BATTERY (AND DC POWER) SOLUTIONS This catalog features a comprehensive look at the importance of batteries and routine battery testing and maintenance. In addition to this reference guide, you can go to our website anytime . . . www.avointl.com . . . for the latest in new battery testing products, applications, and other helpful ideas. COME HOME TO AVO! WWW.AVOINTL.COM It’s your on-line resource book when you need electrical testing and maintenance equipment, applications and information. You can use this on-line service regularly to get important information in the areas listed below Product Information Find the latest features and specifications for every product offered by AVO with an easy-to-use index to quickly locate products of interest. Production Application and Selection Guides Explore a wide variety of application guides and technical notes to help you solve problems or learn how to better use or select particular test equipment. ET&M News Current news and articles about electrical testing and maintenance, press releases, a list of industry events, and success stories in the electrical test and maintenance field are all available to keep you up to date on the latest happenings. Support Services Explains how to take advantage of the many support services available to you in the areas of customer service, hardware and software technical assistance, parts, accessories, and repair services, and extended warranty coverage. How to Contact Us Complete information on sales offices, manufacturing locations, customer service support, metrology and repair services, and more are listed for east contact. About AVO An overview of AVO International and our three flagship brand names . . . MEGGER®, BIDDLE® , and MULTI-AMP® is provided. Our Web Site Continues to Expand Visit our web site regularly because new features and capabilities are being added all the time. WHY TEST BATTERY SYSTEMS Batteries are complex chemical mechanisms. No matter how well batteries are manufactured, there is still some amount of “black art” to them (and all chemical processes). A battery is basically two dissimilar metals in an electrolyte. In fact, you can put a penny and a nickel in half of a grapefruit and you now have a battery. Obviously, an industrial battery is more sophisticated than a grapefruit battery and is not without its maintenance needs. A good battery maintenance program may prevent, or at least, reduce the costs and damage to critical equipment due to an ac mains outage. Why Test Systems: • To insure the supported equipment is adequately backed-up. • To prevent unexpected failures. • To forewarn death. Battery systems are installed for only two reasons: • To protect and support critical equipment during an ac outage. Volta invented the battery in 1800. Planté perfected the lead-acid battery in 1859. It was a good design then, but with refinements over the decades, it has become a critically important back-up power source. The refinements include improved alloys, grid designs, jar and cover materials and improved jar-to-cover and post seals. The most revolutionary development was the valve-regulated battery. Nickel-cadmium has seen many of the same types of changes over the years. • To protect revenue streams due to the loss of service. Lead-acid Overview • When will it need to be replaced? The basic chemical reaction is: • What is its condition now? PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 <—> 2PbSO4 + 2H2 + 2O2 in a sulfuric acid electrolyte, where the sulfate of the acid is part of the reaction. The acid is depleted upon discharge and regenerated upon recharge. Hydrogen and oxygen form during recharge and float charging. In flooded batteries, they escape and water must be periodically added. In sealed batteries, they recombine to form water. In valve-regulated lead-acid batteries, the acid is immobilized by an absorbed glass matte (AGM). The matte is much like the fiberglass insulation in your house. It traps the hydrogen and oxygen formed during discharge and allows them to migrate so that they react back to form water. This is why VRLA never need water added compared to flooded (vented) leadacid batteries. A battery is alternating positive and negative plates separated by microporous rubber in flooded lead-acid or absorbed glass matte in VRLA or plastic sheeting in NiCd. All of the like-polarity plates are welded together and to the post. In the case of VRLA cells, some compression of the plate-matte-plate sandwich is exerted to maintain good contact between them. There is also a self-resealing pressure relief valve to vent gases when over-pressurization occurs. Lead-acid (flooded) Failure Modes • Positive grid corrosion There are only four questions a battery user will ask. The first two are very important: • What is the capacity of the battery now? • What can be done to improve, not reduce its life? There are several main types of batteries with subtypes: • Lead-acid • Flooded • Lead-calcium • Lead-antimony • VRLA (sealed) • AGM • Gel • Flat plate • Tubular • Nickel-cadmium • Flooded • Sealed • Sediment (shedding) buildup • Pocket plate • Top lead corrosion • Flat plate • Plate sulphation • Hard shorts (paste lumps) 1 IMPEDANCE: WHAT IS IT AND WHY IT WORKS SO WELL Impedance is resistance in ac terms. With regard to dc battery systems, it indicates the condition of batteries without harming or stressing them in any way. Since it tests the condition of the entire electrical path of a battery from terminal plate to terminal plate, impedance can find weaknesses in the battery easily and reliably. Applying an ac test signal to the terminal plates performs the test. Then measure both the total ac current in the string and the voltage drop of each unit in the string by measuring each cell and intercell connector consecutively until the entire string is measured. Impedance is calculated, displayed and stored. As cells age, the internal impedance increases (see the graph to the right). By measuring impedance, the condition of each cell in the string can be measured and trended to determine when to replace a cell or the string aiding in planning budgetary needs. The impedance test is a true fourwire, Kelvin-type measurement to provide excellent reliability and highly reproducible data on which to base sound decisions with regard to battery maintenance and replacement. Each battery type has many failure modes, some of which are more prevalent than others. In the case of flooded lead-acid, the predominant failure mode is plate growth. The growth rate has been well characterized and is taken into account when designing batteries. In many battery data sheets, there is a specification for clearance at the bottom of the jar to allow for plate growth in accordance with its rated lifetime, for example 20 years. The normal failure mode is positive grid corrosion. The grids are lead alloys (lead-calcium, lead-antimony, lead-antimony-selenium) that convert to lead oxide over time. Since the lead oxide is a bigger crystal than lead metal alloy, the plate grows. Battery manufacturers design for extra space in the jars to account for this growth. At the “designed end-of-life” the plates will have grown sufficiently to pop the tops off of the batteries. But excessive cycling, temperature and overcharging can also increase the speed of positive grid corrosion. % Battery Life Figure 1: Changes in impedance as a result of battery capacity Sediment buildup (shedding) is a function of the amount of cycling a battery endures. This is more often seen in UPS batteries but can be seen elsewhere. Shedding is the sloughing off of active material from the plates, converting to white lead sulfate. Sediment buildup is the second reason battery manufacturers have space at the bottom of the jars to allow for a certain amount of sediment before it builds-up to the point of shorting across the bottom of the plates rendering the battery useless. The float voltage will drop and the amount of the voltage drop depends upon how “hard” the short is. Shedding, in reasonable amounts, is normal. Some battery designs have “wrapped” plates such that the sediment is held against the plate and is not allowed to drop to the bottom. So sediment does not buildup in wrapped plate designs. The most common application of wrapped plates is UPS batteries. 2 Top lead corrosion, like slivering, is more of a manufacturing defect. This is hard to detect even with a visual inspection since it occurs near the top of the battery and is hidden by the cover. Nearing a full failure, impedance may find this defect. But it will surely fail due to the high current draw when the ac mains drop off. The heat buildup when discharging will most likely melt the crack open and then the entire string drops off-line — a catastrophic failure. Plate sulphation is one of the easiest failure modes to find with impedance. A thorough visual inspection can sometimes find traces of plate sulphation. Sulphation is the process of converting active plate material to inactive lead sulfate. Since impedance finds electrical path failures very well (rather than mechanical failures, unless they are manifested as electrical path failures), sulphation is one of the electrical path problems which is easily found. Sulphation is due to low charger voltage settings or incomplete recharge after an outage. Sulfates form when the battery is not being kept fully charged. Lead-acid (VRLA) Failure Modes • Dry-out (a.k.a. Loss-of-Compression) • Plate Sulphation (see above) • Soft and Hard Shorts • Post leakage • Thermal runaway • Positive grid corrosion (see above) Dry-out is a phenomenon that occurs due to excessive heat (lack of proper ventilation), over charging, which can cause elevated internal temperatures, high ambient (room) temperatures, etc. At elevated internal temperatures, the sealed cells will vent through the PRV. When sufficient electrolyte is vented, the glass matte no longer is in contact with the plates, thus increasing the internal impedance and reducing battery capacity. In some cases, the PRV can be removed and distilled water added (but only in worst