UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
CLAY SAMPLES FROM THE WESTERN REGION OF GHANA,
X-RAY ANALYSIS, CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, BLEACHING PROPERTIES,
AND SUITABILITY FOR CEMENT CLINKER PRODUCTION
BY
JOSEPH YAW APPlAH
A THESIS SUBMITED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST,
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF AMASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (M. Phi!.)
DEGREE IN CHEMISTRY
AUGUST, 1998.
I
,
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
CLAY SAMPLES FROM THE WESTERN REGION OF GHANA.,
X-RA Y ANALYSIS, CHEMICAL ANAL YSIS, BLEACIIING PROPERTIES,
AND SUITABILITY FOR CEMENT CLINKER PRODUCTION
BY
JOSEPH YAW APPIAH
B.Se. (Hons.) Cbem. Eog. P. G. C. E. M. Ed. (S<. Ed.)
A THESIS SUBMITED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY,UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST,
IN PARTIAL I'ULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
TIlE AWARD OF AMASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (M. PbiL)
DEGREE IN CHEMISTRY
AUGUST, 1998.
DECLARAnON
1. I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own original
research and that no part of it has been presented for another
degree in this University or elsewhere.
Joseph Yaw Appiah
(Caodidate)
I hereby declare that the presentation of the thesis were supervised in
accordance with the guidelines on the supervision of thesis laid down by the
University of Cape Coast.
~L;\
Date
Prof. V.P.Y. Gadzekpo
(principal Supervisor)
]f it were discovered later that the declaration was false, the result of the thesis, if
successful, would be withdrawn.
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to Theodora, My beloved wife
And sons
Enoch
Ivan
Justin, and
Stanley
For their sacrifice and understanding.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Not by might, nor by power, but by my spirit, says the Lord of hosts!
(Zech.4:6)
It is the divine guidance and support, that has propelled me through this course to a
successful end and I am grateful to the Lord Jesus Christ.My sincerest gratitude goes to
Prof. V.P. Y. Gadzekpo, my research supervisor whose personal interest and suggestions
gave me great insight into the work. My thanks aJso go to Mr. F. Okai-Sam for his
suggestions at various stages of their work.
Many thanks also go to the academic and technical staff of the Department of
Chemistry for their support during the course of the work. I thank Sis, Elizabeth, Mr. &
Mrs. Wilmot from Nsein Secondary School who sacrificed sometime to take us round
Numa and Wassa areas, and the people in those areas that gave us warmth reception and
guided us to the sample collection sites.
r thank Dr. AidoD and the staff ofTema Oil
Refinery who opened wide their laboratory to me for my samples digestion.
Many thanks to the Research Fund Management Committee of the Ministry of
Education for funding the project.
J.Y.A
AUGUST 1998.
III
ABSTRACT
Forty one clay samples from the Western Region of Ghana, and two
imported aetivated clay samples (Fuller's Earth); Galleon V -2 and Fulmot BE
300C (collected from Lever Bros.Ltd.). used as controls were analysed. The
chemical composition obtained for their oxides are,Na20 ranging from 0.278.56%, K,O from 0.00 -0.90%, MgO from 0.02 -1.17%, CaO from 0.02 -1.53%,
AI,o" from 24.43- 39.08%, Fe,O, from 0.24 -15.47%, SiO, from 33.43 --D0.43%,
moisture content from 1,00 -5.00%. Loss on Ignition from 1.20 -25.90%, Total
Organic Matter from 3.44 -40.00% and Cation Exchange Capacity from 3.00 106.67 m.e.
Cation Exchange capacity and X-ray Analysis were uscd to
dctCffilJnC
the type of day
minerals present in the clay samples. Promment among the clay minerals are
Montmorillonite, Kaolinite and Muscovite
Limestone-Clay Homogenate analysis wa... carried out to delcffiline the sUItability of
some selected clay sampks for cement c1mker production. Selected samples that were
suitable include the following; Nyamcndac. Afransl-2, Bokaso-J, Aluku-J, Nkrofo,
Esiama-2, Axim, Bonsukrom-3, Shama-2, and
Apramudu~2
The bleaching abilities of both the aClivated and some selected forms of Ihe
Local clay samples were also determined. Silica-Alumina ratio from 1.50 to 2.49 and
Lime-Silica ratio ranging from 0.001 to 0.046 are generally found
10
be suitable for
cemenl clinker production. This indicates Ihat samples from Nyamendae, Afransl-I&2,
Ellenda, Bokw:>-l, Aluku-I&2, Nkroful, AXlm, Esiama-l, Bonsukrom·3, Kejabir,
Shama-I&2, Apramdo- 1&2 whose values fall within these ranges are suitable for
production of white cement
;v
Activated clays from Aluku -4 that was treated with 10% H2S04, Aluku -4 and
Esiama - I that were treated with 20% H2S04 and Esiama - 3, Alulru -I, Nkroful, Axim.
Kejabir, Ketan and Esipong that were treated with 50% H2S04 acid were found to be good
bleaching earth for palm oil Activated clays from Bonsukrom - 1 that was treated with
10% H2S04 , and Ellenda, Aiyinase,
Esiama~2,
Axim. Bonsukrom-3. Kelao,
Sharna~
I.
Apramdo-l, 3 &4 that were treated with H2S04 were also found to be good bleaching
earth for palm kernel oil.
v
CONTENTS
PAGE
DECLARAnON •••.•••••••••••....................................••.•......
DEDICATION •••••••...••.••.................................................
il
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT •.........•..•. ..•.•.•.•...•••.......•.•...........
iii
ABSTRACT
Iv
LIST OF TABLES
x
LIST OF FIGURES
xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.10
Definition of Clay
2
1.11
Clay Types and the Strucnrre of Clay minerals. .. ...
3
1.12
Building Blocks of Clay Minerals..
4
1.13
Kaolinite Group
1.14
MODttnorillonite Group..
1.15
Hydrous Mica Group....
9
1.20
Properties of Clay Colloids
II
1.21
Sources of Change in Clay Colloids
11
1.22
Clay pH
13
1.30
Uses of Clay ..
14
1.31
Clay Distribution in the Western Region of Ghana
15
1.40
Clay Components.
17
1.50
Ignitioo Loss
18
1.51
Total Organic Loss
18
1.52
Moisture Content..............................................
18
..
4
..
..
8
.. ..
vi
1.60
Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil
19
170
Activated Clays...................................
19
I. 71
Adsorbents
20
1.72
Clays Suitable for Activation.................. .
20
1.73
Bleaching..................... .
1.80
Clays suitable for cement clinker production.....
22
1.81
Spectroscopic Methods afeation Analysis ofeJay samples
23
..
21
l.8tA Emission Flame Spectrometry
23
l.8tB Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
23
1.81 C Gravimetric Analysis of Silicon....................................
24
1.90
Purp<>se oflbe Study
25
1.91
Statemeot ofOhjectives
26
1.91A
Specific Activities
.. _.
CHAPTER TWO: EXPERIMENTAL.
.
26
28
2.10
Sample Preparation.......
. .28
2.20
Special Equipment.... .
2.21
Reagents..............................................
2.22
Clay Sample pH
2.23
Ignition Loss
29
2.24
Moisture Content......................................................
39
2.30
Dissolution of Clay Samples.. ""
30
2.31
Acid Digeslion
30
2.40
Chentical Analysis.
30
2.41
Elemental Analysis.............
30
.. .. .
.
..
.
28
29
. 29
vii
2.42
Gravimetric Analysis of Silicon
,
,
31
2.50
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) And X-Ray Analysis
31
2.60
Activation of Clay Samples .. "
32
2.70
Bleaching of Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil....
2.80
Colour Analysis.........................
2.90
Oil Retention Determination
2.91
Limestone-Clay Homogenate Analysis
,
,
.
33
33
'"
34
34
CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
35
3.10
Sources and Characteristics of Clay Samples.......
35
3.11
Physical Characteristics
35
3.12
Clay Samples pH Values
38
3.20
Percentage Moisture Content, Ignition Loss and Total organic
Matter Content, of Clay Samples.
40
3.21
Moisture Content of Clay Samples.
40
3.21
Percentage Loss on 19nition and Total Organic Matter Content
of Clay Samples
..
44
3.30
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) .
3.31
X-Ray Analysis of Clay Samples
3.40
Chemical Analysis. .. .. .
3.41
Limestone-Clay Homogenate Analysis for
..
.
.
..
45
47
50
Cement Clinker Production
55
3.50
Colour Analysis of Palm Kernel Oil
3.51
Bleaching Propenies of Clay Samples.
3.52
Oil Retention of Activated Clay Samples
viii
.
56
.. ... 56
.
... 65
CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDA no
REFERENCES
71
APPENDIX
76
,
I,'I"
I;
I
IX
I
I
... 69
USTOFTABLES
PAGE
I.
Clay Types and Structure of Clay Minerals
2A Quantities and Life Span of Clay Deposits in the
3
.
..
..
15
Western Region afGhana-
2B One Way Analysis ofYariance (ANOYA) of Quantities
and Life Span of Clay Deposits in the Western Region of Ghana - ....
16
3 Chemical Analysis ofelay carried Out at Building and Road Research
Institute (BRRI) on Asokwa Clay and Accra Brick and Tile Factory ... .. _ 17
3A
Criteria for Limestone - clay Homogeneates Analysis for protland
cement clinker production
22
4.
Physical Characteristics afelay Minerals.
36
SA
Percentage Moisture Contents, Loss on Ignition,
Total Organic Maner, Cation Exchange Capacity And Possible
Clay Minerals Present.....
42
5B
X-Ray Analysis of clay samples
47
6.
Chemical Analysis of the Clay Samples (Expressed
In Percentages) .. .....
52
7A
Chemical Analysis of Limestone Samples .... ,. .
54
7B
Chemical Analysis of Selected Clay samples
55
7C
Limestone Hamogenate Analysis...............
56
8.
Colour After Bleaching with Natural (Unactivated Clay Samples)..
58
9.
Colour of Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil Used as Controls.
59
x
10.
Palm Oil Colour Analysis
II.
Palm Kernel Oil Colour Analysis
12
_.. "'" _.. ..
..
59
.
62
Oil Retention Values (percentage Oil Retention of Filtered Clays
Treated with Different Percentages of Acids)
i
I
,I
i
xi
66
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
I a. Aluminum Hydroxide (gibbsite) Sbeet
Ib. Magnesium Hydroxide (brucite) Sheet......
5
....
Ie. Silicon Tetrahedron
5
5
2a.
Structure of Kaolinite
7
2b.
Structure of Montmorillonite
2c.
Structure ofTrioctabedral Cblorite
_.....
xii
7
,
10
lI
CHAPITR O"L
!
I
from selecred siles m the yolta Eastern and the Cemra: Regions of Ghano
Ie
deiemnne tile
composlrioo of the clays and their Nea.-hjn~ propernes or. fats and oils [l-ti] The f.us ~
bk:ac.b the fats and oils used for the production of s...~, anC cooking oils
results in the :anadiry of oils after standmg
to~ ~
iong rime
:-i.-J
Bleadnng:hus maKes r:
,.
,
days abound m kaolinite. rnommorilionite
an.:::
illne .'"" ,
bleaching properties of alJ cla" [10 j
alluvial days made up of sand and
SIr<ams and are limited '"
IrOD
compounds
slopes of surroundmg hills
~ wve:-- the flV<'.ld.-pi..aJ.ru. of ;e-.:ent
'-0
detaiJ«j m[ofITlaOOD 15 a'.allahle
abouI the type of da~ minerals in the \\"esten: Region of Ghana. ah!h..-..ugb n
t
I
r =- .ed thaI the ~_.~
.~.. .......,...
~.
e am
~.
L_\
of Ule' three cia\ types found m Ghano
l5
f!eneTall~
The purpose of the present investigation is to.
idelltify the clay minerals present by using the sodium index method, volumetric
i)
teclmiques. gravimetric techniques and spectroscopic methods
ii)
delennine tbe bleaching capacity for palm oil and palm kernel oil and
iii)
examine the suitability of these clays as good sources of raw material for cement
clinker prodllction_
1 10
DEFINITION OF CLAY [IO.11.12]
Clay is formed by the decomposition of alkali and alkaline-earth materials
containing such compounds as aluminium silicates (A hSi~07 2H:!O) and feldspar (K:
AbSi.t;OI6) fonned by the action of the sun, rain and other exogenous forces
The major components of clay are potassium aluminium silicates and hydrates
The
clay are characterized by their size, colour and fusion
A clay particle has an average diameter of about 0 0002 nun [13]
oniy be viewed under the microscope
material impurities impan colour
This can
Pure cla\' is white in colour. however. several
For example. red clays contain several amount of
iron oxides. yellow clays contain severa] amounts of aluminium oxides~ and )[hers are
combination of these mixtures
The fusion point varies between 1150"( and 1875"(
between 40°C and 120"(, it first glves away its water
water on cooling If heated at a temperature of 5S0
if clay is heated up 10
The clay may reabsorb thIs
U
(
and beyond.
It
looses its
combined water and reaches a state where it cannot absorb water anymore
state its structure is completely alter [IJ, 14]
2
At this
I 11
CLAY lYPES AND THE STRUCfURE OF CLAY MINERALS
The structure of the three main types of clay; Kaolinite, montmorillonite and
Hydrous mica with some varieties and physical properties are given in table I.
TABLE 1: CLAY lYPES AND STRUCfURE OF CLAY MINERALS
FAMILY
GROUP
STRUC·
SHAPE
TURE
SPECmC
SWELLING
SURFACE
CAPACITY
VARIETY
STRUCTIJRE
(Me/g)
LKAOL!NITE
l:l
Chain
5 -20
Hoxa.oonaI
CHEMICAL
Low
Kaohmte
A1M.lSiO~.2Hl0
Dickite
ery,tal,
Naaite
Halloysilc
2.MONTMORl
2:1
Lay«
!neg-
700 - goo
fhgh
Flak'"
llONITE
Montmorillo
A1:OJ.4SiO;nH1O
<u1e
AJA3Si0,:nH1 O
BeldcUite
(At
NonlrOD.ite
2MgO.3SiO;.nHP
FCh.3SI~
nHP
"-"Ie
,
I,
,
"
~
3.HYDROUS
2:1
La,.,
hregu1M
100 - 200
MICA
,
I
I
"'~
Vuriable
illltc
of KP-MgO-AlP.
lIIDOuni
SiOH 1O
"
I
I
MOOiwn
According to the crystal build-up of clay minerals, clays are grouped in
families and eacb funily exhibits some physical properties such as swelling when it
absorbs water, specific surface area that gives it some adsorptive properties [IS]
3
f
I
1.1 2
BUll..DING BLOCKS OF CLAY MINERALS [16-12, 15-18)
Clay mineral structures are essentially composed of two types of sheets; the
silica tetrahedral sheet and the alumina or magnesia octahedral sheet
These sheets
are joined together in various arrangements to form the plate-like structures of clay
minerals.
