THE
FILMMAKER’S
HANDBOOK
ACOMPREHENSIVEGUIDE
FORTHEDIGITALAGE
FOURTHEDITION
StevenAscher&EdwardPincus
DrawingsbyCarolKellerandRobertBrun
OriginalPhotographsbyTedSpagna
andStephenMcCarthy
CompletelyRevisedandUpdatedbyStevenAscher
WithContributionsbyDavidLeitner
APLUMEBOOK
CHAPTER12
Lighting
TheFunctionofLighting
Everythingwedowithcamerasandlensesisaboutcapturinglight.
Lightisneededtoregisteranimageonavideocamera’ssensororon
film,butthelightinginamovieplaysamuchmorecomplexrolethan
justthat.Ascenemaybelitbynature(thesun),withavailablelight
(usingwhatevernaturalorman-madelightisalreadyatthelocation),or
withlightingfixturesthatthefilmmakercontrols.Thewayasceneislit
influencesbothhowweunderstandthescene—whatwecanseeinit—
andhowweexperiencethesceneemotionally.
Lightingdirectstheviewer’sattention,sincetheeyeisnaturally
drawntobrightareasoftheframe.Lightinggivestheaudiencecues
aboutthetimeofdayandseasoninwhichascenetakesplace.Theangle
fromwhichlightstrikesanobjectorafaceaffectshowweseeshapesand
textures.Sidelightingcastsshadowsthatemphasizedepth,dimension,
andsurfacetexture,whilefrontallightingtendstoflatten,compress,and
smoothoverfeatures.
Qualitiesoflighthaveapowerfuleffectonthemoodofascene.
Paintersareoftencelebratedforthewaytheymanipulatelightandcreate
particularmoods.AndrewWyeth,forexample,evokesthegray,quiet
feelingoftheMainelandscapewithextremelyflatandevenillumination.
Rembrandtcreatesamuchmoredramaticeffectbyusingachiaroscuro
style,inwhichpoolsoflightandshadowareusedtoobscureasmuchas
theyrevealofasubject.Thinkofthequalitiesoflightoverthecourseof
aday.Abrightmorningsuncanfeelcheeryandsafe,whileamoonless
nightevokesmysteryortension.
Onfeaturefilms,lightingisusuallyatoppriority.Theactorsandsets
mustlooktheirbestandthemoodofthescenemustberight.Lightsare
positionedcarefully,consumingmuchtimeandexpense.Thedirectorof
photographyisusuallyresponsibleforthelightingdesign,whichisas
importantashisorhermasteryofcamerasandlenses.
Indocumentaryproduction,lightissometimesalowpriority,thought
oflessforitsmoodthanforitsexposurevalue.Insomecasesthere’sjust
notimeforcarefullighting.Butsometimesgoodlightingtakesnomore
timethanbad.Itmaybeassimpleasusingavailablelightsmartly.
Inallproductions,oneofthekeyconcernsiscontrollingcontrast.
Mostnaturalandavailablelightsituationshavearangeofbrightnessthat
exceedsthecamera’sabilitytocaptureit.Oftenlightingequipmentis
neededtomakeshadowslessdarkorhighlightslessbright.
Peoplegetintofiercedebatesaboutthevirtuesofonecameraover
another,videoversusfilm,onetypeofsettingoranother,butthefactof
thematteristhatlightingoftenplaysahugeandunacknowledgedrole.
Goodlightingcanmakeevena“bad”cameralookgood,andbadlighting
looksbadregardless.
Thischapteriswrittenforpeopleworkinginvideoorfilm,whomay
havealargecreworbeshootingalone.Forsimplicity’ssake,theperson
doingthelightingwillbereferredtoastheDP(directorofphotography).
LIGHT
Lookatapainting,aphotograph,orasceneinamoviethatyouthink
hasinterestinglight.Howisthepainterorphotographerachievingthat
effect?Startbyidentifyingthelightsources(youmaynotbeabletosee
thesourceitself,justthelightitproduces).Examineeachsourcefor
thesefactorsthatcontributetoitseffectinthescene:
Whatkindofshadowdoesitcast(crispordiffuse)?
Whatangleisitcomingfrom?
Howbrightisit(itsintensity)?
Howbrightisitrelativetootherlights(thelightingcontrast)?
Whatcolorisit?
Whenyou’rereadytoshootascene,askthesamequestionsaboutthe
lightsources.Attimesyoumayspecificallycheck,say,theangleor
intensityofagivenlight.Butatothertimesyouwilllookatthingsmore
instinctively,evaluatingtheoverall“feel”ofthelightingbutkeeping
thesefactorsinthebackofyourmind.
QualitiesofLight
Thehardnessoflightisawaytodescribethetypeofshadowitcasts.
Hardlight,alsocalledspecularlight,likedirectsunlightonaclearday,
ismadeupofparallelraysthatproduceclean,hardshadowsthatneatly
outlinetheshapesofobjects(seeFig.12-1).Hardlightiscrispandcan
sometimesfeelharsh.
Soft,ordiffuse,lightislessdirectional.It’smadeupofraysgoingin
manydifferentdirectionsandproducesmuchsofter,gentlershadows.
Thelightonahazyorovercastdayissoft.Itemanatesfromallpartsof
theskyatonce.Ifitcastsshadowsatall,theyaredullandindistinct.
Hardlightcanbeproducedartificiallywithlensedorfocusedlamps
thatemitaclearlydirectedbeam.Thespotlightsusedtosingleouta
performeronstageareextremelyhard.Thelightfromacarheadlightis
quitehard.Hardlightcanbecreatedwithafairlycompactlighting
fixture.
Becausehardlightcastsverydistinctshadows,itisusedtodelineate
shapes.Itbringsoutsurfacetexturesandcancastdramatic,sculpted
shadows.TheclassicHollywoodlookofthe1940sisbasedonfairlyhard
lightsources(seeFig.9-14).Inalessflatteringuseofhardlight,news
photographersoftenuseasimple,hardlightthatcreatessharpshadows
acrosstheface.
Fig.12-1.(left)Therelativelyparallelraysofhardlightcastasharp
shadow.(right)Thescattered,morerandomraysofsoftlightcasta
diffuseshadow.
Softlightsourcesproduceabroadandevenglow,notabeamoflight.
Softsourcesareusuallyindirect;thatis,thelightfromthebulbisfirst
bouncedoffawhiteorsilverysurfacebeforestrikingthesubject.Ina
classicumbrellalight(seeFig.12-28),thebulbshinesintotheumbrella,
whichreflectsbackawide,diffusepatternoflight.Tosoftenthelight
fromanybulb,weneedtospreadthelightoutanddisrupttheparallel
rays.Anotherwaytosoftenlightistoputsometypeoftranslucent
materialbetweenthesourceandthesubject,whichisnotunlikewhata
typicalclothlampshadedoesonahouseholdfixture.
Fig.12-2.Hardlight.ThisscenefromDr.Strangeloveislitwithahard
sourcethatcastscrispshadowsandprovidesaglintinSterlingHayden’s
eyes.Harshlightingisusedthroughoutthefilmtoaccentuatethe
crazinessofHayden’scharacter,JackD.Ripper.(ColumbiaPictures)
Softlightisrelativelygentleandtendstosmoothoutfeaturesand
textures.Traditionally,femaleactorsarelitwithsoftlighttodisguiseany
facialwrinklesorimperfections.Asinglesoftlightofftothesidecan
providedelicatemodelingofcurvedsurfacessuchastheface,becauseof
thewayit“wrapsaround”thecurvewithgradualshading(hardlights
produceshadowsthataremoresharpedged).Somepeoplefeelthatsoft
lightingismore“natural.”Thisistrueinsomesituations;forexample,
windowlightisoftenfairlysoftandmaycastgentle,softshadows.On
theotherhand,directsunlightstreamingthroughawindowisusually
quitehardandcastshard,crispshadows.
Fig.12-3.Softlight.Thediffuselightinthisshotwrapsaroundthe
woman’sarmandfaceandproducesverygentleshadowing.
Directionality
Asnotedabove,thedirectionoranglefromwhichlightstrikesthe
subjectinfluenceshowthesubjectappearsonscreen.Lightcomingfrom
thegeneraldirectionofthecameraiscalledfrontlight.Frontaxiallight
comesfromverynearthecamera’slens;itsshadowsaremostlynot
visiblefromthecameraposition.Camera-mountedfixtures,suchasflash
unitsusedonstillcameras,providefrontlight,whichilluminatesallthe
visiblesurfacesofthesubject.Fullfrontallightingcanbequiteharshand
usuallyuninteresting,sincedimensionalityandsurfacetextureare
minimized.However,theflatteningeffectmaybedesired.Modelsare
oftenphotographedwithveryfrontallight(seeFig.4-5).Infashion
shoots,sometimesaringlightisusedthatencirclesthelensandcan
makesfacesseemflawlessandwithoutdimension(ofcourse,alittle
retouchinginPhotoshopmakesthemevenmoreflawless).
Youcanthinkoffullfrontallightingasprojectingfromthenumber6
onaclockfacewhosecenteristhesubject.(Thinkofthecameraasalso
positionedatthenumber6.)Offset(thelightatnumber5or7)andthreequarterfrontlight(around4:30or7:30)canbeusedforportraiturewhen
moreshadowingisdesired.
Fullsidelight(around3or9)providesgoodmodelingandindication
oftexture(sincetextureisrevealedbythepatternoftinyindividual
shadowsvisiblefromthecameraposition).Sidelightcanbequite
dramatic.Itproducesshadowsthatfallclearlyacrosstheframeand
distinctlyrevealthedepthofvariousobjectsinspace.
Backlightoriginatesfrombehind(andusuallyabove)thesubject.It
tendstooutlinethesubject’sshapeandtodifferentiateitfromthe
background.Backlightcanproduceabrightedgeorhaloonasubject’s
hairandshoulders.Whenbacklightpredominates,sometimescalled
contre-jour,itcancreateamoodyandromanticeffect.Ifthebackground
isbrightandnolightfallsonthecamerasideofthesubject,thesubject
willbeinsilhouette.
Fig.12-4.Directionalityoflight.Thesubjectislitbyonelight.(A)
Backlightorkicker.(B)Sidelight.(C)Three-quarterfrontlight.(D)Full
frontallight.AlsoseeFig.12-40.(NedJohnston)
Wearealsoconcernedwiththeverticalangleoflight—thatis,the
heightfromwhichitstrikesthesubject.Toplight,whichshinesdown
fromdirectlyabovethesubject,canmakedeepshadowsineyesockets.
CinematographerGordonWillisusedtoplightinTheGodfathertocast
menacingshadowsinMarlonBrando’seyes.Toplightcanalsomake
landscapesseemmoretwo-dimensional,becausefewshadowsarevisible
(thinkofsunlightatnoononabrightday).Mostmovielightingisdone
withthekeylightsangledabout40degreesfromthefloororslightly
higherforthebestmodelingwithoutcastingexcessiveshadows.
Underlighting,inwhichthelightcomesupfrombelowthesubjectand
castsshadowsupward,occursrarelyinnatureandisusedinhorrorfilms
tolendaghoulishlooktofaces.
Fig.12-5.Lightingdependsonthecameraangle.Fromthisside,the
performerisbacklitbythespotlight,withaveryhigh-contrast,edge-lit
look.Ifyoushotfromtheotherside,shewouldbefrontlitwithamuch
flatterlook.Thecameraonthecranedirectlyaboveisseeingaside-lit
shotofthekeyboard.(SonyElectronics,Inc.)
LightingContrast
Muchofthemoodoratmosphereofalightingschemeisdetermined
bythelightingcontrast—thatis,therelationshipinlightintensity
betweenthebrightlylitareasandtheshadowareas.Withgreatlighting
contrast,thereisagreatdifferenceinintensitybetweenthebrightareas
andthedeepshadows.Withlowlightingcontrast(oftenachievedby
usingsecondarylightstofillintheshadows),thelightingappearsfairly
flatanduniformthroughouttheframe.Thedegreeoflightingcontrastis
oftenexpressednumericallyintermsofthelightingcontrastratio(seep.
512).Lightingcontrastresultsfromtherelationshipofthekeylight
(whichcaststheprimaryshadows)andthefilllight(whichfillsinthe
key’sshadows).Seebelowformoreontheseterms.
Alow-keylightingdesignhashighlightingcontrastandaRembrandtlikelook,withdarkshadowareaspredominatingoverlightareas.Lowkeylightingisassociatedwithnight,emotion,tension,tragedy,and
mystery.Film-noirmovies,aswellasCitizenKane,arelitinmoody,
low-keylighting;thedramaticfeelofthelightingiswellsuitedtothe
black-and-whiteimage.
Withhigh-keylighting,thelightingcontrastislowandbrighttones
predominate,makingeverythingappearbrightandcheery.High-key
lightingisoftenusedfordaytimescenesandcomedy.Moststudio-shot
televisionshowsusethiskindoflow-contrastlightingschemebecause
thelightisevenlydistributedaroundtheset,whichisconvenientin
situationsinwhichseveralcamerasareshootingsimultaneouslyfrom
differentanglesorwhenanactormustbeabletomovefreelyaroundthe
setwithoutwalkingintodeepshadows.
Fig.12-6.Thesinglecandleproduceshardlight(notethecrispshadows)
andaveryhigh-contrastlightingschemewithnofilllightinganddeep
shadows.(ThePenitentMagdalenbyGeorgesdeLaTour,The
MetropolitanMuseumofArt,GiftofMr.&Mrs.CharlesWrightsman,
1978)
Fig.12-7.InthisscenefromGetLow,smokeisusedtorevealtheraysof
lightstreamingthroughthewindow.Lightingcontrastonthefaceishigh,
withlittlefilllightingforastarklook.Theframehasagreatfeelingof
depththatrangesfromtheforegroundsubjecttothemiddleground
window,andthentothebackwallofthechurch.(SonyPicturesClassics)
Fig.12-8.Thewindowlighthereisquitesoft(notethegentleshadow
angleddownwardfromthewindowsill).ComparedtoFig.12-7,this
lightingislowercontrast,sincethelightsourceisbiggerandsofter,and
reflectedlightintheroomhelpsfillinshadows.Seeotherworksby
Vermeerforhismasterlyrenderingofnaturallight.(YoungWomanwith
aWaterJugbyJohannesVermeer,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,
GiftofHenryG.Marquand,1889)
Fig.12-9.ThisscenefromBornYesterdayislitinaclassichigh-key,
low-contraststyleofHollywoodcomediesofthe1940sand50s.Lighting
unitsarefairlyhard,andnopartofthesetisallowedtogoverydark.