case scenarios and by an authorized service company since removing the PRV may void the warranty). This failure mode is easily detected by impedance and is one of the more common failure modes of VRLA batteries. Soft (a.k.a. dendritic shorts) and hard shorts occur for a number of reasons. Hard sorts are typically caused by paste lumps pushing through the matte and shorting out to the adjacent (opposite polarity) plate. Soft shorts, on the other hand, are caused by deep discharges. When the specific gravity of the acid gets too low, the lead will dissolve into it. Since the liquid, and dissolved lead, is immobilized by the glass matte, when the battery is recharged, the lead comes out of solution forming dendrites inside the matte. In some cases, the lead dendrites short through the matte to the adjacent plate. The float voltage may drop slightly but impedance can find this failure mode easily but is a decrease in impedance, not the typical increase as in dry-out. See Figure 1, “Abnormal Cell”. IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICES IEEE 450-1995 “IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing and Replacement of Vented Lead-acid Batteries for Stationary Applications” describes the frequency and type of measurements that need to be taken to validate the condition of the battery. The frequency of tests ranges from monthly to annually. Some of the monthly tests include string voltage, appearance, ambient temperature, float current, etc. Quarterly tests include specific gravity, cell voltage and temperature (=10% of cells). Annual tests are performed on the entire string. Additionally, the resistance to ground of the battery rack and intercell connection resistance need to be measured. Other tests made need to be performed based on the values measured during periodic tests and battery usage (cycling history). IEEE 1106-1995 “IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation, Maintenance, Testing and Replacement of Vented NickelCadmium Batteries for Stationary Applications” has similar recommended practices as IEEE 450. IEEE 1188-1996 “IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing and Replacement of Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications” defines the recommended tests and frequency. VRLA cells have been classified into tiers of criticality of the installation. The frequency and type of tests vary based on the battery’s tier. 3 INSULATION RESISTANCE Leaking cells can lead to reduced battery capacity, system inefficiencies, conditions hazardous to personnel and, in rare cases, lead to fires. A cell can leak for a variety of reasons including mishandling during shipping or installation, poor post-seals, overcharging, excessive plate growth, etc. This off-line test applies a dc voltage, say 500 V dc, between the buss and the rack, then measures the dc leakage current to calculate resistance in MΩ or GΩ. The higher the resistance is the better. This test is recommended at installation and whenever a leak may be suspected (from telltale signs such as salt buildup). This test must be performed while the battery or cell is off-line to prevent shorting the battery since a dc voltage is applied to the battery. GROUND FAULTS ON DC SYSTEMS When ground faults occur on floating battery systems and, in some cases, grounded systems, critical components in the system may not operate properly. A reduction in system readiness may then occur. Ground faults in excess of 100 kΩ are rarely worrisome. Sometimes, in less critical systems, a single fault is not worrisome, either. But when the total ground faults are less than 30-50 kΩ, system reliability is suspect. A fault is traced by applying an ac (25 Hz) current signal into the dc buss. Simply trace the circuits with the highest current values until the faults are located. Faults can be traced easily regardless of the number of distribution panels or circuits because the “tracer” is merely following the strength of the ac signal. System integrity is maintained because it is an on-line ac test and is designed to prevent system trips. 4 Thermal runaway is when a battery’s internal components melt down in a self-sustaining reaction. Normally, this phenomenon can be predicted by as much as four months which is one of the reasons why AVO International recommends quarterly VRLA impedance testing. The impedance will increase in advance of thermal runaway as does float current. Thermal runaway is relatively easy to avoid, simply by using temperaturecompensated chargers and properly ventilating the battery room/cabinet. Temperature-compensated chargers reduce the charge current as the temperature increases. Remember that heating is a function of the square of the current. Nickel-Cadmium Overview NiCd chemistry is similar in some respects to lead-acid in that there are two dissimilar metals in an electrolyte. The basic reaction is: 2 NiOOH + Cd +2 H2O <—> Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2 in a potassium hydroxide (alkaline) electrolyte. In NiCd batteries, the KOH does not enter