The clay minerals are c1assilied according to the number and the
arrangements of the silica tetrahedral sheets
Generally the recognised structures are
the (1.1) types and the (2:1) types. The major structures are kaolinite, vermiculite,
illite and chlorite.
1.13
KAOLINITE GROUP 116-12, 16-18)
Kaolinite is the simplest type of clay mineral It is composed of one
aluminium hydroxide sheet [Fig. la] and one silicon tetrahedral sheet Fig 1c in which
each apical oxygen of the silicon tetrahedral sheet replaces one hydroxyl group of the
aluminium hydroxide sheet and forms (J l) type structure The oxygen ions of the
basal type of the silicon tetrahedral sheet are aligned opposite to the hydroxyl groups
of the aluminium hydroxide sheet to which they become finnly attached by hydrogen
bonding to produce a rigid structure which cannot expand (Fig 2b) This includes
some crystal structural features of kaolinite, a dioctahedral 1"1 layer silicate mineral
The hydrogen bonding can be broken by the reaction in a KOAc salt slurry, yielding a
salt interlayer in the expanded structure
Kaolinite - S4AL,OIO(OH)" a
]'1
layer silicate, has a triclinic symmetry and often
occurs as crystals with hexagonal shape The structure of the mineral involves
hydrogen bonding between adjacent layers spaced at intervals of 7 2
A The presence
of hydrogen bonding prevents the expansion of kaolinite beyond its basal spacing in
4
water or other organic liquids; however, grinding kaolinite with potassium acetate
causes the layers to expand to 14
A. After initial intercalation with KOAc, other salts,
potassium and ammonium salts, may be introduced in between the layers of both
kaolinite and dickite, giving varying X-ray spacings. This serves as a basis for the
differentiation in mineralogical analysis of kaolinite from chlorite (which does not
expand in salt)
Fig. la: Aluminium Hydroxide (gibbsite) sbeet
o
o
o
o
o
"
,
"
II
i
I'
'0
0
0
ou
AI
~o/
ou
o
ou
Fig Ib: Magnesium Hydroxide (brucite) sbeet
"
")C
o
0
Mg
ou
o
,,
I
I!
The silica tetrahedra can be
arranged into chains or sheets
by the sharing of oxygens betwE
C:.~.~
adjacent silica tetrahedra.
--r.~
Fig. Ie: Silica Tetrabedron
5
Kaolinite is a dioetahedral mineral, and in the pure form, the AI atoms occupy
the same position in all the layers
There is. however, a continuous series from
kaolinite to fire-clays, with increasing disorder in the arrangement of the two AJ
atoms in the three positions they can occupy. fire-clays having completely random
distribution. Dickite and Nacrite are isomers of kaolinite, but differ from the latter in
the position of the AI atoms in the adjacent layers. Dickite has a two-layer structure
and Nacrite a more complex six-layer structure. Halloysite has a structure somewhat
similar to kaolinite except that a layer of water is hydrogen-bonded between the I I
silicate layers. The water molecules are attached to the adjacent silica and alumina
sheet by hydrogen bonding
The fully hydrated halloysite-S4Al4 0IO (OH) 84H,O- is
i"so known as Endellite or hydrated Halloysite The structure from whIch the
interlayer water has been expeUed is called Halloysite
or metahallovsite
.
. Halloysite
.
readily dehydrates to give 7.2 to 76 A basal spacing. The slightly lager basal spacmg
of Halloysite, in contrast to that for kaolinite (7.2 A), arises from the residual water
trapped in between the collapsed layers. Serpentines are a group of trioctahedral ] 1
layer silicates with a basal spacing of 7
A.
The octahedral cation is primarily
magnesium, but other ferruginous and aluminous Serpentines are known
magnesium end-member is chrysotile-S4M~OlO(OH)8
There
The
is considerable
substitution of AI for Mg and there is a continuous series from chrysotite to lizardite.
with antigorite-Si.,(Mg.,.s, AI, Fe'"OIO(OH),- as an intermediate member
6
I
,~
Fig. 2a Structure of Kaolinite
4 Si
60
610H]
4Al
40+2[0H]
C Axis
4 Si
~'O
o
b -Axis - -
•
./
'0
_
60
•
Fig. 2b. Structure of Montmorillonite
4(51. All
60
Exchangeable canons
and
60
4 (Si, .AJ I
40 + 2iOHI
4 (Al. Fe. Mgl
40+2iOH)
4 (51. Al)
o
•
b -Axis
60
0
_
7
•
1 14
MONTMORILLONITE GROUP
17. 16-12. 16-18\
This is the (21) structure type derived from the pyrophyllite structure hy
substituting one-sixth of the aluminium ions by magnesium that causes an imbalance
of charge within
the structure that is usually satisfied by basic cations
suhstitution of Fe can also take place
Some
The small size and great affinity for water
imphes the ahihty to expand and contract in response to the addition and loss of
moisture. Fig. 2b shows Some crystal structure features of the montmorillonite
isomorphous series of freely expansible :2 1 layer silicate minerals
bond lines (ill) indicate an omitted portion
10
The breaks in the
bring the two types of substitution
closer than they occur on the average The interlayer cations are freely exchangeable
The c-spacing varies with water content, and the water can be replaced by polar
organic molecules
The minerals of the montmorillornte of smectile Isomorphous senes are fredv
expansible layer silicates
The spacing of the layers ranges from 12
10
18 A, and I~
variable with the exchangeable catIon species and the degree of mterlayer solvatIon
Complete drying yields a spacing of less than loA
Full hydration can lIoal the
layers apart, independent of each other
An abundance of the c:I(changeable cauons Ca and Mg m sihca-rich
aqut:ou~
(moist) environments favours the formation of freely e:l(pansible layer silicates uf the
montmorillonite series
The most typical occurrences of montmorilJorute are
bentonite clay fonned from volcanic ash deposits m fresh water, clay fonned
In
mal,
clay of hydromorphic soils in many regions. clay in soils formed from hasalt's and
Iimeotone weathered to intermediate stages in humid climates. and as clays formed hy
weathered of micas in cool humid chmates
8
I.
I 15
HYDROUS MICA GROUP 110-12. 16-18J
These are hydrated clay minerals but are incapable of expanding due to the
additional linkages supplied by potassium
There are two type of this group, The
venniculite Group: - This is a hydrated mica from which potassium has been replaced
by calcium and magnesium. This implies increased substitution capable of expanding
The chlorite Group (Fig 2c)
This is (2 J) structure type of layered silicate plus
magnesium hydroxide sheet (Fig 1b) sandwiched between two mica layers and
replacing K in the mica structure
Chemical composition varies since Mg, Fe and
other cations replace AI to a certain extent These types of clay minerals are capable
of adsorbing large amounts of potassium in the soil that are then made available to
plants in the soiL Some crystal structural features of the chlorite series of 2.2 layer
silicate minerals are show in Figure 2C
it represents
The structure of the
trioctahedral variety, Chlorite occurs ex'tensively in soils, mainly inherited from mafic
,
,
rocks, serpentine. and other rocks, but to some extent formed
is a 2 1 1 or 2:2 layer silicate (Fig 2c)
In
the soil This rmneraJ
A hydroxide interlayer (sometimes enned the
Abrucite;::;;- layer) of composition such as AhM£,.l (OH)2
12 IS
sandwiched between
negatively charged mica-like layers as a replacement for K in the mica structure
A
type formula for trioctahedral chlorite is (Al,S",) Al,MgIOO,,(OHho in which Fe'
and other divalent cations may replace Mg, and Fe)< and other cations may replace
Al.
The distribution of the (+) charge between the layer and the interlayer cannot
be ascertained, but some charge of the interlayer is required for structural stability
Tetrahedral change may range between (AlS,,) to (AJ,Si.,) or even outside this range
9
The elemental composition of chlorites varies over an extremely wide range. Toxic
elements, such as Cr. and Ni, can occur in mafic cblorites. Serpentine-derived clayey
soils are sometimes outstanding for infertility and are known as aserpentine barrens.
to the presence of toxic elements or to a deficiency of certain essential
owing either
elements such as Ca.
Fig. 2c: Structure of Trioctabedral Cblorite
AI + 351
60
n
'Y'x-JJ.,
.
'x,
/~
""-,4-..
I
.0,~~..-JJ:)..,.
n,
''·
I
.... ;)....(....
......
""---"'''''''''''''''''1
";>-t.:?
...:....... .
..,..."
~'K
~.'
t
: ............... :
..
.X
. ..
:,>"tiC..,
. / '-...J....-.-"""--r-.... ................. '" 0''- 'A.__
....0··
U
v
U
"
U
.....
.....
. /
• ,./
I
...........
1
.........'
. . . . . .- - . .
'
.. /
........
'<..'
."
,07'".~..............
~/l
I.....
-
-i'
/" I
......
__ '
:"..~:
I....
........
I
6 (OH)
I
""-.-'
o
..
6 ( AI, Fe, Mg
6 (OR)
60
14A
o
0.0
35, +AJ
c-
s
,..0,
•• 0
: . . ..,;>c"'....
. . . . . . ."',-'"XI
I
....... 1./
.":>1'::
I
',~ ../
:k
n
?---......
. ,y...............
-...~..
I
I
"
'
"..' I.......
I
........... : / ........... : ........ .,.>: ..j..........
::K
'i.'__-,..
X
......n
~.
I
"....:......
.-I"
:>"..:'.,,:.. : x : :'"f"'...... -.. . : :...... ,: ....""""--.~~..'"
..
',6/ . . . . . c\/ '-{;/ --,lY-- " ....... 6-'"
....
.....
,
,
"""'--
...... I
......
.......
40+2(OH)
6 (AI.Fe.Mgl
:
u--I
40+2(OH)
AI + 3S,
60
•
b -Axis - - - - - - - - - . .
10
1.20
PROPERTIES OF CLAY MINERALS
There are four basic properties of clay. These are:
(i)
Cation exchange capacity [CEC]: -This is the ability of clay to adsorb cations,
and water molecules and form ionic double layer
The cation exchange
reaction results mainly from unsatisfied bonds of charges due to isomorphous
replacement of silicon and aluminium that give a large number of exchange
sites, and high exchange capacity [7, 12, 16]
(ii)
Flocculation - Individual particles of clay are coagulated to fonn flocculer
process depending upon the nature of the ions present. Ca 2 -' and H+ are ver),
effective in this role
Ca2~ (or divalent ions) generally suppress the double
layer and causes flocculation
(iii)
Dispersion:dispersion.
Individual parties are kept separate one from the other in
This is accomplished by K' and more particularly by No, No
saturated clays thus have a thick double layer [10, 12, 19)
(iv)
Basal Spacing: - This is the fixed distance from one point in one layer to the
same point in the adjacent layer The basal spacing is utilized in X-ray studies
as a differentiating criterion [12, 16]
1.21
SOURCES OF CHARGE IN CLAY COLLOIDS
There are three sources of charge These are:(i)
I
i
,
Pennanent charges: - Isomorphous substitution of cations in the silicate
structure by cations of lower valence A negative charge is generated by this
substitution.
Al3~ for Si4~ in tetrahedral layers and
octahedral layers
11
M g2" lor . .. .u. J • .m
(u)
pH-dependent charges (edges charges) - located at the edges of clay minerals
and attached to Si are unsatisfied oxygen atoms. Their charges are generally
neutralized by
Ii'
attached to OK groups at the edges They are readily
ionizable and leaves in alkaline solutions that gives the 0
2
-
a negative charge
The hydroxides of Fe and AJ and the OH groups at the edges of kaolinite will
readily accept an
Jr ion
in acidic solutions
When this occurs they become
positively charged. [10, 19]
AI - OH +H+
(iii)
Exchange cations: - Most colloids are negatively charged They attract cations
of opposite charge to their surface
Those cations are called exchangeable
cations and in most soils they are dominated by Ca2 +, K', Na', H~ and Ae~
The total negative charge generated by the clay colloids is called the cation
exchange capacity (CEC) Its unit are milli-equivalent per 100g of oven-dried
clay
Similarly, the total positive charge is called the anion exchange capacity
(AEC) Expandahle c1av mineral such as smectite and montmorillonite will
have large surface areas; and non-expandable clay minerals;uch as kaolinite
will not.
Similarly clay minerals with much
isomorphous substitution will
have higher CEC than those with little substitution [12,16,19]
122
CLAYpB
The pH is perhaps the most commonly measured clay characteristic.
It is
certainly the most widely used criterion for judging whether a clay is acidic or not
The concept of pH is based
Kw =
on the ionic product of pure water.
[W] [OHlIO,14 at 23"C
12
The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the W
ion Concentration pH = - 10glO
[Hj pH changes with temperature. It is generally not
possible to compute the total acidity of clays from pH alone, however, one can deduce
fairly well from clay pH how acidic or basic the clay is. The soil pH can provide a
variety of useful information namely; percent base saturation, the degree of
dissociation ofW
ions from cation exchange sites or the extent of tr ion
formation by hydrolysis of AI and the relative availability of plant nutrients. The pH
of
the
clay
mineral
is
influenced
by
factors
such
as
the
nature
and the type of inorganic and organic constituents, the soil soLution ratio, the
electrolyte content of clay and the carbon dioxide content of clay.
1.30
USES OF CLAY
Clay has many industrial applications because it is chemically inert over a
relatively wide pH range
It is soft and non-abrasive
It has low electrical and
thermal conductivities and cost less than most competing materials. A wide variety of
products contain clay as a suspension agent, fillers, extending agents of a main
compound [20]
Among the many uses are:
J
.,
I
ink,
filler aids.
adhesives,
cosmetics,
insecticides,
chemicals,
medicines,
pencils.
food additives.
detergents•
catalyst preparations.
paste.
bleaches
porcelain enamels,
adsorbents.
&iring.
cemern,
foundries.
fertiliz.ers
linoleum,
plaster.
13
floor tiles,
1.31
textiles
crayons.
CLAY DISTRIBUTION IN THE WESTERN REGION OF GHANA
The Western Region of Ghana has large deposits of clay consisting of
subreant alluvial clays composed of sand with iron compounds
They cover the
flood plains of recent streams and are limited by slopes of surrounding hills [20]
Table 2A shows the clay distrihution in the Western Region
The clays spread along
the breadth and length of the region Quartz abounds in Eduapirem, Petepong, Aboso,
Abontiako, Tarkwa and Bogoso
Bokazo area
There is a huge deposit of white clays in AJuku and
Nsuta clays are abundant in Manganese oxides, and Awaso clays are
abundant in Aluminum oxides
Nsuta and Awaso clays are among the most Important sources of Manganese
and Bauxite in the world.