(ColumbiaPictures)
LIGHTINGEQUIPMENT
Lightingequipmentmaybeownedbythefilmmaker,aproduction
company,oraschool,oritmayberentedforindividualshoots.Oftenthe
DPand/orgaffer(seep.362)assemblesalightingpackagefromarental
houseaccordingtotheneedsofeachproductionorday’swork.
LightingFixturesandLightIntensity
Intheworldofmovielighting,alightingfixturemaybecalleda
lightingunit,instrument,head,orluminaire.Thebulbisreferredtoasa
lamporglobe;changingabulbisrelamping.Lightingunitsareidentified
bytypeandpowerconsumption.A5Kspotisa5,000-watt(5-kilowatt)
spotlight.Lightsarebalancedfortungsten(3200°K)unlessstated
otherwise.Don’tconfusedegreeskelvinwithuseofKthatindicates
wattage.
Onthesetyou’llfindmanynamesusedforvariouspiecesof
equipment;somearebasedonmanufacturers’names,andothersare
nicknamesusedindifferentregionsorcountries.
Thebrightnessofalightbulbisusuallydiscussedintermsofwattage.
Wattageisactuallyameasureofhowmuchelectricpowerisused(see
LocationLighting,p.518);somebulbsandfixturesputoutmorelight
thanothersforthesamepowerconsumption(thatis,theyaremore
efficient).Inthecaseoftwolightsthatemploythesametypeofbulbin
thesamefixture,adoublingofwattageimpliesadoublingoflightoutput.
Withtheexceptionofcertainfocusinglightingfixtures,theintensity
ofilluminationdecreasesthefartherthesubjectisfromalight.Thisis
knownaslightfalloff.Therulefortypicalopenbulbsisthatthefalloffin
intensityisinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthedistance(seeFig.
12-10).Thus,movinganobjecttwiceasfarfromalampresultsinit
beinglitbyone-quartertheamountoflight.Becauseofthis,falloffis
especiallysharpwhenyouarenearthelightsource.Imagineacouchlit
byafloorlampatoneendofthecouch.Apersonsittingnearthelamp
couldbelitfourtimesasbrightlyasthepersonsittingnexttohim(an
exposuredifferenceoftwostops).Thisdifferencewilllookevenmore
extremewhencapturedonvideoorfilm.Forevenillumination,lights
shouldbekeptfarawayfromthesubjectssothatslightchangesin
distancedonotcauselargechangesinexposure.Softlightsourcesfall
offmoresharplythanfocused,hardlightsources.
Fig.12-10.Theinversesquarelaw.(1)Lightfallsoffrapidlyasyou
moveawayfromthesource:mothBistwiceasfarfromthecandleas
mothAbutreceivesone-quartertheamountoflight.MothCisthree
timesfartherfromthecandlethanmothAandreceivesone-ninththe
amountoflight.(2)Lightfalloffislessseverewhenyouarefartherfrom
thesource:movingfromBtoCisthesamedistanceasmovingfromAto
B,butthelightfalloffismuchless(itfallsofftoabouthalftheprevious
levelinsteadoftoone-quarter).(CarolKeller)
BULBS
Bulbsdifferinthetypeandcoloroflighttheyemit.Ifyou’re
unfamiliarwithcolortemperatureanditsuseinvideoandfilm,see
Chapter8.Furtherdiscussionofwhitebalanceandvideocamerasisonp.
109.
HouseholdBulbsandPhotoBulbs
Itusedtobethatmosthomeinteriorswerelitwithtungsten
incandescentbulbs.Thesearerapidlybeingreplacedwithcompact
fluorescents(seebelow).Nevertheless,therearestilltungstenbulbsin
use.Commonhouseholdincandescentbulbscanbeusedwithvideo
camerasaslongasthecameracangetagoodwhitebalance.Theycan
alsobeusedforblack-and-whitefilmshoots.Theircolortemperature,
however,isabout2900°K,sothelighttheyproducelooksyellow-orange
insteadofwhiteontungsten-balancedcolorfilm.Sometimesprofessional
3200°Klightingunitsareusedfortheprimaryilluminationforashoot,
andhouseholdincandescentsareusedinatablelamporotherpractical
fixture(seeLightingStyles,p.498).Inthiscase,thoughthehousehold
bulbmaylookyellowrelativetothemovielights,itmayseemnaturalin
thescene.SeePracticals,p.491.
Photobulbsareavailablethatusetungstenfilamentssimilartothose
inhouseholdbulbs,butthelightemittedisdesignedtomatchtungstenbalancedfilm.Both3200°Kand3400°Kversionsareavailable.Abluer,
“daylight-balanced”version(ratedat4800°K)canalsobepurchased.
Photobulbsmaybeeitherphotofloodsorreflectorfloods.Reflector
floods,suchastheR-40,aremushroomshapedwithabuilt-inreflecting
surfacethatprojectsamoredirectedbeamoflight.
Tungsten-HalogenBulbs
Alsocalledjusttungstenorquartz,thesebulbsemployatungsten
filamentsurroundedbyhalogengasencasedinaquartzglassbulb(see
Fig.12-17).Tungsten-halogenbulbshavebeenthemostcommonlyused
bulbsforprofessionallightinginstruments.Thestandard“tungsten”
lightingunitisassumedtohaveatungsten-halogenbulbratedat3200°K.
Thebulbsaresmallandthebrightestonesareratedatabout20,000watts.
Theyburnforhundredsofhours,donotdiminishinbrightnessorcolor
temperatureovertheirlifespan,andarerelativelyresistanttobreakage
duringtransport.Tungstenbulbsbecomeveryhotandareusedmostlyin
heavy-dutyfixturesformaximumsafetyandcontrol.Fingeroilsdamage
quartzglass,souseglovesorpaperwhenhandlingthebulb.Iftheglassis
touched,wipeitwithalcohol.Carryametalclampforremovinghot
bulbs.Sincequartzbulbscanexplode,neverturnoneonwhenyouor
anyoneelseisdirectlyinfrontofthefixture.
Asnotedabove,tungstenbulbsareratedat3200°Kandcanbeused
withtungsten-balancedfilmwithoutafilter.Thesebulbs,andanyother
tungsten-balancedsource,canberaisedincolortemperaturetobetter
matchdaylightilluminationwithabluedichroicfilterorwithbluegel
material(seep.497).Thisnormallycutsthelight’soutputbyabouthalf.
Fig.12-11.HMIlightsbeingusedoutdoors.Notetheballastunit
(circled).HMIsareanefficientsourceofdaylight-balancedillumination.
HMIBulbs
Hydrargyrummedium-arciodide(HMI,alsocalledmetalhalide)
bulbsareanefficientlightingsourcethatproducesdaylight-balanced
illumination(5600°Kor6000°K).HMIsputoutthreetofourtimesas
muchlightastungstenbulbsforthesameamountofelectricpowerused.
Thisimprovedefficiencymeansthatbrightlightscanberunoffasmaller
powersupply,possiblyavoidingtheneedforspecialpowerlinesor
generators.Tryingtomatchdaylightwithatungstensourcerequires
filtersthatcutouthalfthelight;HMIsrequirenofiltersfordaylightand
arefarmoreefficientfordaylightapplications.HMIsalsogiveoffless
heatthantungstenlights,makingthempopularwithactorsandcrews.
HMIsaregenerallyoperatedusingACpower(wallcurrent)andrequirea
ballastunittocontroltheelectricitygoingtothelamp.MostHMIs
produceapulsedlightthatseemscontinuoustotheeyebutmayresultin
flickerinthevideoorfilmimageifusedimproperly.1Toavoidflicker,
thelightpulsesmustbeevenlydistributedoneachvideoorfilmframe.
Thesearetheguidelines:
1. Useacrystal-controlledcamera.Allvideocamerasandmostsyncsoundfilmcamerasarecrystalcontrolled.
2. Useaverystablepowersupply.Inmosttechnicallyadvanced
countries,thefrequencyofACcurrentisverystable.Caremustbe
takenwhenusinggenerators(useacrystal-controlledgenerator)or
whenshootinginthedevelopingworld.
3. UseaframeratethatisdivisibleintotwicetheACfrequency.Thus,
intheUnitedStatesandothercountrieswheretheACpowerisat60
Hz,aframerateof12,15,20,24,30,40,or60canbeused.At24
fps,camerashutteranglesfrom60to200degreeswillworkfine,but
ashutterangleof144degreesallowsforthemaximumvariationif
cameraorpowerisslightlyoffspeed.Incountrieswith50Hz
power,youcanshootat10,12.5,16.666,20,25,33.3,or50fps
withoutdangerofflicker.Inthesecountries,acamerarunat25fps
canuseanyshutterangle.Acamerarunat24fpscanavoidflicker
byusinga172.8-degreeshutter.
4. WhenshootinginformerNTSCcountriesthatusetypical60Hz
power,standardvideoframeratesof30por60icanbeusedwithout
flicker(anduseashutterspeedof1⁄65or1⁄120second).Informer
PALcountrieswith50Hzpower,videocamerasrunat25por50i
shouldbeflicker-free(useashutterspeedof1⁄50or1⁄100).
TheseprinciplesapplytoallACdischargelamps,includingsome
fluorescenttubes(seebelow),HMI,CSI,sodiumvapor,andmercury
vaporlamps(thelattertwoareoftenfoundinsportsstadiumsand
parkinglots;theymayrequirespecialfilteringforcolorbalance).
Thereareflicker-freeballastsavailablethatallowfilmingatany
frameratewithoutriskofHMIflickerandmayoutputmorelight;
however,theycanproduceahighwhistlingsoundinsomesettings.
Fig.12-12.Bron’sKobold200-wattHMIwithballastunit.(Bron-Kobold,
USA)
SomeHMIscanbebatterypowered.A200-wattHMIputsoutnearly
asmuchlightasa1Ktungstenunit(seeFig.12-12).
FluorescentBulbs
Fluorescentlightingfallsintothreecategories:compactfluorescents
oftenfoundinthehome,conventionalfluorescentfixturestypically
foundinofficeandinstitutionalsettings,andspeciallydesigned
fluorescentlightingunitsforfilmandvideowork.
COMPACTFLUORESCENTS.Manyhomesarelitwithcompact
fluorescentlamps(CFLs),whichtypicallyhaveaspiral-shapedorshort,
foldedtubularbulb,mostofwhichscrewintothesamehousehold
receptaclesusedforincandescents.CFLsareavailableinvariouscolor
temperaturesrangingfromawarmwhitethatisclosetotungstenupto
daylight(formoreonCFLcolor,seep.308).CFLscanbeusedforvideo
assumingthecameracangetagoodwhitebalanceandforfilmaslong
thecolorworkswithyourstockandanyotherlightingunits.SomeCFLs
aredimmable.CFLscanbeusedinsomeprofessionallightingunits(see
Fig.12-13).CFLsandLEDs(seebelow)producethesmallestcarbon
footprint.
Fig.12-13.ThisLowelRifalight(seeFig.12-19)hasareceptaclefor
professionaltungsten-halogenlamps,oryoucanquicklyreplaceitwitha
screw-in(Edison)fittingthatacceptsstandardhouseholdbulbsand
compactfluorescents(shownhere).CFLsarecheapanduseverylittle
power.Youcangetdaylight-balanced,professionalCFLs(5500°K)oruse
conventionalhouseholdbulbsofvariouscolortemperatures.
CONVENTIONALFLUORESCENTS.Standardfluorescent
lightingfixtureshavelong,straighttubularbulbsandareusually
undesirableforshooting—buttheymaybeunavoidable.Thespectrumof
lightfromstandardfluorescenttubesisdiscontinuousandmatches
neithertungstennordaylightillumination.Thereareseveraltypesof
fluorescenttubesavailable(daylight,coolwhite,warmwhite)thatvary
incolor.Daylightandcoolwhitetubesmayproduceanunpleasantbluegreencolorcast.Somewarmwhitebulbs,however,arefairlycloseto
tungsten.
Aslongasallfluorescenttubesinascenearethesametype,most
videocamerascanachieveanacceptablewhitebalance(youmaywantto
experimentwiththe“daylight”positiononthewhitebalancecontrol).
Filmcamerascanbeusedwithfiltersonthelightsorthecamerato
improvecolorrendition,suchasusingeitheran85oranFL-Bfilterfor
tungstenfilmsoranFL-Dfilterfordaylight-balancedfilms.However,
withmanycolorfilmstocks,acceptablecolorbalancecanbeachievedin
thelabevenifnofilterswereused.It’sbettertogetagoodexposurewith
nofilterthantobeforcedtounderexposewithafilter.
Fluorescentlightingcausessimilarbutlesssevereflickerproblems
thanHMIs(seeabove).Standardframeratesof24,25,and30fpsare
fine.(InNorthAmericaandotherplaceswhere60Hzpowerisused,the
ruleofthumbissimplynottouseshutterspeedsfasterthan1⁄60second;
inotherpartsoftheworldwherepowerisdeliveredat50Hz,1⁄50second
shouldwork.)
Mixingfluorescentswithothersourcesoflightcancauseproblems
(seeMixedLighting,p.514).Fluorescentfixturesatworkplacesoften
shinestraightdown,resultinginoverexposedhairanddeepeyeandnose
shadows.ManyDPschoose,wheneverpossible,toreplacestandard
fluorescentswithcolor-balancedtubes(seebelow)ortoturnoffthe
fluorescentsaltogetherandrelightwithsomeothersource.When
shootinginsupermarketsandothersettingsinwhichit’simpracticalto
eitherturnofforreplaceexistingtubes,aDPwillsometimesusea
professionalfluorescentfilllightfixturethatusesthesametubes,toat
leastmaintainconsistency.
