DIgest
DG 525
DOMESTIC SMOKE ALARMS
Emma Warren
Smoke alarms in homes can save lives, are easy
to use and are inexpensive. If correctly specified,
installed and maintained, they will give an early
warning of fire that can allow occupants to safely
escape, while nuisance alarms are minimised.
This Information Paper provides guidance on
the different types of smoke alarm available, and
on correctly specifying, locating, installing and
maintaining fire detection and alarm systems. It
reviews a number of the recommendations given
in relevant regulatory guidance, as well as the
use of third-party-approved fire detection and
alarm products and installers.
The information provided will be of particular
interest to UK house builders, building control
officers, specifiers, manufacturers, building
owners and the fire and rescue services, and may
also be of use to similar professionals in other
countries – subject to local code or national
legislative requirements.
Smoke alarms that are appropriately selected, located, fitted
and maintained can dramatically improve fire safety in homes
A suitably specified, located and maintained smoke
alarm can provide this warning by detecting smoke in the
early stages of the fire and sounding an alarm. UK fire
statistics show that you are almost twice as likely to die in
a domestic fire where there is no working smoke alarm as
you are where one is present[3].
INTRODUCTION
The number of UK homes fitted with smoke alarms has
risen from just 8% in 1988 to 91% in 2008[1], as a result
of the changes to the Building Regulations Approved
Document B – Fire Safety[2] in 1992.
This has led to a dramatic reduction in deaths and
injuries from household fires, but there are still more
than 200 deaths and some 7500 injuries from the 36,000
dwelling fires attended by fire and rescue services every
year[3]. Many of these casualties could be avoided if
people had early warning of fire and were able to escape
in time.
TYPES OF SMOKE ALARM
Domestic smoke alarms are simple, self-contained
but often interconnected units, incorporating a smoke
detector, power source and alarm sounder.
Smoke detectors
There are two types of smoke alarm in common use: one
is fitted with an ionisation smoke detector, the other with
an optical or photoelectric detector.
2
DOMESTIC SMOKE ALARMS – DG 525
Figure 1: Inside a smoke alarm that uses an ionisation detector
Figure 3: Inside a smoke alarm that uses an optical detector
Figure 2: Ionisation smoke chamber
© Apollo Fire Detectors Ltd 1997/RHD/JDR
Figure 4: Optical smoke chamber
© Apollo Fire Detectors Ltd 1997/RHD
Ionisation detectors
Ionisation detectors (Figure 1) make use of the radioactive
element Americium 241. Americium emits alpha
radiation that can only travel a few centimetres in air and
can be stopped by a sheet of paper, and so is safe for use
in the home.
The radiation passes through an air-filled space in
the detector (the ionisation chamber), enabling a small
current to flow between two electrodes. If smoke enters
the chamber it absorbs the alpha particles. This reduces
the ionisation and interrupts the current, setting off the
alarm when a preset threshold level is reached (Figure 2).
Optical or photoelectric detectors
An optical detector (Figure 3) contains a light source,
typically an LED, collimated into a beam using a lens. A
photosensor is fitted at an angle to this light beam. When
smoke particles enter the device they scatter the light,
directing some of it towards the sensor and setting off the
alarm (Figure 4).
Combination and other alarms
Smoke alarms that contain both ionisation and optical
detectors are available. They offer increased alarm
sensitivity across a range of fire types (smouldering and
flaming) as a result of the detectors’ differing capabilities
(see ‘Ionisation or optical detector alarms?’ below).
Heat and carbon monoxide (CO) detectors are
also available for use in domestic properties, but are
considerably less sensitive than smoke alarms and should
therefore be used in conjunction with, not instead of,
smoke alarms. Heat and CO detectors are increasingly fitted
where ionisation and optical devices are not suitable – for
example, heat detectors are recommended for installation
in kitchens. An important recent development has been the
introduction of multisensor smoke alarms to the domestic
market. They contain more than one type of sensor, eg a
combined optical/heat detector or optical/CO detector.
