SClfNCf INSTRUCTION
.
IN THE M:~DDlf \AND S{CON'DkRYSCHOOLS
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L. CHIAPPETTA
THOMAS R. KOBALLA, JR.
ALfRED 1. COLLETTE
EUGENE
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CHAPTER
13 •
PLANNING
A SCIENCE
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UNIT
Teaching units are carefully organized instructional plans that sequence content and
experience for students.
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Effective teachers plan well. They have a good idea of what they want to occur
in the classroom before they begin instructing students. Consequently, teachers
who organize their courses into units and plan them will be better able to provide
meaningful learning experiences for their students than science teachers who fol­
Iowa curriculum that others have organized and planned The process of plan­
ning science units gives teachers opportunities to think deeply about what they
are going to teach, how to actively engage students, and how to assess their per­
formance. In addition, planning gives teachers ownership of the curriculum and
empowers them to be creative in their teaching. Few activities are as useful for
science teachers as organizing their own instruction through unit planning.
OBJECTIVES
This chapter is deSigned to help the reader meet the following objectives:
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Review some of the recommendations aimed at reforming science teaching
in order to improve the scientific and technological literacy of students in the
United States.
Develop an awareness of many resources that a science teacher can go to for
ideas in planning for instruction.
Examine a science unit that was planned by a science teacher and assess its
potential to promote scientific literacy among high school students.
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Become familiar with many elements that should be used to construct an
effective science unit.
~ Plan a science unit that actively engages students in learning about funda­
mental science principles and important topics that are relevant to their lives.
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178 314
PART
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PL,-\NNINC FOR IN STRUCTION
INTRODUCTION A unit organizes the curriculum inw a cohesi ve and
meaningful instructional plan Units of instruction break
up a cOllrse of study mw segmems that are larger than a
lesson plan. A unit ma), comprise one or more wpics
Each wpic conSlsts of facts, concepts, principles. theo­
ries , and skills Perhaps the most effICient units are those
of short rather than long duration . Two types of unit
plans can be used in science teaching-resource units
and teachmg uni ts. Resource units are deSigned w iden­
tifya variety of resources that can be used w teach a par­
ticular topic. The resources can be drawn from many
sources and organized in a variety of ways . Teaching
units are s peCifically designed w contain only those
resources that are used for teaching a particular wpic .
The), are carefully organized teaching plans that
sequence content and experiences for students. Teaching
units that are designed around relevam wpics will most
likely stimulate student interest and motivate them w
achieve the intended learning outcomes .
The Science Reform and
Planning Science Instruction
As discussed at the beginning of this textbook, the sci­
ence education reform is aimed at reshaping science pro­
grams in grades K-12 . A major goal of the reform is to
alter the contem, instruction, and assessmem associated
with traditional sc ience courses. A traditional science
course is conceived w be one in which a great deal of
subject matter is covered over the school year, and the
content is dictated by a science textbook. Teachers
spend a great deal of instructional time presenting infor­
mation and gelting students to leam terms. Laboratory
work is interspersed among class periods and is generally
used to verify ideas discussed in class. Assessment relies
heavily on paper-and-pencil tests .
The national science education reform documents
recommend that science courses cover fewer wpics and
give students more time to study a smaller number of
ideas in greater depth (A merican Association for the
Advancement of Science [MAS], 1990). The curriculum
should be approached in a multidisciplinary manner by
using many fields of science to study topics, drawing
from biology, chemistry, earth/space science, and phYSics
(National Science Teachers Association , 1992). In addi­
tion, mathematics, technology, social sciences, history of
science, and personal perspective should be integrated
into courses in order for them to become rich learning
experiences, An important aim is to help all students to
understand science concepts within the context of every­
day life
.... 179 Science teaching should ta ke on <I differem form
[rom th e one where studen.ts Sit in s[I ;,ight rol\'S, receive
information during most cl ass periods. and ta ke part in
laborawry work once 3 week instruction must be cen­
tered arollnd ques[lons that are meal1lngful to studems,
stlmulating them w search fo r answers O\'er extended
period s of time . Science should be taught as inquiry,
which centers arollnd learning ideas that can be tested
against established scientifi c knowledge (N ational
Research Council [NRC] , 1996) Thus, students ,vill be
constructing their own kno wledge and explanations,
testing these Ideas against reality, and comparing them
,vith established conceptions
The evaluation of student achievement and progress
should be based on a more au thentic assessmem system
than that which prese ntly eXIsts (Clark &" Star, 1996).
Many learning outcomes should be measured in situa­
tions Il1 which the knowledge and skills will actually be
used If studems are expected w become famillar with
metric measuremem in everyday situations , they should
be assessed using 2-liter soft dnnk bottles, for example,
which they encounter frequently in grocery stores and
homes . Assessment must occur with real-life objects
rather than substituting paper-and-pencil measures for
the sake of convenience . Proje cts should be common
products in science courses and judged using rubrics
and criteria that are agreed upon by teachers and Stu­
dems. Portfolios should also be used [0 show students'
work, evidencing their achie ve ment and charting their
academic growth.
Resources to Consider for Unit Plans
Ideas for what [0 (each are most important when plan­
ning lessons , units, or courses of study. For those indi­
viduals with many years of teaching and curriculum
experiences, these ideas come [0 mind quickly For those
who are new [0 teaching, however, ideas do nor just
appear; [hey are produced only after a great deal of
searching and thinking The follOwing list includes some
people and places [hal may serve as useful resources for
unit planning.
Experienced science teachers
UniverSity science and science education professors
Sciemists working in industry
Public relations managers for science and technol­
ogy related industries
Innova[ive curriculum project materials
High school and college science textbooks
Laboratory manuals
Science paperbacks
CHAPTER
13
PLANNING
Pro[esslonalorganlzations
Aq uariums
Museums
Planerariums
Nature centers
Public libraries
Internet
Local utilHY companies and municipal treatment
plants
National Science Teachers Association publications
SCience magazines such as ChemMatters, SCientific
SCIence News, Th e New Scientisl, Science
Digest, Discover, and Technology Review
Amel~ican,
SClence magazines for secondary school students,
such as Cun-enl Science
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Newspapers and other periodicals (e.g., "Science
Times " section of the New York Ttmes )
Television programs such as Nova and those on the
Discovery Channel
A SCIENCE
UNIT
315
relevant context. In oth er words, teach baSIC ide s and
make them mean ingful to students With fundam entals
and relevance on his mind, Mr limble decided to form a
list of Unlt topics that he cou ld draw from to fonn the
new science course .
Me limble began to brainstonn ideas for the course.
