, p. 222. )
signs of d i m i nishing, and as business is becoming more and
more i nternationalized, office and commercial demands on
central locations would seem to be relentless.
abundant. On the steep south slopes east of the mLinster, crops
were i ntensively cultivated only m inutes from the open
farmer's market on the Kornhausplatz. Arcade shops offered
A DECLI N I N G ATTRACTIVITY FACTOR?
a variety of goods imported from throughout the world. The
During an extended visit to Bern in 1 9 8 5 , one of the authors
environment, where dwelling, working and leisure all take
observed the variety of forces that contributed
place within walking distance.
city seemed to satisfy Krier's criteria for a healthy urban
to
Bern's
success. The narrow peninsula restricted growth to the north,
east and south well into the ni neteenth century, contributing
Closer observation suggested that all might not be as i t
to the preservation of the Inner City's medieval character.
seemed . Many o f the shops catered exclusively t o international
After the nineteenth century growth was clearly segregated
tourists.
and of a very different character (FIG. 14). The edge (or buffer)
existed offered a tantalizing array of fresh local produce).
Food markets were rare (although those which
around the Inner City, is now made up of trees and river,
Upper stories in many areas were dark at night. Streets north
further contributing to i ts attractiveness. The only open space
and south of the central market street were deserted much of
in the Inner City is that of the Gassenmarkt and that of a few
the time. The reason I The residential population was not as
small plazas carved from the building fabric. However, a few
evident as Galantay once described it. Indeed, the population
h undred feet in either direction are views of wooded slopes,
of the Inner City has now declined to fourteenth- and fifteenth­
the river, the countryside, and the Alps.
century levels.
After reaching 1 5,000 people in 1810, the
number of people living in the Inner City declined to 6,268 i n
At the time of the visit the city's arcades served as holiday
1970 and 4,377 by 1988. A s the residential population de­
recreational areas. Cars, trucks, streetcars, motorcycles and
clines, so does the diversity of city l i fe .
bicycles seemed to mix with pedestrians without conflict. (As
noted, the use of vehicles has since been subjected
regulation.)
to
strict
A number of factors now contribute t o t h e declining residen­
Sidewalk cafes and street entertainers were
tial population. The repulsion of dwelling use is the extreme
60
•
T O S R
5.1
consequence of building restrictions combined with eco­
nomic competition from other uses. Fewer people also now
occupy dwelling-unit areas in the Inner City due ro demands
for greater floor space per person .
Changing family size,
fami ly structure, and l i fe-styles require smaller dwell i ng
u n i ts with bigger rooms and more amenities (such as natural
light, views, privacy, outside spaces and greenery). The ex­
treme difficulty in adap t i ng old dwellings with their narrow
configurations and massive firewalls ro contemporary needs
further contributes ro the decli n i ng residential population
(FIG. 15).
Inconvenience is also a facror for the elderly and
fam ilies w i th children. Restrictions on car use and the cost
of maintain i ng older b u i ldings also reduce the residential
appeal of the InnerCity. Overall, these factors have contributed
to a gentrification trend.
Only members of strong i ncome
groups can now afford to use and live in the Inner City. These
FIGURE
15.
TypiCC/1 bltildillg groll!}, parlial grolll}(f-fioor pltlil ilJ Ihe llliler City
( 1913). The extremely IlClrrOW, irreglliar (onfigtlratiollJ contrihlfte to the che/I'JJl 0/
The lJIdJJive firewa!IJ restrict consolidation 0/ shops illlo
are often people of wealth or from old fam ilies with pride i n
the lllller City toclel)'.
their c i ty and history. These people find i t fashionable t o live
!,trge-scctle clejJcIJ'tlJlent J/O/'es, maintaining the vitality of the COJltinllOIlS clrcc/cle.
or "keep a place" in the I nner City, often as a second home.
JlyleJ. (DrdlVing by R. KdPP, F. Lemnberger, cmel P. QJlctrelfCl. From: A .