Interconnection
Smoke alarms throughout the dwelling can be wired
together, enabling them all to sound when one device
alarms. This gives more efficient warning and greater
escape time to occupants, and can reduce the risk to both
life and property.
Radio signals can also be used to connect smoke alarms,
allowing the benefits of interconnection without the
disruption and expense that wired connection can entail.
This makes smoke alarm installation simpler, enabling
dwelling occupiers to install interconnected smoke alarm
systems themselves under the manufacturer’s instructions.
Wireless smoke alarms may be preferred for aesthetic
reasons, particularly in listed or historic dwellings, and can
also be used during construction or refurbishment to protect
a property in which wiring has not yet been installed.
Power sources
Smoke alarms can be powered by batteries – either
standard 9V or rechargeable lithium batteries – or by
mains power.
Mains-powered smoke alarms, which need to be
installed by qualified electricians, are generally more
reliable and are available with a battery backup in case
of power cuts. In 2008, battery-powered smoke alarms
failed to operate in 36% of UK fires where a smoke alarm
was present, mainly because of missing or flat batteries.
Over the same period, only 15% of mains-powered
smoke alarms failed to operate, mainly because the
smoke did not reach the detectors[3].
The introduction of 10-year rechargeable lithium
batteries for smoke alarms has allowed greater reliability
by reducing maintenance requirements. In many smoke
alarms, the battery lifetime is now as long as the alarm
lifetime.
An additional option is a smoke alarm that plugs into
light sockets and uses rechargeable batteries that charge
when the light is on.
SELECTING SMOKE ALARMS
BS 5839-6:2004 (Fire detection and fire alarm systems
for buildings – Code of practice for the design, installation
and maintenance of fire detection and fire alarm systems
in dwellings)[4] provides detailed guidance on the use
of smoke alarms in new and existing dwellings, both
for single-family properties and for houses in multiple
occupation (HMOs).
When introduced in 1995, BS 5839-6 became a
key set of recommendations for building professionals,
detection- and alarm-system designers, installers, landlords
and others with an interest in fire safety in the home. In
the 2004 update, recommendations were made more
stringent, eg by increasing the minimum level of protection
required in new buildings, recommending standby power
supplies for mains-powered smoke alarms and increasing
the emphasis on reducing the number of false alarms.
The current standard for smoke alarm devices is
BS EN 14604:2005 (Smoke alarm devices)[5]. This specifies
the requirements, testing methods, performance criteria
and manufacturers’ instructions for both optical and
ionisation devices for use in residential buildings. It is
used throughout the European Economic Area.
Other available guidance on smoke alarm selection
includes the listings of third-party-assessed and approved
manufacturers and products such as those produced by
the Loss Prevention Certification Board (LPCB), which
are outlined below. Current UK fire safety regulations are
summarised in Box 1.
Ionisation or optical detector alarms?
While the two main types of detector are both generally
suitable for use in homes, each has advantages depending
on the particular circumstances. BS 5839-6 recommends
that the choice of smoke alarm for a space should consider
both the likely type of fire (flaming or smouldering) and
the need to avoid false or nuisance alarms.
DOMESTIC SMOKE ALARMS – DG 525
3
Box 1: UK fire safety regulations
The fire safety requirements in the British Isles vary across the
different regions/nations, as follows:
• England and Wales: guidance on complying with the
requirements in the building regulations is provided in
Approved Document B (2006)[2].
• Scotland: the document used is Section 2 of the Domestic
Technical Handbook[6].
• Northern Ireland: Technical Booklet E (2005)[7] is used.
• Republic of Ireland: Technical Guidance Document Part B
(2006)[8] is used.
These documents outline the requirements for new buildings,
extensions, alterations and changes of purpose.