14
TABLE 2A: QUANTITIES AND LIFE SPAN OF CLAY DEPOSIT IN THE
WESTERN REGION OF GHANA
RESERVES IN METRIC TONS
APPROX.LIFE
SPAN (YEARS)
AREA
LOCATION
SEKONDI
Inchaban
2.668.600
83
Shama
7, 163,082
221
Beposo
- not estimated -
-
Dixcove
9, 469, 979
292
Hwiodo
- not estimated -
-
Mpoho
- do-
-
2, 965, 522
91
A1uku are.
17, 860, 944
550
Esiama area
113, 550, 239
3494
74,456. 122
2291
9,343,117
287
31,493,879
970
221,600,000
6819
TAKORADI
NZEMA
Ellend. Wharf
Nkroful-Teleleu Bokzaso area
Aiyinasi
Bou-Barnakpole
area
Bokaza area
WASA
Was. Akropong
area
614,294
19
8,629.200
266
226,330
7
597, 780
19
Asankraguaa area
Enchi area
Manso Amenfi area
15
TABLE 2B: ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) OF QUANTITIES
AND LIFE SPAN OF CLAY DEPOSIT IN TIlE WESTERN REGION OF GIIANA
Sum of
df
I AOE+16
3
4.663E+15
3.73E+16
10
3728E+15
5 13E+J6
13
Between Groups
13239847
3
4413282.345
Within Groups
35302396
10
3530239.618
ToW
48542243
13
Reserves in Mertie tons Between Groups
Within Groups
ToW
F
Sig.
1.251
343
1250
.343
Square
Squares
Approximate life span
Means
From Tables 2A and 2B, the sum of the clay deposits in each of the four areas in the
Western Region are; Sekondi area 9,831,682 tons, Takoradi area is 9,469.979 tons,
Nzema area is 169,634,610 tons and Wassa area is 10,067,604 tons
Comparing the clay deposits in Sekondi, Takoradi and Wassa areas it could be
observed that there is no significant difference in quantities of the clay deposits
between the estimated values of each of the three areas, as these give a .nean value of
9,789,755 tons
However, by comparing the total clay deposit in the Nzema area which is
169,634,610 tons to each of the clay deposits in Sekondi, Takoradi and the Wassa
areas a big difference is observed between them. In addition if the reserves in Nzema
area is compared to the sum of all the reserves in Seond~ Takoradi and Wassa areas
which is 29,367,265 tons in toW the difference is still quite big
Thus the possible
conclusions are that;
(aJ there is no significant difference in clay quantities between the clay
deposit in any two areas of Sekondi, Takoradi and Nzema.
16
I,
(b) there is significant difference in quantities between the clay deposits in
Nzema area when compared to any of the clay deposits in either Sekondi,
Takoradi or Wassa areu.5.
(cJ there is significant difference between the quantities of clay deposits in
Nzema area and the sum of the clay deposits in the other three areas of
Sekondi, Takdoradi and Wassa areas
(d) it will be more profitable to go into clay production from the Nzema area
in the Western Region of Ghana
I 40
CLAY COMPONENTS
Work carried out at the BuildlOg and Road Research Institule (BRRJ) [20] and
the Brick and Tile Factory in Accra [231 show that tbe natural clays as obtained
In
the
soil are usually mixed oxides of iron, a1ummium and silica in greater proportions and
occasionally with very little quantities or trace of other oxides of calcium. magnesium
and
potassium
Table
3
bdov.
IS
an
example
of such
anaJyticaJ
results
TABLE 3: CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF CLAY CARRIED OUT AT BllILDING A!'/D
ROAD RESEARCH INSTlTlfTE (BRRl) ON ASO"-W A CLAY AND
ACCRA BRICK AND TILE FACTORY (20. 23)
ELEMENT
Silicon
Aluminium
Iron
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
pO",e,;"m
OXIDES
ASOKWACLAY
- 0-0
ACCRA BRlCK &
TITLE
FACTOR Y CLA Y
SiQ.,
77 87
7090
AhO,
1220
)440
Fe2 0J
CaO
MgO
1 55
4 13
o 18
016
020
o 18
" 54
07<
066
8 34
Na2 0
K,O
17
_ o'fJ
!,
J .50
IGNITION WSS
151
TOTALORGANlCMAlTER
The tenn organic matter embraces the whole non-mineral fraction of clay and
any vegetable or animal matter forming part of the sample analysed. Organic matter
contributes to the physical condition of clay by holding moisture and hy affecting the
structure
especially the cation exchange capacity of clay Total clay organic matter is
estimated as a routine for measurement of its organic carbon content. Carbon occurs
in clays in the elementary form as coal, graphite and in the inorganic forms as
carbonate, hydrogen carbonate and carbon dioxide Carbon predominate in plant and
animal maner, their immediate decomposition products and as the more resistant
humus
The total organic matter content of a clay is estimated either from a knowledge
of the total carbon content Or from the loss in weight when the organic matter is
destroyed
The usual procedure for high temperature ignition of day is to remove m()I~1ure by
heating at 105 - I JO·C and to igrnte a weighed amount of dry clay at 800 - 900"C for
30 minutes; the weight loss is expressed as percent
152
organiC
matter [27]
MOISTlJRE CONTENT
Except for special purposes, knowledge of the moisture content of an aIr-dned
clay is of little interest in itsel( but the determination is necessary for the calculation
of most other analytical resuhs VariOUl! methods exist for detennirung clay moisture,
but for the analytical chemist the standard procedure for detetmining the loss in
weiPt wilen
a sample is
OYen
dried is the most suitable
18
The determination is best
[
,
made using small, non-corrodible metal tins and the temperature control of ~he oven
should be as accurate as possible.
160
PALMOILANDPALMKERNELOIL
Oils are obtained from tissues of animals, liver of fishes, seeds and fruits
The
palm oil from the pulp of the fruit of the oil palm and the palm kernel oil is from the
seed [3, 28J
Palm oil is the most imPOrtJlllt vegetable oil produced and used in
Ghana and m many other West Africa countries
kernel oil, coconut oil and sbea buner
They are used for cooking, frying and for
industrial purposes like cosmetics and soap making
H~6),
This is closely foUowed bv palm
The presence of ~-carotene (C 4(,
though an insignificant constituent in the oil is responsible for the colour of the
oil, and imparts some odour to the oil as a result of atmospheric oxidation resulting
In
the rancidity afthe oil The removal of this component should make it possible to
preserve the refined oil for longer periods
Clays in general are known to be good adsorbents for pigments and Impuntlcs
from fats, oils and petroleum oils
Different workers, working on vanous clay rypes,
established the fact that all clay typ~ when activated (i e acid and heat a(,1ivation)
showed increased adsorptive power very close to Fuller's earth [5 - ~, 24 - 26]
Fuller's earth is the popular name for clay materiaJ used for bleachmg through
adsorption in many industries including the vegetable oil refi.ning mdustry
1.70
ACTIVATED CLA YS
Clays that bave been treated with strong acids such as H 2 S04 . HNO" HCI, Hf
and HCI04 bave mcreased adsorbent capacity
This is achieved through the increase
in the IUrl8ce area of the clay Besides, the fact tbat basiC element, in the clay such as
M& Ca, No, and K are replaced with tf
19
IOns
from the acids [10, 12, 29J The H' Ions
take up the position of the cations in the silicon structure and leave the clay neutral on
repeated washing with distilled water.
When the temperature of the clay is then kept
at between 100 - 11 O·C the H'" ions escape in the form of water vapour and expose the
valence bond of the silicon capable of adsorbing the colouring matter of the oils.
1. 71
ADSORBENTS
Activated carbon is another type of adsorbent. It has very high oil retention
and as such is not economical as adsorbent in spite of its fine particle size. Fuller's
earth and chemically activated clays are the preferred adsorbents because of their low
oil retention [18, 29].
1.72
CLAYSSUITABLEFORACTIVATION
Calcium bentonite which is a montmorillonite type clay that has relatively
high calcium content are easy to activate and produce highly efficient adsorbent as
compared to the sodium variety
montmorillonite that is a 3-Jayer
The essential constituent of bentonite is
mineral consisting of two layers of silica
tetrahedral separated by one layer of alumina.
, 20
~
I
,
1.73
BLEACHING
This is a process of removing colouring matter from fabrics and other
substances. Bleaching an oil is thus a process of removing the ~-carotene from tbe oil
with a suitable absorbent sucb as activated clay.
Bleaching is efficient wben the
colour of the palm oil falls from a range ofJO.O Red to less tban 1.0 Red wben a I incb (2.54cm) Lovibond tintometer cell is used to determine tbe colour intensity. The
~-carotene is removed from the oil by the activated clay.
The adsorbents used for
bleaching oils include activated cbarcoal, Fuller's earth and acid activated clay [I, 2,
4,5,9].
Tbe action of Fuller's earth and acid activated
bleaching
clays in
decolourizing oils involves a selective adsorption of colour bodies and other
impurities from the oils
Tbese colour bodies and impurities are strongly beld within
tbe clay structure after adsorption and suggests tbat bleaching clays operate mainly by
cbemical adsorption. Cbemical bleaching metb ods using reagents sucb as sodium
dichromate or cb10rine dioxide (CIa,) as bleaching agents are seldom used because,
for example, CIa, gas is obnoxious and toxic [27] . Before bleaching is carried out on
any particular oil, it is always necessary to analyse the clay that will be used for tbe
bleaching
21
J.lI8
CLAYS SUITABLE FOR CEMENT CLINKER PRODlICTJON
3.A
CLAY HOMOGENEAHS
CRITERIA FOR LIMESTONE
PORTLAND CEMENT CLINtq:~PRODlICTJO~(38). _~_
nr-mbOJi
Critmoa
Lime Standard
:2
3
LS
I
Hydraulic Modulus
Sibca Maidulus
I
,
I
2 8SiO,
+
85-92
00
SiO:: + AJ:,Ol
SM
,
I
I I Aho, + V 7 F",o,
HM
I
I
1
Formula
I00 x CaO
'I
FOR
-t-
Fe1 01
SiQ:
AhOl
J
9U-2 50
Fe1 01
-t-
,
4,AggresJvety Modulus
!
5_Alumina -- Iron Ratio
AM
CaD
Si0 2 -t- Ahu,
A - /
c\j~Q~
lJ_
J ::
1-1
Fe:,O,
6
Calcium OJade
CaO
7
Magnesia
MgO
8
Sibca
\,()
9
AJwmna
I 2"
(I
AJ:/JI
10 Feme OJade
IJ
Limestone
-
cia}
liM, s
L(
ratio
(I
--
--
(
.1~1
- -
..
'I-
Table 3A gives the theoretical vaJu~ and formula.: b~ whJch
moduL thai relate
10
'JanUU')
cement manufal.:ture couJd be e\lllT1!led a/Jd u.'tt:d
the preparation of CIJIlker Ra'oio Mix
"Of
e:umpj~ J.
i:b
(f
'itandarJ ..
glJJdt: lur
hmc '»dIUfaltd 'tta.ndard l LSj ul
85 ta 92. Hydraulic Modulus fHM) of I 'XJ 10 2 51) should 19V. excd/ent Ra", \ttal
for feeding the clinker kiln
In addition Aggr"esu.slty (A.~) uf4
to 12 AJummua
fron rallu IA.I) of' to 4
"bum oute (CaD) of 45 percent or more M..agn.e&a (MgU) uf It:!tb than :: percent
22
silica (SiD,) of about 12 percnt Aomina (Ak,D,) of 12 percent, Ferric Oxide (Fe,D,)
of 4 percent could together give good clinker products suitable for cement production.
Furthermore the Limestone-clay (LC) ratio could be computed by the right additions
to give good clinker.
1.81
SPECTROSCOPIC
METHODS
OF
CATION
ANALYSIS
OF
CLAY
SAMPLES
1.81A: EMISSION FLAME SPECTROMETRY: Atoms and molecules are raised to an excited electronic state through thermal
collisions with the constituent of the burned flame gases. Upon their return to a lower
or ground electronic state, the excited atoms and molecules emit radiation that are
characteristic of each element.
The emerging radiation passes through a
monochromator that isolates the desired spectral feature.
The spectrum is then
registered by a photo detector the output of which is amplified and measured on a
meter or recorder correlation of the emission intensity with the concentration of the
test substance in the solution spray forms the basis of quantitative evaluation [32,33J
1.81B:
I;"
;I
"
ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETRY:-
Radiation from an externaJ light source emitting line(s) that correspond to the
energy required for an electronic transition from the ground state to an excited state is
passed through the flame
The flame gases are treat~ as a medium containing free
unexcited atoms capable of absorbing radiation from an external source when the
radiation corresponds exactly to the energy required for a transition of
the test
element from the ground electronic state to an upper excited level. The unabsorbed
radiation then passes through a monochromator that isolates the exciting spectral line
23
it,
of the tight source and unto a detector
The absorption of radiation from the light
source depends on the population of the ground state that is proportional to the
Absorption is measured by the
solution concentration sprayed into the flame
difference in transmitted signal in the presence and absence of the test elements [3233]
l.8IC:GRAVlMETRIC
ANALYSIS)
ANALYSIS
OF
SILICON
(DIRECT
METHOD
OF
In the direct method, the constituent A being determined is separated from the
other components of the sample in the form of a pure substance, which can be either
A itself or a compound B of known and definite composition, from which the weight
of A can be calculated The direct methods are based on the fact that two or more
compounds in chemically equivalent quantitative, under the same chemIcal treatment
undergo different changes in their weIght [15,31]
The percentage of constituent A
In
a sample can be calculated from the expenmentaJ
I'
I
data. using the relation
W x F x
100
S
where.
W
=:
wt in g of substance B being weighed at the end (i e
\Nt
of the ppt or of ib
conversion product)
S
Z
WI
of the sample m g
F = the gravimetric factor (conversion factor) i.e number by which the wt W must
F
Z
a IFW of '!Ih!ilance Al
24
be multiplied to obtain corresponding wt. of compound A
b(FW of substance B)
Where a and b are the coefficient of A and B respectively, that show the
stoichiometric relationship between them, and FW is the formula weight
The
gravimetric factor is numerically equal to the weight of substance A in grams
corresponding to one gram of substance B
For example. the gravimetric
determination of iron in the form of ferric oxide. Fe20:3,
the gravimetric factor is
equal to
F =
1.90:
2 x 55.847
159.692
0.06694
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Clay in the activated form is used extensively in the fats and oil industries in
bleaching for the production of cooking oil and good-looking soaps. Clay is also one
of the major components for clinker production in the cement industry [1 - 6] For the
facts and oils industries in Ghana these clays in the activated Conn are imported where
as the cement factories import the semi finished products of clinker made from clay
and limestone.
