TELEMASP
BULLETIN
TEXAS LAW ENFORCEMENT MANAGEMENT AND
ADMINISTRATIVE STATISTICS PROGRAM
September/October 2009
Volume 16, No. 5
Mental Health and Stress Management
Programs in Policing
Scott MacMillan
This TELEMASP Bulletin examines the mental health
and stress management (MH/SM) programs among 57
responding law enforcement agencies to determine whether
an internal, external or hybrid program is employed, and if
present, how peer counseling is employed.
Mental Health and Stress Management Programs
While a certain degree of stress is present in any job, it is
much more pronounced in the field of law enforcement. For
example, police officers are often exposed to danger or the
threat of danger, and lengthy or rotating shift schedules can,
perhaps, prevent the officer from spending time with family
and friends. Further, courts often drop charges or deliver
lenient sentences to offenders who are the very ones that the
police worked hard, and possibly risked their lives, to arrest
and keep off the streets (National Institute of Justice, 2000).
The police bureaucracy itself can also place enormous stress
on the officer’s family that can affect shift-work, constant
fear of injury or death, low pay, and other factors often as
much, if not more, than the officer (Blau, 1994; Matteson &
Ivancevich, 1987). Without a healthy outlet for dealing with
these stress-related issues, an officer may become cynical,
impatient, violent toward others as well as him/herself,
unhealthy, and/or even suicidal.
There are numerous reasons why police departments
should maintain or have access to MH/SM programs.
For example, they provide confidential and specialized
treatment, raise morale, increase the department’s efficiency
and effectiveness, reduce early retirement or quitting,
lessen workers’ compensation claims due to stress-related
disabilities, lower the chance of civil liability as a result of
stress-related behavior, improve the general well-being of
officers’ families, and minimize negative media attention
(Finn & Tomz, 1996).
By providing MH/SM programs, large metropolitan
departments will have more program requirements resulting
in additional staff, thus justifying extra budget support. Of
the responding agencies, the Texas Department of Public
Safety, Dallas Police Department and Harris County
Sheriff’s Office have 2,500+ sworn officers, and three other
agencies have over 500. Forty-one out of the 57 agencies,
however, have less than 250 officers, and, in some cases,
there are fewer than 30 sworn officers. Nevertheless, this
does not imply that the need for a MH/SM program is less
important, but rather, it should be tailored to the specific
department. Faced with limited budgets, another option
for smaller departments is to consolidate a program with
nearby police, sheriffs’ and fire departments. For example,
in a rural area of Iowa, the Law Enforcement Assistance and
Development Program (LEAD) was established to serve
the officers, staff and families of Iowa State University’s
Department of Public Safety, the Story County Sheriff’s
Office, and the Ames Police Department (Desinger, 2002).
Similarly, the Baytown Police Department makes use of the
Houston Police Department’s services for Officer Involved
Shootings (OIS), whereas occasionally, the Travis County
Sheriff’s Office and Odessa Police Department employ
Texas Department of Public Safety services, and the Odessa
Police Department utilizes the Midland Fire Department’s
MH/SM services.
Law enforcement agencies rely on three types of MH/SM
programs: internal, external and hybrid. Although outside
psychologists may sometimes be consulted on a case-by-case
basis, a department’s internal mental health professional staff
are generally used due to both their close proximity and better
understanding of police officers. To quote a Michigan State
trooper, “Outsiders haven’t a clue about what the department
does, but staff with the [Michigan State Police Behavioral
Science] Section … are ‘one of us’” (Finn & Tomz, 1996,
Sam Houston State University
A Member of The Texas State University System
Bill Blackwood Law Enforcement Management Institute of Texas
2
Vol. 16, No. 5, September/October 2009
p. 36). On the other hand, external programs employ private
providers, most of whom are psychologists with specialized
training in the mental health of law enforcement personnel.
Hybrid programs, as the name implies, combine elements
from both internal and external programs. A majority of the
responding agencies employ external MH/SM programs,
while others hire internal services as well, creating hybrid
programs.
Peer counseling is also considered to be an effective way
of managing stress, and at the same time, keeps the officer
mentally healthy (Madonna & Kelly, 2002). Peer counselors
are fellow officers who experience similar tensions and are,
therefore, empathetic in understanding a comrade’s feelings.
In addition, an officer may find it easier talking to a colleague
rather than a psychologist. Twenty-three of the responding
agencies have a form of peer counseling.