In the UK, existing dwellings are covered by the Housing
Health and Safety Rating System (HHSRS)[9] under the
Housing Act 2004[10], and in the case of HMOs and some
other multiple-occupancy properties, fire safety duties are
also imposed by the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order
2005[11].
Ionisation detectors more rapidly detect the small
smoke particles produced by fast-flaming fires, and are
therefore recommended where these present the greater
risk to occupants – such as in living rooms.
Optical detectors respond more quickly to smouldering
fires, which produce larger smoke particles. They are
recommended for areas such as bedrooms where, for
example, a cigarette dropped onto furniture or bedding
will result in a smouldering fire.
Optical detectors are more effective at detecting
particles at a distance from the fire, where the particles
are likely to have coalesced to reach a greater size[12].
They are therefore recommended for circulation spaces
in homes – eg halls and landings – which are more distant
from likely fire ignition sources. Optical detectors are also
recommended in areas of high air flow, where ionisation
detectors can experience problems because the ions may
be blown out of their ionisation chambers.
Ionisation detectors – being quick to react to small
particles – are more likely to respond to fumes such as
those produced by cooking, and are therefore more
prone to nuisance alarms when installed in circulation
areas[13].
Neither type of smoke alarm is suitable for installation
in cooking areas, as nuisance alarms would be too
frequent. Heat alarms are therefore recommended for the
kitchen, the room in a dwelling where most fires start[3].
In the past, ionisation detectors have been used more
widely because they are cheaper to produce than optical
detectors. However, in recent years increased security
concerns have made the storage, transport and disposal
of the radioactive material used in ionisation detectors a
more complex and expensive issue.
Third-party certification
Third-party certification is an assessment and approval
process carried out by an independent body that is not
associated with either the manufacturer or the customer,
in order to confirm that a product meets – and will
continue to meet – a specified standard.
4
DOMESTIC SMOKE ALARMS – DG 525
Manufacturers of third-party-approved smoke alarms
will have had their products rigorously tested and
approved by certification bodies such as the LPCB, and are
subject to a combination of regular company audits and
schedules of ongoing tests. This gives users the confidence
that the alarms will perform as expected, provided they
have been correctly installed and maintained. LPCBapproved smoke alarm manufacturers and products – and
detection- and alarm-system installers – are listed in the
LPCB Red Book (see www.redbooklive.com).
While not required by law in the UK, third-party
certification offers a number of benefits to specifiers.
Expensive mistakes, for example, can be avoided by
using products that have been independently shown to
be effective. Specifying third-party-approved products
also reduces risks, mitigating accusations of negligence by
proving due diligence.
There are also benefits for manufacturers, including
the potential to improve global sales – the use of thirdparty-approved products is often specified, and in some
territories is mandatory. It can also add value to products,
and reduce liability by proving due diligence.
SPECIFYING FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM
SYSTEMS
BS 5839-6 assists with the specification of fire detection
and alarm systems by defining grades of alarm system and
categories of protection required.
Which grade of alarm system?
BS 5839-6 grades fire detection and alarm systems from
Grade A to Grade F, taking such issues as power source
reliability and the level of control and monitoring possible
into account. In general, the greater the fire risk and the
more demanding the application, the more comprehensive
the system needs to be. The grades used are outlined below:
• Grade A: fire detection and alarm system with control
and indicating equipment compliant with
BS EN 54-2:1998[14] and power supply compliant
with BS EN 54-4:1998[15], designed and installed in
accordance with BS 5839-1:2002[16].
• Grade B: fire detection and alarm system comprising
fire detectors (other than smoke/heat alarms) and
sounders, with control and indicating equipment
compliant with BS EN 54-2 and power supply
compliant with BS EN 54-4.
• Grade C: detectors and sounders (can be combined
in smoke/heat alarms) connected to a common power
supply, with a standby supply and central control
equipment.
• Grade D: system of interlinked (wired or radio) mainspowered smoke alarms (plus heat alarms if required),
each with backup power.