In the process he contacted many science teachers for
their recommendations. He talked with biology, chem­
istry, and physics teachers in his school buildtng as well
as a few high school science teachers in other schools
Mr. limble also contacted a middle school sC ien ce
teacher who had given a dynamic district inservice work­
shop at the beginning of the sc hool year He borrowed as
many innovative cuniculum materials as he could find as
well as the state 's new sci ence curriculum framewor k
and the national science reform guidelines Benchmadcs
for Sc ience Litera cy (MAS , 1993) and National SCLence
Education Standards (NRC, 1996) It did not take long
before ideas for the course topics and units began to
flow. The following is a list of science related to pics that
represents his initial thinking.
electrical power generation
bUilding supplies and materials
AN
city parks and gardening
EXAMPLE OF A TEACHER­
PLANNED SCIENCE UNIT
water in the community
dry cleaning and laundering
medical diagnosis \vith X-rays and MRls
beauty supplies and cosmetics
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Mr. 11mble had only two years of teaching experi­
ence when hiS principal asked him to plan a new
science course, primarily for high school freshmen .
For over twenty-five years, mos t of the freshmen
have taken physical science, which consists of a
half-year of basic physics and a half-year of basic
chemistry. The principal feels that a change is
needed in order to provide students with a more
interesting interdisciplinary experience as an intro­
duction to high school science. Another reason for
this change is to encourage more students to take
high school chemistry and perhaps even physics
after their introductory course.
•
After the shock of being given the big assignment to
deve lop a new course, Mr. limble began to reflect on
this task He recalled the science methods course that he
Was required to take for certificarion and the unit plan
that he had to prepare for the course. One idea that
stuck in his mind was the instructor saying repeatedly to
the class Teach s tudents fundamental science within a
climate, weather, and atmosphere
vehicles, transportation, and safery
health and sanitation
With these topical ideas for starters, Mr. limble realized
their potential to integrate biology, chemistry, earth sci­
ence, and physics for teaching fundamental science con­
cepts that relate to phenomena that are familiar to Stu­
dents.
Mr. Zimble could not wait to finalize the course list­
ing of topics because he wanted to start planning Imme­
diately a unit on water He felt that water would be the
ideal topic to begin the new integrated science course
Mr. Zimble qUickly gathered many resources for ideas
with which to plan the first unit.
Instructional Activities
One of the recommendations that Mr. limble recalled
from his methods course was the instructor emphaSizing
the importance of first identifying activities for students
that would teach them important ideas. This prompted
180 31 . PAR I'
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PLANNI I' l C FOR INSTRU CTI ON
Time Frame
"Water in Our Community"
Day 1
Day 2
• Initiate the study of water with a puzzling situation for students to figure out , which will stimulate
student interest in water and illustrate important properties of this che mical compound. All students
are requested to place a drop of water on a piece of wax paper and to determine if the water rolls
or slides across the waxed surface.
• Discuss structural, chemical, and physical properties of water.
• Conduct a brainstorming session to list all of the uses of water in the community, leading to the purpose and overview of the water unit. • Continue the study of water with a laboratory exercise to study adhesive and cohesive properties of water. Each student is requested to predict how far the water will rise in glass tubes of different diameters, then to test their predictions while working in small groups. ,.j
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• Continue to discuss structural , chemical, and physical properties of water.
• Present the class with the assertion from an angry citizen who claims the local drinking water is not
fit to drink. Use this situation to plan investigations to study water in many areas of the commun ity.
Day 3
• Continue the study of surface tension of water with a laboratory activity. Each student is given the
challenge : Determine if you can float a small, medium, and large paper clip on the surface of water.
• Continue to discuss structural , chemical, and physical properties of water.
• Continue planning activities to study water in the community and formalize the investigative
groups.
• Plan for a laboratory exercise to filter dirty water. Ask students to bring some of the equipment and
materials needed for the lab in order to increase their involvement.
Day 4
,
• Discuss the class field trip to the municipal water treatment plant.
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• Ask students to list the steps in the water purification process , which represent those used at the
municipal water treatment plant. Urge students to think logically, express themselves clearly, and
then build on what students say.
Day 5
• Conduct a laboratory exercise to purify dirty water.
• Discuss the filtration and purification of water from the laboratory exercise of the day before and
relate it to what is likely to be observed on the field trip to the municipal water treatment plant. Conduct a lecture/discussion of structure of water molecules and solution chemistry. Day 6
Day 7
• Continue to conduct the laboratory exercise to purify dirty water.
• Review the chemical and physical properties of water to check on students' understanding
of these ideas. Place students in their investigative groups and help them to plan their water studies. • Prepare for the field trip to the water purification plant. Ensure that all students know what
to do and have ready the questions they want to ask. Check for signed parental approval forms,
permitting students to take the field trip.
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Day 8
• Take field trip to the municipal water treatment plant. Bus leaves school at 8:30
back at school for the last lunch period at 12:20 P.M .
Day 9
• Discuss the field trip by reviewing the treatment plant's filtration process and the properties
of water. Address student beliefs and issues associated with the sanitary conditions of the
community'S drinking water.
A.M.
and arrives
• Plan for students to collect water samples throughout the city and community to analyze in their
science laboratory.
Day 10 • Present a short lecture on the importance of water on earth that leads into acid/base chemistry.
• Conduct a short laboratory exercise on determining the acidity and basiCity of solutions.
Day 11 • Continue with a lecture/discussion of the importance of water on earth and acid/base chemistry.
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FIGURE 13.1 This time frame shows the scope and sequence of instructional activities for the science unit centered around water in a community. !
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C HAPTER -I J
PLANNING
A SCIENCE UNIT
317
Day 12 • Conduct a laboratory activity to determine the pH of an assortment of items found In the home,
e. g., soft drinks, fruit juices, liquid detergents, hand soaps, shampoos, floor cleaners, etc.
• Lecture on ions in solution, focusing on metal ions, salts, cations, and anions. Day 13 • Conduct a laboratory on the identification of metal ions in solution. • Review the properties of water, water purification, pH, and ions in solution .
• Remind students to bring in water samples from various parts of the city and rural areas. 1
Day 14 • Administer the quiz on properties of water, water purification, pH, and ions in solution. • Begin the laboratory investigation to determine the impurities, pH, ions, etc., of the water samples
taken from various parts of the city and adjoining areas.
1
Day 15 • Continue the laboratory to determine the impurities, pH, ions, etc. of the water samples taken from
various parts of the city and adjoining areas.
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• Return the quiz and discuss basic chemistry and the chemistry of water.
Day 16 • Conduct a lecture discussion of elements, compounds, ions, and the periodic chart. Practice
naming some common elements and compounds.
• Set out examples of elements, compounds, and ions for students to examine and identify.
• Give students a homework sheet for naming elements, compounds, and ions, and for writing
symbols and formulas.
Day 17 • Continue lecture/discussion of elements, compounds, ions, and the periodiC chart. Practice
naming some common elements and compounds.
Day 18 • Continue building students' knowledge of elements, compounds, and ions.
• Plan for a mock town hall meeting regarding the water purity of the drinking water in the
community.
