Wayne State University
Wayne State University Dissertations
1-1-1968
The Formation of the Washington Intellectual
Community, 1870-1898
James Kirkpatrick Flack Jr
Wayne State University
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/oa_dissertations
Recommended Citation
Flack, James Kirkpatrick Jr, "The Formation of the Washington Intellectual Community, 1870-1898" (1968). Wayne State University
Dissertations. Paper 950.
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THE FORMATION OF THE WASHINGTON INTELLECTUAL
COMMUNITY, 1870-1898
IF
J« m « K ir k p a tr ic k F la c k , J r .
A DISSERTATION
S u b m itte d t o th e O ffic e f a r G rad u ate S tu d ie s
e D iv is io n c f Wayne S ta te U n iv e r s ity . D e tr e i
in p a r t i a l f u lf i llm e n t o f th e re q u ire m e n ts
f a r th e d e g re e o f
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
1968
MAJORi HISTORY (A m erican)
APPROVED BY*
Adviser
sAaiSfefkrr
TSafe
TREFACE
W h at f o l l o w s i s a n a t t e m p t t o a d d a new c h a p t e r t o
A m e r ic a n c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y .
T hese p a g e s d e a l w ith th e p o s t -
C i v i l W ar e m e rg e n c e i n W a s h in g to n o f a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s b o d y
o f g o v e r n m e n t - s c i e n t i s t s a n d l o c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s , men w h o se
g ro u p i d e n t i t y w as e s t a b l i s h e d b y th e n e tw o rk o f c l u b s an d
s o c i e t i e s w h ic h t h e y f o u n d e d a n d w h o se s e l f - i m a g e w a s
d e r i v e d fro m a n a w a re n e s s o f s h a r e d p u r p o s e s .
m u n i t y saw i t s e l f
as f u l f i l l i n g
im p r o v in g t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e
T h i s com ­
tw o i n s e p a r a b l e f u n c t i o n s :
a t th e
s e a t o f g o v e rn m e n t b y
e n c o u ra g in g i n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s , an d u s in g i t s
i n f l u e n c e t o p r o m o te n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e ,
p u b lic s c ie n c e .
c o lle c tiv e
p a r t i c u l a r l y th ro u g h
The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s e g o a l s
r e s t e d o n t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t W a s h in g to n w a s d e s t i n e d t o
beco m e t h e c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l o f t h e n a t i o n .
Men w ho w e re
c e r t a i n th e y d e te c te d th e c o n to u rs o f a g r e a t c e n te r o f
l e a r n i n g a n d p r o g r e s s s e t t o w o rk f i l l i n g
i n th e o u t l i n e s .
A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e
c i t y * s r e s o u r c e s w as o f t r a n s c e n d e n t i m p o r t a n c e , a n d t h o s e
who s o u g h t t o m ake W a s h in g to n w o r t h y o f i t s
a c q u ire d th e s t a t u r e
new r o l e
o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e .
o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , w ith i t s
By t h e e n d
s k e le ta l s tru c tu re
W a s h in g to n A cadem y o f S c i e n c e s , t h i s b o d y s t o o d f u l l y
th e
fo rm e d .
The c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f i t s b i r t h a n d e a r l y g ro w th
c o m p ris e t h e s t o r y I h a v e t r i e d t o t e l l .
Why i t h a s n o t b e e n t o l d b e f o r e i s d i f f i c u l t t o
f a th o m .
A c o n g e r i e s o f r e m in i s c e n c e s an d c o n te m p o ra ry im ­
p r e s s i o n s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity h a d a n
i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t r a n s f o r m i n g W a s h in g to n i n t o a m ore m odern
c ity .
L ik e w is e , t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h i s g ro u p w as d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o t h e e x p a n s io n o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t’ s t e c h n i c a l
b u reau s.
B e c a u se W a s h in g to n i n t e l l e c t u a l s w ere d e e p l y i n ­
v o lv e d i n t h e i r c u l t u r e , an d s i n c e W a s h in g to n w as su p p o se d
t o e p i to m iz e t h e w o r s t f e a t u r e s o f p o s t - w a r l i f e , an
e x a m in a tio n o f t h e i r m u tu a l q u e s t t o u n d e r s ta n d an d i n f l u e n c e
t h e i r own t i m e s o f f e r s a m eans f o r t e s t i n g th e G ild e d Age
h y p o th e s is .
A nd, o f c o u r s e , i t s
s p e c ia liz e d in s titu tio n s
make t h e W a s h in g to n e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n im p o r ta n t t o p i c i n th e
h is to r y o f s c ie n c e .