• Grade E: system of interlinked (wired or radio) mainspowered smoke alarms (plus heat alarms if required),
with no backup power.
• Grade F: a fire detection and alarm system comprising
one or more battery-powered smoke alarms (plus heat
alarms if required).
Higher-grade systems (A–C)
Large buildings, buildings containing a considerable
number of dwelling units and those where the fire risk is
particularly high may justify Grade A or B systems. Where
a system is designed for property protection, insurers may
require a Grade A system, although in smaller properties
Grade B or C systems may be sufficient.
Grade D systems
Grade D is the minimum type of system for new
dwellings that complies with the guidance in Approved
Document B. The use of mains-powered alarms that
each incorporate a standby supply should address the
problems outlined below, but if ready access to control is
considered necessary a Grade C or higher system will be
needed.
Grade E systems
Grade E systems are not suitable in new dwellings. Mainspowered smoke alarms are potentially more reliable than
battery-powered, but are not suitable where the power
supply may be intermittent due either to the inability of
residents to pay for it or the unreliability of mains supply.
Grade F systems
Grade F systems should not be installed in new dwellings,
but may be considered for existing dwellings if there is
a reasonable certainty that batteries will be replaced –
this is a key issue with battery-operated smoke alarms.
Occupants on a tight budget, for example, may find it
difficult to afford replacement batteries. In addition, some
occupiers might remove the batteries to prevent false
alarms or to use in other battery-powered items, and then
forget to replace them.
What category of protection?
BS 5839-6 defines three categories of fire detection and
alarm system that are concerned with protecting life (L) in
dwellings (D). These are based on the areas in which the
detectors and alarms are required, and therefore the level
of protection the system offers (Figure 5). They are:
• Category LD1: detectors throughout the dwelling – in
all circulation spaces comprising the escape routes,
and in all rooms or areas in which a fire might start
(other than bathrooms, toilets and shower rooms).
• Category LD2: detectors installed in all circulation
spaces comprising the escape routes, and in all rooms
that present a high fire risk to occupants.
• Category LD3: a system of detectors in all of the
circulation spaces comprising the escape routes from
the dwelling.
BS 5839-6 also defines two categories of fire alarm system
installed to protect property in dwellings: PD1 and PD2.
Category LD1 and LD2 systems
While a Category LD1 system offers the most protection
in terms of early fire detection, a good level of protection
can be obtained using an LD2 system, which may contain
detectors in the kitchen and living room, for example, in
addition to the circulation areas.
DOMESTIC SMOKE ALARMS – DG 525
5
Figure 5: Smoke alarm coverage provided by the three BS 5839-6 categories of fire detection system
If the risk to occupants from fire in any part of the
building is high, eg if an occupant suffers from a disability,
a Category LD1 or LD2 system should be considered,
based on a full risk assessment that takes account of all
of the fire protection measures and fire safety systems in
place.
Category LD3 systems
A Category LD3 system is the minimum that is required
in new dwellings in order to comply with the guidance
in Approved Document B. This system protects the
escape routes for occupiers not directly involved in the
fire, but may not provide protection to those in the fire’s
immediate vicinity.
Meeting the needs of the various building
types
BS 5839-6 provides recommendations on the minimum
grade and category needed to protect different types of
housing. These apply to buildings where details of the
occupants are unknown, such as in newbuilds or buildings
with high occupant turnover. For a specific property where
occupant needs are known, the recommendations can be
modified to a higher standard based on a risk assessment.
Recommendations for existing properties depend
on whether they meet the structural requirements for
fire in BS 5588-1:1990 (Fire precautions in the design,
construction and use of buildings – Code of practice for
residential buildings)[17], or in national building regulations.
These include recommendations on fire-rated partitions,
ceilings and doors. If there is some doubt as to whether
a dwelling complies with these regulations, the more
stringent recommendation for dwellings that do not
comply should be followed.