The Survey
Fifty-seven Texas law enforcement agencies participated
in a survey regarding the use of mental health and stress
management programs in their department. As shown
in Figure 1, of these, 88% (n=50) provide mental health
services. Specifically, 4% (n=2) use internal programs
exclusively, 78% (n=39) use external programs and 18%
(n=9) use hybrid programs. Stress management services are
also provided by 74% (n=42) of the agencies in which 7%
(n=3) have internal programs, 60% (n=25) employ external
programs, and 33% (n=14) make use of hybrid programs.
Forty percent or 23 of the 57 agencies have a peer counseling
program.
Internal and external services offered. Depending on
the type of program employed, the survey was composed of
separate sections to fill out. Although not all questions were
alike, both internal and external sections were related to the
use of seven services commonly provided by each type of
program. As Figure 2 depicts, those services included critical
incident stress debriefing, long-term counseling, short-term
counseling, family member counseling, preventive stress
management training, special unit testing, and an “other”
category.
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) is offered
internally by 32% (n=18) of the departments and externally
by 58% (n=33) of the departments. CISD is usually
conducted by a fellow officer trained as a peer counselor or
by a psychologist who is either brought to the scene or the
officer is referred to him/her soon after the incident. Common
critical incidents that require debriefing include: an officerinvolved shooting, the injury or death of an officer or any
situation deemed to be severely traumatic. By participating
in CISD, an officer is not as likely to experience the same
level of stress-related symptoms as an officer who does not
receive CISD (Desinger, 2002; Murphy, Hurrell, Sauter, &
Keita, 1995; Territo & Sewell, 1999).
Long-term counseling is offered internally by 14% (n=8)
of the departments and externally by 37% (n=21), whereas
short-term counseling is offered internally by 23% (n=13)
of the departments and externally by 63% (n=36). Finally,
family member counseling is available internally by 14%
(n=8) and externally by 39% (n=22) of the departments.
Preventive stress management training is provided
internally by 18% (n=10) of the departments and externally
by 30% (n=17). Nationwide, however, preventive stress
management is the most commonly used method. It involves
training officers to recognize the sources and signs of stress
exhibited by an officer in addition to developing individual
coping techniques and strategies. “Stress-related problems
Figure 1. Agency provisions for mental health, stress management and/or peer counseling
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Mental Health and Stress Management Programs in Policing
Figure 2. Internal and external services provided
can be prevented in two principal ways: (1) by eliminating
the sources of stress themselves, and (2) by learning how to
deal with stressful conditions before they lead to problems”
(Finn & Tomz, 1996, p. 107).
Six agencies offer special unit testing both internally (11%)
and externally (11%), respectfully. Other types of services
are provided internally by six agencies (11%) and externally
by four (7%) agencies.
The Haltom City Police Department offers external services
including marriage or family relationship counseling,
financial services, domestic violence counseling, substance
abuse/dependency counseling, legal services, and child/
elderly care. The Arlington Police Department’s external
services are event-driven, that is, dependent upon the
events and situations occurring at any given time, whereas
internal event driven services are available at the Keller,
Odessa and San Angelo police departments. The Dallas
Police Department offers internal psychological testing, and
the Travis County Sheriff’s Office provides internal crisis
counseling. Finally, the San Antonio Police Department
furnishes internal cadet screening, consultation with the
hostage negotiation team, fitness for duty evaluations, and
command consultations
Total internal mental health and stress management
personnel. Sixteen agencies were reported as having fulltime MH/SM personnel on staff ranging from as few as
one or two to as many as 40. When respondents were then
asked to list the number of specific personnel classified as
psychologists, certified counselors and/or specially trained
officers, in addition to “other,” a total of seven full-time
psychologists, 16 certified counselors, 123 specially trained
officers, and 10 “other” full-time MH/SM personnel are used.
The specially trained officers, as well as “other” personnel,
are generally police officers trained in peer counseling and
critical incident stress management techniques (CISM) (see
Figure 3).
External program services available. Generally,
external program services include Employee Assistance
Programs (EAP) and Employee Referral Programs (ERP).
EAPs are department-sponsored contract agency visits
that often include a comprehensive contract for all city or
Figure 3. Total mental health/stress management
personnel (156 total officers from 16 agencies)
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Vol. 16, No. 5, September/October 2009
county employees. ERPs usually involve a referral officer or
employee who refers the police officer to a specific outside
specialist dependent upon his or her needs. Also included
in the survey was an “other” option. The Travis County
Sheriff’s Office contracts with an outside agency to perform
psychological evaluations, and 46 out of the 57 responding
agencies have an external program available. Forty-one
agencies offer the services of EAP, and ERP is available in
22 agencies. See Figure 4.