Fig.12-14.(left)KinoFlohigh-output,flicker-freefluorescentbulbsare
availableintruetungsten(3200°K)ordaylightbalance(5500°K).(top)
KinoFloDiva-Litesareusefulasasoftsourceandforlargeareas.(right)
TheBarFlyishandyfortightspotsandaccents.(LocLum.com/KinoFlo,
Inc.)
FLUORESCENTSFORVIDEOANDFILM.Fluorescentlighting
unitsareavailablethatovercometheproblemsmentionedabove.Awide
rangeoffixturesaremadebyKinoFlousinghigh-frequencyballaststhat
areflicker-freeandavoidthehummingnoiseofstandardballasts.The
KF55tubeisdaylightbalancedat5500°KandtheKF32istungsten
balanced.Othermanufacturersmakefluorescentunitsaswell.Banksof
fluorescentscanbeusedaskeyorfilllights.Thelightoutputisbright,
soft,andveryeven.Individualtubes—sometimesverysmallones—can
beusedforout-of-the-wayspotsorbuiltintoaset.
Therearealsofluorescenttubesavailablethatcanbeusedwith
conventionalfixturesbutproduceatruecolorthatreadscorrectlywith
eithervideoorfilm.TheOptima32bulbistungstenbalancedandthe
Vita-LiteandChroma50tubesaredaylightbalanced.Whenshootingin
anofficeorotherinstitutionalsetting,amoviecrewwilloftenreplacethe
existingtubeswiththesebulbs.
LEDs
AnewertypeoflightingunitusesLEDs(light-emittingdiodes)and
offerslotsofadvantagesforshooting.Thesecompactunitsproduceheatfree,flickerless,silentlightandsomeunitscanbedimmedfrom100
percenttofulloffwithnocolorshift(unlikemanyothertypesoflight).
SomeLEDinstrumentscombinedifferent-coloreddiodes,sotheycanbe
switchedbetween5600°Kdaylightand3200°Ktungstenbalance(and
someoffercolorbalancesinbetween).Otherunitsaredesignedfor
daylightortungstencolortemperatureandneedafiltertoconverttoa
differentcolor.LEDsarehighlyenergyefficientandhaveanextremely
longlifespan.LEDsareavailableasflatpanels,asfocusablelensed
lights,andasindividual“bulbs”(suchasthoseusedinthehome,which
arebulb-shapedtoemulatetungstenlights).Ascostscomedown,LEDs
arestartingtoreplaceothertypesofbulbsbothinthehomeandonmovie
shootsbecausetheyareversatileandeco-friendly.SeeFigs.12-15and
10-15.
Fig.12-15.LitepanelsMiniPlusLEDlightsmountedonacarmirrorand
camera.LEDsareefficientlighting,availableindaylightand/ortungsten
balance,andfullydimmablewithvirtuallynoshiftincolor.LEDsare
availableinlargeandsmallpanels.(Litepanels,Inc.)
Plasma
Plasmaisatypeoflightingtechnologyjustcomingintouseforvideo
andfilm.Plasmaunitsproducedaylight-balanced,flickerlesslightand
aretwiceasefficientasHMI—a275-wattplasmaisequivalenttoa575wattHMI.Theycanbeusedwithhigh-speedcamerasandrunonACor
batteries.
TYPESOFLIGHTINGINSTRUMENTS
LensedSpotlights
Themostcontrollablekindoflightingunitisafocusingspotlight.
SomespotshaveaFresnellens(silents,pronounced“fray-NEL”)in
frontofthebulb(seeFig.12-16).Theselightsemitfocused,parallelrays
oflightthatdon’tspreadoutmuchordiffuseoverdistance.Most
spotlightsarefocusable,whichmeansthebulbcanbemovedbackand
forthrelativetothereflectororlenstoproduceeitherahard,narrowly
directedbeamoflight(spotposition)orawider,morediffuse,less
intensebeam(floodposition).These,likemostothermovielights,havea
setofadjustablebafflescalledbarndoors,whichareusedtoblockthe
beamfromgoingwhereyoudon’twantit(seeFig.12-18).
Mole-Richardsonmakesawidelyusedlineofstudioequipmentand
youshouldlearnMole’snames:a5Klensedspotlightisasenior,while
the2Kisajunior,andthe1Kisababyspot.Ababyjuniorisa2Kina
smallhousing.Atweeniehasa650-wattbulbandaminiortiny(also
calledaninkie)is250wattsorless.
Focusing,lensedspotlightsareversatileandverycontrollableand
usedextensivelyontypicalmoviesets.Theymayalsobeusedon
locationshoots,particularlywhentheproductionissupportedbyatruck
andalargercrew.However,lensedunitsaresometimestooheavyfora
documentarybeingdonewithasmallcreworinvolvingalotoftravel.
SomedocumentaryDPscarryoneortwolensedunitsandusemostly
open-facedlights(seebelow).
Fig.12-16.LTMPepperFresnel.Compact,focusinglensedspotlight.
NoteFresnellens.(FletcherChicago/LTM)
Open-FacedSpotlights
Open-facedspotlightshavenolensinfrontofthebulb.Theseare
lighterandcheaperthanFresnelunitsandareoftenusedonlocationand
insmall-scalefilming.Whilethesenonlensedinstrumentscanbefocused
bymovingthebulbfromspottofloodpositions,theyareless
controllableor“cuttable”thanlensedunits(becausethebeamisnotas
sharp-edged),andthequalityoflightisnotashard.
Open-facedlightshavevariousnames.Mole’s1KisaMickey,
Ianiro’sisaRedhead.A2Kmaybeamightyorablonde.Lowel’sopenfacedspotsincludetheOmni-light(maximum650W)andtheDPlight
(maximum1K).
Fig.12-17.LowelDPopen-facedspot.Thequartzbulbisclearlyvisible.
(LowelLightMfg.,Inc.)
NonfocusingLights
Lightsthatarenotfocusablecomeinmanyconfigurations.Some
havelenses,somedon’t.PARlamps(forparabolicaluminizedreflector)
aresealedbeamlightsthatlooklikeautomobileheadlights.PARlights
areavailablewithdifferentfixedlenses;someprojectaverynarrow
beamovergreatdistances,whileothershaveawiderpattern.PARsmay
beusedsinglyoringroups—typically,agridof2x3or3x3lightsona
frame(calledsixlightsandninelights,respectively).PARsputoutalot
oflight,andtheycanbeusedtosimulateoraugmentsunlight,butthey
canbehardtocontrol.FAYbulbsarePARsthatincorporateadichroic
filtertoproducedaylight-balancedillumination.YoucanalsogetHMIs
insealed-beamconfiguration.
Thereareseveraltypesofnonfocusing,open-facedfloodlights.
Scoopsaredish-shapedfloodlights.Broadsarerectangularandhavea
long,tube-shapedbulb(seeFig.12-18).Floodlightsaresometimesused
onthesetasfilllightsortoprovideevenilluminationoverabroadarea.
Theycanbehardtoworkwithbecausethelighttendstospillwhereyou
don’twantit.
Fig.12-18.Broad.Bardwell&McAlister1,000-wattMini-Macwith
four-leafbarndoor.Notethetubularbulb.(Bardwell&McAlister,Inc.)
SoftLightsandReflectors
Therelativelyhardlightproducedbyaspotorafloodunitcanbe
softenedbyplacingsomediffusionmaterialinfrontoftheunit.Diffusion
spreadsthelight,disruptsthehardparallelrays,andcutsdownthelight’s
intensity.Oneofthemostcommontypesofdiffusionislightfiberglass
mattingcalledtoughspunorspun(forspunglass),whichwillnotburn
underthehighheatofmovielights.Therearemanyothertypesof
professionaldiffusion,includingtranslucentplasticsheetssuchasLee
216WhiteDiffusionandtheslightlymilderOpalToughFrostmadeby
Rosco(seeFig.12-1).Rosco’sSoftFrostlooksabitlikeshowercurtain
material;becauseit’sflexible,itwon’trattleinthewindlikesomeother
diffusionmaterial.Mosttypesofdiffusionareavailableinvarious
grades,includingfull,1⁄2(medium),and1⁄4(light).Ifplacedfarenough
fromtheheatofthefixture,anynumberofmaterialscanbeusedfor
diffusion,includingthincloth,silk,orrollsoftracingpaper.
Toobtainsofterlighting,thelightfromthebulbcanbebouncedoffa
whiteorsilverysurface;thelargerthesurfaceandthefartheritisfrom
thebulb,thesofterthelight.Asoftlightisalarge,scoop-shapedfixture
thatblocksalldirectlightfromthebulbsothatonlybouncedlight
escapes.Studiosoftlightsarebulky,buttherearecollapsiblemodels
availablethatpackeasilyfortravel.
Asoftboxenclosesthebulbinacollapsiblereflectorwithasoft
diffuserovertheopening.Thesecanprovideverynice,softlightandare
quicktosetupandeasytouse.Chimeramakespopularsoftboxes(called
lightbanks)thatcanbemountedoveraconventionalspotlightwitha
speedringadapter(seeFigs.12-20and12-26).Lowel’sRifalightisa
self-containedsoftbox(seeFigs.12-19and12-13)thatsetsupquickly.
Comparedtosimplybouncinglightagainstacardtoproducesoftlight
(seebelow),asoftboxismorecontrollable—youcandirectitatthe
subjectwithoutlightspillingallovertheroom.Manysoftboxesare
availablewithaneggcrate(afabricbafflethatmountsonthefront
surface)thathelpskeeplightfromspreading(seeFig.12-26).
Fig.12-19.Collapsiblesoftboxesproduceverysoft,veryeven
illuminationandfoldupfortravel.Shownhere,LowelRifalightsof
varioussizes.SeealsoFig.12-13.(LowelLightMfg.,Inc.)
Chimeraalsomakeslanterns,whichhaveroundedorpancakeshapes
thatcanbeusedtoprovideagentleglowbyasubjectorforeven
illuminationoveradinnertable.Youcanmakeyourownlow-costlantern
usingahouseholdpaperJapaneselantern.
Softlightingcanalsobecreatedwithaspot-orfloodlightby
bouncingthelightoffwalls,ceilings,orreflectingcards.Bouncedlightis
goodforlightingalargespace.Foam-coresheetsarelightweightand
rigidandmakeaversatilebounceboardthatcanbeeasilycutandtaped
towallsormountedonstands.Whitecardboardshowcardsarecheaper
butsometimesnotrigidenough.Usingfoamcoreorcardsforfilllighting
canbeagoodwaytofillshadowsfromlightswithoutcreatingnewones
(seeFig.12-34).
Anextremelylightweightspaceblanketorfoilsheetcanbetaped
shinysideouttomakeanexcellentreflectingsurfaceonadarkorcolored
wall,anditwillprotectthewallfromburning.Anotherwaytocreatesoft
lightistouseaphotographer’sumbrella,whichissilverorwhiteonthe
inside.Thelightingunitismountedonthestemanddirectedtowardthe
insideoftheumbrella.Umbrellareflectorsfoldtoacompactsizefor
traveling.
Fig.12-20.Chimeralightbanksbeingusedforsoftkeylighting.A
reflectorprovidesfill.SeetheresultsinFig.12-29D.(Chimera)
Fig.12-21.Alightsourcecanbesoftenedbybouncingitand/orby
projectingitthroughdiffusionmaterial.Thexenonlightsourcehere
producesaverycircular,focused,narrowbeamoflight.Shownwith
Xenomirrorreflector.(MatthewsStudioEquipment,Inc.)
Generallythereflectingsurfaceshouldnothaveacolorcast.
However,sometimesacoloredsurfaceisuseddeliberatelytocreatean
effect.Areflectorwithagoldsurfacemaybeusedtoprovideawarmfill
light.Spaceblanketsusuallyhaveabluesidethatcanbeusedto
approximatedaylightwhenbouncingtungstenlightingunits.
Reflectorsofvariouskindsarealsousedoutdoorstoredirectsunlight.
Thisiscommonlydonetofillshadowsonasunnyday(seeFigs.12-22
and12-40).Usuallyyoucangetmuchmorepunchfromareflectorthan
youcanfromapoweredlightinginstrumentanditrequiresnoelectricity.
Smooth,silveredreflectorsproviderelativelyhardlight,whiletextured
silverorwhitesurfacesaresofter.Collapsible,clothreflectorssuchas
theFlexfillarepopularforlocationshoots.Theyfoldintoasmalldiscfor
travel,andopentoalargercirclewithonesidewhiteandtheothersilver
orgold.Onwindydays,allreflectorsmustbecarefullysteadiedorthe
intensityoflightonthesubjectwillfluctuate.
Fig.12-22.Flexfillreflectors.Usefulforfillingshadowsandreducing
lightingcontrast.Availableindifferentsurfaces:whitemaintainsthe
characterofthelight;silverformorepunchoverlongerdistances;gold
foraddingwarmth(shadowslitbyskylightcansometimeslookblue);
translucentsoftensthelight(whenplacedbetweenlightsourceand
subject).Flexfillscollapsetoroughlyone-thirdsizewhennotinuse.
(AllenGreen)
Practicals
Whenatypicalhouseholdtablelampisusedonamovieset,itis
calledapractical.Practicalsareoftenpartofthesetdesign(seeFig.1231).Theymayalsobepresentindocumentaryshoots.Oftenadimmeror
diffusionmaterialisusedwithapracticaltocutdowntheintensityorat
leastminimizethelightfallingbeloworabovealampshade.Youcanget
inexpensivedimmersatahardwarestorethatscrewintothesocketor
plugbetweenthepowercableandthewall.Ifyou’relookingformore
intensityfromapractical,andyouuseaphotofloodorscrew-inhalogen
light,besurethefixtureisratedforthewattageofthebulbandthat
there’sadequateupwardventilationtopreventburningormelting.For
moreonworkingwithpracticals,seeLightingWideShots,p.506.
CameraLightsandHandheldLights
Camera-mountedlightsarecommonlyusedfornewsgatheringor
documentary(wheretheyaresometimescalledsunguns)andfeature
films(wheretheymaybecalledObielights,eyelights,orbashlights).A
camera-mountedlightisusefulwhenthecameraismovingbecausethe
unitmoveswiththecameraandprovidesshadowlesslightonthesubject.