the reaction like sulfuric acid does in lead-acid batteries. The construction is similar to lead-acid in that there are alternating positive and negative plates submerged in an electrolyte. Rarely seen, but available, are sealed NiCd batteries. Nickel-Cadmium Failure Modes NiCd batteries seem to be more robust than lead-acid. They are more expensive to purchase but the cost of ownership is similar to lead-acid, especially if maintenance costs are used in the cost equation. Also, the risks of catastrophic failure are considerably lower than VRLA. The failure modes of NiCd are much more limited than lead-acid. Some of the more important modes are: • Gradual loss of capacity • Carbonation • Floating effects • Cycling • Iron poisoning of positive plates • Service at elevated temperatures • Memory effects Gradual loss of capacity occurs from the normal aging process. It is irreversible but is not catastrophic. Carbonation is reversible and is gradual. But without proper maintenance, this can cause the load to not be supported, which can be catastrophic. This can be reversed by exchanging the electrolyte. Floating effects are the gradual loss of capacity due to long periods on float without being cycled. Through routine maintenance, this can be avoided and is easily found by impedance testing. Floating effects are reversible by deep-cycling the battery once or twice. Iron poisoning is caused by corroding plates and is irreversible. This is typically a “pocket-plate” design failure mode. CONVERTING DATA INTO INFORMATION When taking measurements, there are two main things to know about accuracy and repeatability: 1. They are not the same thing 2. One is more important than the other. Poor Accuracy, Poor Repeatability (Worst Case) Excellent Accuracy, Poor Repeatability (Bad Case) To the left are four graphs depicting the difference between accuracy and repeatability. Naturally, everyone wants the “best case” but it is not always practical to achieve. So let’s make it easy to understand. Accuracy is the closeness of a measurement to the true value, in this example, zero. Repeatability is the closeness of readings to each other. The difference between repeatability and accuracy is called “bias” which can be easily calculated but only if there is excellent precision. In the case of trending data, precision is far more important since you want to make sure that the result you get is close to the result you got last time unless real changes have truly occurred. Only through solid repeatability can one make sure that the trend is due to real changes, not due to poor equipment. Poor Accuracy, Excellent Repeatability (Better Case) Excellent Accuracy, Excellent Repeatability (Best Case) 5 FAQS ABOUT BATTERIES What is the value of taking specific gravity readings? Traditionally, specific gravity has not provided much value in determining impending battery failure. In fact, it changes very little after the initial three to six months of the battery’s life. This initial change is due to the completion of the formation process which converts inactive paste material into active material by reacting with the sulfuric acid. What does float voltage of a cell tell me? ? Float voltage indicates that the charger is working, that is, state-of-charge. It does not indicate the state-of-health (condition) of the cell. It indicates that the cell is fully charged but don’t confuse “fully charged” with “full capacity.” There have been many times that the float voltage is within acceptable limits and the battery fails. A low float voltage may indicate that there is a short in the cell. This is evidenced by a float voltage at about 2.06 or below for lead-acid (if the charger is set for 2.17 V per cell). In some cases a cell floats considerably higher than the average. This may be caused by the high float blotage cell compensating for another cell that is weak and is floating low. It is possible that one cell floats much higher to compensate for several cells floating a little low. The total of all cells’ voltages must equal the charger setting. What are the recommended maintenance practices for the different types of batteries? IEEE recommended (Maintenance) practices cover the three main types of batteries: Flooded Lead-acid (IEEE 450), Valve-regulated Lead-acid (IEEE 1188), and Nickel-cadmium (IEEE 1106). Generally speaking, maintenance is essential to ensure adequate backup time. There are differing levels of maintenance and varying maintenance intervals depending upon the battery type, site criticality, and site conditions. For example, if a site has an elevated ambient temperature, then the batteries will age more quickly implying more frequent maintenance visits and battery replacements. How important is intercell connection resistance? Our experience has found that many battery failures are due to loose intercell connections that heat up and melt open rather than cell failure. Whether a cell is weak or an intercell connector is loose, one “bad apple” does spoil the whole bushel. When lead acid batteries are frequently cycled, the negative terminal may “cold flow,” thus loosening the connection. What are the most common failure modes and how can impedance find them? There are numerous failure modes, again depending upon battery type. Briefly, some failure modes for flooded are: plate sulphation, sediment buildup and positive grid corrosion. For VRLA, some failure modes include: dry-out (loss-of-compression), positive grid corrosion and cell leakage. Please refer to the “Battery Failure Modes” Application Note which can be found on the AVO website (www.avointl.com) for more detailed information. 