How officers are selected to be peer counselors. To
determine how officer peer counselors are selected, three
options were listed in the survey: Do the officers volunteer?;
Are they recommended by a supervisor?; or “other.” The
College Station, Lubbock, Plano, Richardson, Richland
Figure 4. External program services available to
officers
Hills, and Tyler police departments, as well as the Travis
County Sheriff’s Office and the Texas Department of Public
Safety all use multiple methods. Eighteen agencies reported
that officers volunteer, whereas both the Arlington Police
Department and El Paso County Sheriff’s Office require peer
counselors to receive CISM training. In the Richland Hills
Police Department, a peer counselor officer must have two
years of experience, while the Baytown Police Department
requires five years. Eight agencies responded that the officer
is recommended or selected by a supervisor who suggests
that the officer be given an opportunity to volunteer. Usually,
the officer must have good listening skills and the ability
to empathize with other officers. Six agencies select peer
counselors by “other” methods (See Figure 5). For example,
the Amarillo Police Department holds a department-wide
vote of confidence for officers who volunteer. In addition to
selection, a majority of agencies require peer counselors to
attend both CISM and peer counseling training.
Techniques that peer counselors are trained to use.
Seven techniques used by peer counselors were listed in the
survey in addition to an “other” choice. As shown in Figure
6, the seven techniques used by the responding agencies
included active listening (87%), reassurance (83%), empathy
(78%), supportive counseling (65%), group sharing (48%),
and interpretive counseling (4%). Although none of the
agencies reported using clinical exploration, 22% of the
respondents selected “other.” For example, the Amarillo
Police Department’s peer counselors use stress management
techniques, and the Corpus Christi Police Department
practices advanced peer support and CISM techniques. In
addition, the Texas Department of Public Safety utilizes
psychological first aid and group intervention techniques
in accordance with the International Critical Incident Stress
Foundation’s standards.
Figure 5. How officers are selected to be peer counselors
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Mental Health and Stress Management Programs in Policing
Figure 6. Techniques used by peer counselors
Where peer counselors are utilized. The survey listed
four circumstances and a fifth “other” option as possible
situations in which peer counselors may be involved: critical
incidents, death of an officer in the line of duty, injuries
sustained by an officer in the line of duty, and divorce
support. As Figure 7 depicts, of the 23 agencies reporting the
use of peer counselors, 91% (n=21) turn to them following
critical incidents or the death of an officer in the line of duty,
and 87% (n=20) call on them when an officer is injured in
the line of duty. In addition, peer counselors are used by
Figure 7. Situations where peer counselors are used
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Vol. 16, No. 5, September/October 2009
35% (n=8) of the agencies to help officers who are going
through a divorce, and 39% (n=9) indicated “other.”
For example, the Baytown Police Department uses peer
counselors in multiple situations employing any technique
that the situation warrants, whereas the Beaumont and
University Park police departments employ peer counseling
when deemed appropriate. Further, the Corpus Christi and
Lubbock police departments use peer counselors upon
request by a fellow officer, and the Travis County Sheriff’s
Office as well as the Texas Department of Public Safety
utilize their help when there is either an incident involving
the death of a child or OIS. On the other hand, the Texarkana
Police Department employs peer counselors to intervene
when fellow officers have drug or alcohol abuse issues.
Situations when confidentiality between the peer
counselor and officer can be waived. Although the majority
of agencies reported that confidentiality between the officer
and peer counselor can be waived or broken, most provided
specific situations that warrant the waiver. To illustrate,
Chapter 33.02H the Corpus Christi Police Department’s
Policy states:
Confidentiality and Autonomy
1. Strict confidentiality shall be maintained between
peer counselors and the officer.
2. There is no confidentiality in situations in which an
officer being counseled has been involved in violations
of the law or their oath of office. Peer counselors are
required to report these facts to the Chief of Police.
Although only three agencies responded that confidentiality
could not be waived or broken, there is no legal basis for
confidentiality. In other words, each department establishes
its own policy. Eighty percent of the agencies stated that
confidentiality can be waived or broken if there is a threat
of imminent danger to the officer or others. The Amarillo,
Baytown, North Richland Hills, Plano, and Richardson
police departments, as well as the El Paso County Sheriff’s
Office and the Texas Department of Public Safety, all
waive confidentiality if there is an admission or discovery
of criminal activity. In addition, the Baytown Police
Department will waive confidentiality when there is a need
for an officer’s greater mental health care.
Conclusion
It is suggested that MH/SM programs can make a difference
in both an officer’s retention and quality of life. By the
1980s, statistics revealed that 70% of officers involved in
a fatal shooting left law enforcement within five years after
the incident; larger departments have since reduced that
figure to 3%, with smaller or less funded departments losing
roughly 33% of its officers within five years (Miller, 2006).