Thisshadowlesslightcanbeablessingifitisfillingtheshadowscastby
other,strongerlights.However,ifitistheonlylightonthesubject,itcan
beacurse,asfullfrontallightingtendstobeflatandharsh.Ontheother
hand,ringlights,whichcirclethelens,providetotallyflat,frontallight
andthatshadowlesslookisoftenseenasglamorous.
Fig.12-23.Cool-Luxon-cameralightwithbatterybeltanddiffuser.
(Cool-Lux)
Sunguns(originallyatradenamethatgainedwideuse)areoften
handheldandpoweredbybattery.Evenastandardtungstenspotlightcan
sometimesbefittedwitha30-voltbulbandpoweredwitha30-volt
batterypackorbelt.Lightsandpowerpacksvaryincapacity,andmost
requireseveralhourstorecharge(seeBatteryPower,p.128).With
tungstenbulbs,whenthebatteriesrundown,lightintensityandcolor
temperaturedrop.LEDsaremoreefficient,willrunlongeronabattery,
andshouldmaintainconstantcolortemperature(seeFigs.12-15and1015).Battery-poweredlightsareusefulforscenesincars;somecanberun
offthecarbatterybyusinganadapter.
Whenasceneislitwithonlyonesmalllight,it’snoteasytomakethe
lightingpleasant.Withahandheldlight,it’sprobablybesttopositionthe
lightafewfeettothesideofthecamera.Theharshshadowscanbe
softenedwithdiffusiononthelight,althoughthissacrificesbrightness.
SomeDPsbouncehandheldlightsofftheceilingorawall,producinga
verydiffuselight.Tomaintainconstantillumination,holdtheunit
steady.It’softenbesttohaveanassistantholdthelight.
LightingAccessories
Theartoflightingbeginswiththelightsthemselves,butthetoolsfor
controllinglightarejustasimportant.Thelightingpackageincludes
manyaccessoryitemsforworkingwithlight.
Fig.12-24.Lightingaccessories.(A)Frenchflag.(B)Snoots.(C)Full
scrimandhalfscrim.(D)Cookies.(E)Centurystandwiththreegobo
headsandflag.(F)Hangerformountingonpipesorsmallbeams.(G)
Polecatmountedinwindowwell.(H)Gatorgrip.(Representationsarenot
drawntosamescale.)(CarolKeller)
Spilledlight,orjustspill,islight(usuallyfromtheedgeofthebeam)
thatilluminatesanareawhereyoudon’twantit.Spillisprimarily
controlledwithbarndoors,whichareadjustableflapsthatmountonthe
frontofthelightinginstrument(seeFig.12-18).Barndoorscomeintwoandfour-leafversions,thelatterprovidingmorecontrol.Theycanbe
openedwideorcloseddowntoproducearelativelynarrowbeamoflight.
Anevennarrowerbeamcanbemadewithasnoot,whichisacylindrical
bafflethatfitsoveraspotlight.
Flags,whicharealsocalledcuttersorgobos,areeitherrectangular
metalcards,darkclothonwireframes,orpiecesofcardboard.Theyare
usuallymountedonstandstocutoffunwantedspill.Thefarthertheflag
isfromthelight,thesharperitsshadowwillbe.
AFrenchflagisasmallcardmountedonthecameraasaneffective
lensshadetoblocklightspillingintothefrontofthelens.Theseare
sometimesattachedtosmallflexiblearms,andsometimestothetopofa
mattebox(seeFig.8-10).
Attimesyouneedtoflagoffalightsoftly,creatingagradual
transitionfromlighttodarkratherthanhavingahardshadowline.This
maybedonewithascrimornet—apieceofverythin,darknettingoften
mountedonathree-sidedframe(seeFig.12-25).Netscomeinsingleand
doublethicknessesandcanbeusedinmultiplelayersforincreased
shadowing.
Fig.12-25.Adjustingadoublescrimonagripstand.Usefulforshading
offthelightonpartofascene.
Spillleakingfromthebackofalightingunitcancauseflareinthe
lens,or,ifgelsarebeingused,itcandisruptthelightingschemewith
lightofthewrongcolor.Thisspillcanusuallybeblockedoffwithcards
orflags.Blackwrapisblackaluminumfoilthatisveryhandyfor
controllingspill.
Acucoloris(usuallycalledacookieorkook)isacutoutpieceof
materialplacedinfrontofalighttocastapatternedshadow.Cookiesare
typicallyusedtoprojecttheshadowofawindowframeorvenetian
blinds.Byadjustingthecolorandangleofalightprojectingthrougha
windowcookieyoucansuggestamoodorindicateatimeofday.
Sometimesanabstract,dappledpatternisusedtobreakupauniform
expanseofwallorfloorortocreateatransitionzonebetweensunlitand
shadedareas.Theshadowcastbyanycookieorflagwillbesharpestifit
isplacedclosertothesubjectthantothelightandifthelightsourceis
hard.
Therearemanywaystoreducetheintensityofalight.Thesimplestis
perhapsjusttomoveitfartherfromthesubject.Netscanbeusedtoshade
or“feather”alight.Silksarewhitesilkmaterialmountedonframeslike
nets;theycutdownthelightwhilediffusingitsomewhat(seeFig.1227).
Scrims(nottobeconfusedwiththefabricscrimmentionedabove)are
circularwiremeshscreensthatareplacedinfrontofalightingunit,
usuallyinsidethebarndoors,toreducetheintensitywithoutchangingthe
colortemperatureorthequality(hardness)oflight.Insertingascrimis
thebestwaytoreducelightintensitywithoutchanginganythingelse.A
singlescrim(usuallyindicatedbyagreenframe)reducestheintensity
aboutahalfstop;adoublescrim(redframe)cutsoutafullstop.Ona
halfscrim,halfofthecircleisleftopen.Ahalfscrimcanbeusedto
solvethecommonproblemthatoccurswhensomeonewalkstowarda
light.Normally,asheapproachesthelighthe’llbecomebrighter.Toeven
outtheillumination,raisethelightingunitfairlyhighabovethesubject
andpointitdownatanangle.Useahalfscrimtoreducetheintensityof
thebottomofthelightbeam(whichfallsneartheunit)without
diminishingthetopofthebeam(whichreachesintothedistance).You
coulduseanetorasilktodothesamething(seeFig.12-27).Roscoe
makesablackplasticscrimmaterialinwiderolls(Cinegel3421)that
youcanplaceoverwindowstoreducethelightcomingthroughbytwo
stops;ifnotinsharpfocusyoucanshootthroughitwithoutseeingthe
scrim(seeFig.12-39).
Fig.12-26.(left)ClothgrideggcratebeingmountedonalargeChimera
lightbanktoreducespillanddirectlightmostlytowardthesubject.
(right)Usingascrimtoreducetheoutputofasoftbox.(Chimera)
Studiolightingissometimesdimmedwithshutters,whichactlike
venetianblinds.Dimmersareusedintheatricallighting,asinthehome,
toregulatelightintensity.Dimmerslowerthevoltagegoingtothelight,
whichnotonlymakesthelightdimmer,butwithtungstenlightsresultsin
thecolortemperaturedroppingaswell(makingtungstenlightsmore
orange).Therearesomesituationsinwhichtheloweredcolor
temperaturemayseemnatural(seeMixedLighting,p.514).LEDsand
somefluorescentscanbedimmedwithoutchangingthecolor.
Fig.12-27.Asilkbeingusedtocutthebottomhalfofthelightbeam;this
evensouttheilluminationclosetoandfarfromthelight.Thislightis
attachedtothetelephonepoleusingapoultrybracket.(MatthewsStudio
Equipment,Inc.)
Therearehundredsofdevicesforsupportinglightsandmounting
themonvarioussurfaces.Lightsareusuallysupportedbystands,which
arecollapsiblefortransport.Centurystands(C-stands)havelow-slung
legsatdifferentheightsthatallowseveralstandstobepositionedclose
together.Goboheadswithmultiplelockingarmscanbepositionedin
endlessways.Rollerstandshavewheelsthatmakeiteasiertoreposition
heavylights.
Agatorgripisaspring-loadedclipforattachinglightstodoors,
pipes,andmoldings.AC-clampwithaspudtomountalightismore
stable.Apolecatislikeanexpandableclosetbar.Aheavier-dutyversion
isthewallspreader,whichallowsyoutorunapieceoflumber,suchasa
two-by-four,betweentwowalls.Apolecatorawallspreadercanbeused
tohanglightsneartheceilingwithoutstandsthatmightshowinthe
scene.Whenshootinginofficesorotherroomsthathavehungceilings,a
scissorsclipallowsyoutomountlightsrightontheceiling.Awallplate
formountingfixturescanbescrewedortapedtoverticalorhorizontal
surfaces.
Severalfeetofopaqueblackfabricsuchasduvetyn(“doova-teen”)
canbeextremelyusefultohaveonhandforcreatinglimbobackgrounds,
darkeningawindow,orplacingonatableforfilmingobjects.
Otheritemsforalightingpackageincludeappleboxes(seep.381),
sandbagsforstabilizinglightsandstands,stingers(extensioncords),
glovesforhandlinghotlamps,andplentyofgaffer’stape(agrayfabric
tapesoldinequipmenthouses—notducttape).Seep.368foratypical
lightingandgrippackage.
ColoredFiltersandGels
Acommonwaytochangethecoloroflightistousegels(gelatine),
whicharemadeofflexible,transparentplasticthatcomesinsmallsheets
andlargerolls.Gelscanbemountedonlightsingelframesorjust
attachedtobarndoorswithclothespins.
CTO(colortemperatureorange)gelsareusedtolowercolor
temperatureforconvertingdaylighttotungsten-balancedlightor
otherwisewarmingalightsource.Sun85or3⁄4CTOgelsareroughly
equivalenttoan85camerafilter(seeChapter8)andareusedtoconvert
standard5500°KdaylightandHMIsourcestotungsten.Thesefilterscut
outabouttwo-thirdsofastopoflight.Lee204andRosco3407—full
CTOgelsthatareslightlymoreorange—areusedtoconvertskylight
(6500°K)totungsten.
CTB(colortemperatureblue)gelsareusedtoraisecolortemperature
andmakeanysourcebluer.Somebluegelsarereferredtoasbooster
gels,sincetheyboostthecolortemperature.Rosco3202andLee201are
fullCTBgels,usedtobringa3200°Ktungstensourceupto5700°K
daylight.Thesecutoutalittlelessthantwostopsoflight(oneandtwothirds).
Gelscanbepurchasedinfull,3⁄4,1⁄2,1⁄4,and1⁄8intensityversions,
fromdeepcolortopale,tomakelargeorslightchangesincolorfor
precisematchingoflightsources.Thedeeperthecolorofthegel,the
moreitcutsdownthelightintensity.OftenthefullCTBcutsouttoo
muchlight,anda3⁄4or1⁄2CTBisusedinstead,allowingatungsten
sourcetoappearslightlyyellowcomparedtodaylight.
Gelsareavailableinmanyothercolorsbesidesorangeandblue.
SometimesthelightfromanHMIlampseemsslightlytooblue;a1⁄8
Strawgelorapaleyellowmaybeusedto“takethecurseoff”andwarm
thelightabit.Thereisawiderangeofothercolorsforcreatingmore
theatricaleffects.
Gelsarealsoavailableincombinationwithneutraldensity(ND;see
p.312)ordiffusionmaterial.BlueFrostconvertstungstentodaylight
whileaddingdiffusion—havingbotheffectsinonegelmayprevent
unneededlossoflight.
Gelsshouldbereplacedwhenheatfromthelampcausesthecenterof
thegeltobecomepaler.Gelsandthemorerigidacrylicfiltersmaybe
attachedtowindowstofilterdaylight(seeMixedLighting,p.514).
Anotherwaytoraisecolortemperatureistouseadichroicfilter,
sometimescalledadike,whichisaspecialblueglassfilterusedto
convert3200°Ktungstensourcestoabout5500°Ktomatchthecolorof
daylight.Thesecutoutabout50percentofthelight,reducingintensity
byonestop.Dichroicsareexpensiveandfragileandmustbefittedtoa
particularlight.
Fig.12-28.LowelSuperAmbiKit.LocationpackageincludestwoOmnilights(650-watt-maximumopen-facedspots);twoTota-lights(1,000watt-maximumbroads)withumbrellas;oneRifaeX55softbox;oneProlightspot.Accessoriesincludestands,flagswithflexiblestems,scrims,
door/wallbrackets,clamps,gelframes,etc.Everythingfitsintothe
carryingcase.(LowelLightMfg.,Inc.)
MountingLightsSafely
Inclosequartersahot,fallinglightcandoseriousdamage.Spread
legsofalightstandwideformaximumstability.Weighdownlight
standswithsandorwaterbagsortapethemdownwithgaffer’stape.
Whenraisingalight,usethelower,thickerextensionsofalightstand
beforethethin,upperones.
Tapeallpowercablesneatlytothefloororputmatsoverthemin
high-trafficareassonoonetripsonthem.Useplentyofgood-quality
gaffer’stapewhenyouattachlightstoawall,andifyoucan,placelights
wheretheywon’tstrikeanyoneiftheyfall.Rememberthattapelosesits
stickinesswhenhot.Whenpossible,“safety”ahanginglightbyattaching
apieceofsashcordorchaintoafixedpointtocatchthelightifitdrops
offitsmount.Gaffer’stapewilloftenremovepaintandwallpaper,so
peelthetapebackslowlyassoonaspossibleaftershootingtominimize
damage.
LIGHTINGTECHNIQUE
LIGHTINGSTYLES
Beforebeginninganymoviethatinvolvescontrolledlighting,decide
onthelightingstyleyouhopetoachieve.TheDPanddirectorcanlookat
movies,photographs,andpaintingsforideas.
Likeeverythingelse,lightingstyleshaveevolvedovertheyears.