The recommendations for the minimum grade and
category of system in single-family dwellings and shared
dwellings (no more than six people sharing in a similar
manner to a family, eg student houses) are outlined below
(Tables 1 and 2).
There may be requirements in addition to the
recommendations for minimum protection in Tables 1 and 2.
These are detailed in BS 5839-6, and include issues such as
the type and placement of alarm and battery lifetime. Where
occupants or property are considered to be at high risk, these
recommendations may not be sufficient and a risk assessment
should be carried out.
Houses in multiple occupation
For the purposes of fire safety, HMOs can be defined as
dwellings in which three or more unrelated persons live,
who do not form a single household. The minimum levels
of protection for HMOs are outlined below (Table 3).
Reducing nuisance alarms in larger HMOs
In larger HMOs, a mixed alarm system – one with a mixture
of system grades for different needs, such as Grade D
systems in individual dwelling units with a Grade A system
in communal areas – is recommended. This is because
many nuisance alarms can result from several households
undertaking activities such as cooking, which can disrupt
all occupants of a HMO if a simpler single-grade system is
used. The result can be that occupants disable or ignore
alarms, and therefore jeopardise their own safety.
An example of a mixed system that could meet
the needs of a large HMO is a Category L3 system
recommended by BS 5839-1 (Fire detection and fire alarm
systems for buildings – Code of practice for system design,
installation, commissioning and maintenance)[16]. This
includes interlinked smoke detectors in the communal
escape routes, and smoke, heat or CO detectors in the
adjoining rooms. In addition, the individual dwelling
units will be protected with stand-alone smoke alarm
6
DOMESTIC SMOKE ALARMS – DG 525
Table 1: Minimum fire protection by grade and category of fire alarm system for dwellings with no floor greater than
200 m2 in area
New dwelling
Class of building
Existing dwelling meeting
structural requirements
Existing dwelling not meeting
structural requirements
Grade
Category
Grade
Category
Grade
Category
Owner-occupied bungalow, flat or
other one-storey dwelling
D
LD2
F
LD3
D
LD2
Rented bungalow, flat or other
one-storey dwelling
D
LD2
F
LD3
D
LD2
Owner-occupied maisonette or
two-storey dwelling
D
LD2
F
LD3
D
LD2
Rented maisonette or two-storey
dwelling
D
LD2
D
LD3
D
LD2
Three-storey dwelling
D
LD2
D
LD3
D
LD2
Four- or more storey dwelling
B
LD2
D
LD2
B
LD2
Table 2: Minimum fire protection by grade and category of fire alarm system for dwellings with one or more floors
greater than 200 m2 in area
New dwelling
Class of building
Existing dwelling meeting
structural requirements
Existing dwelling not meeting
structural requirements
Grade
Category
Grade
Category
Grade
Category
Bungalow, flat or other one-storey
dwelling
D
LD2
D
LD3
D
LD2
Maisonette or two-storey dwelling
B
LD2
B
LD2
B
LD2
Three- or more storey dwelling
Grade A, Category LD2 system with detectors sited as per BS 5839-1 for a Category L2 system
Table 3: Minimum fire protection by grade and category of fire alarm system for HMOs
New dwelling
Class of building
Existing dwelling meeting
structural requirements
Existing dwelling not meeting
structural requirements
Grade
Category
Grade
Category
Grade
Category
D
LD2
D
LD3
D
LD2
Individual dwelling units
D
LD2
D
LD3
D
LD2
Communal areas
Grade A, Category LD2 system with detectors sited as per BS 5839-1 for a Category L2 system
One- or two-storey HMO with no
floor greater than 200 m2 in area
All other HMOs
systems in each self-contained unit. Such a system would
provide a warning to residents of the HMO before the
escape routes become smoke filled, but would reduce the
number of nuisance alarms.