6 FAQS ABOUT BATTERIES How often should impedance readings be taken? The frequency of impedance readings varies with battery type, site conditions, and previous maintenance practices. AVO International recommends that VRLA batteries are measured quarterly due to their unpredictable nature while semiannually for NiCd and flooded lead-acid types. How do I interpret data? There are three general modes of data interpretation: instantaneous, short term, and long term. For more details, please refer to the Data Interpretation Application Note which can be found on the AVO website (www.avointl.com). ? What does ripple current tell me? Ripple current is a manifestation of the rectifier/charger which converts ac into dc. No charger is 100 percent efficient. Therefore, some ac “carryover” occurs. The level of this carry-over depends upon the quality and features of the charger itself. The most basic chargers do not have filters to remove ripple components and, therefore, apply higher levels of ripple to the battery. This is typical in UPS systems. Because ripple creates hum on telephone lines, telco rectifiers are very well filtered. As the charger ages though, the ripple current increases. Battery manufacturers have defined a loose guideline of 6 A rms ripple for every 100 Ah of battery capacity. Above this level, heating of the battery may occur, thus shortening the life of the battery. The 10 A Biddle® BITEs measure 60 Hz component of ripple. The 60 Hz component is well correlated to total rms ripple and gives reliable data. How can I predict when I need to change a cell or the entire battery? Even though there is not a perfect mathematical correlation between battery capacity and impedance, the amount of increase in impedance is a strong indicator of battery health. AVO has found that a 20 percent increase in impedance for flooded lead-acid generally correlates to 80 percent battery capacity. In VRLA, that increase is closer to 50 percent from the battery’s initial impedance or from the manufacturer’s baseline values. At what point should I stop changing cells and replace the entire battery? In shorter strings (less than 40 cells/jars), the entire battery should be replaced when three to five units have been replaced. In longer strings, a similar percentage that is replaced is the criterion. For additional details on battery solutions and applications, contact the factory directly via email: battery@avointl.com 7 BATTERY TEST EQUIPMENT Regardless of whether you are testing flooded lead-acid, VRLA or Ni-Cd cells, AVO International has the right equipment for your battery maintenance requirements. The products and associated accessories provides meaningful data on battery health without significant expense or any reduction in remaining battery capacity. Interruption in service can cause disaster to supported equipment and facilities. Consequently, a dependable backup power system is critical so that when AC mains fail, costly service interruptions can be avoided. The battery impedance test helps to identify weak cells before they cause problems. Taking the battery off-line for testing is time consuming and adds risk to the process. This process is unnecessary with the on-line testing capabilities of the AVO family of battery test products. The highly repeatable instruments help reduce downtime and avoid personal injury and equipment. MBITE Miniature Battery Impedance Test Equipment The Biddle® MBITE is a lightweight, easy-to-use battery tester ideal for determining the health of flooded and sealed lead-acid and Ni-Cd batteries up to 2500 Ah in many telco, switchgear, motive power, airline, etc. applications. In addition to measuring battery impedance and interconnection resistance, the MBITE measures individual dc terminal voltages. Furthermore, since impedance does not stress the battery, terminal voltages do not increase during the test and may be used for documentation purposes. All three parameters can be stored (up to 1000 lines of readings) onboard for immediate review at the test site on the 3-1/2 in. LCD or from the built-in printer. The stored data can be downloaded via the RS-232 connector to a PC using “AVOLink” download software or other communications packages to spreadsheet applications for further analysis or databasing. BITE2 Battery Impedance Test Equipment The Biddle® BITE2 is designed primarily for testing larger cells found in telco COs and MTSOs, UPS and substation. However, it also can be used in