Black-and-whitefeaturefilmsofthe1930sand1940swereusuallylitin
ahighlystylizedway.Thegoalwasnot“realistic”lightingbutsomething
thatwouldheightenthedramaandtheglamour.Thesefilmswereshoton
studiosetsthatoftenhadnoceilingandonlytwoorthreewalls.Lights
mountedoutsidethesetonoverheadgridsandelsewherestrucktheactors
fromdirectionsthatwouldbeimpossibleinanormalbuildinginterior.
Strongedgelightingwasneededwithblack-and-whitetoseparateactors
fromthebackground.
Inmanyfeaturefilmstoday,lightingisintendedtobemore
“naturalistic”—thatis,likethekindoflightonewouldfindinthereal
world.Manylightsmaybeused,buttheintentistosimulatethelight
thatmightnormallyoccurinthefilmingspace,whetheritbefrom
sunlightorman-madefixtures.Onewaytohelpgivelightinganatural
feelistomakesurethatthechieflightsourcesseem“motivated.”
Motivatedlightsareonesthatappeartocomefromalogicalsource.For
example,actualwindowlightmaybeusedforillumination,orlighting
instrumentsmaybesetupnearthewindowstogivetheillusionthatthe
lightcomesfromthewindows.Evenifthegoalisnaturalisticlighting,
usuallylibertiescanbetakentoimprovethelightingoffacesorachieve
particulareffects.
Oftenafewhouseholdfixturesareplacedinasceneaspracticals.
Thesemayactuallylightthesubjectormerelyactasmotivationforlight
fromprofessionallightinginstruments.
Ofcourse,manymoviesdon’tseekrealismatall,andinsteaduse
lightingtocreateadramatic,expressiveambience.Horrorfilms,action
films,andmanydramasuseamoretheatricalapproachtolightingthat
createsauniqueworldthatdoesn’tparticularlylookliketheoneyoulive
in.
Thesensitivityofdigitalcamerasandfilmstockshasimproved,and
it’sincreasinglypossibletoshootindoorsentirelywithavailablelight
withoutintroducinganyspeciallightingequipment.Thiscanbeareal
boonfordocumentaries(seebelow).Forfictionfilms,ironically,it
sometimestakesalotoflighttomakeascenelookreallyunlit,thewayit
doestothenakedeye.Forexample,youmaybeabletoshootaninterior
scenewithjustwindowlight,butthismayresultinthewindowsbeing
overexposedandthepeopleappearingsomewhatunderexposed(seeFig.
7-17).Togetanaturalbalancebetweentheinteriorandexteriormay
requiregelsonthewindowsand/orasignificantamountoflightfrom
inside(seeMixedLighting,p.514).
DocumentaryLighting
Lightingadocumentarycanbetricky.Youhavetobalanceyour
desireforacertainstyleorlookwiththetypicalconstraintsofasmall
crew,smalllightingpackage,andshortshootingschedule.Interviewscan
belitfairlyfast,butprovidinggoodlightingforanuncontrolledscenein
whichpeoplemovearoundalargespace,eitheratworkorathome,often
takesmoretimeandequipment.Sometimeslargespacesarelitwitha
fewlightsbouncedofftheceiling.Thismaygiveyouenoughlightfor
exposureandisfairlyeven.However,thiskindoflightisflatandtends
tobe“toppy”—thatis,comingfromaboveandcausingdarkshadowsin
theeyesockets.
Whenshootingunscriptedscenesofpeoplelivingtheirlives,consider
theeffectthelightshaveonyoursubjects.Ifyou’refilmingintimate
scenesoffamilylifeandotherpotentiallydelicatemoments,youwantto
doeverythingyoucantominimizethedisruptioncausedbythefilm
crew.Brightlightscancreatean“on-the-set”feeling,andpeopleunder
thelightsmayfeelliketheyshould“perform”whenthelightsgoon.
Also,becauseit’shardtolightanentirehouseorlocation,theuseof
lightstransformssomeareasintofilmingspaceswhileothersremain
livingspace.Allofthismaydisruptthenaturalflowoflifethatyouhope
tocapture.Sometimesyoucanmountafewlightsonthewallorceiling
andbasicallyleavetheminplaceforthedurationofashoot,turningthem
onwhenneeded.Thelesslightyouuse,themoremobileandunobtrusive
youcanbe.Butthismaycomeatsomesacrificetotheimagequality.For
everyscene,youhavetobalancetheseconcerns.
POSITIONINGLIGHTS
ABasicLightingSetup
Aclassiclightingtechniqueissometimescalledthree-pointlighting
becausethreebasiclightsareusedtoilluminatethesubject:thekey,fill,
andbacklight.Eachlighthasaparticularfunction.Evenifmanylights
areusedtocoveralargeset,eachlightplaysoneofthesethreeroles.
KEYLIGHT.Thekeyisthebrightestlightandcaststheprimary
shadows,givingasenseofdirectionalitytothelighting.Thekeymaybe
hardorsoft;theharderthelight,thebolderorharsheritsshadowswill
be.Thekey’sshadowsmustbewatchedcarefullyforthewaythey
interactwiththesubject.Thekeylightisusuallyplacedsomewhatoffthe
camera-to-subjectaxis,highenoughupsothattheshadowofthe
subject’snosedoesnotfallacrossthecheekbutdownwardinstead.This
heighthelpsensurethatbodyshadowsfallonthefloorandnotonnearby
walls,wheretheymaybedistracting.
Fig.12-29.Three-pointlighting.(A)Keylightonly.Inthisshot,thekey
isquitefartotheside.(B)Keyplusbacklight.Thebacklightseparates
themanfromthedarkbackgroundandbringsouttextureinhiscoatand
hair.(C)Addingfilllightfromnearthecameraontheoppositesidefrom
thekeybringsupthelightlevelprimarilyonthedarksideofhisface,
makingtheshadowslesssevere.SeeFig.12-30forthislightingsetup.
(D)Anotherexampleofthree-pointlighting,withasofter,morefrontal
keycomingfromtheothersideofthecamera,andalower-contrastlook.
Additionallightshighlightthebackground.SeeFig.12-20forthis
lightingsetup.(StephenMcCarthy;Chimera)
FILLLIGHT.Themainfunctionofthefilllightistofillinthe
shadowsproducedbythekeywithoutcastingdistinctshadowsofitsown.
Filllightingisalmostalwayssofterthanthekey;it’susuallycreatedwith
asoftlightfixtureorabouncedspotlight.Ifthefilllightemanatesfroma
pointclosetothecamera’slensandatthesamelevel,itsshadowswill
notbevisibletothecamera.Thefillisgenerallyplacedontheopposite
sideofthecamerafromthekey.Sometimeslightisbouncedoffthewall
orceilingtoprovideflat,evenfilloverabroadarea.
BACKLIGHT.Backlights(variantsarecalledhair,rim,oredge
lights)areplacedontheoppositesideofthesubjectfromthecamera,
highenoughtobeoutofview.Backlightshouldgenerallybefairlyhard,
toproducehighlightsonthesubject’shair.Ifabacklightisataboutthe
samelevelasthesubjectandsomewhatofftotheside,itiscalleda
kicker.Kickersilluminatetheshouldersandthesideofthefacemore
thanhairlightsdo.Allbacklightsareusedtogiveabrightoutlinetothe
subject,helpingtoseparatethesubjectfromthebackgroundanddefine
shape.
SETLIGHTSANDSPECIALS.Insomesituations,thekeyandfill
lightsadequatelylightthebackground.Inothers,afourthbasictypeof
light,thesetlight,isusedtoilluminatethebackgroundandselected
objects.Sometimespartsofthesetneedtobegiventheirownkey,fill,
and/orbacklights.Aspecialisalightusedtosolveaparticularproblem,
suchasalighttobringoutanespeciallydarkobjectinthebackground.
Fig.12-30.Athree-pointlightingsetup,similartotheoneusedforFig.
12-29.(RobertBrun)
LightingFaces
Inmediumandcloseshotsthatincludepeople,thelightingonfacesis
extremelyimportant.Whenlightingasetorlocation,ifyouknowthere
willbesignificantcloseshotsofpeople,theoveralllightingshouldbe
designedtoprovidegoodfaciallighting(evenso,thelightingforwide
shotswillgenerallybetweakedorcheatedsomewhatwhenitcomestime
forclose-ups).Forthepurposesofthisdiscussion,let’sassumeyou’re
lightingasinglesubjectinachair.Startbypositioningthekeylight
alone,payingcloseattentiontotheshadowsofthesubject’snoseandeye
sockets.Everyfaceisdifferent;peoplewithdeep-seteyesandprominent
noseswillhavemoreshadowingthanthosewithflatterfaces.Thecloser
thekeylightistothecamera,thelessshadowingtherewillbe.Television
newsprogramstendtobedonewithveryfrontal,flatlighting(seeFig.
12-9).Thisisafunctionallightingapproach,andminimizespossibly
objectionableshadows,butitmaybedull.Ifthekeyisbroughtaround
somewhattotheside(three-quarterlight),thefacetakesonmore
dimensionality(seeFig.12-29D).About45degreesfromthecamerais
consideredfairlystandardforthekeyposition.InFig.12-29C,thekeyis
positionedquitefartotheside(almost90degrees)foradramaticlook.In
thiscase,itisalsofairlyhightoavoidreflectionsintheman’sglasses.
Paycloseattentiontothewaytheeyesarelit.Asthepoettellsus,
eyesarethewindowstothesoul.Whenyoucan’tseetheeyes,sometimes
youfeellikeyoucan’tseeintotheperson.Generallysubjectsfaceone
sideofthecameraortheother.Oftenthelightinglooksbestifthesubject
islookingtowardthekeylight(thus,ifthesubjectisfacingcameraleft,
putthekeylightontheleftsideofthecamera;seeFig.12-38).Thisputs
botheyesinthekeylight.Ifoneeyeisinshadow,thefilllightcanbe
usedtobringuptheilluminationonthatside(seebelow).Ofcourse,you
mightchoosetoputoneorbotheyesinshadow,perhapstocreatea
mysteriousorspookyfeel.
Fig.12-31.InthisscenefromCapote,thekeylightcomesfromtheleft,
onthefarsideofthesubject,leavingmostofhisfaceinshadow.The
practicalinthebackgroundhelpsmotivatethelightonthetableand
subject.Whenthecamerashootsfromtheshadowedsideoftheface,the
lightoftenbringsoutinterestingmodeling(shootingfromtheotherside
wouldlookmuchflatter).(SonyPicturesClassics)
Thekeyshouldgenerallybehighenoughsothatthenoseshadowfalls
down,notacrosstheface(someDPstrytoplacethenoseshadowonthe
“smileline,”whichextendsfromthenosetothecornerofthemouth;see
Fig.12-2).The“standard”keyis45degreesabovethesubject.
Thoughitmayseemcounterintuitive,lightingissometimesmore
interestingwhenthekeylightisilluminatingthesideofthefaceaway
fromthecamera.InFig.12-31,thekeyispositionedinfrontoftheman,
totheleft,andthemajorityofhisfaceisnotlitbythekey.Other
examplescanbeseeninFig.13-4.Foramoredramaticlook,usingless
filllight(ornone)makestheshadowedsideofthefacegodarker.InFig.
12-32,thesubjectlooksoffscreenintoalightthatmightsuggesta
distantwindoworlamp.Hisnoseisrim-litwithstrongshadowsfalling
acrosshisfaceandthecamerasideofhisfaceisleftquitedark.Thiskind
oflookiswellsuitedtoaverylow-keynighttimescene(seeSpecial
LightingEffects,p.516).
Shouldthekeylightbehardorsoft?Itdependsonhowyouwantthe
audiencetointerpretthelighting.Directsunlightisquitehard;indirect
windowlightorthelightofanovercastdayissoft.Youmaylike
dramatic,crispshadowsoryoumaypreferagentlerlook.Generally,
somediffusionmaterial(seeSoftLightsandReflectors,p.488)shouldbe
usedtohelpmakethekeylessharsh.Hardlightwillaccentuateskin
defects,makeup,andlightingerrorsmorethansoftlight.Softlightis
moreforgiving.Onelookthatcanbeappealingistouseaquitesoftkey.
Thelightwillwraparoundthefaceandyoumayneedlittleornofilllight
(seeFigs.12-3and12-29D).Diffusedlightsdonot“throw”asfarashard
ones,sosoftlightsourcesneedtobeplacedclosertothesubject.Forsoft
lights,asarule,thelargerthesurfaceofthelightsourceand/orthecloser
itistothesubject,thesofterthelightwillbe.
Fig.12-32.Far-sidekey.Keylightpositionedonthefarsideofthe
subjectproducesarimoflightonthenoseandbringsoutskintexture.
Havingvirtuallynofilllightcreatesalow-keydramaticlook,which
couldbeusedforanighttimescene.(PortraitofMartinBaerbyJohan
Hagemeyer,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,GiftoftheEstateofJohan
Hagemeyer,1962)
Fig.12-33.Window-litscene.Nearbywindowprovideskeylight.Light
reflectedfromthewallontherightprovidesfillonthedarksideofthe
man’sface.Asplashoflightonthebackwallreinforcesthesenseof
sunlight.(StephenMcCarthy)
Afterthekeyhasbeenplaced,someDPs“roughin”thefilllight;
othersgonexttothebacklight.Backlightshouldbeusedwhenneeded,
butitcansometimesseemartificialorstagyifoverused.Backlightcan
beveryimportanttoprovideseparationbetweenthesubjectandthe
background(seeFig.12-29B).Somescenesjustlookdullwithoutsome
backlighttoaddlustertothehairandputsomebright“kicks”inthe
scene.Ontheotherhand,sometimesthesubjectandthebackgroundhave
adequateseparationsimplybecauseoneissignificantlydarkerorlighter
thantheother,andyoudon’treallyneedabacklightonthesubject(see
Fig.12-7).Somescenesaremeanttoappearlitonlybyonesource,and
backlightmightspoiltheeffect(seeFig.12-33).However,ifabacklight
isn’toverdone,itcanoftenaddahelpfulshinewithoutcallingtoomuch
attentiontoitself(seeFigs.12-29Dand13-4).