As the use mixture narrows (with the loss of a permanent
The (Olljigl/}(:llioJl Cllso JIIctkes it cli/fiut/I to adapt residentia/ IlIlits to cbtrngillg life­
l?iiegg , " \VobnqItClrtiere der SlcIC/t
Bern, " P18. )
residen tial population), diversi ty as a com ponen t ofattractivity
also diminishes and economic segregation sets in. But the
notion ofJane Jacobs, Leon Krier, and others that a city needs
The Zahringers provided for j ust such a process of transition
a rich and diverse mixture of residents and uses to provide life
and growt h . Through the will of the rulers and the popula­
and vital i ty appears to be shared by the Bernese. Polls show
tion, the Bernese gestalt allowed physical change in response
a strong wish for the return of a multifu n ctional, attractive
to changing societal needs and new technologies. At least
city center 6'
three tradi tional urban morphologies evolved over time, each
with its particular rules, scale, and proportions (REFER TO FIG.
A survey of pedestrians in the Inner City, published in 1993,
8). We can only speculate as to the visual coherence at various
fou nd that residents of the area comprise only 6 percent of its
stages of this evolution. (Today, in Thun, two different phases
users. Forty percent of pedestrians came from the larger urban
exist side by side: the Bern model of three dwelling stories set
agglomeration of Bern , 26 percent from the region, and 23
out over arcades; and a housing type where upper stories are
percent from outside the region. Visitor activities i ncluded
set back from streetfront shops, with the space over the shops
shopping (31 percent), leisure (22 percent), walking through
being used for outdoor terraces. ) B u t the fact remains that
(20 percent), working (9 percent), commissions (8 percent), and
while the underlying structure has remained, the population
education (2 percent).6;
has created a succession of beautiful cities through their
collective efforts, each a quantum leap away from the last.
OUTLOOK FOR THE I NN E R CITY. 1 990 -
The functional m ixture of the I nner City has now changed.
OVERLAYS OF TRADITIONS
Restrictions imposed to maintain the residential character of
I n 1967 Galantay wrote:
character of the area and i ts buildings, not i ts former rich
the I nner City have had the effect of protecting the existing
urban life-style. Analysis of recent economic research shows
One of the IIlOSt preSJil1g /JrobieJIIJ in tlrbmz design is the !Ieee!for
el
theol), of IIltltative ,)'steIlLJ: strtletllres that 1IIaimeli" eJjiciellG)'
that Bern has already undergone a segregation of commercial
uses and social functions .65
emd 'visllet/ wherellce in the clililellSion oftillle. Not abstrelet tel"get
plellls elillleel at JOllie o),stalline bet/ance, bllt ,),stelltJ thelt Celil
Friedrich Dlirrenmatt writes a fictional account of Bern i n
etc/jllSt to 1117foreseeable ilz/lllellces, to evoilltioll through eI prOl"eSJ of
which the city i s examined i n IO,OOO A.D, by archaeologists
cOllljJe1lJatOl), diJeqltilibrilllllJ, or. to lISe the terlll coined by
and historians. A glass building, 300 meters high, had been
Henchfelel and L!lIle!gren, to "ciiJjoi17ted i17crelllelltetiiJllt.
constructed above the Inner City some time between then
,,64
B E C K MAN/AC K E R K N E C H T
BERN
and now to serve as a commercial extension that would allow
spemlettive mge, tbe pattem will d,y liP, and even die, 1Inless tbe
preservation of the old building fabric. The researchers deter­
/Jeople f01·ge 10itbin it
m i ne that before the structure was abandoned it had been used
e/
'
61
special, Jelf-SJlstaining life that can
Sltyvive adversity and tbe t1lJ"m offortlme. 67
exclusively for architectural conferences and guided tourS !66
For Bacon, the form of a city:
Historically, Bern has responded to change in dynamic fash­
It would
. . . is determined by tbe wdti/J/icit)' ofdecisions made by the people
seem that the preservation issue should now be reexamined .
i o n , not with restrictive preservation measures.
Regulations allowing new buildings in harmony with the
imere/cted to prod1lce a force ofmdJ darity andform that a noble
1Obo /ive in it.
In certain cirm11lstallceJ tbeJe deciJions ba've
scale, ptoportion and materials of existing buildi ngs would
city bm been born. It iJ 11Iy premise tbat a deeper lmderstanding
ptovide a more efficient way to accommodate new office and
of tbe interactions of these decisions can give liS tbe insight
residential uses, and they would reduce pressures on historic
neceJSary to aeate noble citieJ in 0111' time.
buildings truly worthy of preservation.