the smallest of battery systems. Because the BITE2 has a larger memory, more data can be stored from more sites before downloading to a PC. A unique feature of the BITE2 is that if while in the middle of a test, you receive an emergency call to go elsewhere, simply turn off the Receiver, pack up and go. When you return to finish the test, simply reconnect the source current leads and turn on the Receiver. The Receiver will remember where you left off. Just continue measuring from that point forward. C-BITE Compact Battery Condition Tester The Biddle® C-BITE is ideally suited to help determine the condition of batteries in distributed power (outside plant), wireless, customer premise, smaller telecommunications installations, emergency lighting systems, small UPS systems, and many other smaller installation types. The C-BITE measures the internal resistance, interconnection resistance, float voltage and temperature (with an optional probe) of secondary batteries. An ac four-wire measurement (Kelvin-type) is utilized to eliminate any errors due to lead wire resistance. Another advantage of ac resistance is that the dc voltage of the battery system does not affect it. MBITE BITE 2P Battery Impedance Test Equipment BITE2 The Biddle® BITE 2P determines the condition of lead-acid and nickelcadmium cells up to 7000 Ah. An advanced feature set has been developed that includes Pass/Warning/Fail calculations based on a user-entered baseline value, advanced printing functions and more. The case of the BITE 2P consists of both the transmitter and a carrying case for all of the standard accessories and some optional accessories, in an all-in-one unit. The BITE 2P receiver stores the readings in its internal memory. These measurements, along with other maintenance data such as ambient and pilot cell temperatures and ac ripple current, assist in determining the overall condition of battery systems. C-BITE 8 Battery Ground-Fault Locator The Multi-Amp® Battery Ground-fault Locator (BGL) is useful for locating grounds on any type of battery system, including those in refineries, mines, utilities, UPS, and continuous process systems. The BGL operates on battery systems up to 260 V dc that are either floating or grounded through a resistor. An additional feature of the BGL is its ability to measure battery system total capacitance to ground or the capacitors of any branch of the system. This allows the operator to determine the maximum practical faultresistance range and provides the user with information on the battery system. Battery Ground Fault Tracer The Biddle® Battery Ground Fault Tracer (BGFT) identifies, tracks, and locates ground faults in ungrounded dc battery systems without the need to go off-line. The BGFT speeds up fault location by eliminating trial-anderror procedures and is particularly useful in any industry where uninterruptable power is critical. Those industries include: • Power generation • UPS systems • Mines • Continuous process systems • Nuclear power plants • Utility substations • Refineries • Naval and shipping operations • Telecom backup systems Digital Low Resistance Ohmmeters (DLROs) There are two DLROs that are very appropriate for intercell connection resistance — the Megger® Ducter® DLRO®10 and DLRO10X. The portability of the instruments allows effortless mobility around battery strings. An automatic test mode reduces the amount of control manipulations. DH4 handspikes available with the DLRO10 and DLRO10X include indicator lights in one of the probes that duplicate warning and signal lights on the instrument. These lights indicate that P and C probe contact is adequate, that there is voltage across the sample under test, discharge current is still flowing, and when the test is complete. INTERCELL CONNECTION RESISTANCE Many times batteries fail not because of weak cells but due to weak intercell connections. Torquing is a mechanical method to ensure that the electrical path resistance is very low. But it does not truly indicate the quality of the electrical path resistance. The only true method is to measure each intercell connection resistance with a Digital Low Resistance Ohmmeter. Additionally, it is recommended that this be done before the battery is commissioned. This method will find if a washer is stuck on the No-Ox® between the post and the intercell connector whereas torquing will not. IEEE Recommended Practices specify that ten percent of the intercell connectors be measured quarterly and all intercell connectors annually. They further specify that the variation of intercell connection resistance be less than 10 percent. This translates into 7 µΩ on a 70-µΩ intercell connection resistance. DLRO10 In addition to its features similar to the DLRO10, the DLRO10X has the ability to download test results either in real time, or after storage in on board memory. In real time, data is output to the RS-232 port as ASCII text, suitable for printing on a serial printer or for capture by a suitable PC program. Battery Ground Fault Tracer BITE 2P Battery Ground-fault Locator 9