Fig.12-34.“Window-lit”scene.Alightingsetupthatmightbeusedto
simulatethelightinFig.12-33.Keylightisbouncedforasoftlook.Fill
lightingisprovidedbyawhitecardjustoutofframetotheright.Aset
lightprovidesthesuneffectonthebackwall.Flagsand/oracookie
mightbeneededtocreatethedesiredeffectsonthewalls.Comparewith
Fig.12-37.(RobertBrun)
Backlightsshouldbeplacedhighenoughtoavoidlensflareinthe
cameraandangleddownsothattheydon’tstrikethetipofthesubject’s
nose.Ifabacklightcausesflareorcastsanoticeableshadowinfrontof
thesubject,flagitoffwiththebarndoorsoragobo.
Thefilllightisusedtobringupthelightlevelintheshadowscastby
thekeyorthebacklight.Putthefilllightcloseenoughtothecameraso
thatitdoesn’tcreateasecondsetofshadowsofitsown.Thedifferencein
brightnessbetweentheshadowsandthehighlightsisthelighting
contrast.Thecontrastplaysabigpartbothinhowdetailswillbe
reproducedinthevideoorfilmimageandinthemoodofthelighting.
(SeeLightingContrast,p.476.)
Sometimesfilllightingisprovidednotbyaseparatelightingunitbut
byareflectingsurface(thishastheadvantageofnotcastinganotherset
ofshadows).InFig.12-33,thewallontherightsideoftheroomreflects
backthesunlight,fillingtheshadowsonthedarksideoftheman’sface.
InFig.12-34,apieceofwhitefoamcoreisusedtosimulatethesame
effect.AFlexfillorotherreflector(seeFig.12-22)maybeusedindoors
orouttodothesamething.Oftenawhitereflectorneedstobequiteclose
tothesubjecttoprovidesignificantfill.
Variousothertechniquesandtrickswillimprovefaciallighting.A
low-poweredeyelightissometimesusedtoaddalittlesparkletothe
eyes,givingthesubjectanalertoralluringlook.Aneyelightshouldnot
besobrightthatitwashesthefaceoutwithflatfill.Sometimesnetsare
usedtodelicatelyshadethetopandbottomoftheface,focusingattention
ontheeyesandmouth.Aspecial(seep.502)maybeusedtobringupthe
illuminationonparticularlydarkorabsorptiveclothing.
Facialshinecanbeverydistractingandcanbeavoidedwithabasic
applicationofpowder(seep.374).
Itshouldbenotedthatacertainamountof“relighting”canbedone
digitallyinpost.Particularlyforalocked-offshot,it’seasytoshadeoff
thebackgroundorselectivelydarkenpartsoftheframetocreateamore
interestinglook(seeFig.14-39).
LightingWideShots
Wideshotsorlongshotsthatshowalargepartofasetorlocationcan
behardertolightthanclose-upsbecauseofthegreaterareatobecovered
andtheproblemofhidinglightsandlightstands.Wideshotsoften
involvepeoplemovingfromoneplacetoanother,whichaddsthe
challengeofprovidinggoodlightinseveraldifferentpartsoftheset.
Generally,wideshotsshouldbelittoestablishmoodandtocoverthe
actors’blocking(movements).Properfaciallightingisalowerpriority.
Keepinmindthattheeyeisnaturallydrawntolightareasoftheframe.
Thus,theareainwhichtheactorsmoveisnormallylitslightlybrighter
thanthebackgroundorextremeforeground.Flagsornetscanbeusedto
diminishthelightfallingonunimportantareassuchasbroadexpansesof
wall.Muchofthemoodoftheshotisestablishedbytherelationbetween
thebrighteractionareaandthedarkerbackground.Trytomaintainthis
balancewhenyouchangecamerapositionorlighting.
Whenyoulightanyscene,it’susuallymoreinterestingtohavepools
oflightandareasthatarerelativelydarkthantohaveflat,even
illuminationthroughouttheframe.Poolsoflightalsocreateagreater
feelingofdepth;acorridor,forexample,seemslongerifbrightanddark
areasalternate.Usefilllighttoprovideilluminationbetweenthebrighter
areas.
Whensubjectsmovecloserandfartherfromalight,theillumination
fallingonthemcanchangesignificantly(seeFig.12-10).Sometimesa
halfscrimorothermaterialcanbeusedtoevenoutthelight(seeFig.1227).Ingeneral,usingabrighter,harderlightfromagreaterdistanceaway
fromtheactionwillresultinmoreevenilluminationthanasofterunit
closertothesubject.Sometimesaverybrightlightpositionedoutsidea
windoworonthefarsideoftheroomisthebestwaytokeepinterior
actionevenlylit.
Ifyou’regoingforanaturalisticlook,examinethelocationfor
appropriate“motivating”sourcesforthelighting.Mostdaytimescenes
includelightcomingthroughawindow.Actualwindowlightmaybe
used,butoftenitmustbesimulatedbecausethesunlightwouldchange
duringthecourseoffilming.Ifthewindowitselfisnotvisible,youcan
positionthelightsourcewhereverseemsplausible.Youcanbouncelight
offalargewhitecardforanovercastor“northlight”lookorusealarge,
focusedspotlightorPARlighttosimulatesunlightstreamingin.When
simulatingsunlight,awarminggel(CTO;seeColoredFiltersandGels,p.
496)issometimesusedoverthelight.Iftungstenlightismixedwith
actualwindowlight,somefilteringmustbedone(seeMixedLighting,p.
514).
Ifhouseholdfixturesarebeingusedaspracticalsinascene,
sometimestheycanprovidesignificantillumination.Youcanreplacethe
bulbwithaphotofloodorascrew-inhalogenbulb.Oryoumaybeableto
usejustabrighterhouseholdbulb;ifit’satungstenbulborwarmCFL,
thecolormayreadtoored/yellowoncameradependingonwhatother
sourcesareusedandhowthecameraorfilmiscolorbalanced.Many
practicalscan’thandlemuchheatorelectricity,andoftenabrightbulb
makesthepracticalappeartoobrightoncamera.Theshademay
overexpose,lookingburnedout.Toseemnatural,thelampshadeofthe
practicalshouldreadabouttwotothreestopsbrighterthanthefacesof
nearbyactors.Thisvaries,ofcourse,withthetypeofshadeandfixture.
Oftentheoppositeapproachistakenwithpracticals.Insteadoftrying
tolightthesubjectwiththem,theDPtreatsthemsimplyassetdressing.
Sometimesalow-intensitybulborascrew-indimmerisusedtokeepthe
lightsubtle.Neutraldensitygelsordiffusionmaterialcanbehiddenin
thelampshadetodimdowntheshadeorthespillcomingoutofthelight.
Thenaprofessionallightinginstrumentisaimedinfromoffcamerato
simulatethelightthatwouldcomefromthepractical(seeFig.12-31).Be
suretheinstrumentisflaggedsoitdoesn’tshineonthepracticalandcast
ashadow—adeadgiveaway.
Frequentlyonelightcanbeusedtoaccomplishseveralfunctions.If
twopeoplearetalkingacrossatable,alightcankeyonepersonwhileit
backlightstheother.Thisiscalledcrosslighting(seeFig.12-35).When
anactormovesthroughhisblocking,agivenlightmaychangefroma
keylighttoabacklight.
CinematographerNéstorAlmendros(DaysofHeaven)pridedhimself
onbeingabletolightascenewithaslittleasoneortwolights.Many
scenesrequiremorelightingfixtures,butoften,thefewerthesources,the
cleanertheimagelooks.Whentherearemanylights,youruntheriskof
manydistractingshadowsfallingindifferentdirections.Tominimize
this,keepactorsawayfromwalls,placethemagainstdarkratherthan
lightwalls,positionfurnitureorpropstobreakuptheshadows,anduse
diffusiontosoftensecondarylights.Movingalightclosertoaperson
willdiffusetheshadowshecasts.
Bright,shinysurfacesintheframeattracttheeyeandareusually
undesirable.Glintsorkickscanbediminishedbyrepositioningashiny
objectorbyapplyingwashabledullingsprayorevensoap.Sometimes
youcangetridofthereflectionofalightinasurfacebyraisingor
loweringthecameraafewinchesorwedgingalittletapebehindapicture
frametoangleitawayfromthecamera.Reflectionsfromsmooth,
nonmetalsurfacessuchasplastic,glass,andwatercanbereducedby
puttingapolarizerfilteronthecamera.Avoidshootingglassormirrors
thatwillpickupthelightsorthecamera.Ifyouhavetofilmagainst
whitewalls,takecarenottooverlightthem.Usuallybroadexpansesof
wallarebrokenupwithpicturesorfurniture.
Whenasceneistobefilmedwithbothlongshotsandmediumor
close-upshots,it’scommontodeterminetheblocking,setthelighting,
andshootthelongshotsfirst.Then,asthecameraispositionedcloserto
thesubject,thelightscanbecheated(moved)tomaintainthegeneral
senseofthelongshotwhileprovidingmoredesirablefaciallighting.
Close-upsareusuallylitwithslightlylowercontrastlightingthanlong
shotsaresothatfacialdetailwillbeclear.Whenthecameraangle
changessignificantly,youcanmakemanychangesinthelightwithout
theaudiencenoticing.
Fig.12-35.Crosslighting.Eachspotlightkeysonesubjectandbacklights
theother.Lightsareusedinparttosimulatepracticalilluminationfrom
thetablelampandarethusflaggedoffofit.Filllightisplacednearthe
camera.(CarolKeller)
Whenshootingvideo,orwhenusingafilmcamerawithavideotap,
watchingtheimageinamonitorcanhelpyoulight,butbewareofsmall
andpoor-qualitymonitors.Makesurethemonitorissetupproperly(see
AppendixA)andthatthereisn’tlightfallingonthemonitorscreen.
Shootingstillscanbeveryhelpfulforcontinuitypurposestorecordhow
propswerearranged,howactorsweredressed,andiflightingsetupsneed
tobere-created.
Beforeyoushoot,scrutinizetheframetomakesurenolightstandsor
cablesarevisible.Besurenolightsareproducingflareinthelens(stand
nexttothecameraandlookatthefrontofthelens;ifyouseeanylight
sourcesintheglass,trytoflagthemoff).Rehearsetheshottocheckthat
movementsofthecrewandespeciallythemicrophoneboomdon’t
producevisibleshadows.
LightingInterviews
Withthewideningrangeofnews,documentaries,andreality
television,interviewshavealmostbecomeafilmmakingformunto
themselves.Considerationsofshootinginterviewsarediscussedin
Chapter9.Decisionsaboutlightingshouldstartwiththesetting:howdo
youwanttoplaceyoursubjectandwhatdoyouwanttoseeinthe
background?Someinterviewsaredoneinwideshot(seeFig.9-20),but
moretypically,mediumshotsandclose-upsarefeatured.Adjusting
objectsinthebackgroundbyafewinchescanoftenmakeallthe
differenceinwhattheaudienceseesandincompositionalbalanceat
differentfocallengths.
Thelightingschememayuseavailablelight(orsimulatewhatthe
lightmightnormallylooklike).Oryoumaydecidetoturnofforblock
anyexistinglightandcreateaverydifferentmood.Thelightingstylecan
conveyalotintermsofhowtheaudienceunderstandstheinterviews,so
atthestartofproductionconsiderthelookyouwant,andwhetherthere
shouldbeaconsistentlookthroughoutorifdifferentinterviewsubjects
callfordifferentstyles.Lightingcontrastisacentralconcern.Some
projectsseemtodemandaflatter,brighterlook(suchasFig.12-29D);
othersbenefitfromdarkerbackgroundsanddarkerfacialshadowswith
moremodeling.
Thefollowingfourillustrationsareofferednotasrecommendations,
buttodiscusssomedifferentapproaches.Allweredonewithveryfew
lightinginstruments.Thesensitivityofyourparticularcamerawillplaya
largepartinhowmuchlightyouneed.
ThelightingsetupinFigure12-36beganwithturningofftheoffice’s
overheadfluorescents,sincethelightwasflatandthebulbswereof
mixedcolortemperature.Thewindowswerecoveredtoblockout
daylight(tocreateadarkerfeelandpreventanychangesduringthe
interview).ThekeylightwasasmallLowelRifasoftbox(seeFig.12-
19)ontheleftside,withnoadditionalfill.Alow-wattagebulbwasused
inthesoftboxsothatthelensiriscouldbewideopenforshallowerdepth
offield(throwingthebackgroundoutoffocus).Thefluorescentfixture
builtintothecabinetprovideslightonthebackgroundandaddsalittle
edgeonthedarksideoftheface.Asmallbacklightontheleftside
createshighlightsontheshouldersandlightsthefrontofthedesk.
Fig.12-36.Lightinginterviews.Keyandbacklight.Seetext.(Steven
Ascher)
ThelightinginFigure12-37alsobeganwithturningofftheoverhead
fluorescentsandwasdonewithnoaddedlights.Thesubjectislitwith
windowlightcomingthroughafairlysmallopeninginthevertical
venetianblindoffscreenontheright.Therestofthewindowwaskept
shadedtomakethebackgroundrelativelydark,sothedetailsonthe
shelveswouldn’tcompetewiththesubject.Nobackorfilllightwasused.
Blackduvetynfabricwashungontheleftsideoftheframeasnegative
filltopreventreflectedlightintheroomfromstrikingtheshadedsideof
hisface,whichwouldhaveflattenedcontrast.(Moretypically,white
cardsorreflectorsareusedonthedarksideinasituationlikethis
becausecontrastisoftentoogreat;seeFig.12-34.)Alow-intensitybulb
inthepracticalontherightprovidesalittleaccentonthetable.
Fig.12-37.Lightinginterviews.Windowlight.Seetext.(StevenAscher)
ThelightinginFigure12-38wasdonewithasinglesoftlightonthe
left.Flagsandaneggcratewereusedtokeepthelightfromspillingon
thebackground.UnlikeinFigures12-36and12-37,herethesubjectis
lookingtowardthekeylight,whichcreatesshadowingonthecameraside
ofthefaceandsparklesintheeyes.Thisscenehashighlightingcontrast
withdeepshadows,butbotheyesarefullylit,soitdoesn’tfeelharsh.