There are other solutions for reducing nuisance alarms,
such as systems with a short delay (typically no more than
two minutes) in triggering the smoke alarms in dwelling
units other than that in which the alarm was initiated. This
enables the occupier to investigate and reset the smoke
alarm if there is no cause for concern. In most HMOs,
it is appropriate to include manual call points in the fire
detection and alarm system.
Responsibility
Responsibility for fire safety in a HMO is considered
under the Management of Houses in Multiple Occupation
Regulations 2006[18]. Under these regulations, the
manager of the HMO is responsible for ensuring that fire
alarms and equipment are maintained in good order.
However, in a mixed system the occupiers of each unit
may be responsible for maintaining the smoke alarms
within their own dwelling unit – and should be made
aware of this responsibility – even though a separate
system is installed to protect escape routes.
Detailed guidance on meeting fire safety requirements
for different types of HMO and shared housing can be
found in LACORS’ Housing: fire safety[19].
INSTALLATION AND SITING
The correct installation of a fire detection and
alarm system is extremely important for its effective
performance in practice. The system must be installed
in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions, and be
properly sited.
To ensure this, it is recommended that systems
are designed and installed by third-party-certificated
contractors, such as those approved to LPS 1014
(Requirements for certificated fire detection and alarm
system firms)[20].
Manufacturers’ instructions for securing alarms to
ceilings or walls, which typically requires mechanical
fixings, should be followed. Deviation from these can
result in failure in situ of the devices, or in them falling
from a height – causing a safety risk to building occupants
and possible damage to the device. Such damage may
lead to problems that include overheating batteries, false
alarms, exposed electrical connections and fire detection
failures.
Siting of alarms
Nuisance alarms can result from poor smoke alarm
siting, which may induce occupants to remove batteries
or damage the devices. In the UK in 2008, 39% of the
battery-powered smoke alarms that failed to trigger during
a fire did so because of a missing battery or some other
act to disable the smoke alarm[3].
BS 5839-6 recommends that smoke and heat alarms
be ceiling mounted where possible, at least 300 mm
from walls or light fittings. In circulation spaces, no point
should be more than 7.5 m from a smoke alarm, and
there should be at least one smoke alarm in every hallway
and corridor. No bedroom door should be more than 3 m
from a smoke alarm, and there should be a smoke alarm
between each bedroom and every other room (other than
bathrooms, toilets and shower rooms).
For Category LD1 or LD2 systems, no point in a room
that is being protected should be more than 7.5 m from an
alarm. More detailed guidance is included in BS 5839-6.
DOMESTIC SMOKE ALARMS – DG 525
7
in accordance with the installer’s or manufacturer’s
instructions as appropriate. It is recommended,
particularly for Grade A systems, that this is undertaken
by a third-party-approved contractor with specialist
knowledge of fire detection and alarm systems, such as
those approved to LPS 1014.
Smoke alarms in Grade D, E and F systems should
be cleaned in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions at regular intervals, often six-monthly. The
build-up of dust and other background particles in the
optical or ionisation chamber can make the detector more
sensitive, and therefore more prone to false alarms[21].
Alternatively, dust build-up can block up the entry paths
for smoke into the detector, making it less sensitive and
less likely to react to a fire. If experience shows that the
build-up of dust is likely to affect the performance of the
device, cleaning should be undertaken more frequently.
A recent innovation – drift compensation – uses
microprocessors to monitor slow changes in background
particulates, and adjust the sensitivity of the smoke alarm
accordingly.
Smoke alarms using standard 9V batteries should
have replacement batteries on at least a yearly basis, and
smoke alarms should be replaced after 10 years of use.
Audibility requirements
SUMMARY
BS 5839-6 recommends that a smoke alarm sounder
should provide at least 85 dB at the door of each
bedroom – unless there is an alarm or sounder within the
bedroom – if there is a fire anywhere in the dwelling.