68
Such an apptoach
would be more in keeping with Bern's Soo-year history of
Values change i n the appreciation of human and natural
growth as trad ition .
environments, j ust as fashions fluctuate in the apparel indus­
try. At times it is thought the old m ust make way for the new
(as during the modernist period); at other times the ancient
is revered regardless of i ts merit. Each generation must, and
CONCLUSIONS
will, derive its own scale of values and rules of action 69
According to Kostof:
Bern is one of the noble cities in our time. Will the Bernese rise
CitieJ [are} amalgams of buildings and people.
They are
to the challenge and redefine the Zahringer tradition by drafting
inhetbited settingJ from whidJ daily ritllals - the /1Z1t1ldane and
new rules in response to changing needs and technology? Can the
the extraordinaty, the mnd011l and tbe staged - derive tbeir
disjointed incrementalism of the Bernese gestalt lead to a new
vitality. In tbe urban artifact and its I1mtatiom are condemed
tradition for the twentieth and twenty-first centuries! Will such
continuities oftime and plate. Tbe city is tbe ultimate mel1lO" ial
a desire by the population allow a new quantum leap toward a
of 0111' stmggles and gI01'ies; it iJ wbere tbe pride of tbe pmt is set
on dis/}Iety. . . . But wbetber bom muler divine gllidance or tbe
REFERENCE NOTES
new harmonic expression! Or will Bern become a museum city
frozen in time, encased in glass'
1. E. Egli, Geschichte des Stile/teham, ZlUeiter
Balld, DaJ iHittela/ler (Erlenbach-Zlirich und
Sturrgarr: Rentsch Verlag, 1967), PP.14-15.
2. Ibid, p . l43· Ibid, P·15·
4· Ibid, P·15·
5 . Ibid, p.16.
6. Ibid, P.15.
7. A.E.]. Motris, Hi.rtol), 0/ Urball Form (New
York: Longman Scientific & Technical, 1979),
p.lIO.
8. Egl i , Gesehiehte des Stcidtehews, pp.16-17.
9. G. Nagel, Del.r Mitteldter/iehe Kel/l/hel/l.r IIlld
.reille Steltllllg ill del' Steldt (Berlin: Gebr. Mann
Verlag, 1971), pp.60-62.
10. Although changi ng marketplace typologies
have played a central role in Bern's design and
evolution, a general analysis of marketplaces is
beyond the scope of this paper. For a detailed
investigation of the development of medieval
cities in southern Germany and the strong
impact of market righcs and trade on city
planning, see Nagel, DeiJ Mit/elatter/iehe
KCII1hClIfS. In general, u rban morphology was
first al tered by the developmenr of market hall
strUCtures. It was then reshaped in the
nineteenth century by the arrival of department
stores. Now, regional shoppi ng centers, the
marketplaces of the pOSt-World War II era, are
again reshaping u rban development.
I I . Egli, Geschichte deJ Stctdtebelll.f, P.19.
12. Ibid, P.19.
13. Ibid , PP·19,26,152.
'4. Ibid , p.lIO.
IS. C. Sitte, The flrt 0/ Bllildillg Cities, c.T.
Stewart, trans. (Westporr: Hyperion Press, Inc.,
194 5 ) , PP · 30-34 ·
16. Egli, Geschiehte des StiidtebelllJ, P . 109 .
'7. N. AISayyad, CitieJ ellld Cediphs: 011 the
Genesi.r 0/ A rab I11I1S/illt Urbal1iJIll (New York:
Greenwood Press, 1991). See P.32 , model of
Typical fslamic To\vJl, according (0 \X'agsraff,
which lists Candle makers & Performers;
Booksellers & Bookbinders; Leather workers &
Shoemakers; Carpenters, Jewelers & Tailors;
Basket makers, Saddlers, & Blacksmiths;
Tanners & Po[(ers; each as distiller disuicrs of
the li near Bazaar.
62
•
T O 5 R
5.1
D. Ackerknecht, "Die Stadt i n d e r Krise,
menschliches Verhalten und stidtische
Entmischung," Beitrag wr Sendefolge von
Radio Bern (radio lecture, "Human behavior and
urban segregation"), R . Jost and A. Blum, eds.,
Bern, 1973.
19. Egli, Geschiehte des StadteballS, P·I13·
20. Ibid, P . 9 5 .
21. D . Ackerknecht and W. Tschol, Urbanize/­
tioll ill Switzerland (International Urban Growth
Policies), G. Golany, ed . , (New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1978), P.148.