:
Day 19
Day 20
Day 21
Conduct a laboratory investigation to examine and identify the microorganisms in the water
samples collected from ponds, drainage ditches, rivers, and streams.
Permit the investigative groups to plan for the town hall meeting. Urge students to construct charts
and tables to convey their data and to present logical arguments.
• Conduct a recitation and review session on the properties of water, steps in the water purification
process, ions in solution, microorganisms living in water, and naming and writing the formulas for
basic elements and compounds.
Day 22 • Continue to review the important ideas studied during the unit. Help students to find personal
meaning in what they have been learning.
Day 23 • Administer the unit test.
• Plan for the town hall meeting to address the purity of the municipal water supply.
Day 24 • Conduct the town hall meeting to discuss the municipal water supply and the claim by one of the
citizens that the water is unsafe to drink.
him [Q examine the resources that he had gamered and
[0 begin [0 lis t instructional activities, sequencing them
as shown in the time frame in Figure 13.1. He wanted to
start me unit with an attention grabber that he remem­
bered from his science methods class. For his introduc­
tion to the study of water, Mr. 11mble would conduct the
"Drop of Water" activiry, whereby all of the students are
given a piece of wax paper and requested to place one
large drop of water on it. Students are then instructed to
tilt the wax paper in order for the water drop to move over
me paper. Mr. limble would pose the following question
Does the drop of water roll or slide across the
wax paper?
He felt strongly that the students would be challenged
by this puzzling situation and they would want [0 figure
out the answer to the question. Further, he felt that the
exercise would stimulate student interest and the desire
to study water. (Refer to AppendiX A for a detailed
deSCription of how to conduct this simple activiry, which
you should try out and include in your science teaching
resource file.)
On Day 1, Mr. limble would follow the "Drop of
Water" activity with a discussion of structural, chemical ,
and physical properties of water. He planned a question­
and-answer session on adhesive and cohesive properties
of water that would help students to understand the
action of water on the surface of the wax paper and its
182 31 8
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PI '-\NNI N C FOR INSTR UCTION
abdiry [Q nsc Up narrow gl 5S rubes, wh ich Ilill oceul III
the laborator y exercise scheduled (,-:. Da)' 2
Along with introducing the p roperties of wate r, Mr
11mble would address common usc,; of wa ter It1 every­
day life, which woul d open up the learning environment
for considering sCience and societal issues that might be
relevant to the study of wa ter tn their community Note
that this new science teacher has severa l science educa­
tion strands runnlllg throughout the Unit, such as
knowledge of fundamental chemistry, investigation of
ideas, and consideration of societal issues.
Mr limble feels strongly about requiring students
to participate in group in vestigative projects, because he
believes this will make the srudy of water more meaning­
ful and serve to Integrate fundamenta l science into the
instruction. Aiter conSiderable thought, he came up with
a plan for the group projects He would bring up the
assertion o[ an irate citizen who claims that the city's tap
water is not fit to drink because it IS contaminated. Aiter
students react to this issue, Mr limble will ask the class
to examine all o[ the water in the entire community.
During this process, they will collect data to deba te the
drinking water purity question For this investigative
inquiry, he will organize the class into five groups on
Day J and inform them that the)' \\il/ ana lyze samp les of
water from a particular part of th e communl[ j'. The
results discovered by the entire class will provid e an
overall picture of the contents and quality of the Water
for the entire community. Further, each group vvlil per­
form many basic water tests, which Vlrill give them prac­
tice with a vanety of analytical procedures Th e follOWing
are the group inves tigative projects that the teacher con­
ceived .
1. lap water group. This group lvill obtain sam­
ples of water from homes in various pans of the city The
students can ascertain the sta tus of the drinking water
and make a case for or against its suitability for dlinking
2. River group . There are several rivers and
streams in and around the city from which samples can
be taken The data can be used to provide a measure of
the comamination that might be found in th ese waters,
thus determining if industry, farming, or other human
activities might be contributing to this pollution
3, Lake group. The muniCipal water treatment
plant receives the water that it processes for the commu­
nity from an l8-mile long lake on the northeast side of·
the city This lake also serves as a recreational area fo r
residents. The investigation of water from the lake lvi ll
prOVide information regarding th e suitability o[ th e lake's
water for swimming and fishing
4, Pond group. Several large ponds can be found
in the my's parks and on private lands on the edge of
the ci ty Ponds gen erally have a large variety of macro­
scopic and microscopic organisms living in harmon y that
illus trate ecological relationships
5. Swimming pool group. There are several
municipal swimming pools and many private pools from
which water samples can be taken [or analysis . The Stu­
dents can determine whether or not these svvimming
environments are up [Q standards
Effective planning often begins with identifying activities
that can be used to help students construct meaningful
understandings.
In order [Q personalize this activity> Mr Zimble plans to
give students some say about which group they would
like [Q Join .
On Day 3, Mr Zimble planned to conduct another
hands-on laboratory activity> also pertaining to adhesive
properties of water and surface tension. For this exercise,
students will be challenged to float paper clips of di[fer­
ent sizes on the surface of water. This activity will require
manual dexterity. It will also cause students to think
more deeply about the bonding of water molecules ,
especially after they are instructed to add a drop o[ liq­
uid detergent to the water and observe what happens to
objects that are floating on its surface
183 CHAPTER 13
319
PLANNING A SCIENCE UNIT
Gathering materials in sufficient
quantities and organizing them
for students to use is an impor­
tant aspect of efficient planning.
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Following the lab, Mr. Zimble plans [0 carry out
another laboratory exercise [0 filter dirry water. Before
reading on or discussing the filtration process, he will
ask students to list a series of processes that they believe
are used w filter and purify muddy water. He will show
the class a sample of disgusting looking water that he
has placed in a large glass container on the demonstra­
tion table. Studenes will be urged (0 use their common
sense to figure out ways [0 remove debris and contami­
nanes from the muddy water. They will be requested to
order the steps in the process of purifying the water, sim­
ilar [0 the process used at the municipal water rreatment
plant. Mr. Zimble will permit students (0 change their
proposed filtration process many times. After giving stu­
dents time [0 modify their steps, he will present the fol­
lowing transparency:
STEP 1: SCREENING LARGE OBJECTS Use a screening
material w remove large objeces from the water,
such as soda cans, plastic bNdes, sticks, and fish,
so mat they do nO[ clog the filtration system.
STEP 2: PRECHLORlNATION OF WATER Add chlorine to
the water w kill organisms that might cause disease.
STEP 3: FLOCCULATION OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES Add
chemicals to settle out suspended panicles . This
process begiD5 [0 clear up the water.
.STEP 4: SE1TLING OF PARTICLES Let particles settle out
so that they fall [0 the bottom of the collection
tanks.
STEP 5: SAND FILTRATION OF WATER In this process
water moves downward due to graviry through a
bed of sand, which removes any particles that were
not taken out of the water in the settling process.