The Western Region of Ghana have large deposits of clay which have been
mapped out by the Geological Survey Department of Ghana
It is therefore of
interest, great concern and importance to chemically anaJyse these clay deposit
will be possible to investigate their structure, their bleaching properties, and their ion
exchange capacities and to compare their bleaching performance to that of the
imported activated clays. The best clay deposits can then be identified and used as a
25
It
substitute for Ibe imponed activated clays needed by Ibese local industries The
chemical and structural analysis could also provide further information that could be a
focus in future consideration for cement production.
1.91: STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVE
The principal objective of the research is to study Ibe chemical structure.
chemical composition and bleaching propenies of Ibe clay samples collected from
various deposits tbroughout the Western Region of Ghana and compare the results
with the imponed activated clays (Fuller's eanhJ presently used in the fats and oils
industries in Ghana.
1.91A: SPECIFIC ACflVITlES
These include;
(aJ collection of clay samples from mapped-out sites in the Western Region of
Ghana.
(b) processing of the clays by drying, grinding, sieving and storing for funher
analytical work.
(cJ cbaracterizing Western Region clay deposits for use in bleaching of palm oil and
for cement production.
(d) determining Ibe moisture content and the total organic matter by ignition
(weight) loss
(eJ determining Ibe chemical structure and composition of the clay samples using
I
conventional analytical methods (ie acid digestion, elemeotal analysis by
II
spectrnphotometric, and gravimetric method of analysis among others)
I
I
(f) detemining the cation exchange capacity of the clay samples.
II
I
I
26
(g) determining the X- analysis of the sample
(h) performing the Limestone- Clay homogenate analysis to determine Cement
production raw meal standards
(i) acid and heat activation of representative samples ofthe clays.
(i) bleach palm oil and palm kernel oil with both the activated local clay samples and
the imponed activated clay samples (Fuller's eanh).
(j) detennining the colours of both the bleached palm kernel oils and their crude
forms with Lovibond Tintometer
(k) comparing the efficiencies of the activated local clay samples to that ofthe
imponed activated clay samples (Fuller's eanh collected from Lever Brothers
Limited, Ghana)
(m) determining the suitability of clays as a raw material for cement clinker production.
27
fl,
CBAPTERTWO
i
EXPERIMENTAL
The clay samples used for the research work were collected from thirty
eight
(38) locations in the Western Region of Ghana as shown on the map of
the area in the Appendix.
About 25kg of clay samples were collected from
each site and bagged in empty rice polythene sacks, labeled and sent to the
laboratory.
2.10
SAMPLE PREPARATION
The clay samples were sun and air-dried for a period of four weeks
The samples were then manually crushed, grounded and sieved using 56 and
100 micron sieve. The sieved samples were stored in labeled plastic buckets.
2,20
SPECIAL EQUIPMENT
This includes: -
,,
I,
(i)
A Carbolite Eurothern muffie furnace, Bamford Sheffield England S 30 2 AU,
(ii)
An Atomic Absorption Flame spectrophotometer, Model AA 6401 F,
I
Shimadzu corporation Kyoto, Japan.
1
(ii)
An ION meter, 1M 405, TOA Electronics Ltd, Japan
j
(iii)
A Flame photometer
(iv)
A Polalex Model 6105 UNN15 Spectrophotometer.
'i'
(v)
A pH-Meter Mode305
II,
(vi)
A Colorimeter 252, CffiA-Coming Diagnostics Halstead Essex, England
(vii)
A Lovibond Tintometer. The Tintometer Ltd., Salisbury, England.
'\
,
28
2.21
REAGENTS
Hydrofluoric Acid, Nitric Acid, Sulphuric Acid, Hydrochloric
Acid, Perchloric Acid, Glacial Acetic Acid, Xylene Orange: all GPR from
BDH chemicals Ltd.,. Poole].
England, Sulphuric Acid from Turbo Acid,
from Marmex - HoUand: some Hydrochloric Acid, (COSMOPAI< Chemicals)
GPR from Protea chemicals Ltd, South Africa and Industrial Alcohol from
COSMOPAI< Chemicals, Cape Coast constitutes the chemical and reagents
used in the analysis work
2.22
CLAY SAMPLE pH ANALYSIS
About 5g of air dried sample was weighed into a IOO-mJ beaker and
30-mJ of double distiUed water added and stirred for about 10 minutes using a
magnetic stirrer to ensure thorough mixing after which the pH of the solution
was detennined.
2.23
IGNITION LOSS
About Sg of air-<1ned sample was weighed into a Nickel crucible and
heated to a temperature of about 900°C for thirty minutes in the Muffie
furnace The weight loss was calculated and expressed as percentage lrgaruc
matter
2.24
MOISTURE CONTENT
About 5g of air-dried sample was weighed into a J OO-mJ beaker and
oven-dried at a temperature of about 110°C overnight The sample was allowed
to
cool in a desiccator after which the loss in weight was caJculated and
expressed as moisture content of the sample
29
2.30
DISSOLUTION OF CLAY SAMPLES
2.31
ACID DIGESTION
To O.Olg of the clay sample in a 100-mI platinum crucible was added 8
drops of Cone H 2 SO, to cover the sample in the crucible. This was followed
immediately by the addition of 3-mI Cone HNO, and l-rn1 Cone HClO, The
crucible was heated in a fume chamber till thick fumes were observed coming
off. The crucible was then allowed to cool and 5-mI Cone HF added with lhe
crucible covered with a lid, allowing a small opening at the top. The contents
were heated to about 220°C to evaporate to dryness
The crucible was then
allowed to cooL 5-rnJ Cone Hel was later added to dissolve the residue
followed by 5-ml of water. The content in the crucible was then filtered and
the filter paper carefully washed \\1th distilled water into a IOO-ml volumetric
flask. The filtrate diluted to 100-mis and used for analysis of the metals.
2.40
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
2.41
ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS
The following elements were detennined from the solution obtained by
the acid digestions:- Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mgj, and
Aluminium (AI)
Flame photometry was used to determine the concentrations
ofNa and K. Na was detennined at a set wavelength of 589.6nm with a Nafilter. K was determined at 766.Snm with a K-filter in the instrument Airpropane flame was used. to ignite the sprayed sample standard solutions of
0.00, 1000, 3000, 50.00, 8000 and 10000 ppm were used as standard for Na
and 000, 0.50, 200, 5.00, 800, 1000, 1500, and 2000 K
30
The Ca was determined with the ION-meter 40. using two standards of
10.00 ppm and 100.00 ppm that were used to calibrate the ION-meter
Volwnetric analysis using EDTA was used to detennine the concentrations of
AI and Mg in the solution was by acid digestion
2.42
GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS OF SILICON
2g of the clay sample were ignited at 900"C for about 30 minutes to
destroy all the organic matter preseot in the sample. 10mi of Cone HCI was
added to the ignited sample and after initial reaction had subsided it was then
heated to boiling and was cool to dryness and then allowed to bake
10-mJ
Cone HCl was again added and heated to boiling for about I 0 minutes to
dissolve all the soluble components. The solution was then filtered and made
up to 200 mI that was used for the - analysis of iron using EDT A and
potassium dichromate solution The residue on the filter paper after washing
with hot distilled water and was then ignited at 900°C for 30 minutes to
destroy the paper The resultant solid was cooled in a dessicator, weighed and
expressed as percentage of silicon present in the sample [15. 27]
2.50
CATION EXCIIANGE CAPACITY (CEq AND X-RAY ANAYSIS
Sun and air dried samples were crushed, grounded and sieved using S6
and 100 micron sieve the samples were acid digested and chemical analysis
carried out to determine the percentage oxides compositions.
The Sodium Index method as described by Hesse [27] was followed to
ohtain the CEC values In this method. 2.5g of the clay sample was weighed
into a 50-em) centrifuge tube, lS_cm 3 of Sodium acetate solution was added
and shaken for 5 minutes. The tubes were centrifuged at 200 rev per second
31
for about 5 minutes, i.e. until the supernatant liquid was clear The liquid was
decanted and discarded. The process was repeated four more times with fresh
portions of Sodium acetate in each case.
15-cm' of 95% ethanol was then
added to the settled solids in the tube, shaken and centrifuged as before and
supernatant liquid again discarded. The ethanol washing was repeated three
more times.
3
Finally the clay sample were extracted with three 15_cm portions of
3
The extracts were collected in a 1DO_em
ammonium acetate solution.
graduated flask.
The combined extracts were diluted to 50cm3, which was
equivalent to 5g of sample that is washed and extracted and
diluted to lOo-em
3
later
The concentration of sodium in the extract was then
detennined by flame photometry
Some of the samples were sent to the
!MME, UST, Kumasi for X-ray analysis The spectrum of each clay sample
was determined at a wavelenth at A..cu 1.540598Ao using the theta
scale
.Siemens Company, Federal Republic of Germany, manufactured the X-ray
difractometer, model DSOO, used for the determinations
2.60
ACTIVAnON OF CLAY SAMPLES
About 100g each of the clay samples was weighed into an 800-m1
beaker and 200-m1 acid solution added.
The beaker and content were
thoroughly stirred and lefl for two days to allow complete acidification of the
clay.
This was done separately for each acid strength acid solution added
The acid solutions used were of 10"10,20"10 and 50"10 of H2 S04 After two days
of standing the supernatant liquid was then decanted and the sample washed
several times with distilled water to pH 7. that is, until neutral clay was
32
,
for about 5 minutes, i.e until the supernatant liquid was clear. The liquid was
decanted and discarded. The process was repeated four more times with fresh
portions of Sodium acetate in each case
15-em' of 95% ethanol was then
added to the settled solids in the tuhe, shaken and centrifuged as before and
I
supernatant liquid again discarded. The ethanol washing was repeated three
more times.
Finally the clay sample were extracted with three 15-em' portions of
The extracts were collected in a 1aO_em
ammonium acetate solution.
graduated flask
3
The combined extracts wer.., diluted to 50em', which was
equivalent to 5g of sample that is washed and extracted and
diluted to 1000em).
later
The concentration of sodium in the extract was then
determined by flame photometry.
Some of the samples were sent to the
!MME, UST, Kumasi for X-ray analysis The spectrum of each clay sample
was determined at a wavelenth at A.cu 1.540598Ao using the theta
scale
.Siemens Company, Federal Republic of Germany, manufactured the X-ray
difractometer, model DSOO, used for the determinations
2.60
ACTIVAnON OF CLAY SAMPLES
About 100g each of the clay samples was weighed into an 800-rn1
beaker and 200-rn1 acid solution added.
The beaker and content were
thoroughly stirred and left for two days to allow complete acidification of the
clay
This was done separately for each acid strength acid solution added.
The acid solutions used were of 10%,20% and 5(011) of H2 S04 . After two days
of standing the supernatant liquid was then decanted and the sample washed
several times with distilled water to pH 7, that is, until neutral clay was
32
produced.
The samples were oven dried at 110°C over night after which they
were ground. sieved and stored for bleaching of the palm and palm kernel oils
BLEACHING OF PALM OIL AND PALM KERNEL OIL
2.70
The oil was first deodorized bv boiling 10 mL of the oil in 200 mL
portions of distiUed water in a beaker with constant stirring using a magnetic
stirrer for about 30 minutes. The beaker and contents were allowed to stand for
the oil to separate from the water and impurities, after which the oil that
settled on top was separated from the aqueous layer using a separating funnel
The deodorization process was repeated two more times prior to the bleaching
process. 50g of the deodorized oil were heated to a temperature of 110°C for
about 30 minutes. 3g of the activated hot clay sample were
added
the oil whose temperature was maintained at about I J O°C with
continual
stirring for about 30 minutes
The mD...1Ure of clay and oil were separated by
filtration to obtain the bleached oil
a Lovibond Tintometer
to
The colour of the oil was determined with
The deodorization and bleaching processes were
repeated for each activated clay sample
The two types of bleaching earth
(Fuller's earth) collected from Lever Brothers Limited, Tema were also used
for bleaching and the values obtained compared together
2.80
COWUR ANALYSIS
About 20-rn1 of bleached and unbleached palm oil and palm kernel oils
were placed in I-cm cell. The cell was placed in the Lovibond Tintometer and
the Yellow and Red Slides oftbe Tintometer adjusted to match the Yellow (Y)
J3
2.90
OIL RETENTION DETERMINATION
The bleached oils were all filtered. The filter paper and the bleaching earth with
the oil retained on it were then reweighed. The percentage of oil retained on the clay was
calculated. [6).
2.91 LIMESTONE-CLAY HOMOGENATE ANALYSIS
Measured quantities oflimestonc and some selected clay samples were
thoroughly mixed to produce unifonn homogcnatcs. These homogcnates were
analyzed to determine the various oxides, that is, silicon oxide ( Si0 2 ), aluminium
,
oxide ( AhO) ), iron oxide (FC20J ), calcium oxide (CaD), and magnesium oxide
,
,I
(MgO) present.
I
I
34
,
i
CHAPTER THREE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.10
SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAY SAMPLES
Forty-three clay samples were collected and analysed together with two
imported clay samples (Fullen Earth ) collect from Lever Brothers Ltd Table 4
indicates the origin and properties of the clay samples.
3.11
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The clay samples bad different colours
The most dominant colours were
grey, pure white and shades of white, black and brown. [Table 4]
Fritz Patrick [10]
suggested that the grey coloured clays originated through the presence of iron in the
reduced Fe" state.
Samples from Kwekukrol1l, Nkwanta, Manso -I, Bokazo -2,
Kejabir, Hwindo -2, Ketan and Fulmot BE 300C, imported should therefore have
higher amount of iron based on the colours observed. He also emphasized that pale
grey and white clays originated through the lack ,of alteration of light coloured parent
materials, deposition of calcium carbonate, and afilorescence of salts
Samples from
Manso- 2 & 3 Awiabo, Alyinasi, Aluku - I, 2, 3 & 4, Axim and Galeon \ 2, imported
should therefnre have high proportions of calcium based on the colours observed
The most conspicuous
effect of organic matter is to make clay darker in colour
Changes in colour also influence the thermal absorption and radiation characteristics
of clay [5, 14J. It is expected that clay samples from Enchi, Nyamendae. Mansi- I &
2, Ellenda, Bokazo-l, Bonsukrom- 2, Awunakrol1l, Shama- I & 2 and Apramdo- 1
should contain higher amount of carbon in the form of organic matter Clays from
Sa1ma- 1 & 2, Nkroful, Esiama- I & 2, Bonsukrom- I & 3, Hwindo- I, Apramdo- 2,
35
3, & 4 had brown and a combination of red and yellow coloration and should have
considerable amount of Aluminium and iron
This is because several material
impurities impart their colours, for example~ red clays contain several iron oxides,
yenow clays contain several aluminium oxides, and a combination of these mixtures
as stated earlier. [10, 11]
TABLE 4: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAY MINERALS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
SAMPLE
SOURCE
REMARKS
CLAYS
DEPTH FOUND
(em)
COLOUR
PH
Encbi
254.0
Brownish Grey
5.25
from roadside
Kwekukrom (A)
61.0
Gte)
9.05
SIte near a stream
Nkwanta (A)
62.0
Gre)
8.25
SIte near a stream
Nymnendae (AI
62.5
Blwsh Grey
465
Slte
Manso-I (AMA)
200
G<Oj
·\..22
from roadside
Manso-2 (MA)
15.0
Pale Grey
3.70
from roadside
Manso-3 (MAl
160.0
Pale Cire)'
5.31
near a stream
fTom Brayere river
(,.mk
Afransi-1 (W A)
14.0
Brownisb Grey
7.60
from a stream bank
Afransi·2 (WA)
16.5
Brownish Grey
37,.
from a sueam bank
E1lenda
47.0
Brownish Grey
454
from Tana river
bank
Awiabo
16.0
Whitish G<O).