Thepracticalonthetableprovidessomelightinthebackground.Lamps,
plants,andflowersturnuproutinelybehindinterviewsubjectsasset
dressing—forobviousreasons—butdon’tneglecttolookforalternatives
too.
TheshotinFigure12-39isdirectlyintoabrightwindow,whichcalls
forrelativelybrightlightonthesubject.Inthisshot,thelightontheface
(fromasoftboxwithadaylight-balancedcompactfluorescentbulb)is
quiteflat,butbecausethebackgroundisbusyandbright,thelightdoesn’t
seemdull.RoscoCinegelblackscrimwastapedtothewindowbehindthe
subjecttocuttwostopsoflightfromoutside.Aneutraldensityfilteron
thecameraallowedforawideririsandshallowerdepthoffield.
Diagonalsinthebackgroundprovideasenseofdimensionality.Thetime
ofshootingwaschosensothattherewouldn’tbetoomuchdirectsunlight
onthebuildings.
Fig.12-38.Lightinginterviews.Keylightonly.Seetext.(StevenAscher)
Fig.12-39.Lightinginterviews.Brightbackground.Seetext.(Steven
Ascher)
LightingandExposure
Whensettinglights,thequestionarises:howbrightlyshouldascene
belit?Forstarters,youneedenoughtogetanacceptableexposurewith
yourcamera/lenscombination(plusfilmstockifyou’reshootingfilm).
Youmightusemorelightifyouwanttoshootatahigherf-stopto
increasedepthoffield.Lenssharpnessformanylensescanbemaximized
byshootingataperturesabouttwostopscloseddownfromwideopen(on
anf/2lens,shootaroundf/4;seep.173).Onafeaturefilm,manyDPstry
toworkatagivenf-stopconsistentlythroughoutthemovie,whichhelps
themjudgelightingsetupsbyeye.Asarule,thediscomfortofbothcrew
andactors,ordocumentarysubjects,riseswiththeamountoflight.
CONTROLLINGLIGHTINGCONTRAST
AsdiscussedinChapters5and7,bothdigitalandfilmsystemshavea
limitedabilitytocapturetherangeofbrightnessthattheeyecansee.
Whenlightingascene,youmustpaycloseattentiontothelighting
contrast(seeLightingContrast,p.476).Totheeye,scenesalwayshave
lesscontrastthantheydoasrenderedonvideoorfilm.Shadowsthatlook
naturaltotheeyemayberenderedasblackandwithoutdetail.Bright
highlightscaneasilyoverexposeandappearasareasoffeaturelesswhite.
Agoodmonitorcanhelpyoujudgehowthecontrastlooksonvideo,
butbesureit’sproperlysetup(seeAppendixA).Low-qualitymonitors
oftenhavetoomuchcontrast,makingithardtotellwhereyoureallyare
losingdetail.Ofcourse,ifyou’reusingcinegammasorlogorRAW
capture,youmaybecapturingfarmoreintheshadowsandhighlights
thanthemonitorshows(seeChapter5).
Ifyou’reshootingfilmyou’llhavealightmeter,butonecanbe
usefulonvideoshootsaswelltomeasurethelightingcontrastratio.This
istheratioofkeyplusfilllightstofilllightalone(K+F:F).Foratypical
close-up,thelightingcontrastismeasuredbyreadingthelightonthe
brightsideoftheface(whichcomesfromboththekeyandfilllights)and
comparingittothelightinthefacialshadows(whichcomesfromthefill
lightalone).Themeasurementsaremosteasilytakenwithanincident
lightmeter,blockingorturningoffthekeylight(s)totakethesecond
reading.SomeDPsprefertousetheincidentmeter’sflat-discdiffuser
whendoingthistomakeiteasiertoisolatethelightcomingfrom
individualsources.
Ifthebrightsideofthefaceisonestoplighterthanthefacialshadow,
theratiois2:1.Twostopswouldbe4:1;threestops,8:1.Totheeye,2:1
and3:1lookquiteflat,butthislightingcontrastisconsidered“normal”
byKodak.Thisisaconservativestandard.Low-keyscenes,nighttime
effects,andmanyoutdoorsunlitscenesareshotatratiosmuchhigher
than4:1.
Foreitherdigitalorfilm,youshoulduselightingcontrasttocreate
themoodandlookyouwant.Ifyouchooseahighlightingcontrast,bear
inmindthatyoumaylosedetailinshadoworhighlightareas.Howmuch
youlosedependsonseveralfactors:theexposure;thecameraand
internalsettings(fordigital);thefilmstock(filmcameras);andhowthe
projectishandledduringpost.
Asaruleofthumb,theimagewillgenerallypickupcontrastthrough
thevariousstagesofpostproductionanddistribution(suchaswhen
peoplewatchontheirTVsorcomputerscreens).Soifyoustartwitha
somewhatlowercontrast,youmayfindtheimagegets“snappier”
withoutyourdoinganything.Youcanalwaysincreasecontrastlaterin
postifyoufindtheimagetooflat,butiffootageisoriginallyshotwith
toomuchcontrast,itmaybedifficultorimpossibletorecapturethelost
shadoworhighlightdetailafterward.
Ifthecontrastseemstoohigh,movethefilllightclosertothesubject
oruseabrighterfilllight.Alternatively,dimthekeylightwithascrimor
moveitback.Lightingcontrastshouldbeevaluatedwithrespecttoall
partsoftheframe,notjustthelightandshadowonfaces.Walkaround
thesetorlocationwithanincidentorreflectedmeter,orpointadigital
cameraatvariouspartsoftheset,togetasenseoftherangeofexposure
inthescene.Ifthebackgroundisindeepshadow,itmayneedadditional
lighttokeeptheoverallcontrastdown.Ifawindowistoobright,itmay
needaneutraldensitygeltodarkenitupabit.Abrightwallcanbemade
darkerbyflaggingthelightoffit,oryoucanuseanettograduallyshade
thelight(oftenyouwantkeepthelightontheactorsanddarkentheupper
partofthewallabovethem).Furthermeasuresincludemakingsure
actorsorsubjectsdon’twearverybrightorverydarkclothing,replacing
high-contrastprops,andrepaintingsetwallsinmediumshades.In
general,it’slessdisturbingifsomeareasoftheframeareunderexposed
thaniflargeorimportantareasaresignificantlyoverexposed.
LightingContrastinDaylight
Onasunnydayoutside,thedirectsunlightusuallyactsasthe“key
light.”The“fill”isprovidedbyskylightand,toalesserextent,
reflectionsfrombuildings,objects,andclothing.Onabrightday,the
lightingcontrastisoftentoogreat.Ifyouexposeproperlyforthebright
areas,theshadowsenduplookingverydeepandharsh.Aclassicproblem
isshootingpeopleatmiddayunderabrightsun;theeyeshadowsmay
makeitalmostimpossibletoseetheireyes.That’swhyhazyorlightly
overcastdays,withtheirlowerlightingcontrast,areoftenidealfor
shootingpeopleoutdoors.
Thereareanumberofsolutionstotheproblemofshootinginsun.For
anintervieworcloseshot,youcanuseawhitecardorasmallreflector
suchasaFlexfilltohelpfilltheshadows.Foralargerscene,youcanuse
abiggerreflectorsuchasashinyboardwithasilverorgoldsurface.You
canusedaylight-balancedlightinginstruments,butitmaytakealotof
intensitytomatchthesunonabrightday.
Anotherapproachistotrytodiminishorsoftenthedirectsunlight.
Anoverheadset(alsocalledabutterfly)isapipeframe(oftensixbysix
feetortwelvebytwelvefeet)thatcanbeplacedovertheactiontohold
eitherasilktodiffusethelight,ascrimtocutdownthelightwithout
diffusingit,orasolidtoblockthelightaltogether.Overheadsmustbe
usedcarefullysothattheshadowoftheframedoesn’tshowintheshot,
andthebrightly(andmoreharshly)litbackgrounddoesn’teither.The
overheadmustbehelddownsecurelywhenthewindblows.Ifsunlightis
diffusedinthisway,it’seasiertomaintainconsistencyinthelightovera
day’sshooting,sincethematerialcanberemovedifalightcloudpasses.
Wheneverpossible,usetheangleofthesuntoyouradvantage.You
maywanttoputyoursubjectingentleshadenearabuildingorbyatree.
Don’tshootagainstahot(bright)backgroundlikeabrightskyorawhite
wall.Sometimesit’sbesttoavoidshootingatallinthemiddleoftheday,
whensunlightistheharshest.
Whenshootingindirectsun,ifthesunisnotdirectlyoverhead,
changingthepositionofthecameraand/orthesubjectwillhaveabig
effectonthecontrast(seeFig.12-40).
Whenyoushootincarsornearwindows,lightingcontrastcanbe
extremelyhighbetweenthedarkerforegroundinteriorandthebrightlylit
exterior(seeFig.7-17).Youmightchoosetoaddlighttotheinterioror
putneutraldensitygelonthewindows.Withoutthesesteps,a
compromiseexposureisnormallyused.
Fig.12-40.Usingthesuntoyouradvantage.(1)Shootingapersonfront
lit(withthesunbehindthecamera)fullyilluminatesthesubject,butthe
lightingisflatanditcanbeuncomfortablewiththesundirectlyinthe
person’seyes.(2)Positioningthesubjectsothesuncomesfromtheside
providesmoredimensionality,butdarkshadowsonthefacecanbeharsh.
(3)Backlighting(orthree-quarterbacklight)withthesunbehindthe
subjectprovidesnicehighlightsontheshouldersandhair,andis
comfortableforthesubject,butsincethefaceismostlyunlit,contrast
canbesevere.(4)Byplacingasmallreflector(aFlexfillorawhitecard)
sothatitreflectssunbacktowardthedarksideoftheface,youcanadjust
thefilllightasneededandcreateaflatteringeffectonthesubject.
(StevenAscher)
LIGHTINGANDCOLOR
MixedLighting
Beforereadingthissection,seethediscussionofcolortemperature
andfiltersinChapter8andthediscussionofvideowhitebalanceonp.
109.
Avideocameracanrendercolorsnaturallyindaylightorintungsten
lightifitisproperlywhite-balanced.Similarly,colorfilmstockscanbe
usedineitherdaylightortungstenlightandproduceapleasingcolor
renditionwiththeproperfilters.However,novideoorfilmcameracan
shootascenethatcontainsbothdaylightandtungstenlightwithout
renderingtheformerblueorthelatteryellow/redrelativetotheother.
Totakeatypicalexample:You’retryingtoshootaninteriorscene
usingwindowlight,butthere’snotenoughlightforexposure,soyouset
upsometungstenmovielightstoboostthelightonyoursubject.Ifyou
balancethevideocameraforthetungstenlight(orshoottungstenfilm
withoutafilter),thedaylightfromthewindowswilllookveryblueby
comparison.Ifyoubalancethevideocamerafordaylight(orusean85
filterwithtungstenfilm),thetungstenlightwilllookmuchtoowarm
(orange).
Thereareafewwaystodealwiththisproblem.Oneistomakethe
tungstenlightbluer,tobettermatchdaylight.Thiscanbedonewith
dichroicfiltersorfullCTB(blue)gelsonthelights(seeColoredFilters
andGels,p.496).However,thiswillreducethelights’outputbyhalfor
more.Also,whenshootingtungsten-balancedfilm—andwithsomevideo
camerasthathaveinternalfilterwheels—an85camerafilterisgenerally
usedfordaylight,whichcutsdownthelightintensityalmostinhalf
again.2Thismaynotleaveenoughlighttoshoot.
Inthissituation,sometimesinsteadofusingafullCTBgelonthe
lights,onlya3⁄4or1⁄2CTBisused.Thisletsmorelightthroughand
resultsinthetungstenlightappearingslightlyyellowcomparedtothe
daylight,whichcanlookverynice.Also,ifyou’reshootingfilm,you
coulduseadaylight-balancedstockthatrequiresno85filter.
Anotherapproachistobalancethevideocameraforthetungstenlight
(orusenofilterwithtungsten-balancedfilm),andfilterthewindowlight
withorangegeloracrylicsheets.Gelcomesinlargerollsandiseasyto
transport.Tapeitcarefullytothewindowsoritwillshowinshotsthat
includethewindows.Gelscreaseeasily,willreflectthelightsifmounted
sloppily,andarenoisyinwindylocations.Acrylicsheets,ontheother
hand,areinconvenienttocarry,buttheyaregoodformountingoutside
thewindowwheretheywon’tshow.Theyarealsoopticallysharperfor
shotsthatinvolveshootingthroughthewindow.
Asun85or3⁄4CTO(orange)gelcanbeusedtowarmup5500°K
daylightto3200°Ktungstenbalance.Fordimmingoverlybrightwindows
itcanbeveryhelpfultohavesomecombinationCTO–neutraldensity
gels(forexample,85N6,whichbringsdownthecolortemperatureand
cutsanadditionaltwostopsoflight;seep.312).Whilea3⁄4CTOgelwill
makedaylightmatchthecoloroftungsten,sometimesyouwantthe
windowtolookalittlebluebycomparison,tomaintainsomeofthe
naturaldifferencebetweentheinteriorandexteriorlight.Inthiscase,use
apalergel,suchasa1⁄2or1⁄4CTO,onthewindows.
Ifalocationhaslargewindowsandisilluminatedprimarilywith
daylight,orwhenyou’reshootingoutside,oftenthebestsolutionistouse
anHMI,ordaylight-balancedfluorescentorLEDlights,whichrequireno
filtertomatchdaylight(thoughalittlewarminggeloftenimprovesthe
look).However,ifwindowlightisinsignificantinascene,itisoften
easiesttoblockthedaylightoutaltogether(usingcurtains,sound
blankets,orshowcards)andthenlightcompletelywithtungsten.
MIXEDFLUORESCENTS.Seep.483fordiscussionoffluorescent
lighting.Ideally,anytimeyouareshootingwithfluorescentlightyou
shoulduseKinoFloorothertruetungsten-ordaylight-balancedtubes.