STEP 6: POSTCHLORlNATION OF WATER Adjust the
chlorine concentration w ensure that harmful
microorganisms cannot live in the water.
STEP 7: ADDITIONAL TREATMENTS OF WATER Other
treatments can be used with water, such as fluorida­
tion, pH adjustment, and aeration, in order to make
it fit for drinking and other uses.
Mr. Zimble imagined that the laborawry exercise sched­
uled for Day 4 would run smoothly, given the advance
preparation.
Let's skip over to Days 10, 11, and 12 when Mr.
Zimble plans [0 address acids and bases because of their
direct relationship with water and solution chemistry He
saw this as an opportuniry [0 present a short lecture on
the importance of water and its intimate relationship
with fundamental chemistry Mr. Zimble's organized
lecture on water follows.
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Water plays a key role in the support of life. If you consider where the great societies of the past have flourished over the past one thousand years, you will note that many of their major cities have existed near bodies of water where they are connected to '(
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PART
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PLAI'iNING f O R INSTRUCT ION
mher pans of civilization through travel by ship For
example, Athens , Venice, Barcelona, New York , San
Francisco, Hong Kong, and Bom bay are port cities
that are served by sea travel that brings people and
goods co these locations. In addition [0 seapons,
many of the great cities of the world are located on
major rivers, for example, Rome, London , Cairo,
and Shanghai.
Water is the pan of the biosphere that coneains
the majority of the life on our planet, where an
enormous variety of planes and animals exisc.
Marine biomes cover most of the eanh. Fish,
whales, and algae suppon life as chief sources of
food for humans and aquatic animals. People in
many pans of the world ea t fish as their major
source of prmein
A large perceneage of the human body is made
up of warer. Water canies nuniems co all pans of
the body Ie facilitates chemical reaction s in cells
and in the bloodstream. Funhermore , water assists
in the elimination of waste from the body Without
water, neither plane nor animal life can be sustained
Water serves as the medium through which acids
and bases manifest their characteristics. When an
acid or a base dissolves in water, it forms ions in
solution that have many functions. For example,
acids playa central role in our everyday lives Many
of the foods that we eat are .characterized by their
acidity The sour taste that you experience when
you eat citrus fruits such as lemons and oranges is
an example. Vinegar contains acetic acid. Malic acid
is found in apples. Lactic acid in found in butter­
milk. HydrochloriC acid is one of the active ingredi-
TABLE 13.1
enes m the gastric Juices in the scomach that break
down food dunng digestion In industry, h),droch lo­
nc, sulfuric , and nimc acids are manufactured and
used in enormous quaneitles They are used as
cleaning agenes and for making plastiCS , metals, tex­
tiles , explosives, dyes, drugs , fenili ze rs, and many
mher chemicals.
In one sense, bases are the opposite of acids and
they play an essemial role in the body as well as in
everyday life . In many situations, bases act [0 bal­
ance acids in our living sys tems. Bases are used in
industry to make a va riety of products, including
household cleaners. They are used to produce
soaps, paper, and syn thetic products. For a list of
common acids and bases, along with their formulas,
common names, and uses, examine the table [Table
13.1l that I have constructed on the overhead trans­
parency
•
One of the activities that Mr. Zimble plans to con­
duct with students is [0 assess the concentration of acid
and base solutions . No te in Table 13.2 that the students
will be using at least seven indicators to produce color
reactions . For this activity, Mr. Zimble will ask each
group of studenes to prepare the color indicators that
they will be using . In this manner, the students will gain
experience in co mbining chemicals He suspects the stu­
dents will be interested in the vivid colors that are pro­
duced from acidlbase indicators derived from common
food products , such as grape Juice, tea, and red cabbage
juice. Further, students will be amazed at the color reac-
Common Acids and Bases
Acid
Formula
Common name
Use
Acetic
Boric
HC 2H3 0 2
H3 B0 3
Vinegar
Boric acid
Cooking
Medicines
Carbonic
H2C03
Carbonated water
Soft drinks
Citric
Hydrochloric
Lemon juice
Muriatic acid
Cleaning agents and chemicals
Nitric
H3 CS HS 0 7
HCI
HN0 3
Aquafortis
Dyes and chemicals
Sulfuric
H2SO 4
Oil of vitriol
Automotive batteries and chemicals
Base
Formula
Common name
Use
Ammonium hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide
NH 4 0H
Magnesium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide
Sodium bicarbonate
Ca(OH)2
Mg(OH)2
KOH
NaC03
Sodium hydroxide
NaOH
. Ammonia Welter
Slaked lime
Foods
Household cleaners
Make mortar
Neutralize stomach acid
Milk of magnesia
Caustic potash
Manufacture of soap and glass
Baking soda
Lye or caustic soda
Cooking, baking, and household use
Manufacture of rayon and soap
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TABLE 13.2
P LANNI NG 1\ SCIENCe UNIT
Color Reactions from Acid and Base Indicators
Approximate pH of solution
I
Indicator
Very acid
Slightly acid
Neutral
Slightly basic
Very basic
Flower petals from
Grape juice
Litmus paper:
red
blue
Phenolphthalein
Red cabbage juice
Other indicators
tions produced from acid and base solutions by indica­
[Ors made from the petals of flowers that can be found in
a home garden, at the supennarket, or from the Gorist
shop
Me Zimble will gather several water quality and
water testing manuals that the students can use for refer·
ence when they study their water samples. These manu­
als will help them in their analytical chemistry work on
Days 11, 12, and 13. He will also borrow a few water
analyses test kits from a science teacher who teaches an
environmental science course in another high school in
the district. Some of the tests that the students can carry
OUt are as follows
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.
'1"
,.
~.
..
iron
color
magnesium
turbidity
nitrate
acidlty nitrite
alkalinity
phosphate ammonia-nitrogen
salinity
calcium sulfate
carbon dioxide
sulflde
chlorides
zinc
chromium
­ dissolved oxygen
hardness
".
' : - \0\ .
odor
'~'.
Mr. Zimble will make available microscopes and refer·
ence material for students to use in identifying pond life
and microorganisms that may be in their water samples.
In addition, he will ask the municipal water treatment
plant lab supervisor [0 perform the fecal coliform tests
on the water samples collected by all of the groups .
tvlr. Zimble expects that by the time Days 19 and 20
arrive, the students will be prepared to demonstrate their
knowledge of fundamental water chemistry and also
address the question regarding the purity of drinking
water. Remember, he organized the group investigations
so that the class would study water from many places in
the community-water pipes, rivers, streams, ponds,
lakes, and swimming pools. Further, students would
examine many aspects of water, fTOm its structural prop­
erties to the microorganisms that often inhabit it. Me
Zimble felt that the mock tovm hall meeting would be
an excellent activity to end the water unit.