5.58
from roadside
Aiytiw;e
30.0
White
6.35
from Fiaso valley
Axim
44.0
Pale Grey
4.85
from Aguafo
bamboo fimo
36
stream
Bokazo-l
70.0
Black
5.06
from Avawora nver
bank
Bokazo-2
0.5
Grey
5.65
from Subrca river
bank
Bokazo-3
45.0
Yellowish
G~
685
from end of coconut
fann
SaIma-1
910
YelloWish
Brown
4.75
middle of
frOID
forest
;,
SaIma-2
112.0
YelloWIsh
Bro\\n
6.65
Alulru-l
65.0
White
485
from middle of
forest
from manu.,ll mirung
site
Alulru-2
120.0
White
84U
from manual mining
Slle
Alulru-3
915
White
7.70
from low-tying land
Alulru-4
60.0
Wlutc
]035
from road side
NkrofuJ
31.0
YclloWlsh
:' 46
ncar ch..tcbs palace
Brown
Esiama-l
47.0
Llghl Brown
6.54-
opposite oil mills
Esiama-2
60.0
Brown
}. lJ4
oppoSl1e oil mills
Esiama-3
60.0
Gre)
).ll
lL J.f
transfonncr
statIOn
Boosukrom-l (V)
465
Rcddlsh Brown
6.35
behind house
Boosukrom-2 (V)
30.5
Browrush Gre)
540
at !.he end oil palm
fum
Boosukrom-3 (V)
30.0
Yellowish
1045
Brown
at the edge oil palm
fann
AWUDakrom (M)
660
Browrush Grey
6.68
at a galamSC), Side
Kojabir (M)
16.5
Grej
5.12
ncar the road SIde
37
Hwindo-l
30.0
Light Brown
6.35
at a mushy area
Hwindo-2
15.0
Grej
3.76
at a mushy area
Ketan
40.0
Grej
11.55
near primal)' school
Esipong
305.0
Reddish Grej
3.45
near bolster institute
Sbama-I
46.0
Brownish Grey
457
at cottage
compound
Sbama·2
15.0
Bluish Grej
6.35
at lake bank
ApIamdo-I
10.0
Blownisll Gte)'
5,41
at river bank near
bridge
Apramdo-2
12.0
Brown
545
at river bank near
bridge
ApllllIldo-3
10.0
Brown
5.22
at river bank ncar
Mystery School
ApIllIIId0-4
15.0
Brown
5.14
at river bank near
Mystery' School
Ga1leon- V2 (L)
-
While
4.80
from Lever Brothers
Ltd.
Fidmol-BE 300C
(1)
-
G""
6.50
from Lever Brothers
Ltd.
A - Asankraguaa, MA - Manso Amanfi, WA - Wassa Akropong, D - Dixeove, M
- Mpohor,
3.11
L - Lever Brothers Ltd
CLAY SAMPLE pH VALVES
The clay samples collected were strongly acidic to strongly alkaline in nature
ranging from pH values of 311 to 11.55
Samples from Manso-I & 2, Afransi-2,
Esiama-3, Bokazo-2, Hwindo-2 and Esipong were highly acidie (pH < 45) [26,40]
The samples from EUenda, Salma-l, Aluku-I, Axim, Hwindo-2, Sharna-I and
38
Galleon V-2, imported were strongly acidic (4 5:,: pH:c 50). Samples from Encru,
Manso-3, Awiabo, Bokazo-1. NkrofuL Bonsukrom-2, Kejabir, Apramdo-1. 2, 3 & 4
were weakly acidic (50 :': pH :': 55). Samples from A1vinase and Bokazo-2 were
moderately acidic (5.5 :': pH :': 60) slighdy acidic samples were from BODSukrom-L
Hwindo-I, Shama-2 and Fuhnot BE 300e. imported with pH range of 6 a to 6.5
Neutral samples (65
:s
pH
:s
75) were from Bokazo-3, Esiama-I & 3 and
Slighdy alkaline samples (75
Awunakrom
Afransi-I, A1u'.-u-2 & 3.
Kwekukrom
•
,
Ii,
j,
'I
'.'
i
,
pH
:s
85) were from Nkwanta.
Moderately alkaline sample (85
Weakly alkaline samples
Nyamendae. A1ul..-u-4 and Bonsukrom-3
'I
:s
12,0) was from Ketan., Sekondi
(9.5:S pH
:s
:s
pH
:s
95) was from
1051 include samples from
And strongly alkaline sample (105
:s pH co
Thirty one samples were acidic in nature,
fOUf
samples were neutral and nine samples were also a1ka1Jne [Table 4]
The pH of clay samples is dependent on a parameter known as the base
saturation. The pH of clay samples depends upon the e:\1ent to which inputs of base
cations from the atmosphere, geochemical weathering, decomposed plant narts
I.
fertilizer residues including microbial decomposition of organic manures and water
flow into the clays from elsewhere [I OJ
In strongly alkaline clays, those with pH
values above 85, Na'" jon is invariably the dominant cation on the exchange sites,
because calcium is precipitated as the carbonate before such high pH values are
reached, that is
Ca'- + CO, (g) + H20
The calcium therefore has a buffering effect upon pH
effect and
SodIUm has no such
highly clay pH values may be obtained when sodJum is the dominant
39
exchangeable cation [23]. In extremely acidic conditions (pH < 4.5), AI'+ and Fe'+
ions dominate in the samples. It is therefore expected that samples from Manso-l & 2,
Afransi-2, Esiama-2 & 3, Hwindo-2 and Esipong should have high concentrations of
AI'+ andlor Fe'+ ions At 4.5 < pH < 7.0, AI'+ and Al (Off},,- ions dominate. It is
therefore expected that samples from EUencla. Salma-I, ,"Juku-I, Axim. Shama-I,
Galleon-V2, Enchi, Manso-3, Awiabo, Bokazo-l, Nkroful Bonsukrom-2, Kejabir,
Apramdo-l, 2,3, & 4,Bokazo-2, Aiyinase, Bonsukrom-I, Hwindo-I, Shama-2,
Fulmot-BE300E, Bokazo-3, Salma-2, Esiama-I and Awunakrom should have high
concentrations of calcium or magnesium or both.
Excessive leaching of A I J - and
Fe'+ could have resulted in the reduction of the pH (7 5 < pH) in the samples from
Nkwanta. Afransi-I, AJuku-2 & 3. Kwekukrom. Nyarnendae. Aiymase, Bonsukrorn-3
3.20
PERCENTAGE MOISTURE CONTENT, IGNITION LOSS AND TOTAL
ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT OF CLAY SAMPLES
The data in Table SA below shows the moisture content of the clays after
drying, and the ignition of the clay samples at 900°C for thirty mmutes
3.21
MOISTURE CONTENT OF CLAY SAMPLES
After three weeks of sun and air drying, the free moisture stiU present in the
clay samples was determined and this vaned from I 0 to 5 0% [Table SA Samples
from Enchi, Afransi-2, Awiaho, Bokazo-I AJuku-1 & 2 and Axim had therr water
content reduced to 1.0 percent or less
Samples with moisture content reduced to
between I 0 and 2.0 percent were from ManSO-I, 2 & 3, Afransi-I, Salma-I, AJuku-3
40
& 4, NkrofuJ, Esiama-J & 2, Esipong and Galean V-2 imported.
Samples with
moisture content of between 2.0 and 3.0 percent were from Kwelrukrom, Aiyinase,
Esiama-3 Bokazo-2, Bonsukrom-J & 2, Kejabir, Hwindo-I & 2 and Fumot Be 300c,
imported. Those samples with moisture content of between 3.0 and 4_0 percent were
from Ketan, Shama-J, Apramdo- ] & 2" Nyamendae, Ellenda. Those samples with
water content of between 4.0 and 5.0 were from Nkwanta, Bokazo-3, Salma-2,
Bonsukrom, and Apramdo-3 & 4 Those that retained high moisture of between 5 0
and 6.0 percent were from Bonsukrom-3 and Awunakrom
Except for special purposes, knowledge of the moisture content of an air-dried
clay f>ample is of little interest in itself, but the determination is necessary for the
caleula~on
of most other
anal~cal
results [26J Clay samples that have very low
moisture content of less than 1 0 percent after sun and air-drying are quite porous
Thus samples include those from Enchl Afransi-2, Awiabo, Bokazo-I, AJuk-u-1 &2
and Axim all fall within the porous clay samples range.
samples
that
In addition to this, clay
have high water content, that is, greater than 4.0 percent after sun and
air-drying have a very high percentage of organic matter, that is humus, and
be very sticky [10, 26].
tUT,1S
to
Thus samples from Nkwanta, Bokazo-3, Salrna-2,
Bonsukrom-3, Awunakrom, Shama-2, Apramdo-3 & 4 were expected to have
very high humus
41
A1uku-2
1.0
2.5
5.00
14.00
K.Mi.C.I
AIukll-3
2.0
25.9
40.00
7.67
K
A1uku-4
1.5
7.6
12.95
11.67
K.Mi.C.I
NkrofuI
L5
5.4
7.44
40.00
H,Mi.C,1
_-1
1.5
8.1
14.39
38.00
Mi.C.I
_-2
1.5
11.6
21.40
70.67
M.
Esiama-3
3.0
5.4
95.45
95.000
M.
_-I
3.0
9.6
16.00
71.67
M.
2.5
7.7
1334
41.67
H,Mi.C.I
5.5
9.0
1500
5400
H
AwunaJaom (M)
6.0
5.3
9.87
70.67
Kltiabir (M)
2.5
8.2
16.29
37.67
Hwindo-l
2.5
9.9
17,00
62.33
M.
Hwindo-2
62.5
IJ.O
25.49
60.00
M.
K<lan
4.0
12.0
22.11
40.00
.{,Mi.c.J
EsiJlOlI8
L5
1.2
344
3.00
K.
Shama-l
3.5
12.3
23.53
53.67
_2
4.5
16.1
2603
65.67
Apnmdo-I
3.8
8.5
16.07
29.34
Mi.C.J
Apramdo-2
4.0
9.3
1590
36.67
Mi,C,l
Apwndo-3
4.5
79
15.79
78.34
Apramdo-4
4.5
1560
57.34
(0)
_m-2
(0)
Bonsukrom-3
(0)
8.0
43
,.~
~-'
M.
~fi,
C, I
H
M.
M.
H
C - Chlorite. I - D1ite. K - Kaolinite. M - Montmorillonite. Mi - Mica VVennieulite.H - Halloysite
3.12
PERCENTAGE WSS ON IGNITION AND TOTAL ORGANIC MAITER
CONTENT OF CLAY SAMPLES
The results of percentage loss on ignition and total organic matter of the clay
samples are given in table SA The ignition temperature was at 900°C for thiny
minutes and the percentage total organic matter calculated by multlplymg the
percentage ignition loss by a factor of 1 7: [10) It is like'" that clays playa crucial
role in aggregate protection of organic matter
Organic matter on the other hand
slows down the toxic effect of AJuminium in clayey soils [26]
Clay sample from
Nyamenda.e had an organic matter content of 24.50 percent at pH 965 and was blUIsh
grey in colour.
Clay samples from Salma-: had 2049 percem at pH 665 and was
yellowish brown in colour
and was white in colour
Clay samples from Aluku-3 was 400 percent at pH 77
Clay sample from
ESlama-~
had 21 40 percent at pH 3 94
and was brown in colour Clay sample from H,"indo-2 had 2529 at pH3 76 and was
grey in colour Clay sample from Keum had 2: 11 percent al pH II 55 -·nd was gr"l
in colour Clay sample from Shama-l had 23 53 percent at pH 457 and was browrush
grey in colour
Clay sample from Shama-: had 2603 percent at pH 635 and was bluish grey
in colour
All the clay samples have enough organic matter
to
inhibit the effect of
AI" ions on the water molecules in the clay-water solution during pH detemunatJon
of the day samples
Except clay sample from AJulru-3 that was white m colour, the
VIried shade of colours from bluish grey to brown suggest high content of organic
44
matter in those clay samples. This was evident by the drastic reduction in volume
during the grinding and sieving The imported clay samples of Galleon V-2 with
33.45 percent at pH 4.80, white in colour and Fulmot BE 300C with 36.05 percent at
pH 6.50, grey in colour could also have originated from a source with high organic
matter content similar to the SC:lIJlples above
The clay samples from Enchi, Nkwanta, Manso-3, AfTansi-/, Awiabo,
Aiyinase, Esiama-3, Bokazo-] & 2, Aluku-I, Nkroful and Esipong all have organic
matter content Less than 10 0 percent with vaned shade of colours and could he said to
contain less organic matter because fanning activities and such soil surface erosion
could have washed away the organic matter in a spate of time
3,31
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC)
Generally the cations in the interlayer spacings
spacing is about 14 A or more
are only labile when the
In addition to negative charge arising as a result of
isomorphous substitution., it also occurs at the edges of crystals where valences would
otherwise be incompletely satisfied
The cation-exchange capacity of clay is of vital
importance In assessing the amount of acidity stored in it, or the amount of lime
required to change its pH [4, 27J
The total amount of exchangeable cations that can
be held by clay is known as its Cation Exchange Capacity The ability of clay to hold
cations in exchangeable forms is a property of its fine mineral particles and of its
humus component. The determination of cation exchange capacity and the individual
exchangeable cations of clay samples helps to c1assuy it [20]
The analysis of clay samples reported by Grain (1953), Grain Show (I 978)
and KJorrai (1978) shows that the'Kaolinite clay ntinerals has CEC values ranging
45
I
1
from 3-15 m.e. and basal spacing (BS) value of o.nOn.m, Halloysite, CEC values
I
I
from 40-50 m.e. and BS value of 1025nm. Mica CEC values from 10-4Om.e. and BS
value of 1.00nm. Montmorillonite, CEC values from 80-150m.e and BS value of
I. 400 nm. cblorite and lllite CEC values of 10-40 m. e and BS value of 1400 nrn. on
the basis of this analytical reSl~ts. The following deductions are made from the CEC
determinations carried out; the clay samples from Aluku-3 and Esipong with CEC
values of7.67 m.e and 3,00 m.e respectively were a kaolinite group
Clay samples from Enchi, Manso-I. Awiabo, Aluku-I,2 & 4 with CEC value
of 14.57, 12.34, 12.00, 14.00 and 11.67 me were clay mineral mixtures of Kaolinite,
Mica Cblorite and illite groups
Clay samples from Kwekukrom, Nkwanta,
Nyarnendae, Bonsukrom-3 and Apramdo-4 with CEC values of 54000, 48.34, 5667,
5400, 5367 and 57.34 me were a Halloysite group, whereas clay samples from
Aiyinase, Nkroful and Bonsukrom-2 with CEC values of 39.34, 4000 and 41 67 me
were clay mineral mixtures of kaolinite, mica chlorite and rutite groups
Clay
samples from Bokazo-3, SaIma-1 & 2, Esiama-2, Axim, Bonsukrom-I, Awunakrom,
Hwindo-I & 2, Bonsukrom, Apramdo-3 and the imported GaUeon-V2 with CEC
values of 70 67, 81.00,77 37,70.67,68.34,7167,7067,6333.6000,6567,7834
and 76.50 me were a montmorillonite group
Whereas samples from Ellenda,
Esiama-3 and the imported Fulmot-BE 300C with CEC values of 106.67, 9500 and
105.00 were clay mineral mixtures of Montmorillonite and vermiculite. Clay samples
from Manso-2 & 3, Afransi-I &2, Bokazo-I &2, Esiama-I, Kejabir and Aprarndo-I
&2 with CEC values of 1734, 32.34, 3267, 33.34, 19.67,3400, 3800, 3767,2934
and 36.67 m.e were clay mineral mixtures of Mica cblorite and Illite groups. When
46
the local samples are compared with the imported samples of Galleon-V2 and FulmotBE 300C it could be suggested that clay samples from Bokazo-3, Salma-I &2,
Esiama-2 &3, Axirn, Bonsukrom-I, Awunakrorn, Hwindo- 1 &2, Bonsukrorn,
Apramdo-3, EUenda were good sources of clay that would have good bleaching
properties on activation.