By s t u d y i n g t h e i n n e r h i s t o r y o f i t s
o r g a n i z a t i o n s a g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n be g a in e d r e g a r d ­
in g t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f s c i e n c e , j u s t a s t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f
s c i e n c e s h e d s l i g h t o n t h e b r o a d e r s t y l e s an d p a t t e r n s o f
l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y A m e ric a .
I t i s a p l e a s a n t d u t y t o ac k n o w led g e my in d e b te d n e s s
t o t h e many p e o p le a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s who f a c i l i t a t e d t h i s
s tu d y .
I owe s p e c i a l th a n k s t o P r o f e s s o r Edw ard L u r i e f o r
i n t r o d u c i n g me t o n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y , f o r
d i r e c t i n g t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n fro m b e g in n in g t o e n d , an d f o r
b e i n g a n e v e r - i n s p i r i n g m e n to r .
The m em bers o f t h e H i s t o r y
D e p a rtm e n t o f Wayne S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y h a v e b e e n m ore t o l e r a n t
an d c o n s i d e r a t e t h a n a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t h a s a r i g h t t o
e x p e c t.
D r . N a th a n R e i n g o l d , e d i t o r o f t h e J o s e p h H e n ry
P a p e r s , M rs. M a r g a r e t B l a k e r , S am uel T . S u r a t t , W i llia m C .
S t u r t e v a n t , a n d W ilcom b E . W ash b u rn o f t h e S m i t h s o n i a n
I n s t i t u t i o n , and P ro f e s s o r Jo se p h L . B re n t o f th e U n iv e r s ity
o f M a r y la n d , a n d P r o f e s s o r D a n i e l J . K e v le s o f t h e C a l i ­
fo rn ia I n s titu t e
tim e a n d a d v i c e .
o f T e c h n o lo g y w e re g e n e r o u s w i t h t h e i r
R e s e a r c h , b o t h i n W a s h in g to n a n d p o i n t s
d i s t a n t , w as made p o s s i b l y b y a y e a r a t t h e S m i t h s o n i a n a s
a p r e - d o c t o r a l i n t e r n i n t h e I n s t i t u t i o n ’ s D e p a r tm e n t o f
A m e ric a n S t u d i e s .
For th is
I am p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l t o
D r. C h a rle s B l i t z e r and th e O ffic e o f E d u c a tio n an d T r a i n i n g .
My p a t h t o t h e a r c h i v e s o f t h e v a r i o u s s c i e n t i f i c
o r g a n i z a t i o n s w as c l e a r e d b y B e t t y J . M e g g ars o f t h e A n th r o ­
p o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , C h a r l e s 0 . H a n d le y o f t h e B i o l o g i c a l
S o c i e t y , C h a r l e s L . G o rd o n o f t h e C h e m ic a l S o c i e t y , M ic h a e l
F le isc h e r o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , G eo rg e C r o s s e t t e a n d
L e o n a r d J . G r a n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l G e o g r a p h ic S o c i e t y , H e r b e r t
A . H auptm an o f t h e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , M r s . R i c h a r d
H um phrey o f t h e W a s h in g to n Academ y o f S c i e n c e s , a n d , m o s t
o f a l l , b y P a u l H . O e h s e r , s e c r e t a r y o f t h e Cosm os C l u b .
I s h o u l d a l s o l i k e t o a c k n o w le d g e t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e
s p e c ia l c o l l e c t i o n s s t a f f s o f th e fo llo w in g r e s e a r c h i n s t i ­
tu tio n s :
t h e A m e r ic a n I n s t i t u t e
o f P h y s i c s , t h e A m e r ic a n
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , t h e B row n U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , t h e
B u rto n H i s t o r i c a l C o l l e c t i o n o f t h e D e t r o i t P u b lic L i b r a r y ,
t h e C o lu m b ia H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , t h e H e n r y E . H u n t i n g t o n
L i b r a r y , The J o h n s H o p k in s U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , t h e L i b r a r y
o f C o n g r e s s , t h e M ic h ig a n H i s t o r i c a l C o l l e c t i o n s , t h e
New Y o rk H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , t h e New Y o rk P u b l i c L i b r a r y ,
t h e P e a b o d y M useum L i b r a r y o f Y a le U n i v e r s i t y , t h e R u t h e r f o r d
B. H ayes L i b r a r y , th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n ,
th e S o u th w e s t
M useum , a n d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M ic h ig a n L i b r a r y *
I am a t a l o s s t o t h a n k p r o p e r l y my w i f e , J a n
L e M e s s u rie r F l a c k , f o r h e r p a r t i n t h e c o m p le tio n o f t h i s
d is s e rta tio n .
e d itin g ,
N ot o n ly d id sh e go a b o u t h e r t a s k s o f
c ritic iz in g ,
re a d in g w ith d ilig e n c e
ty p in g , f o o tn o te c h e c k in g , and p r o o f ­
a n d g o o d c h e e r , b u t som ehow s h e
m anaged t o p r e s e r v e d o m e s tic t r a n q u i l i t y
of us su ffe re d
ill-e ffe c ts .
v
so t h a t n e i t h e r
CONTENTS
Page
P R E F A C E ..........
ii
Chapter
I,
’’FLABBY, SHAMBLING TIMES”.