22. E.Y. Galanray, "Introduction," i n R . Hager,
ed . , The Za'hringer New Towm (Exhibition
Catalogue) (Zurich: Department of Architecture,
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology [ETH],
18.
1966), PP · 3-5·
23. P. Hofer, "The Zahtinget New Town," i n
Hager, ed., The Ziihringer New TowllS pp. 6-8
24- See R. Hager, "A Short History of the
Towns," i n Hager, ed., The Zdhringer ]\Tew
TOIUIlJ, pp. } 2 }6.
25. Morris, Urbclfl Form, p.lIO.
26. Galantay, "Introduction," p.}. Certain of
these elements are also emphasized i n E .
Galantay, " O l d New Towns," Progrmive
Architecture (Dec. [967), pp. 8 6-9}.
27. Ibid . , p+
28. Ibid . , p+
29. Galanray, "Old New Towns," p.89·
30. Galalltay, "Introd uction," P . 3 .
} 1 . Galantay, "Old New Towns," p . 8 9 .
32. Ibid . , p. 89.
33. Hofer, "The Zahringer New Town," p.8.
H. Galanray, "Old New Towns," p.89.
35· Ibid . , p . 8 9 ·
}6. For a further description and confirmation
of the general decline of the bmtide.r, see S.
Clement-Charpentier, "New Towns in France
and Thailand in the Middle Ages: A Compara­
tive Analysis," Traditional Dwellings and
SeUle1llellt.r I�eview Vol.IJI No.[ (Fall [99[), 1'-43·
37· Gaianray, "In trod uction," P·3·
}8. Galanray, "Old New Towns," 1'.93.
39· Galantay, "Introduction," P · 3 .
4 0 . Galanray, "Old New Towns," p.87·
41 . E. Schmocker and B. Weber, A lte.r Bern.
.
-
Nelles Bern: Ein StCldtbild illt \'(Ieflldel del' Zeit
(Bern: Benteli Verlag, 1979; English Text, [982),
P.137. Evidence now exists that a \vooden wall
and gate was constructed to protect the first
western flank of the original 46 homesteads.
There also is evidence of a gate on the south
side, with a road or path leading down to the
river (rhe location of today's
Bubenbergraingasst). Thus, within t\venty years
of its ini tial founding some attempt was made to
i ncrease m i l i tary security beyond that afforded
by the natural terrain. Was security more
imporrant in Bern than in other Zahringer
towns? Information regarding the first western
wall and south wall and gate is rather recent,
coming to light during excavations which took
place after much of Hofer's writings.
42. L. Krier, "The City Within the City, Les
Quarriers," in Leon Krier: HOllses, Pctitlces, Cities,
D. Porphyrias, ed. (Architectural Design 54, 7/8[984)
4}. F. Divarne,
Berne et les villes fondees j)ct1' les
(Bruxelles: AAM editions,
See maps pP.196,I98. These numbers and
maps also correspond to P . Hofet,
"Strukturanalyse flir Anlage und Entwicklung
des Berner Stadtkerns," i n iHclterialien zlIr Stadie
Bern: 4. Jahreskllrs 197-# I975, A. R Liegg, ed.
(Zurich: Atchitekturabteilung, Eidg. Technische
Hochschule [ETH], 1975), 1' . 1 5 ·
In The ZClhringer New Towns, Hofer places
the number of homesteads in the original
settlement at 64, as does Morris, Ur/;etl/ Form,
p.llI. Schmocker and Webet place the number
of original homesteads at 49. The numbers and
dates L1sed here are from Divorne, Berne et les
villes, and Hofet's "Swdie Bern," 1975. These two
sources concur and appear to reflect the latest
research.
44. Schmocker and Weber, A ltes Bern, Ne/1eJ
d,m de Zahringell
1991).
S. Kostof, The Cit)' Shaped: Urhe/ll Pcrttel'/1J
(Boston: Little,
Btown & Co., Boston, 199[), PP. [47-48.
46. The lot size for the origi nal homesteads was
only 60 feet deep. A double parcel, even when
combined with the two I2-foot projections over
the streets on either end (incorporating the
arcade) would only add up to 144 feet. It was
only in the third expansion around [255-65 that
lots [75 feet in depth would have been possible.