Instructional Objectives
Many educators find it useful to state learning outcomes
in instructional objective form . They believe these state­
ments provide succinct deSCriptions of what students
should be able to know and do by the end of the
instruction. lnstructional objectives are used to gUide
instruction as well as assessment. Few teachers are able
to list all of the in~tructional objectives for a lesson or
unit first, then produce the insouctional activities that
result in their achievement. Usually teachers find it eas­
ier to lay dovm some of the insouction, then begin to
construct the objectives to reGect the desired learning
outcomes. Writing and modifying instructional objec·
tives is a continual process The follOwing list of objec­
186 -- ,...
--­
322
PART
3
PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION
tives were constructed by Mr. limble for his water Unit ,
after he had developed many of his instructional aClivi­
ties.
1. Predict the behavior of water moving across , up, or
.
,
down various surfaces and explain the reasons for
these occurrences based on the structural and mole­
cular properties of water.
,
2. Demonstrate capillary action of water and its ten­
dency lO rise Up in narrow tubes and explain this
aClion based on structural and molecular properties
of water.
(properties of water, water purification,
pH, and ions)
15%
Laboratory exercise (capillary action of water)
5%
LaboralOryexercise (filtration and purification
of water)
5%
Laboratory exercise (determination of pH In
common solutions)
5%
Unit test (water, basic chemistry, and purification
and analysis)
35%
Group investlgation
35%
QUlZ
Total
100%
3. Show the effects of surface tension of water and how it can permit objects lO floaL Assessment and Testing
4. Given a list of water filtering and purification
.processes, order them in a sequence that most likely
would be used by muniCipal water treatment plants
lO make water safe for drinking.
5. Define an acid and a base and give uses for at least
four common acids and four common bases.
6. Given a list of common household products, match
the products with their corresponding pH values.
7. Explain what an ion is and give an example of a TO: ·
,
metal, a salt, an acid, and a base ion. 8. Given the symbol of a common element or the for­
mula for a common compound, name the element
or compound, Also, when given the name of a com­
pound, write the formula.
9. Participate in a group investigation lO analyze water
taken from a particular place(s) in the community
Provide a written report of the investigation, giving
the reason for conducting the inquiry, the proce­
dures followed, the information gathered, the analy­
ses of the data, and the conclusions.
10. When presented with an article from a newspaper
or magazine, or one that would likely appear in
these printed sources, interpret the information and
evaluate it for factual accuracy and usefulness lO the
general public.
Grading Specification
I
I::
I .
i
I
Mr. limbIe planned lO evaluate the success of the water
unit by assessing student performance in a variety of
ways. He believes that bfusing many assessment tech­
niques, a realistic idea of student learning can be ascer­
tained, Further, he believes that the measures he was
going to use would reinforce authentic learning as well
as help him to evaluate how much students gained from
the study of water. The assessment scheme that Mr. lim­
ble was planning to use is as follows:
187 Mr. Zimble had to think deepl)! abou t the assessment
process, because it must help him lO achieve the goals of
the new interdiSCiplinary course that he was aSSigned to
develop . One of the main goals of the course is to help
students gain more positive attitudes toward science dur­
ing their first year in high schooL In order to accomplish
this aim, the first unit [hat the freshmen study must set
the tone for their high school science course experiences.
If the testing and grading are lOO easy, the students will
take science too lightly and they will not be challenged
intellectually If the testing and grading are too difficult,
many of the students will be turned off to science.
As Mr. limb Ie reflected on the discussions that
occurred dunng his teacher education courses, the
words authentic assessment and portfolio assessment
came to mind. He remembered that instruction and
assessment should be closely associated and they should
reflect real-life situations . He realized that the group
investigation could serve as a vehicle to begin a portfolio
for the students that would contain evidence of what
they had learned during their high school science
courses (Collins, 1991) Students would be assembling
many items for their group investigations that would
Start a good portfolio, such as photographs, maps, and
diagrams of where they obtained their water samples;
charts and tables constructed to present water analysis
data; sketches of microorganisms that live in the water
samples collected; written arguments regarding the
purity of the community's water used during the mock
town meeting; and an overview of the inquiry Mr. lim­
ble felt that the investigations and the town hall meering
would prOvide an- ideal stimulus to motivate students lO
do their best work; thus, he would give students as
many points for their participation in the group investi­
gation as he would for the unit test. With the help of
another teacher and after some dLScussion with students,
he arrived at a point system for grading each student's
work and contribution to the group investigation .
CHAPTER
'13
PLANNING
In order to make his paper-and-pencil tests promote
sciemiflc literacy, Mr. Zimble would proVlde some realis­
tic situarions to which students could apply their knowl­
edge and evaluate information that they might encoumer
in real life The thought came to mind to either find a
newspaper anicle for srudents [0 examine or to create an
anicle that might appear in a newspaper and require the
students [Q analyze it. Figure 13.2 is a connived newspa- .
per anicle that Mr. Zimble wrote for hiS smdenrs [Q
examine and evaluate based on their study of water in
the community In addition [0 the newspaper article
analysis, he included a few test items that involved read­
ing graphs, because he wanted to reinforce science
thinking skills throughout the course.
A
in his unit plan Do you believe the teacher included
enough baslC chemistry in thiS Unit, which was designed
[0 familiarize students with some fundamemal terms and
concepts of solutions chemistry and basic chemistry7 In
addition, will the students learn some valuable informa­
tion about water in generaP
•
When all is said and done, what will the students learn
from the water unit 7 Mr. Zimble pondered this question
as he thought about the new science course he was
responsible for planning and the fifS[ unit that he had
just developed He wondered if there were too many
activities in the water unit, which might cause the stu­
dents to focus on the excitemem of doing and finding
out but miss the science he was attempting to teach
them. This inrrospeClion motivated him to construct a
concept map (shown in Figure 13.3), giving a visual pic­
ture of the important coment that he felt was embedded
STOP AND REFLECT! •
As you think about the water unit that Mr. Zimble
developed, what is your reaction to his instructional
plan?
k:j A Concept Map
323
SCIENCE UNIT
Does the "Water in Our Community" unit illus­
trate the type of high school science education
recommended in the reform documents (see
Chapter 2), or does it represent a repackaging of
traditional science instruction with few changes?
To what extent does the unit introduce students
to fundamental chemistry and teach these facts,
concepts, and principles?
How relevant is the water unit to a high school
freshman? To what extent does the unit develop scientific literacy? MEADVIL
Vol. 85 NO.6
Residents Cautioned No Swimming in Green Lake
.By Max Pringle
Staff Reporter
Due to recent weather conditions and heavy rains,
. the bacterial count in Green Lake has risen. The
Health Department warns residents against swim­
ming in the lake. Their lab reports show that the col­
iform count is over 1,000 FC/100 mL, which is higher
. than normal. Some children and adults may get ear
infections at this level of contamination from
swimming in the lake. Officials feel this condition
is temporary and the bacterial count should go
back down in the near future. They advise that
swimming in properly chlorinated swimming pools
should be safe.