Similar results were obtained by Okai - Sam, Quargraine and Gadzekpo(6)
TABLE 5B : X-RAY ANALYSIS OF CLAY SAMPLES
SAMPLE
Enchi
IOANTITIES
High
, CLAY MINERALS IDENTIFIED
Average
Trnce
Trnce
I
I
Average
Trnce
I
High
Average
T=
High
NonlIOrnlC'",C~O~"~'I~CSI~t~efuOiif:-K:oai;;;;:te_ _
MuscO\'lt~_ Mon1mOrillonJ1e. Koaljnjte
Haliovsl1cMonnnorilloWLe, Notromte
Bioule_Hvdrobioutc.!llite
KaolJrute. Btoute
,
I
I,
I'
JUnc. COWICSllc,Dlc.luLc.SaooWLe
! Kaol1ntte,
High
Average
Trnce
-!
lIhtc.Nacntc
'i
Muscovitc.HaIlovsil.e
MUSCOVite, MonunorillOluk
KoaliJule, HalIOY51le. Nouowte
; Norrorule
i Koalinite MODtmorillonlte
HallOSlte.MonlrnorilJoJUlc. NOlrorulc
Cowlsne, Saporule
HJgh
Average
Tr.H:C
High
Avenlge
Tntce
I
i
1
;
I
I
I Muscovite, Montmorillonite. Kaolinilc-----j
I
High
h;=::-c.------h~,,;:::::i:'-ge-------I~;:~~Nonlrorule
Saporute Iliuo
Kaolll1ue,IliJle,Mu,covde
-
High
Average
Trace
SaIma-2
I
I
MUCiCOnlC. f..:.oaJ.milc
Ha.Hoysuc. Paragonite
Trace
Salma-I
I
CLllllorutc.Paragowle, Monnnonllonite
MuscoVIte. Montmorilloni1c. KoaJ.i.wLc
HalJO,"'SIlC,. Notronilc
Saponnc. Cowlesite
Avernge
!
I
HallovSllC
T=
High
Average
Manso-3
!I
I
High
Manso-2
i
Kaolmite.MUSCOVIte.
' Saponitc.Illitc
Average
Manso-I
i
l
-
BlOnle.!llitc.
, Muscovite. Saoonitc.NontronilC
High
KwekuJ<rom
\
Kaolinite. Ha1Ioysite
r
I
i Sapomte,HallOSlte,
I Montmorillonite
I Cowlcsite.Muscovite
I Kaoilfijll;:~HaJlOSlle
High
Average
Trace
Montmorillomte
47
I
------,
I
._,
I
,
,i
A1uku-l
High
High
Montmorillonite. Kaolinite
Hallovsilc.Albitc.
MODhnorillonite,Sannnite.Nontronite
Kaolinite,Albite
Muscovite,MontmorilJonitc.Halloysllc
Saoonitc.Nontronitc
Kaolinite.Albite
Average
Muscovilc.MODtmOrillonilc.HaJloysit
Trace
Nontronitc,Cowlesite
Kaolinite.Muscovi1eMoDtmorollonite
Average
Trace
A1uku-2
High
Average
Trace
luku-J
Alnku-4
High
Average
Esiama-I
Esiama-2
Esiama-J
Bonsukrom-l
Hallovsilc
$atxutite.Nootronite
Trace
HIgh
Average
Trace
Monnnorillonitc. Kaolinite
MODbnoriUoni.te.Ha1lovsitc
~~~tc.Nontronitc .
HIgh
Average
Kaolinite,Muscovile
I MontmorillonilC.HalloysiLc
Trace
I
HIgh
Kaolinite.MuscoVIte
Average
Montmorillonite. NotroniIe
Trace
HallOOsilc,Saoorotc
High
I
Average
, Marganlc.
(
Trace
I Vcmuculitc
Alblle,SodIum AJUlIU1Uurn silicate. Hydrate
Average
Bonsukrom-3
High
HIgh
I
r Average
Trace
Awunakrom
High
I
I High
Average
I
H,gh
Trace
High
Average
Trace
..-i
,High
I Average
I
·I
I
---I
I
---
._-j
I
•
,
, Microl..mc
----j
Albllc.MuSCOYllC.
I
Dcrilc,BarrenlC,montmorillonite
I,
Saooniue.NontroDlle.Morderulc .Slilbilc
HIgh
Average
Trace
Fulmol-BEJOOC
~
·
I Donpcacomc
Trace
GaIkoD-V2
---
BelddllC.ParthclJtc.HaJJovsite
Phi Ihn.:;itc. G ismond.! DC, C"av,'lcsitc
Montmorillorute. Albi lC.I-.:.aohnitc
Nacnte
; Nontrollllc:.Muscovne.
I Monrmonlionne.K.aolnite
Saoolllle.Hallm'Slll:
Kaolnilc, ,IJlile
! Montrnorillonilc,Notrorute
Saporute,HallOY51lc
" Kaohnllc
Averag~
Sbama-2
•
I HaJJO'\'sltc
'Trace
Esipoog
I
MuscovitclLnclLcucitc
, K..aolmJl.e.MontmoriUonitc
Average
Hwindo-2
I
.
Trace
Hwindo-l
•
Monunorillonite,NoLronile
Albite
' MUSCOVlle.SaponiIC.Heclorilc,Slcvcnsillc
I Kaolirnlc,Muscovlte
Trace
Bonsukrom-2
SaooDltc.NoDtroDJlc.CowJessiLC
High
MontmoriJloniteSaponite,Illite
I MUSCOVlte, VetmlcuJilC
Average
Trace
i 8ostwJ.ckJlc.Smolininovitc,Sodtum Calcium
MalmeSiUDl Silicate HydralC
48
'_
I
__:::J
The x-ray diffraction patterns show the various minerals present in the various clays
as shown in Table 58. The results indicate that almost all the clays in the Western
Region contain high proportions of Kaolinite, and muscovite.
Clays from Esiama- I, 2, & 3, Bon,okrom - 2 and Manso -3 contains high
proportions of kaolinite and Muscovite
Clays from manso ~2, Nkwanta and Ax.im
contain high proportions of Muscovite, Montmorillonite and Kaotlinite clays from it
should be noted that montmorlJonite is responsible for the bleaching characteristics of
the clays Enchi contains high percentages of kaolinite and Halloysite
Manso-l contains high percentages of Kaolinite and Biotite
Samples from AJuku ~
2& 3 and Esipong contain high percentages of Kaolinite and illite
Nkanta
Manso
~2,
Afransi
~2,
Ayinase, salma
~l,
Samples from
Samples from
Esiama-2 and Esi pong contain
Average quatities of Saponite, Nontronite with other clay minerals
Other lesser
know clay minerals like cowlesite, Paragonite, chintonite, Bickite, stevensite, lencite,
Phillipsite, Gismondine, ,Aumite and Donpeocorite are present in trace amounts in
samples from
Nkwant~
Manso
~2,
Afransi
~2,
A.xim., Ayinase, AluJ....--u -3 & 4, Esiama
-2, Bonsukrom - 1& 3, Awauahom. Esipong and salma -2
contains high percentage of cowlesite and muscovite
Samples from ,:aIma
~2
Sample from Bonsukrom -2
contains average amounts of margante and tracer of vcr rniailite
Samples from Amurakrarn contains average amounts of Beldelite, Parthehte also a
lesser known clay crystals and Halwysite with Trace amounts of phillipsite, aismodine
and cowlesite also a lesser known clay crystaJ
Samples from Manso-I, Bonskrom -1,& 2,&3, Hwindo -I and shama-2 contam
average amounts of single units of crystals of Halloysite, Albiet, Margarite,
49
tI
Muscovite, Nacrite and Donpeacorde respectively Samples from Afransi -2, Axim,
salma- 1&2, Bonsukrom -2, Hwindo -1 contain microline. illite and paragonite
Consistaint with the results obtained with cation Eexchange capacity (CEC) method
tbe clay minerals identified in the following clay samples from Enhi or kaolinite and
illite, Nkwanta is HaUay site, Manso 1 is kaolinite, Mansi - I is illite, Aiyisoase is
Halloysite, Axim, salma -1&2, and Hwindo -1&2 is montmoriUorite, Esipong and
A1uku -1,2,3&4 is kaolinite
In comparison witb Galleon -v2 and tbe Fulmot -BE-300C whicb contain
AIbiete, Muscovite, illite, Montmor, lIonite, saponite and Nondronite among other
clay minerals. The foUowing samples contain three or more of such clay minerals,
that is Enchi, Kwekukrom, Nkwanta Manso
~2
& 3, Afransi-I & 2, Aiyinase, AxiIQ
salma -I & 2, A1uku -1,2,3 & 4, Esiama -1,2 & 3, Bonsukrom-I & 3, Hwindo-2
l
and Esipong. The following samples also contains one or two of such clay minerals,
•
I
I
that is Manso -1, Afransi-I, Bonsukrom-:2, Awunakrom and Hwindo-1
3.40
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Table 6 show the results in concentrations in ppm
{percenta~e
oxide and
silica-Alumina and lime-silica ratios} obtained from the chemical analysis of clay
sample solutions by spectrophotometry, gravimetry and volumetric Techniques
The chemical analysis shows that the percentage composition of K::zO ranges from
0.00-0.90, N.,O ranges from 0.27-856, MgO ranges from 002-1 17, CaO ranges
from 0.03-1.53, F""O, ranges from 0.24-15.4,A1,O, ranges from 24.43-3908 and
SiD, ranges from 33.43-60 43. In addition tbe ratios of SiD, to A1,O, ranges from
0,86-2.47 and that of Ca
° to SiD, ranges from 0000-111
50
The percentages of SiD"
F~03+
and AbO) in the clay samples vary considerably and may be due to the
formation of different clay minerals
The range in SiOl and AhO) contents suggests
that the day minerals contain KaO illite and Halloysite
En addition the range in
F.,o, and the presence of CaO. MgO and Na,O contents also suggests that the clay
minerals contain Montmorillonite and vermiculite
The clay analysis reported by Martin (1995) shows that K, O values ranging
from 000- 0.90 percent means the minimum amount of illite would be about one
percent or less and for a value of up to six percent, the amount of illite would be about
two percent
On the basis of Martin s analysis it means all the Western Region clay
samples contained traces of iJlite of up to about one parent Grim ( 1953) also reported
that MgO content of chJorites ranges from 233-3764 percent wh.ile Klages and white
(1957) found that a clay mineral dominantly chlorite contained 3 II percent MgO and
1.26 percent CaO
on the basis of these values given it means the clay samples from
the Western Region contains traces of chlorite
Furthennore, the anaJysis of chlorite and illite reported by Grim ( 1953) shows that
silica-alwnina ratio for chlorite is near 3
also that the very low value of up
to
CJ
and for iJlitc minerals near 4 0
TillS mean.s
2 47 obtained for the day samples suggesl vt':ry
low amount or even traces of chlorite and iJlite
The dominant clay minerals in th~se
clay minerals would thus be Kaolinite, Montmorillonite and Halloysites
Murat
(1983) reported that for day minerd.! to be a suitable raw material for cement dinker
(pozzolanas) production, it should have silica-Alumma ratio ranging from I ':;002.500, lime-silica ratio ranging from 0 001-0050 and an amount ofCaO Jess than 5%
On the basis of this, it is suggested that clay samples from Nyamendae. Afransi-I &
51
2, Bokaze-I, Aluku-2 &3, Nkroful, Esiama-2, Axim, Bonsukrom-3, Kejabir, Shama-I
& 2 and Apramdo-l & 2, wouJd be suitable raw material for cement clinker
production. Presson and Raikes (1953) reported that montmorillonite type clays are
easy to activate and produce highly efficient absorbent compared to the other clay
minerals. It is suggested on this findings that clay samples from EUenda, Esiama-2 &
3, bakazo-3, Salma-l & 2, Axim, Bonsukrom-L Awunakrom. Hwindo-I & 2, Shama2 and Aprarndo-3 would produced excellent oil bleaches among the lot
TABLE 6:
CHEMlCAL ANALYSIS OF THE CLAY SAMPLES
(EXPRESSED IN PERCENTAGES)
SAMPLE SOURCES
I
I
I
SjC>,
AhO~
Fc~O]
CaO
Mg
0
0
Na:
K,O
Si02 ,
CaO/SiO:
IAL,O;
Enchi
50.36
37.58
024
u 81
064
472
007
L~4
UOl6
KwekukromtA)
46,07
38.70
377
0-0
(J
36
2 'J7
U.21
I /9
o UO')
Nkwanta (A)
53.15
3288
1 93
(j
(j
32
.2 2(!