Sufficient depth exists between the Marktgasse
and the Zeughausgasse.
47. Generally, the original houses were narrow
and vertically organized, with staircases in the
back, deep narro\v rooms (one or twO to a floor),
and a back yard oriented to the alley and sewer
drainage. In the seventeenth century houses
were extended from street to street. The former
back yard and alley area became an arch itectur­
ally upgraded inner courtyard with the sewage
d rainage covered. The change was the result of a
change in life-style, an improved economic
situation, and a change in the use of rooms ­
primarily on account of French infl uence. See U .
Bellwald, "Srichworte zum Haus i n der Berner
Altstad t," in RUegg, ed . , AIelteriellien zlIr Stlle/ie
Bern, pp.}7-} 8 .
A question arises as to the nature of the very
first construction. Was the three-story house
with a stand in front really the prototype of [[9[,
or was there a more rural phase? Numerous
sources begin with this archetype, but one must
speculate as to when this urban form actually
firsr appeared . A t what time did the homesteads
actually begin to be subdivided' Did this only
occur after the second generation became landed,
or did the original landholdets i mmediately
begin subdividing before building their own
hOllses?
49. Schmocker and Weber, AlteJ Bern, NeJ1eJ
48.
Bern.
Galanray, "Old New Towns," P . 9 1 .
Ibid . , P · 9 1 .
5 2 . Ibid., 10 . 9 2 . This is how Geiger describes
the adjustment of the old town to new forms of
retail activity:
50.
51.
A t first, the single-standing houses on
ample "homesteads" were replaced by
arcaded row-houses on narrow lots:
strips, connecting two parallel streets
with a light-shaft or court in the middle.
As the shops under the arcade required
more storage space, they gradually filled
in the courtS on the main floor. When
electricity came, it was found that the
shops did not need natural light and
the sales area expanded into the entire
main floor. Such large shops required
more frontage, however. Consequently,
the window-fronts were bulged inward
and soon these penetrations of public
space connected the streets on both
sides, creating covered passages along
which small shops and tiny businesses
could locate. Then it was found that
the passages need not be confined to
street level and connections were es­
tablished in the basement and on
mezzanines. Here, the pedestrian still
moves in public space - not inside the
shops but in an "interior-exterior" and
pronts from the relativizarion ofInside
and Outside that intrigued great archi­
tects like COl·busier. Soon, the shop
owners were willing to do even more to
lure potential cLlstomers and started to
heat the passages in win ter with infra­
red lamps, making the year-round op­
eration of street-cafes and snack bars
possible.
Bern.
45.
ernd Alee111ings ThroNgh History
53·
Ibid . , P·9[
B E C KMA N/AC K E R K N E C H T
54- Ibid . , P·91
55. The population within the Inner City grew
from 4,500-5,000 i n the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries to 10,000 in rhe mid­
seventeenth century, to 13,600 i n the m i d­
eighteenth century, to 1 5,000 in 1810. Growth
after 1810 occurred outside rhe Inner City,
reachi ng 29,670 in 1850, 91,000 i n 1910, 1 63,000
in 1960, 145,000 i n 1980, and 134,000 by 1988.
The urban agglomeration population stood at
nearly 300,000 i n 1980. From 1970 ro 1988 rhe
Inner Ciry popularion declined from 6,268 i n
1970, t o 4,781 i n 1980, and ro 4,377 i n 1988,
reaching popuiacion levels comparable to those
of the fourteenth and fifteenth cencuries. The
last outbreaks of the plague occurred in 16IO-12
and 1626-28.
56. AISayyad, CilieJ {(lid Caliphs. While rhe
model of a "Typical Islamic Town" (P.32) bears a
marked resemblance to the l inear parcern of
Bern, with a central market spine and secondary
cross axis, it should be notcd thm thc Friday
Mosque and College (Madrash i ) occupy the
central position at the crossi ng of the axis. On
p.22, rhe "Srereorypical Muslim Ciry of the
Middle East" sho\vs a pattern somewhat
d i ffetent, w i th the Nfarket (.wq) clustered in one
quadranr and rhe Public Square, Friday Mosque,
and Palace occupying the central position. The
Bazaar at Aleppo (P.l05) shows a pattern s i m i lar
to Bern with a linear "Colonnade Sueet turned
Bazaar" set in a grid pattetn of Greco-Roman
origins.