Read the article that appeared in our local newspaper last summer. Based on what you have learned about water
and water analysis, respond to the following questions.
Does the article provide adequate information to average citizens to inform them whether they should or
should not go swimming in Green lake?
Circle Yes or No. Then explain your response in a short paragraph. Should the coliform count information~1 ,000 FC/100 ml-be given in parts per million or s.ome other way to convey concentration? Circle Yes or No. Then explain your response in a short paragraph. This contrived newspaper article was presented on a paper-and-pencil to students, requiring them to apply what they learned during the study of water in community. 18B 324
PART
3
PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION
A Study of Water
­
water analysis
FIGURE 13.3 This concept map highlights the important content contained in the unit,
"Water in Our Community."
IDEAS AND ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER
FOR PLANNING A SCIENCE UNIT
As stated frequently in this textbook, planning instruc­
tion is a key factor in effective teaching. The typical sci­
ence class contains from eighteen to twenty-five stu­
dents; some even have over thirty students. These are
adolescents, many of whom attend school for reasons
other than the desire to learn science. They are con­
cerned about their appearance and how they relate to
their friends. These teenagers frequently watch television
and are accustomed to entertainment with a great deal of
action and sound . Because of their lifestyle, many of the
srudents place little value in studying what they perceive
to be science . Given this situation, what type oCscience
course would you present to these students that would
engage them in the learning process whereby they con­
struct meaningfullmowledge)
New and even experienced science teachers are
faced with an enormous challenge to gain students'
attentlon and keep them interested in learning topiCS
that are useful to their lives. How do science teachers
organize their courses so that they appeal to students,
yet follow school district and state curriculum guidelines
and produce authentic science learning) This is not a
trivial question, and it has occupied the thinking of sci­
ence educators for decades
The responsibility for planning one's course or even
a unit is large, because it requires considerable time ,
effort, thought , and creativity These factors often cause
teachers to freeze up when engaging in planning. Conse­
quently, they end up follOwing the teaching plans of
more experienced colleagues and hastily outline text­
book chapters, which the), "cover" rather rapidly in the
classroom, teaching primarily by definition and explana­
tion to convey a body of science content.
Should science teachers adopt the approach taken
by Mr. Zimble) Recall that he began planning by listing
many possible tOpics to include in the new science
course. When he identified one of them that he thought
would be of high interest to students, he spent a great
deal of time selecting activities that would support inter­
est, yet develop students' knowledge of fundamental
chemistry He believed that beginning a unit of study
with engagmg activities is a good way to get started .
After Mr. Zimble identified many student-centered
activities , he then incorporated many other instructional
189 CH A PTER
l3
PLANI'-JIN C
elemen ts into the unit plan. Figure 13.4 shows a lis t or
elements that Me Zimble and other science teachers can
use to fonn a complete teaching plan . Again, it must be
emphasized that the ten elements listed in the rigure are
not developed in the order presented during the con­
struction of a unit plan However, these elements eventu­
ally end up as pan of [h e plan after a co nsiderable
A SCIENC E UNIT
amount of adding, changing, or omitting material Glven
this list of instructional elements, what wou ld yo u add,
change, and omit as you thmk about the next sCience
unit that you will plan in order to improve the scientific
literacy of students and contribute to the science educa­
[ion reform movement that is under way in the United
States t
Elements of a Science Teaching Unit Plan
1. Place a cover page at the front that gives the title of the unit, the subject, and grade level for which it is
intended. Also include your name, professional affiliation, and address.
2. On the next page, write one or more paragraphs giving the purpose and scope of the unit.
3. Construct a concept map or a visual representing the concepts and skills to be learned .
4. Present a list of instructional objectives , which state all of the learning outcomes for the unit.
5. Provide a list of special materials/equipment so that they will be on hand when teaching the unit .
6. Construct a time frame that lists the major activities for each day of instruction. Begin with Day 1, Day 2,
Day 3, and so on.
7. Present the grading specifications for all aSSignments, labs, tests, effort, and ·so on with their respective
points or percentages .
8. Describe the instructional activities.
a. Partition the unit into sections, each of which includes all of the instruction for a given period or day.
b. Produce a detailed instructional plan, ready to be used without further preparation.
c. Include many of the following instructional activities plus others that you believe are useful.
• lecture notes
• pre- and postlab discussions that engage students in thinking, planning, and connecting what they know with the laboratory work • laboratory exercises that you develop or are developed by others
• readings from textbooks, journals, magazines, and the like
• videos and films
• computer simulations, microcomputer-based labs, and so on
• demonstrations
• Internet and Web addresses
• quizzes
• role-playing and games
• review and recitation sessions
• remedial instruction (feedback and correctives)
•
325
assignments
Note: You may photocopy items to be included in the unit, such as laboratory exercises, work sheets,
games, and the like. However, do not photocopy more than 30-50 ·percent of the pages in the unit.
Remember to describe in your own words how each day of instruction will begin, the instructional activi­
ties (even if accompanied with photocopied material), questions for review, and pre- and postlaboratory
discussions, and so on.
9 . . Prepare a unit test, complete and ready to administer to students. Construct your own quizzes and tests ,
which must assess the instructional objectives of the unit. Do not use a commercially prepared test or
quiz that comes with the textbook!
10. Other assessment instruments such as those that address attitudes, interests, and projects should
be included if they pertain to the unit.
FIGURE 13.4 These elements should be considered when planning and constructing a
science teaching unit plan .
190 326
PART
3
PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION
ASSESSING AND REVIEWING 3. Either working alone, with another member of [he
class, Or with a colleague, reorganize a [radl[ional
SClence course in a manner that betler renects a
science experience that will Significantly improve
[he sciemific literacy of the students for whom it
is imended.
1. SciemifIc literacy is a cemral idea discussed m
this middle and secondary school science methods
textbook because sciemific literacy has been used
by educa[Qrs for over fifry years [Q promote the
ideals of science education. In Chapter 1, "The
Nature of Science ," a definition for science is pre­
semed along with four themes of scientific literacy
For the definition of science and each of the themes,
identify key terms [Q help you recall their meaning.
Then, evaluate the extent [Q which Mr. Zimble's
water unit reflects these aspects of science teaching ,
which are
a. List the major topiCS [Q be studied and order
them in the sequence they will be [aught during
the school year
b. Select one of the [Qpics that you would like
[Q develop imo a teaching unit .
a. What is science)
e. Seek out ideas on the unit plan from as many
people as possible
b. Science as a way of thinking
d. Assemble a large number of resources [or
ideas of activities and coment [Q include in
the unit.
c. Science as a way of investigating
d. Science as a body of knowledge
e. Science and its imeractions with technology and
sociery
e. Plan the entire unit so that it IS ready to
use when the time arrives to implemenr It
Although you can pho[Qcopy some of the
material for the unit, it is best to design as
many of the activities yourself as possd,le
in order to give the unit your own personal
flavor.