(JOg
1 12
() (104
Nyamendae (A)
5143
3269
11:9
U fn
II 42
4 :; I
{) IG
157
() UU J
Manso-I (AMA)
4972
3786
u ~5
(J
')4
13lj
02:
L31
u () 16
Manso-2 (MA)
48,24
3889
071
() lJ8
u52
4.25
U 09
124
oOlO
Manso-3 (MA)
5400
37n
062
Ul4
U45
202
U 12
I 43
(I (J(!3
Aftansi-l (W A)
55.83
3307
091
0_51
069
u.80
u. 12
16'J
U UU'J
Aftansi-2 (WA)
5660
26.30
041
o,n
068
175
046
2 15
IU()17
Ellenda
47,79
3457
170
I.2tJ
0.62
70M
002
UR
0026
Awiabo
4<r72
38.89
o 3U
049
024
532
UUS
128
0,010
Aiyioase
50.79
34.95
U,73
044
010
5 3'J
004
I 45
(I,U!O
Axim
60.43
2445
o 7y
U57
U02
un
OU5
247
IJ 001)
I')
X2
52
(I
I,
i
t,
,I
Bokazo-l
48.43
26.68
1.75
0.65
068
6.87
0,10
1.82
0.013
Bokazo-2
47.79
3420
0.67
OIl
0.10
8.56
0,08
lAO
0.002
Bokazo-3
41.79
33.45
6.18
0.32
0.50
8.29
0,90
1.25
0.008
Salma-l
34.72
36.26
15.47
0.43
0.94
3.84
0.12
0.96
0.012
SaIma-2
33.43
38.71
1307
1.51
101
6.37
001
086
0046
Aluku-l
50.15
3683
0.62
075
O.IS
4.85
004
136
0.015
Aluku-2
56.79
31.47
0.62
0.52
0.15
2.70
0.00
1.80
0.009
Aluku-3
52.93
34.67
0.27
0,31
0.12
4,31
0.12
1.53
0,006
Alulu-4
51.00
38.99
0.56
o.. n
0.21
3.24
0.01
1..31
0,008
Nkroful
52.07
26.31
164
0.06
0,10
465
0.06
198
0.001
Esiama-I
49.07
36.26
0.71
0.07
0.99
6.13
0.12
I 35
o 111
Esiama-2
5186
32.41
509
0.78
I 12
065
004
16tl
0,015
Esiama-3
41.37
24.31
4.92
0.25
0,18
2.55
0.04
142
0,006
Bonsukrom-l(DJ
50.79
3908
474
04\
078
241)
l1.29
130
00U8
Bonsukrom-2(D)
50.79
38.14
272
01
J
0.59
2.2l}
004
144
U.t)()1
Bonsukrom-3(D)
54.23
26.49
399
0.67
Ll7
0.40
0,30
2,05
0.012
Awunakrom (M)
50.15
J4.46
4.16
012
0.35
3.03
0.05
118
O.U23
Kejabir (M)
54.86
36.83
1.76
o 15
0.38
067
001
149
U.{)03
Hwindo-l
48.86
38.05
3.69
0,11
1.(1)
135
003
128
OU02
Hwindl>-2
49.93
38.61
158
0.06
0.33
3.50
005
129
0001
Ketan
44.36
34.86
6,03
005
0.35
74J
028
117
0001
Esipong
5165
38.52
202
0.07
0.89
1.42
0,01
1.34
0019
Sbama-I
53.15
31.06
4.30
0.08
0.60
2.83
008
1.71
0.002
r
53
Shama-2
54.22
26.68
1.06
0.03
0.24
3.37
0.30
2.03
0.001
Apramdo-l
54.86
34.67
0.58
0.05
0.79
1.34
0.03
1.59
0.001
Aprarndo-2
55.08
34.91
0.58
0.04
0.82
122
0.02
1.58
0.001
Apramdo-3
55.50
38.26
0.90
0.04
0.80
1.28
0.03
1.45
0.001
Apramdo-4
51.75
36.17
1.06
0.05
0.77
1.29
0.03
IA3
0.001
Galleon-V2 (L)
60.00
25.27
0.47
0.02
0.84
OA8
OA6
2.37
0.000
Fulmol-BE300C IL)
57.86
27.26
1.90
0.54
0.13
1.08
OA2
2.12
0.009
The amount ofIron (Fe203) in the clay samples ranges between 0.41 to 3.99
percent while AbO) lies between 24.43 to 26.68 percent. The silica content is between
54.22 to 60.43 percent and that of Magnesium (MgO) varies from 0.24 to 1.17 percent.
Sodium (Na,O) lies the range 0.27 to 8.26 percenl.
3.41
LIMESTONE-CLAY HOMEGENATE ANALYSIS FOR CEMENT
CLINKER PRODLITION
Analysis of the limestone sample obtained in Table 7A were added to the
selected analytical samples in Table 78. WClghcd amounts of each of these were mixed
and homogenized. Analysis of the homogenized samples obtained are given in Table 7C.
The values obtained in Table 7C were compared with the standard values in Table 1A
that are used for Clinker Cement Production. The results show that the Lime Standard
(L.S) of the clays that ranges trom ~6.2-91.4 % falls within the standard range of85-92
%. The Silica Modulus (S.M) of 1.9-2.3 falls within the standard values of 1.9-2.5. The
Aluminium-Iron ratio of2.3-3.8 falls within the standard values of 1.0-4.0 and the
magnesium (MgO) of 0.50-1.25 falls withIn the standard range of < 2.0 %. Values lor
SiO, of 11-12. AI,O, of9-1O. and Fe,OJ of 2.05-3.40 were comparable to standard
values of 12,12. and 4 % respectively.
The results in Table 7A show that lhc limestone has acceptable high lime conlenl
of 52.60 % as compared to the standard value of> 45.0 %. It also has low values for
54
~
1
I
r
SiD, of 1.42, AbO, of 0.84, Fe,O, of 0.98, and MgO of 0.20 as compared to the
standard values of 12,12,4, and < 2% respectively.
The results in Table7B also show that the clays have acceptable high silica (SiO,) of
48.43-60.43, and AI,O, of 24.45-38.83 as compared to standard values of> 12,
and> 12% respectively. Clays with these values are suitable for Clinker Cement
I-
r
Production.
,
,
The selected samples that are suitable for Clinker Cement Production include the
,
following; Nyamendae, Afumsi-2, Bokazo-1. Aluku-3, Nkroful, Esiarna-2, Axim.
Bonsukrom-3. Kajebir, Shama-2, and Apramudu-2.
TABLE 7A CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF LIMESTONE SAMPLE FROM
LIMESTONE PRODUCT LIMITED TAKORADI
Sample
Source
Chemical COITIoosition In
Fc 10J
SiO,
AI,O,
Limestone
Products
Ltd
Percentages
MgO
I CaO
Loss on ignition
( LOI )
I
TABLE 7B
Samole Source
Nvamendae
Afr:mse-2
Bokazo-I
AJuku-3
Nkroful
Esiarna-2
Axim
Boosukrom-3
Keiabir
Shama-2
ADramdo-2
0.98
0.84
1.42
1
52 60
.
I
43.96
0.20
CHEMICAL OF SELECTED CLAY SAMPLES
Chemical Comoosltion
SiO,
AbO,
Fe~OJ
Percentages
CaO
MgO
51.43
56.60
48.43
52.93
52.07
51.86
60.43
54.23
54.22
54.22
55.05
32.69
26.30
26.68
34.67
26.3\
32.41
24.45
26.49
36.83
26.68
34.91
1.29
0.41
1.75
027
1.64
509
0.79
399
1.76
1.06
058
0.03
0.98
0.65
0.31
0.06
0.78
0.57
0.67
0.15
003
0.04
55
In
0.42
068
0.68
0.\2
0.10
1.17
0.02
1.17
0.38
0.24
082
Loss on ignition
( LOI )
14.14
15.03
21.81
--j
12.24
19.82
8.74
13.74
13.45
6.02
17.77
8.60
TABLE 7C LIMESTONE - HOMOGENATE ANALYSIS
L-C
SAMPLE
SOURCES
Nvamendae
Afranse-2
Bokazo-I
Aluku-3
Nkroful
Esiama·2
Axim
Bonsokrom·]
Keiebir
Shama-2
Aoramudu-2
4.0:1
3.8: I
3.5: I
4.1:1
3.7:1
4.1: I
4.0:1
3.9:1
4.2:1
3.8:1
4.2:1
CRITERIA
HM
SM
AM I A-I
THEORETICAL VALUES
85-92 1.991.900.251-4
2.20
2.20
0.40
OBSERVED VALUES
LS
91.4
88.9
91.3
89.2
89.9
90.4
88.1
90.1
88.8
89.6
86.2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.9
1.9
1.9
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.3
2.1
1.9
2.2
2.0
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
04
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.5
3.78
3.73
3.15
3.15
3.65
3.17
2.30
2.48
3.20
3.45
3.58
M.O
SiO,
I AlzO)
>45
2%
12%
12%
4%
46.2
45.5
45.5
47.0
45.8
44.3
46.8
44.7
45.2
47.4
46.8
1.05
1.22
0.98
1.30
1.25
0.85
0.75
0.50
0.70
0.82
0.68
12
12
II
13
12
13
12
12
12
10
10
9
10
9
9
9
9
10
9
10
2.95
2.08
2.87
2.05
2.30
3.10
2.90
340
13
13
3.50
COLOUR ANALYSIS OF PALM OIL AND PALM KERNEL OIL
3.51
BLEACHING PROPERTIES OF CLAY SAMPLES
The bleaching abilities of the clay samples were investigated on their application
to palm oil and palm kernel oil. The results are shown in lables [ 8 -11 j.
56
Fe 0,
C.O
2.20
2.95
2.50
With the selected unactivated clay samples it was found that there was appreciable
degree of bleaching with samples ITom Enchi, EUencla, Aiyinase and Aluku-J which
gave values ranging from (2.5R, 20.0Y) to
(7.5R, JO.OY) for the palm oil; and
samples from Enchi, Esiama-J, Axim and Ketan which gave values ranging from
(J.8R, 24.0Y) to (8.0R, JO.OY) for the palm kernel oil
These values indicate that though the natural clay samples could bleach the
palm oil and palm kernel oil, their bleaching
performance was not satisfactory.
Except sample frnm Aiyinase which gave values of (2.5R, 200Y) that is similar to
Fulmot-BE JOOe - imported
Lever Bros Ltd., aU the remaining values fall short
when compared to Galeon- V2 - imported by Lever Bros Ltd and Fulmot-BE JOOe
Again the values after bleaching with the local clay samples faU short when compared
witb Frytol that is in the market
The results of the colour analysis of the palm oil and palm kernel oil
bleaching with different percentages (10 percent, 20 percent, 50 percent) of acid and
heat treated clays are given in Tables 10 and 11
The palm oil values ranges from
(I.OR, 14.0Y) to J7R, 240Y) for the clay samples treated with 10 percent H2 S04 ,
(I.OR, 100Y) to (85R, 180Y) for the samples treated with 20 percent H2 S04 , and
(0.8R, 7.2Y) to (J.8R, JO.2Y) for the samplestreated with 50 percent H2 S0 4 All the
values obtained shows clearly that the activated clays bleached much bener than the
natural (unactivated) clay samples (Table 8 and 9) Bleach in was best when the clays
were treated with 50 percent H2 S0 4
This was revealed by the fact that 25 of the
samples gave values ranging from (0.8R, 70Y) to 2.0R, 120Y) for the palm oil
bleached with 50 percent H2SO4 as against 14 samples with 10 percent H2 S04 and 7
57
samples with 20 percent H 2 S04 acid treated samples.
Bleaching abilities of ten
selected natural unactivated forms of local clay samples and two imported activated
clays (Fuller's Earth).
Table 8
COLOUR AFfER BLEACHING WITH NATURAL (UNACfIVATED
CLAY SAMPLES
SAMPLE NO
PALM
RED (R)
(Y)
OIL
YELLOW
PALM KERNEL OIL
RED (R)
YELLOW (Y)
% OIL
RETENTJO
N
Enchi
7.5
300
8.0
30.0
8.0
Manso-3
95
30.0
9.5
300
10.0
Ellenda
55
220
90
27.0
105
Aiyinase
2.5
200
38
240
6,
Esiama-3
14.5
30.0
55
200
8,
AJuku-3
65
28.0
8,
300
80
Axim
125
300
45
180
70
Kejabir
125
300
105
30.0
00
Ketan
125
300
65
280
90
Esipong
145
30.0
95
300
100
GaIleon-V2
15
80
10
40
7.9
Fulmot-BE300C
2.5
17.0
2 I
70
80
58
Table 9
COWURS OF PALM OIL AND PALM KERNEL OIL USED AS
CONTROLS
SAMPLE
COLOUR
TYPE
YELLOW (y)
RED (R)
CRUDE PALM OIL
18.0
30.0
CRUDE PALM KERNEL OIL
10.5
150
0.8
90
REFINED PALM OIL (FRYTOL)
Table 10 PALM OIL COLOUR ANALYSIS
I
"
SAMPLE
SOURCE
10%
Enchi
2.6
Kwekukrom (A)
H 2 SO4
Y
20~o
50%
H 2 SO 4
Y
R
H 2 SO4
Y
120
3 I
120
lJ)
133
2.9
130
35
130
U.
17 0
Nkwanta(A)
28
16.9
2.5
19.3
1.2
12.0
Nyamendae (A)
L2
II 4
:.8
13.7
2.9
160
Manso-I(AMA)
3.2
15.0
32
223
1.2
130
Manso-2(MA)
3.1
12.0
32
130
2.2
13.2
Manso-3 (MA)
3.5
20.0
30
15.6
IS
120
Mansi-I (W A)
2.9
12.0
3.5
12.0
1.8
180
Mansi-2 (W A)
2.8
150
25
17.5
IS
160
R
59
R
Ellenda
1.5
16.5
4.5
22.2
3.8
30.2
Awiabo
\.6
124
2.0
230
2.5
21 1
Aiyinase
I 0
14.0
1.1
18.5
1.7
20.0
Axirn
3.0
ISO
2.5
17.0
1.0
13.7
Bokazo-l
1.5
12.9
\.0
10.0
5.1
22.0
Bokazo-2
2.0
15.5
3.0
200
35
20.0
Bokazo-3
1.5
11.0
>.-
-,
200
25
202
Salma-l
2.5
160
36
20.0
12
13.0
Salma-2
>.-
-,
154
50
200
U
14.0
Aluku-l
12
300
18
130
12
200
Aluku-2
1.6
150
2.0
120
L.Q
100
Aluku-3
15
200
I5
11 3
0.8
100
Aluku-4
12
160
25
200
18
120
NkrofuJ
2.7
174
2.5
200
0.8
72
Esiama-l
il
11.4
2.5
21.0
2.8
400
Esiama-2
3.0
150
28
156
25
265
Esiama-3
2.5
160
2,9
22.3
08
70
BOnsukrom-I(D)
2.8
16.0
24
12.2
2.5
14.6
Bonsukrom-2(D)
2.2
140
2.5
16.0
2.5
200
Bonsukrom-3(D)
3.5
200
35
19.5
0.8
137
60
!