For some HMOs in which high levels of background
noise or other factors mean that greater audibility is required,
a sound level of 75 dB at the bedhead is advised. BS 5839-6
notes that, in practice, this is unlikely to be accomplished
without a sounder or alarm within the bedroom.
The widespread use of domestic smoke alarms has done
much to improve fire safety in UK homes. But while
new technologies are delivering more reliable smoke
alarms systems, the correct specification, installation and
maintenance of alarms remains vital to ensuring that they
perform properly.
The two commonly used types of smoke alarm employ
either ionisation or optical smoke detectors to give early,
and sometimes life-saving, warning of fire. BS 5839-6,
a key source of guidance on the use of domestic smoke
detectors, recommends that the choice of smoke alarm
should consider both the likely type of fire (flaming or
smouldering) and the need to avoid false or nuisance
alarms.
The use of smoke alarm products and installers
with third-party certification is recommended. Product
manufacturers and installers that comply with thirdparty-certification schemes, such as those operated
by the LPCB, are subject to independent and ongoing
assessment in order to ensure the consistency of product
and performance.
Grades of alarm system and categories of protection
required are defined by BS 5839-6, and can be used
to simply and clearly specify effective alarms systems
(eg Grade D, Category LD2). BS 5839-6 also provides
recommendations on the minimum grade and category
needed to protect different types of housing, including
houses in multiple occupation.
To ensure that they work well and that nuisance
alarms are minimised, smoke alarms must be located
and installed correctly; they must be regularly tested
and cleaned, and the reliability of their power sources
ensured.
MAINTENANCE
Poor smoke alarm maintenance can result in the
increased frequency of nuisance alarms or in smoke alarm
failure during a fire.
Routine testing should be undertaken weekly
to ensure that no major failure has occurred, as
recommended by fire and rescue services throughout the
UK. Grade A systems should be tested as recommended
by BS 5839-1. All other systems should be tested by
operating every alarm in the building. With smoke
or heat alarms, this can be done by operating the
test button on each device. If the building has been
unoccupied for a period in which power could have
failed, the system should be tested on reoccupation of
the dwelling.
Recently developed handheld remote programming
and testing tools can be used to test smoke alarms,
allowing testing to be undertaken on alarms that are
difficult to reach or by people who are less mobile.
Grade A, B and C systems should be serviced at least
every six months, as recommended in BS 5839-1, and
8
DOMESTIC SMOKE ALARMS – DG 525
REFERENCES*
1 Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG).
Fire statistics monitor. Issue 02/11. London, DCLG, 24 June
2011.
2 Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG).
The Building Regulations 2000. Approved Document B: Fire
safety. Volume 1: Dwellinghouses; Volume 2: Buildings other
than dwellinghouses (2006 edn). London, DCLG, 2004.
3 Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG).
Fire statistics, United Kingdom 2008. London, DCLG, 2010.
4 BSI. Fire detection and fire alarm systems for buildings – Code
of practice for the design, installation and maintenance of fire
detection and fire alarm systems in dwellings.
BS 5839-6:2004. London, BSI, 2004.
5 BSI. Smoke alarm devices. BS EN 14604:2005. London, BSI,
2005.
6 Scottish Government Building Standards Division. The Building
(Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2011. Domestic Technical
Handbook. Section 2: Fire (2011 edn). Edinburgh, Scottish
Government, 2011.
7 Department of Finance and Personnel Northern Ireland.
The Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2000. Technical
Booklet E: Fire safety (2005 edn). Belfast, TSO, 2005.
8 Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local
Government. Building Regulations (Republic of Ireland) 2006.
Technical Guidance Document Part B: Fire safety (2006 edn).
Dublin, TSO, 2006.
9 The Housing Health and Safety Rating System (England)
Regulations 2005. SI 3208. London, TSO, 2005.
10 The Housing Act 2004. Chapter 34. London, TSO, 2004.
11 Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005. SI 1541. London,
TSO, 2005.