However,ifyouareforcedtoshootwithconventionalfluorescenttubes
andplantomixindaylightortungstensources,filtrationisusuallycalled
for.Unfortunately,conventionalfluorescentscomeinavarietyofcolors,
sodifferentgelsmaybeneeded.Somefluorescentscanbethoughtofas
daylightwithagreenspectralelement.Thus,windowlightcanbefiltered
withRosco’sWindowgreentomatch“coolwhite”or“daylight”
fluorescentsbetter;HMIscanbefilteredwithToughPlusgreen;and
tungstensourcescanbefilteredwithToughPlusgreen50.
Alternatively,thefluorescenttubesthemselvescanbefiltered.For
example,youcanuseRoscoMinusgreentomatchcoolwhitefluorescents
todaylight.Variousgelscomeinsleevesthatcanbefittedoverthe
fluorescenttubes;thesecanreducethegreenhaloeffectthatsometimes
occurswhenfluorescentunitsarevisibleinashot.Iffiltrationisnot
possible,fluorescentlightingfixtures,suchastheMolescentunitby
Mole,canbebroughtinforadditionallightusingthesametypeoftubes
thatarealreadyintheroom.Mixingconventionalfluorescentlightwith
othersourcesandmixingvarioustypesoffluorescenttubescanbevery
tricky.Athree-colorcolortemperaturemeterhelps(seeFig.8-5).
ColorContrast
Differencesincolorbetweentwoobjects(theircolorcontrast)help
ustotellthemapartanddeterminetheirpositionrelativetoeachother.In
black-and-white,however,aredbugandagreenleafmaybe
indistinguishablebecausetheirtonalvaluesarethesame(theyreflectthe
sameamountoflight).Thus,whenshootinginblack-and-whiteitis
usuallynecessarytouseslightlyhigherlightingcontrastthanyouwould
incolorandtomakesurethatthereisadequateshadingand/or
backlightingtodifferentiatevariousobjectsfromeachother.Itisalso
possibletousecolorcontrastfiltersonthecameratoseparatetonally
similarareas(seeChapter8).Ifyouareshootingvideoandconvertingto
black-and-whiteinpost,youcandocolorbalancinginposttoheighten
thedifferencebetweenareasthatmightotherwiseblendtogether.
Colorcontrastisalsoimportantwhenshootingincolorbecausethe
shadesandintensitiesofcolorsplayalargepartinsettingthemoodofa
scene.Thecolorschemeinamoviecanbecontrolledinwardrobe
planning,setdesign,thesetupofavideocamera,orthechoiceoffilm
stocks.Tomakecolorsappearmorepastelordesaturated,youcanuse
camerafilterssuchasadiffusionorlow-contrastfilter(seeFig.8-9).
Underexposureandoverexposurealsoaffectcolorsaturation.During
postproductionyoucanmakemanyadjustmentstobothcolorsaturation
andthereproductionofindividualtones.
SPECIALLIGHTINGEFFECTS
Night-for-Night
Sometimesyoucanshootatnightwithoutsupplementarylighting,
particularlyoncitystreets.However,oftenyouneedtoaugmentwhatever
existinglightthereis.Whenusinglightstosimulateanighttimeeffect
(suchasmoonlightorstreetlight),usehardlightingfixturesinan
extremelyhigh-contrast,low-keylightingscheme.Lightsshouldbeused
toproducesharphighlightsorrimlightingwithverylittlefill.Shadows
shouldbecrispandnotdiffused.Createpoolsoflight—notflat,even
illumination(seeFig.5-10).
Whenthelightlevelislow,theeyeislesssensitivetocolor.Ifyougo
outonamoonlitnight,thelandscapeseemsdesaturatedandslightly
bluish.Lightingfixturesonmoviesareoftengelledbluetosimulate
moonlight.Apalegrayishblueoftenlooksmorenatural;avoidan
intense,saturatedblue.SomeDPsliketowetdownstreetsandsurfacesat
nightsotheyreflecthighlights.
Becausenightscenescanrequiremanylights,especiallyforawide
shot,itisoftenbettertoshootatthemagichourjustbeforesunriseor
justaftersunsetwhenthere’senoughlighttogetexposureonbuildings
andthelandscapebutitissufficientlydarkthatcarheadlightsand
interiorlightsshowupclearly(seetheupper-rightimageinFig.9-26).
Althoughbeautiful,themagichourisfleeting,oftenlastingonlyabout
twentyminutes,dependingonthetimeofyearandyourlocation.
Rehearseandbereadytogoassoonasthelightfades.Ithelpstohave
somesupplementarylightonhandforadditionalfillinthewaning
momentsandforshootingclose-upswhenitgetsdarker.Whenyoushoot
magic-hoursceneswithtungsten-balancedcolorfilm,youdon’tneedan
85filter.Ingeneral,avoidshootingtheskyduringthemagichour,
becauseitwilllooktoobright,oruseagraduatedfilter(seeFig.8-7).
Day-for-Night
Hollywoodinventedthetechniqueofshootingnightscenesduringthe
day,usingfiltersandunderexposuretosimulateanighteffect(theFrench
callthislanuitAméricaine—“Americannight”).Day-for-nightoften
looksfake.It’seasierinblack-and-white,wherearedoryellowfiltercan
beusedtodarkenabluesky(seeChapter8).Forcolorwork,agraduated
filtercanbeused.Ironically,day-for-nightworksbestonbright,sunny
days.Shootearlyorlateinthedaywhendistinctsidelightorbacklight
castslongshadowsthatwillseemlikemoonlight.Avoidshootingthesky
anduseintenselightsinwindowstomakeinteriorlightslookbright
relativetotheexterior.Underexposebytwoorthreestopswhileshooting
(aftermakingthenormalcompensationsforanyfilters).Whenshooting
film,donotrelyontryingtoprintdownanormallyexposednegative.
Rain,Smoke,andFire
Inordertobevisibleonfilmorvideo,rain,smoke,andfogshouldbe
litfrombehind(seeFigs.12-7and5-10).Aimthelightinginstrumentsas
closetothecameraaspossiblebutflagthemoffsothatnolightshines
directlyinthelensandcausesflare.
Sometimesfirelightissimulatedbyplacinganambergeloverthe
lightandjigglingstripsofpaperorclothsuspendedfromahorizontalbar
infrontofthelight.Evenbetter,getaflickerbox,whichisanelectronic
devicethatallowsyoutodialupdifferentratesofflicker.Sometimes
DPsmakefireeffects(orsimulatethelightfromatelevision)withvery
intenseflickeringandvirtuallynofilllight,makingthesceneseesaw
betweenverybrightandverydark.Inreallife,thatkindofflicker
generallyhappensonlyifthere’snootherlightintheroom.Inatypical
roomwithafireplace,orinaTV-watchingenvironment,usuallypeople
haveatleastsomeotherlighton,andtheflickeronpeople’sfacesfroma
fireorTVisusuallysubtle.Sometimesthemostconvincingeffectsare
donewithtwoormorelightsthatcanbeflickeredalternately.
LOCATIONLIGHTING
TheLocation
Wheneverpossible,scoutlocationspriortofilmingtoassesslighting
needs,checktheavailabilityofelectricpower,andformulateashooting
plan(seep.364).Whenscoutinganinteriorlocation,bringacamera
and/oralightmeterandtrytoestimatethenaturallightatvarioustimes
ofday(thereareappsformobilephonesthatcantellyouwhenandwhere
you’llhavesunlight).Withacameraoradirector’sfinder(seeFig.9-28)
youcanblockoutactors’movementsandcameraangles.Determinewhat
lightingpackageyouneed.Ifanywindowsneedtobegelled,willyou
needatallladdertoreachthem?Adayatacrampedlocationhelpsyou
appreciatewhymanymoviesaremadeinstudioswithhighceilings,
overheadlightinggrids,movablewalls,air-conditioning,andplentyof
workspace.Moviecrewsonlocationoftenbreakfurnitureandmarwalls
withlightinggear.Youcansavealotoftimebycomingpreparedwith
paintandrepairsupplies.
ElectricPower
Lightsformoviemakingcanconsumeagreatdealofelectriccurrent.
Beforeyoushoot,trytodetermineifthelocationhasenoughpowerfor
yourneeds;otherwise,circuitbreakers(orfusesinolderhomes)may
blow,theproductioncouldbeshutdown,orafirecoulderupt.
Toestimateyourpowerneeds,usethisformula:volts×amps=watts.
Youwanttofindthenumberofampsyourlightswilluse,asthisiswhat
overloadscircuitsandcausesbreakerstoblowwhentoomanylightsare
putononecircuit.StandardhouseholdcurrentinNorthAmericais
deliveredatabout110volts,whichcanberoundedoffhereto100.Every
lampisratedbythenumberofwattsitconsumes.Inthehome,a60-watt
bulbistypical,while,forfilming,1,000watts(1K)iscommon.Ifyou
simplyreadthebulb’swattageanddivideby100,yougetthenumberof
ampsthelamprequires(thisformulaincludesasafetymargin).Atypical
homecircuitcanhandle15(or20)amps,whichisthusenoughtorun
three(orfour)500-wattbulbs.Usinganymorelightswilltripthecircuit
breakerorblowthefuse.Newerlightingunitsaremoreefficient,using
lesspowerforthesamelightoutput.UsingLEDlights,forexample,
allowsyoutogetmuchmorelightfromthesamecircuitcomparedto
tungsten.
InEuropeandmostofAsia,thewallcurrentisdeliveredat220to240
volts.Thesamecalculationcanbedonebydividingthewattageby220
(ortomakethematheasier,andthesafetymargingreater,justdivideby
200).
Todeterminehowmuchpowerisavailableatthelocation,examine
thecircuitbreakersorfusebox(oftenfoundinthebasement).Counthow
manycircuitsthereareandthemaximumamperageofeachone(amps
areindicatedwithanumberfollowedby“A”).Circuitbreakers,which
canberesetbyflippingaswitchwhentheyaretripped,arefoundinmost
houseswithnewerwiring.
Often,circuitsarelabeledtoindicatewhichroomstheyareconnected
to.Ifnot,pluglightsintovariouswalloutletsandturnthebreakersoff
oneatatimeandseewhichlightsgoout.3Extensioncablescanberunto
otherroomstodistributetheloadifnecessary.Don’tusethin,home
extensioncords,astheyincreasetheloadandmaymelt.
Whentoomanylightsoroverlylongcablesareused,thevoltagemay
drop(theequivalenttosummertimebrownouts),whichlowersthecolor
temperatureoftungstenlights.A10-voltdropinsupplylowerstungsten
lightsabout100°K.Ifthereisnowindowlightandalllightsourcesare
onthesamesupply,thiscolorchangeisusuallycorrectable.
Togetaroundthisandothertypicalproblemsoflocationpower
supplies,professionalsoftentieintotheelectricsupplyasitentersthe
houseandusetheirownsetofcircuitbreakersandelectricaldistribution
cabling.Thisshouldbedoneonlybyatrainedelectrician;insomeplaces,
apermitmustbeobtainedandtheelectricianmustalsobelicensed.
Inoutdoorlocations,agenerator(“genny”)orasetofcarbatteries
canbeusedforpower.Youcanbuyorrentportable,low-cost,but
relativelynoisygenerators(oftenrangingfrom1,600to6,500watts).
Largetruck-mountedgeneratorsarealsomadeformovieworkthatare
muchmorepowerfulandquiet.Ten12-voltcarbatteries(“wet-cells”)
wiredinaseriescanrunregulartungstenlightsatnormalcolor
temperature.Asthebatteriesweaken,thecolortemperatureandlight
outputdrop.
WORLDWIDEPOWERSYSTEMS.HouseholdpowerinNorth
Americaissuppliedat110to120volts.Itisalternatingcurrent(AC)—
thatis,itpulsatesbackandforth;itdoessosixtytimesasecond(60Hz).
Asnotedabove,inmostpartsoftheworldpowerissuppliedat220to
240volts,alternatingatafrequencyof50Hz.4
MostACequipmentworksequallywellatfrequenciesof50or60Hz.
However,clocks,somebatterychargers,andotherequipmentwillnotrun
properlyifthefrequencyofthecurrentisincorrect.Tungstenlightswork
finewitheithersystem,butACdischargelamps,includingHMIsand
fluorescents,maybeincompatiblewiththecameraspeedorshutter.
Virtuallyallequipmentshouldbeusedonlywiththevoltageitwas
designedfor.Someequipmentmayhaveaswitchtoselect110-or220voltuse.Tungstenfixturescanbeconvertedfromonevoltagetoanother
simplybyusingadifferentsetofbulbs.Otherequipmentrequiresa
voltage-changingdevice,ofwhichtherearetwotypes.Thetransformeris
relativelyheavyfortheamountofpower(wattage)itcanhandle.Itcan
beusedwithanyequipmentbutshouldnotbeoverloaded.Transformers
don’taffectthefrequencyofthecurrent.Diode-typevoltagechangersare
extremelylight(usuallyafewounces)and,fortheirsize,canhandle
muchmorepowerthantransformers.Theyshouldbeusedonlyforlights.
SincetheseworkbyconvertingACcurrenttoDC,theyshouldnotbe
usedwithanythingthatisfrequencydependent.Checkwithatechnician
ontherequirementsofyourequipment.
WhiletypicalelectricplugsinNorthAmericaandmostofCentral
Americausetwoflatbladesandsometimesaroundgroundingpin,
outletsfoundinmuchoftherestoftheworldhaveadifferent
configuration.Othersystemsuseplugswithtwoorthreeroundpinsor
angledblades.Adaptersareavailabletoconvertfromonetypetothe
otheroryoucanreplacetheplugsonyourequipmentifneeded.Search
theWebforelectricpowerandplugconfigurationswhereveryou’re
planningtoshoot.
1.Flickermeansthatsomeframesseemmorebrightlylitthanothers.
2.Withmanycolornegativestocksanddigitalcamerasyoucanget
awaywithshootingindaylightwithoutafilter,andthisisoneinstance
whereyoumayneedto.
3.Youcanalsogetaninexpensivedevicethatyouplugintoanoutlet,
thenyouwaveasensoroverthecircuitbreakertoseewhichcircuitthe
outletison.
4.Somecountries,particularlyinCentralAmerica,maysupplypower
at220voltsbutat60Hz.