A deviarion of the Middle Easrern parrern
occurs in Hemt, Afghanistan, which presents
some very i n teresting comparisons with Bern.
See P. English, "The Trad irional Ciry of Herar,
Afghanistan," in FroJl/ i\ltldinC{ to J1/etrojJo/iJ, C.
Brown, ed . (Pri nceton: The Darwin Press, 1973),
PP . 75-89. Herar, founded by Alexander (who
gave the city its present form), was conquered by
the Arabs in the seventh century. Herat became
a major center of culture during the reign of
Husayn Baiquers (a Timurid prince from
1469-1506) (P.75). The old ciry of Herar
occupies a one-mile square bisected by twO cross
axes, each of which is a continuous bazaar, and
which meet in the center at the Chahar Suq.
What distinguishes Herat from rhe "typical
Islamic town" is rhe petipheral location of all
the pubUc and religious build i ngs, j ust as i n
Bern.
It is further i nteresting to note the
comparison with Bern in terms of the v i tal i ty (at
leasr i n 1975) of rhe markerplace. "The bazaars
of Herar have 5,542 shops (see Table I . , P . S5) and
an aggregate lengrh of apptoximarely six m i les
[compared co Bern's five m i les of covered
arcades]. The ciry has one shop for every fifreen
citizens, indicating its i m portance as a regional
marketing center for the m i l lion or so people
who live in rhe valley of the Hari Rud" (p.84).
Again the comparison with Galantay's figures
for Bern and his comparisons with New York
and Montreal are i n teresti ng. Writing in 1975,
English describes change over 2,000 years in
I-Ierat i n great detail. " . . . Herat today is one of
the most trad itional large cities in Asia.
Herat's functional structure, organization of
space, and res idential q uarters d iffer from those
ascribed to other preindustrial Islamic c i t ies"
(p.89)·
57. A. Riiegg, "Wohnquartiere del' Stadt Bern,
Quarrieranalyse Berner Altstad t," i n R i'legg, ed.,
Alateria/iell ZII/' Stlldie Berll, P.72
58. Bellwald, "Stichworre zum Haus," P.36; and
Hofer, "StruKcuranalyse," PP.24-29.
59. See Schmocker and Weber, A lles Bel'll. Nom
BerlJ for an extensive colleCtion of photographs
and old drawings of Bern's d iversity of building
styles and the changes that have occurred over
the centuries.
60. Bellwald, "Stichworre Z U Ill Haus,"
PP · 36-38.
6 1 . Schmocker and Weber, Altes Bem. NelleJ
Bern, (nnal page, English translation).
62. B . Meier, Die Cit)' illt hiJtoriJchelJ Kern:
NlltzltllgflfJ?lIldei lmd VerdrCin!jIlJlgJjJrozeJJe iJl del'
Bemer III1IeJlstaclt zwiJchen 1975 /mel 1989 (Bern:
Berner Geogmph ische M ittei l u ngen;
Geographische Gesellschaft von Bern, 1991),
1'1'·93-94·
63. K. Aerniii, E. H,iAiger, R . R . Kalbermarren,
U. Kaufman, and U. Seewer, "Fussgunger als
wichtigste Verkehrstei lnehmer: E i ne
FussgangeruntersuchLlng in clef Berner
[nnenstadr," DISP "3 (April 1993) Instirur fur
Orrs-, Regional - LInd Lanciesptanung, ETH­
Zurich, Pp. 3-lo.
64· Galantay, "Old New Towns," P.93.
65· Meier, Die City, PI' 93-9466. F. Diirrenillatt, "Der Versuch," i n
Gedelllkell/Ilg e (Zurich: Diogenes Verlag, 1992),
pp. I06-31.
67. Kosrof, The City Slkl/;ec!, p . 1 6
68. E. Bacon, The DeJigli o/Cities (Thames and
Hudson, M . I.T. Press, 1975), P.13·
69. D. Ackerknecht, Penton 0/ Chelllg e ill
IrialllidArab Cities e/ll d AfJ/lrOdcher to Ihe
PreJerVtltioJl of the A rchitecllt"l"tti Heritage
(Proceed ings of Conference on: "Preservation
of Archi recrural Heri tage of Islamic Ci ries,"
Istanbul, April 1985; Arab Urban Development
.
BERN
.
63