2. Sharpen your analytical skills further by taking a
unit from a science textbook or a teacher-made unit
and examining it carefully. From the ideas in this
chapter on unit planning, construct a matrix to use
in the analysis. Then, analyze the unit based on the
extem [Q which it promotes sciemific literacy.
,"
i:
,/
•
J
· I
·I
· i'/ 1
..
RESOURCES TO EXAMINE
Carolina Science and Math Catalog. Carolina Bio­
lOgical Supply Company. 2700 York Road, Burlington,
NC 27215-3398. Phone (800)334-5551
Carolina is an established science supply company
that has a wealth of materials, equipmenr, and sup­
plies for most every science teaching program This
company also prOvides a large range of living speci­
mens, which are shipped by air [Q schools. The
company has an extensive list of primed material for
instructing students in science. Their catalog will
offer many ideas to teach a variety of science wpics
and prinCiples
Chemistry in the Community (ChemCom). 1993 .
Produced by the American Chemical Associatlon and
published by KendalVHunt Publishing Company in
_Dubuque, Iowa 52004-1840 . Phone (800)258-5622
' 11
191 This course is designed [Q help students reaGze the
important role that chemistry will play m [heir per­
sonallives and perhaps in their work Knowledge of
chemistry is used during instruction to assist stu­
dents to make informed decisions about science and
technology. The textbook [Qpics are relevanr w
everyday living. The instructional activities and labo­
ratory exercises can be used in other SClence courses
C~IAI- I l i<
13
PI '\ NI'JINC
SCIENCE UNIT
:J /
This 24 3-page booklet gives an overVlew of what
should take place to achieve a success[ul sCie nce
education reform . [t gives science standards for
teaching, professional development, assessment,
science content, and science programs . All sc ience
teachers should have a co py of this booklet for fre­
quent reference
in addition to chemistry Because of the useful ac tIVI­
ties and mformation It contains, the ChelJ1Col1l text­
book is one that all mlddle and high sc hool sCience
teachers should have in their professional library
Lawrence Hall of Science. Registration Office, Uni­
versiry of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
Phone (510)642-5134
The Lawrence Hall of SCience has produced a large
number of innovative instructional materials for the
science classroom. The Lawrence Hall of Science
has many other instructional materials to examine
for use in improving the scientific and mathematics
literacy of students.
A
Science For All Americans. 1990 Produced by the
American Association for the Advancement of Science,
New York: Oxford Universiry Press.
Read the first chapter, "The Nature of SCience." This
important document offers a ve ry clear presencation
on what science is. All sCience teach ers should have
a co py of this book in their professional library and
refer to it for guiding their understanding of science
teaching.
National Science Education Standards. 1996.
National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Ave. N\'-Z
Box 285, Washington, DC 20055. Phone (800)624­
6242 or (202)334-3313 (in the Washmgton area)
II REFERENCES American Associa[ion for [he Advancement of Science. (1993)
Benchmarks for science literacy . New York Oxford Univer·
siry Press.
Amencan Association for [he Advancement of Science. (1990) .
Science for all Americans. New York: Oxford Universi r}'
Press.
Clark, L H., &: Star, L 5. (1996). Secondary and middle school
teaching methods. Upper Saddle River, NJ Memll/Prentice
Hall.
Collins, A (1991). Ponfolios for assessing student leamlllg in
science: A new name for a familiar idea] [n G. Kulm &: 5.
M. Malcolm (Eds.l , Science assessment in the service of
,·eform (pp. 291-300) Washington, DC American Associ­
arion for [he Advancement of Science.
Na[ional Research Council. (1996) . National science education
standards. VJashington, DC National Academy Press .
Na[ional Science Teachers Associa[ion. (1992) Scope, sequence
and coordination of secondw)' schoo! science. Volume 1.' The
content core. Arlington, VA: Author.
192 Standards-Based Science Curriculum: Introduction
SCIENCE CONTENT STANDARDS·
National Research Council
National Academy Press
The content standards presented in this chapter outline what students should know, understand, and be able to
do in natural science. The content standards are a complete set of outcomes for students; they do not prescribe
a curriculum. These standards were designed and developed as one component of the comprehensive vision of
science education presented in the National Science Education Standards and will be most effective when used
in conjunction with all of the standards described in this book. Furthermore, implementation of the content
standards cannot be successful if only a subset of the content standards is used (such as implementing only the
subject matter standards for physical, life, and earth science).
This introduction sets the framework for the content standards by describing the categories of the content
standards with a rationale for each category, the form of the standards, the criteria used to select the standards,
and some advice for using the science content standards.
Rationale
The eight categories of content standards are
Unifying concepts and processes in'science. Science as inquiry. Physical science. Life science. Earth and space science. Science and technology. Science in personal and social perspectives. History and nature of science. The standard for unifying concepts and processes is presented for grades K-12, because the
understanding and abilities associated with major conceptual and procedural schemes need to be developed over
an entire education, and the unifying concepts and processes transcend disciplinary boundaries. The next seven
categories are clustered for grades K-4, 5-8, and 9-12. Those clusters were selected based on a combination of
factors, including cognitive development theory, the classroom experience of teachers, organization of schools,
and the frameworks of other disciplinary-based standards.
The sequence of the seven grade-level content standards is not arbitrary: Each standard subsumes the
knowledge and skills of other standards. Students' understandings and abilities are grounded in the experience
of inquiry, and inquiry is the foundation for the development of understandings and abilities of the other content
standards. The personal and social aspects of science are emphasized increasingly in the progression from science
as inquiry standards to the history and nature of science standards. Students need solid knowledge and
understanding in physical, life, and earth and space science if they are to apply science.
"Reprinted with permission from National Science Education Standards (pp. 103-113). Copyright 1996 by the
National Academy of Sciences. Courtesy of the National Academy Press, Washington, D. C.
Standards-Based Science Curriculum: Introduction
Table 1. Science as InQuiry Standards
Levels 5-8
Levels 9-12
• Abilities necessary to do
scientific inquiry
• Understanding about scientific
mqurry
• Abilities necessary to do
scientific inquiry
• Understanding about scientific
mqurry
Levels K-4
• Abilities necessary to do
scientific inquiry
• Understanding about scientific
mqurry
PHYSICAL SCIENCE, LIFE SCIENCE AND EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE STANDARDS. The standards for physical
science, life science, and earth and space science describe the subject matter of science using three widely
accepted divisions of the domain of science. Science subject matter focuses on the science facts, concepts,
principles, theories, and models that are important for all students to know, understand, and use. Tables 2, 3, and
4 are the standards for physical science, life science, and earth and space science, respectively.