12 Fleming J M. Photoelectric vs. ionization detectors: a review
of the literature. Proceedings of the Fire Suppression and
Detection Research Application Symposium, National Fire
Protection Research Foundation, Orlando, FL, February 1998.
Available at: www.mass.gov/portal/.
13 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
Performance of home smoke alarms. NIST Technical Note
1455-1. Washington, DC, NIST, December 2007 revision.
*
14 BSI. Fire detection and fire alarm systems – Control and
indicating equipment. BS EN 54-2:1998 + A1:2006. London,
BSI, 2006.
15 BSI. Fire detection and fire alarm systems – Power supply
equipment. BS EN 54-4:1998. London, BSI, 1998.
16 BSI. Fire detection and fire alarm systems for buildings – Code
of practice for system design, installation, commissioning and
maintenance. BS 5839-1:2002. London, BSI, 2002.
17 BSI. Fire precautions in the design, construction and use of
buildings – Code of practice for residential buildings.
BS 5588-1:1990. London, BSI, 1990.
18 The Management of Houses in Multiple Occupation (England)
Regulations 2006. SI 372. London, TSO, 2006.
19 Local Authorities Coordinators of Regulatory Services
(LACORS). Housing: fire safety. Guidance on fire safety
provisions for certain types of existing housing. London,
LACORS, 2008.
20 Loss Prevention Certification Board (LPCB). Requirements for
certificated fire detection and alarm system firms. LPS 1014.
Watford, BRE Global, 2010. Available at:
www.redbooklive.com.
21 Dziekan M. Where there’s smoke there’s (not always)
fire: an inside look at smoke detectors. The Citizen
Scientist, 23 July 2004. Available at: www.soamsci.org/tcs/
weeklyIssues/2004-07-23/feature1/index.html.
Acknowledgements
The preparation and publication of this Digest was funded
by BRE Trust. The author also wishes to thank FireAngel
(Figures 1 and 3) and Apollo Fire Detectors (Figures 2
and 4) for supplying the images used in this Digest.
All URLs accessed May 2012. The publisher accepts no
responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs referred to in
this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
BRE is the UK’s leading centre of expertise on the built environment,
construction, energy use in buildings, fire prevention and control, and
risk management. BRE is a part of the BRE Group, a world leading
research, consultancy, training, testing and certification organisation,
delivering sustainability and innovation across the built environment
and beyond. The BRE Group is wholly owned by the BRE Trust, a
registered charity aiming to advance knowledge, innovation and
communication in all matters concerning the built environment for
the benefit of all. All BRE Group profits are passed to the BRE Trust to
promote its charitable objectives.
BRE is committed to providing impartial and authoritative information
on all aspects of the built environment. We make every effort to
ensure the accuracy and quality of information and guidance when
it is published. However, we can take no responsibility for the
subsequent use of this information, nor for any errors or omissions it
may contain.
BRE, Garston, Watford WD25 9XX
Tel: 01923 664000, Email: enquiries@bre.co.uk, www.bre.co.uk
BRE Digests are authoritative summaries of the state-of-the-art on
specific topics in construction design and technology. They draw on
BRE’s expertise in these areas and provide essential support for all
involved in design, specification, construction and maintenance.
Digests, Information Papers, Good Building Guides and Good Repair
Guides are available on subscription in hard copy and online through
BRE Connect. For more details call 01344 328038.
BRE publications are available from www.brebookshop.com, or
IHS BRE Press, Willoughby Road, Bracknell RG12 8FB
Tel: 01344 328038, Fax: 01344 328005, Email: brepress@ihs.com
Requests to copy any part of this publication should be made to:
IHS BRE Press,
Garston,
DG 525
Watford WD25 9XX
© BRE 2012
Tel: 01923 664761
June 2012
Email: brepress@ihs.com
www.brebookshop.com
ISBN 978-1-84806-278-8