This dramatic decline is due, in part, to police administrators
who express more acceptance of MH/SM programs that
assist officers in coping with the constant stress associated
with police work.
References
Blau, T. (1994). Psychological services for law enforcement.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
National Institute of Justice. (2000). On the job stress in
policing: Reducing it, preventing it. National Institute
of Justice Journal (NCJ Publication No. 180079).
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Desinger, E. (2002). Executive summary of the Law
Enforcement Assistance and Development (LEAD)
program: Reduction of familial and organizational
stress in law enforcement (NCJ Publication No. 192276).
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Finn, P., & Tomz, J. E. (1996). Developing a law enforcement
stress program for officers and their families. National
Institute of Justice: Issues and Practices (NCJ
Publication No. 163175). Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Justice.
Madonna, J., & Kelly, R. (2002). Treating police stress: The
work and the words of peer counselors. Springfield, IL:
Charles C. Thomas.
Matteson, M., & Ivancevish, J. (1987). Controlling work
stress: Effective human resource and management
strategies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Miller, L. (2006). Practical Police Psychology: Stress
management and Crisis Intervention for Law
Enforcement. Springfield, IL; Charles C. Thomas.
Murphy, L. R., Hurrell, J. J., Sauter, S. L., & Keita, G. P.
(Eds.). (1995). Job stress interventions. Washington,
DC: American Psychological Association
Territo, L,. & Sewell, J. (1999). Stress management in law
enforcement. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
7
Mental Health and Stress Management Programs in Policing
Thank you to the following agencies for participating in this bulletin:
Allen Police Department
Longview Police Department
Amarillo Police Department
Lubbock Police Department
Arlington Police Department
Lufkin Police Department
Baytown Police Department
Midland Police Department
Beaumont Police Department
Montgomery County Sheriff’s Office
Bexar County Sheriff’s Office
North Richland Hills Police Department
Carrollton Police Department
Odessa Police Department
College Station Police Department
Pasadena Police Department
Colleyville Police Department
Plano Police Department
Conroe Police Department
Potter County Sheriff’s Office
Corpus Christi Police Department
Randall County Sheriff’s Office
Dallas Police Department
Richardson Police Department
Duncanville Police Department
Richland Hills Police Department
El Paso County Sheriff’s Office
Roanoke Police Department
Euless Police Department
San Angelo Police Department
Farmers Branch Police Department
San Antonio Police Department
Frisco Police Department
San Marcos Police Department
Grapevine Police Department
Temple Police Department
Greenville Police Department
Texarkana Police Department
Haltom City Police Department
Texas City Police Department
Harlingen Police Department
Texas Department of Public Safety
Harris County Sheriff’s Office
Travis County Sheriff’s Office
Huntsville Police Department
Tyler Police Department
Hurst Police Department
University Park Police Department
Irving Police Department
Victoria Police Department
Keller Police Department
Waller Police Department
Kerrville Police Department
White Settlement Police Department
Killeen Police Department
Wichita Falls Police Department
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Vol. 16, No. 5, September/October 2009
TELEMASP Bulletins, ISSN 1075-3702,
are produced under an agreement with the
Police Research Center
Sam Houston State University
Larry T. Hoover, Ph.D., Director
Jamie L. Tillerson, Project Manager
© Sam Houston State University
BILL BLACKWOOD
L aw
E nforcement
M anagement
I nstitute of
T exas
This bulletin was authored by Scott MacMillan, a
doctoral student at Sam Houston State University.
His research interests include violent sexual
offenders and neurolaw, and he is currently
researching the correlation between low resting
heart rates and criminal propensity.
Rita Watkins, Ed.D.
Executive Director
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Board of Regents
The Texas State University System
Ron Blatchley, Chairman ............................. Bryan/College Station
Trisha Pollard, Vice Chairman ............................................ Bellaire
Charlie Amato .............................................................. San Antonio
Kevin J. Lilly ..................................................................... Houston
Ron Mitchell ............................................................ Horseshoe Bay
David Montagne ............................................................... Beaumont
Michael Truncale ............................................................. Beaumont
Greg Wilkinson ...................................................................... Dallas
Donna N. Williams ............................................................ Arlington
William Patterson, Student Regent ............................... San Marcos
Charles R. Matthews, Chancellor .......................................... Austin
Sam Houston State University
A Member of The Texas State University System
Bill Blackwood Law Enforcement
Management Institute of Texas
Criminal Justice Center
Sam Houston State University
Huntsville, TX 77341-2417