Table 2. Physical Science Standards
Levels K-4
• Properties of objects .and
materials
• Position and motion of.objects
• Light, heat, electricity, and
magnetism
Levels 5-8
• Properties and changes of
properties in matter
• Motions and forces
• Transfer of energy
Levels 9-12
• Structure of atoms .
• Structure and properties of
matter
• Chemical reactions
• Motions and forces
• Conservation of energy and
increase in disorder
• Interactions of energy and
matter
Table 3. Life Science Standards
Levels K-4
• Characteristics of organisms
• Life cYcles of organisms
• Organisms and environments
Levels 5-8
• Structure and function in living
systems
• Reproduction and heredity
• Regulation and behavior
• Populations and ecosystems
• Diversity and adaptations of
orgarusms
061 Levels 9-12
• The cell
• Molecular basis of heredity
• Biological evolution
• Interdependence of organisms
• Matter, energy, and
organization in living systems
• Behavior of organisms
Standards-BlUed Science Curriculum: Introduction
STANDARDS. In learning science, students need to understand that science
reflects its history and is an ongoing, changing enterprise. The standards for the history and nature of science
recommend the use of history in school science programs to clarify different aspects of scientific inquiry, the
human aspects of science, and the role that science has played in the development of various cultures. Table 7
provides an overview of this standard.
HrsrORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE
Table 7. History and Nature of Science Standards
Levels K-4
• Science as a human endeavor
Levels 5-8
• Science as a human endeavor
• Nature of science
• History of science
Levels 9-12
• Science as a human endeavor
• Nature of scientific knowledge
• Historical perspectives
Form ofthe Content Standards
Following is an example of a content standard. Each content standard states that, as .the result of activities
provided for all students in the grade level .discussed, the content of the standard is to be understood or the
abilities are to be developed.
Physical Science (Example)
Content Standard B:
As a result of the activities in grades K-4, all students should develop an understanding of
Properties of objects and materials
Position and motion of objects
Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism
. After each content standard is a section entitled Developing Student Understanding (or abilities and
understanding, when appropriate), which elaborates upon issues associated with opportunities to learn the
content. This section describes linkages among student learning, teaching, and classroom situations. This
discussion on developing student understanding, including the remarks on the selection of content for grade levels,
is based in part on educational research. It also incorporates the experiences of many thoughtful people, including
teachers, teacher educators, curriculum developers, and educational researchers.
The next section of each standard is a Guide to the Content Standard; which describes the fundamental
ideas that underlie the standard. Content is fundamental if it
Represents a central event or phenomenon in the natural world. Represents a central scientific idea and organizing principle. Has rich explanatory power. Guides fruitful investigatiops. Applies to situations and contexts common to everyday experiences. Can be linked to meaningful learning experiences. Is developmentally appropriate for students at the grade level specified. Standards-Balled Science Curriculum: Introduction
Table 9. Content Standards, Grades 5-8
Unifying Concepts
and Processes
• Systems, order, and
organization
• Evidence, models, and
explanation
• Change, constancy,
and measurement
• Evolution and
equilibrium
• Form and function
Science as Inquiry
Physical Science
Life Science
• Abilities necessary to
do scientific inquiry
• Understandings about
scientific inquiry
• Properties and changes
of properties in matter
• Motions and forces
• Transfer of energy
• Structure and function
in living systems .
• Reproduction and
heredity
• Regulation and
behavior
• Populations and
ecosystems
• Diversity and
adaptations of
orgarusms
Science and
Technology
Science in Personal
and Social
Perspectives
Earth and
Space Science
• Structure of the earth
system
• Earth history
• Earth in the solar
system
• Abilities of
teclmological design
• Understandings about
science and technology
• Personal health
• Populations; resources,
and environments
• Natural hazards
• Risks and benefits
• Science and
technology in society
History and Nature
of Science
• Science as a human
endeavor
• Nature of science
• History of science
The third criterion is an obligation to present standards in a usable form for those who must implement
the standards, e.g., curriculum developers, science supervisors, teachers, and other school personnel. The
standards need to provide enough breadth of content to define the domains of science, and they need to provide
enough depth of content to direct the design ofscience curricula. The descriptions also need to be understandable
by school personnel and to accommodate the structures of elementary, middle, and high schools, as well as the
grade levels used in national standards for other disciplines.
Use ofthe Content Standards
Many different individuals and groups will use the content standards for a variety of purposes. All users and
reviewers are reminded that the content described is not a science curricuLum. Content is what students should
learn. Curriculum is the way content is organized and emphasized; it includes structure, organization, balance,
and presentation of the content in the classroom. Although the structure for the content standards organizes the
understanding and abilities to be acquired by all students K-12, that structure does not imply any particular
organization for science curricula.
Standards-Based Science Curriculum: Introduction
The content standards must be used in the context of the standards on teaching and assessment.
Using the standards with traditional teaching and assessment strategies defeats the intentions of the
National Science Education Standards .
As science advances, the content standards might change, but the conceptual organization will continue
to provide students with knowledge , understanding, and abilities that will improve their scientific literacy.
CHANGING EMPHASES The National Science Education Standards envision change throughout the system. The science content
standards encompass the following changes in emphases:
Less Emphasis on
Knowing scientific facts and information
Studying subject matter discip lines (physical,
life earth sciences) for their own sake
Separating science knowledge and science
process
Covering many science topics
Implementing inquiry as a set of processes
More Emphasis on
Understanding scientific concepts and develop­
ing abilities of inquiry
Learning subject matter disciplines in the
context of inquiry, technology, science in
personal and social perspectives, and history
and nature of science
Integrating all aspects of science content
Studying a few fundamental science concepts
Implementing inquiry as instructional strategies
abilities, and ideas to be learned
CHANGING EMPHASES TO PROMOTE INQUIRY Less Emphasis on
Activities that dem<?nstrate and verify science
content
Investigations confmed to one class period
Process skills out of context
Emphasis on individual process skills such as
observation or inference
Getting an answer
Science as exploration and experiment
Providing answers to questions about science
content
lndividuals and groups of students ana1yzing
and synthesizing data without defending a
conclusion
Doing few investigations in order to leave time
to cover large amounts of content
Concluding inquiries with .the result of the
experiment
Management of materials and equipment
Private communication of student ideas and
conclusions to teacher
More Emphasis on
Activities that investigate and ana1yze science
questions
Investigations over extended periods of time
Process skills in context
Using multiple process skills-manipulation,
cognitive, procedural
Using evidence and strategies for developing or
revising an explanation
Science as argument and explanation
Communicating science explanations
Groups of students often analyzing and synthe­
sizing data after defending conclusions
Doing more investigations in order to develop
understanding, ability, values of inquiry and
knowledge of science content
Applying the results of experiments to scientific
arguments and explanations
Management of ideas and information
Public communication of student ideas and
work to classmates
O.G t­