I
Awunakrom 1M)
2.8
200
35
170
',
154
Kejabir 1M)
2.6
200
45
200
~
108
Hwindo-l
3_7
240
L
' <
200
'
_.0
'
130
Hwindo-2
2.8
100
2.5
200
12
II 0
Ketan
15
15.0
15
100
10
120
Esipong
I5
10.0
85
180
08
80
Shama-I
2.5
16.0
3.5
170
19
160
Shama-2
2.5
14.0
' ,
-'.-
16.0
18
15 0
Apramdo-I
28
14.2
24
II 6
20
210
Apramdo-2
3.0
185
' ,
-' -'
210
30
140
Apramdo-3
3.0
166
24
17:-
20
120
Apramdo-4
2.8
178
28
135
20
61
i
120
Table 11 PALM KERNEL 00.. COLOUR ANALYSIS
SAMPLE NO
10%
R
H 2 SO4
Y
20%
R
l
R
Y
H2 SO.
Y
Enchi
95
21.0
51
159
4.9
20 I
Kwekukrom(A)
4.2
22.0
45
186
37
200
Nkwanlll (A)
3.7
202
5.3
186
60
200
Nyameodae (A)
36
205
40
179
37
200
Manso-I(AMA)
4.7
20.5
.3 8
153
34
15 I
Manso-2(MA)
3.0
200
37
146
50
197
Manso-3 (MA)
3.2
20 I
30
12 ]
3 I
194
Afransi- J(W AI
38
20 I
U
133
5 I
184
Afransi-2(W A)
U
200
50
16 I
39
154
EUenda
36
200
59
::WU
25
140
Awiabo
2.6
110
45
200
50
24 {)
Aiyninase
34
204
45
200
24
132
Axim
:u.
200
94
200
2 I
106
Bekazo-I
5.6
200
56
200
28
:2 t 4
Bokazo-2
34
202
36
20 I
70
144
Bokazo-3
:u.
20.2
35
200
40
11 2
SaIma-1
52
200
102
20 I
47
200
62
I
50%
H2 SO4
,I
,
I
I
i
I
Salma-2
9.5
15.0
4.6
300
55
200
Aluku-I
4.0
17.1
5.9
200
60
20.0
Aluku-2
4.4
20.1
3.4
200
49
200
Aluku-3
4.4
20 I
9.3
200
4.6
20.0
Aluku-4
4.1
200
5.2
200
40
20.0
Nkroful
5.2
200
4.4
200
6.5
20.0
Esiama-l
9.0
20.0
60
200
3.4
20.0
Esiama-2
7.5
200
70
200
2,0
110
Esiama-3
U
200
36
200
6.9
204
Bonsukrom-l (D)
21
111
26
130
16
140
Bonsukrom-2(D)
3.0
15.8
36
154
48
20.1
Bonsuicrom-3(D)
2.2
13.5
50
214
22
130
Awunakrom (M)
36
153
50
202
2,9
134
Kejabir (M)
2.8
156
28
200
37
20.0
Hwindo-l
30
15 0
31
160
37
200
Hwindo-2
30
170
2,9
190
4.0
21 1
Ketan
3.8
152
33
195
2.1
14.3
Esipong
4.5
242
36
210
6.0
27.3
Sbama-I
37
240
29
170
21
132
Sbama-2
3.9
20.1
2.6
133
5.0
23.2
63
11.6
1.9
21.0
3.2
210
2.9
14.0
166
2.4
17.5
1.8
120
17.8
2.6
13.5
1.8
120
Apramdo-l
2.8
14.2
2.4
Apramdo-2
3.0
18.5
Apramdo-3
3.0
Aprarndo-4
2.8
.
The values obtained for the palm kernel oil ranges from (2 1R, II I Y) to (9.5R,
15.0Y) for the clay samples treated with 10 percent H,SO" (24R, 17.5Y) for the clays
treated with 20 percent H2 S04 and (13R, 120YI to (7 OR, 14.4Yj for the clay treated with 50
percent H 2 S04
unaetivated)
Again these values are much better than those obtained with natural (or
clay samples (Table 8 and 9)
Front the results obtained. 14 of the clays
treated with 50 percent H,S04 gave best bleach values in the range of (I 8R. 12 OY) to (2 9R.
B.4Y) followed by II clay samples treated WIth 10 percent H,S04, and 6 clay samples
treated with 20 percent H2 S0 4 These values also indicate that the 50 percent activated clays
give the best results similar to that of the palm oil
Besides, the imported activated clays, Galleon-V2 and Fulmot-BE300C that gave
colour values of (1.0R. 4 OYj and (2 IR. 70Yj respectively for palm kernel oil were found to
give much better results than and in some few cases comparable results \.-\'lth the local
activated clays
These samples include those from Bonsukrorn-I treated with 10% I-hS04
and Ellenda, Aiyinase, Axim, Bonsukrom.J, Ketan, Shama-!. Apramdo-1,3 & 4 treated WIth
500/0 H 2 S04
Out of the total bleaching results obta1l1ed and from the CEC results and chemical
analysis 9 of the samples could be clay minerals belonging to Montmorillonite group, 6 to the
HaIIoysite group, 4 to the Mica group and only 2 to the Kanlinite group This could also be
attributed to a great number of Silicon-rich centres produced during the activation process
64
l
On the other hand the presence of the relatively high concentrations of Aluminium oxide and
alkali metals could have resulted in the low bleaching perfonnance of the other clays. [6].
The 11 of the clay samples treated with 10 percent H 2SO, produced values that were
among the best results. This could be cost-effective when it is used for industrial bleaching
because they are comparable to the bleach values obtained for the two imported clay samples
i.e. Galleon-V2 and fulmot-BE300C Samples from Esiama-2, Bokazo-2, Bonsukrom-I &3,
Ketan, Shama-l, Apramdo-l, 3 & 4 gave the best bleach values among the rest with values
ranging from (UR 120Y) to (21R 1O.6Y). However these values are not as good as the
values for Galenn V-2 with value of (lOR 40Y) but were equally as good as the bleach
value of (2 IR 70Y) for Fulmot-BE 300e with a value of(2 IR 70Y)
3.52
OIL RETENTION OF ACTIVATED CLAY SAMPLES
The percentage oil retention of clays are of great interest to the industrialist
since it partiaUy determines how much of the oil he is likely to lose in terms of the
quantity of oil and the related cost
The oil retention values of the activated clay
samples used in the bleaching are shown in Table 12
The percentage oil retention
values for Galleon V-2 and Fulmot BE 300C are however shown in Table 8
The oil retention values ranges from 2,30 to 11 10 percent for the 10 percent
H 2 S04 activated clay samples, 2.00 to II 90 percent for the 20 percent H 2 S04
activated clay samples and 205 to 1100 percent for the 50 percent H 2 SO,
It is
observed that I7 clay samples activated with 50 percent H 2 SO, had reasonable
retention values that range from 2,30 to 650 percent. IS clay samples activated with
20 percent H2 SO, bad retention values that range from 230 to 6 50 percent and 16
65
l
1
1
l
I
clay samples bleach with 10 percent H 2 S04 had retention values that range from 2.30
to 6.50 percent.
All these clays that giv; corresponding colour analysis values of
between (08R, TOY) and (3 OR, 120Y) of either the palm oil of! and palm kernel oil
could be ofgreat significant industrial interest.
Table 12 OIL RETENTION VALUES
( PERCENTAGE OIL RETENTION OF FILTER CLAYS TREATED WITH
DIFFERENT PERCENTAGE OF ACIDS)
SAMPLE NO
10% H 2 SO4
20% H2 SO 4
500/0 H 2SO 4
720
710
7005
1020
980
900
800
780
775
Nyamendae (A)
1080
1090
II 00
Manso-I (AMAJ
1210
II 80
1:2 00
Manso-2 (M"')
:!30
200
200
Manso-3 (MA)
620
580
6 10
Afransi- 1 (W AJ
970
980
1000
Afransi-2 (W A)
880
870
8 7S
Ellenda
42
435
430
Awiabo
670
680
670
Aiyinase
605
610
520
Eochi
Kwekukrom (A)
Nkwanta (AJ
66
I
1
,
,
;
clay samples bleach with 10 percent H 2 S0 4 had retention vaJues that range from 2.30
to 6.50 percent.
All these clays that give corresponding colour analysis values of
between (0.8R, 7.0Y) and (3 OR, nOY) of either the palm oil of! and palm kernel oil
could be of great significant industrial interest
Tahl. 12 OIL RETENTION VALliES
(PERCENTAGE OIL RETENTION OF FILTER CLAYS TREATED WITH
DIFFERENT PERCENTAGE OF ACIDS)
SAMPLE NO
10% H,S04
200/0
H~S04
50% H 2SO 4
no
7 10
7005
1020
980
900
800
780
775
Nyamend.e (A)
1080
1090
1100
Manso-I lAMA)
12 10
1180
12 00
Manso-2 (MA)
230
200
2 0(1
Manso-3 (MA)
620
580
6 10
Afransi-J (W A)
970
980
10 00
Afransi-2 (W A)
880
870
875
Ellenda
42
435
430
Awi.bo
6.70
680
670
Aiyinase
605
610
520
Enchi
Kwekukrom (A)
Nk-want. (A)
66
i,
Axim
680
690
6.96
Bokazo-I
6.90
6.85
6.90
Bokazo-2
685
680
690
Bokazo-3
620
6.20
6 15
Salma-I
785
780
780
Salma-2
8.00
800
805
Aliku-l
10.00
980
975
AluhJ-2
600
5.90
5.90
Aluku-3
675
670
680
AluhJ-4
7.00
7 10
7 15
Nkroful
820
780
800
Esiama-l
660
670
b50
560
650
,
I
i
, I
,I
Esiama-2
1
!
Esiama-3
b 50
blO
~
Bonsukrom-I (D)
900
8.90
885
Bonsukrom-2 (D)
II 10
] I 00
1080
Bunsukrom-3 (D)
7 20
720
700
A wunakrom (M)
410
420
41':;
Kejabir (M)
6.20
600
4.90
Hwindo-I
6 10
605
bOO
~,
I
40
20
1
I
I,
67
1
.J
~
i
,I
j
I:
Axim
6.80
690
6.96
Bokazo-l
6.90
685
6.90
Bokazo-2
6.85
6.80
690
Bokazo-3
6.20
6.20
6.15
Salma-l
7.85
7.80
780
Salma-2
800
800
805
AJiku-1
1000
980
_'US
AJuku-2
600
5.90
590
AJuku-3
675
6 70
680
AJuku-4
700
7 10
7 15
Nkroful
820
780
800
Esiama-l
660
670
650
Esiama-2
5 40
560
650
Esiama-3
650
6 10
5 20
Boosukrom-I (D)
900
890
885
Boosukrom-2 (D)
II 10
11.00
I [) SO
Bunsukrom-3 (D)
720
7.20
700
Awuoakrom (M)
4 10
420
425
Kejabir (M)
6.20
600
490
Hwindo-I
6.10
605
600
67
r
t
HwiDdo-2
1075
10 60
1065
Ketan
1100
1080
1075
Esipoog
330
335
3.00
Sbama-I
940
930
9.20
Sbama-2
7.50
730
730
Apramdo-I
235
500
2.35
Apramdo-2
2.30
245
2.50
Apramdo-3
240
245
250
Apramd0-4
230
235
240
The underlined figures represents the best oil retention value in a group
The two imported clays Galleon- V2 and Fulmor-BE 300c gave percentage oil
retention values of 7 9 and 8 0 respecuveJy Tlus shows tbat a cOllSlder.ilile number of
the activated clays are of supenor quality and could be of great mdustnaJ unportance
It was observed during Ibe course of filtration tbat temperature rangmg from 80-90"C
was very favorable
oil begins
to the filtration process and filtrariOD slowed down as won as
to cool and goes below 6O"C
the
The Ingher retention values could be
attributed to unfilvorabJe temperature condinons and solidification of the palm oil or
palm I<emeI oil as it became almost impossible for it to pass through Ibe fiher paper
68
CHAPTER FOUR
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The clay samples from the Western Region varies in the pH values from 3 00
to 11.50 indicating acidic, neutral to alkaline clays. There is considerable amount of
organic matter in most of the clay deposits. From the values obtained from the Cation
Exchange Capacity determinations and chemical analysis data some of the clays could
be predominantly Kaolinite, Montimorillonite Halloysite and Mica with traces of
illite, chlorite and vermiculite. Some of the clays are also suitable as a raw material
for clinker production for the cement industry as shown by the lime - silica ratios.
By comparing the theoreticaJ values with the observed values, acceptable homogenate
are obtained tbat provides a good raw meal for feeding Rotary Kilns and high
standard Clinker could be obtained for Portland Cement manufacture,
the
Government and other Foreign lnvestors should consider establishing a Cement
Production Plant in Ghana
The colour analysis indicates that acid and heat treatment during the a ~tivation
process greatly enhance the bleaching properties of all the clays This could be due
to
the increase in the surface area on the day adsorption sites, which is available for
adsorption of impurities and other colour pigments including l3-carotene On the basis
of the colour analysis, some of the activated jocaJ clays bleached equally weU and in
very few instances much bener than the miported activated clay samples (FuUer's
Earth) imported by Lever Brothers Limited that is used in the vegetable oil industry
This important observation suggests that further research work could be promoted in
69
the studies of some of these clays to serve as a substitute for the foreign imponed
clay
Further anaJytical work needs to be carried out to further authenticate the
classification of the clay mineraJs This could be in (he area of Differential ThennaJ
AnaJysis and other Physico-chemicaJ property detemunatlOns to characterise the day')
In the Western Region of Ghana
r
f
I
I
!"
I
lI,
,
I
7(j
REfERENCES
I. Gadzekpo, V.P. Y., Faabeluons L. Y. Mensah. S.G: Ghana Journal of Chemistry
1 (4), 197, 199J.
2. Afedoh; E.K; Bleaching Properties of Activated local clays. Project Report
submitted to Department of Chemistry, V.C.C, Cape Coast, 1996.
3. Bentil, E.D; Comparison of Bleaching Ability Drlcesl Activated clays from
Different parts of the Eastern Region afGhana. Project Report
-submitted to Department of Chemistry, V.CC, Cape Coast, 1996.
4. Atta, J.K..B.A; Preliminary Investigation of the Decolorising Potential of some
local clays in Ghana. CSIR. Accra. 1978.
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74
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