..............
1
II.
”ELEGANT CIRCLES"........................
43
III.
"FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF S C I E N C E " ........
81
IV.
V.
VI.
"BY A SOCIAL T I E " ..............
Ill
"THE MINUTE S E E D " .........................
153
"WITHIN ONE ORGANIZATION"................
198
A P P E N D I X ...........................................
241
ESSAY ON S O U R C E S ..............................
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL S T A T E M E N T .........................
255
278
CHAPTER I
"FLABBY, SHAMBLING TIMES"
A c r i s i s o f s o r t s g r ip p e d W a sh in g to n , D .C . d u r in g th e
f i r s t week o f A p r i l , 1 9 6 5 .
I t h ad b e e n a l a t e s p r i n g , s o l a t e ,
i n f a c t , t h a t on th e eve o f th e N a tio n a l C h e rry B lossom F e s t i ­
v a l th e r e q u i s i t e b u d s w ere s t i l l e n c a s e d i n t h e i r d a r k brown
w ra p p in g s , and due t o t h i s v a g a ry o f n a t u r e in n u m e ra b le p la n s
and program s h ad b e e n th ro w n o u t o f k i l t e r .
S u d d en ly t h e r e
came an a d d i t i o n a l a la rm w h ich h ad t o do w ith a s i t u a t i o n a t
once more s e r i o u s and more m a n a g e a b le : W a sh in g to n and th e
n a t i o n w ere i n g ra v e d a n g e r b e c a u se th e y la c k e d an i n t e l l e c t u a l
e l i t e — " a n a r i s t o c r a c y o f b r a i n s an d c h a r a c t e r , an a r i s t o c r a c y
w ith a c o n s c ie n c e and a s e n s e o f h i s t o r y . "
F u r t h e r d e l a y in
th e s e l e c t i o n o f su c h an e l i t e w o u ld i n e v i t a b l y le a d t o a
d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f A m erican c u l t u r e .
Thus th e m essage o f H enry
A lle n Moe, S e c r e ta r y - G e n e r a l o f th e Guggenheim F o u n d a tio n ,
upon b e in g p r e s e n te d w ith th e 1965 Cosmos C lub Award f o r d i s ­
t i n g u i s h e d s e r v i c e i n a d v a n c in g s c i e n c e , l i t e r a t u r e and th e
a rts .
I n b r i e f , w arned Moe, t h e r e was a p r e s s i n g n e e d t o
e x p l o i t th e w e l l s p r i n g s o f g e n iu s and t o o r g a n iz e men o f
know ledge i n s u c h a way t h a t th e y c o u ld prom ote th e q u a l i t y
o f n a tio n a l l i f e .
The s p e a k e r was c a r e f u l t o r u l e o u t a r i s ­
t o c r a c i e s g ro u n d ed on s n y th in g b u t i n t e l l e c t , and he to o k
2
p a in s t o em p h asize t h a t "W ith o u t an a r i s t o c r a c y * we s h o u ld be
l o s t ; h a v in g i t , we s u r e l y s h a l l be s a v e d . T h i s
o p tim is tic
n o te may have e a s e d some o f th e d is a p p o in tm e n t o v e r th e a b sen ce
o f p in k aro u n d th e T id a l B a s in .
D o u b tle s s i t c a u se d c e r t a i n
members o f th e a u d ie n c e t o im ag in e b a c k a lm o s t a h u n d re d y e a rs *
t o th e tim e when th e Cosmos Club was fo u n d ed a s an em bodim ent
o f b r a i n s and c h a r a c t e r — th e v e r y k in d o f e l i t i s t i n s t i t u t i o n
upon w h ich th e g u e s t o f h o n o r p la c e d so much s t r e s s .
T hen, a s now, th e Club r e p r e s e n t e d an e f f o r t t o draw
t o g e t h e r men o f s c i e n t i f i c , s c h o l a r l y , an d e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r ­
e s t s f o r p u rp o s e s o f c r e a t i n g a m i l i e u f a v o r a b le t o t h e i r w o rk ,
w h ile a t th e same tim e a d d in g t o t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e p r e s t i g e and
in flu e n c e .
M em bership c o n s t i t u t e d an acknow ledged badge o f
d i s t i n c t i o n ; h en ce th e e n t i r e com m unity h e l d th o s e c h o s e n by
th e C lub i n h ig h e s te e m .
N ot s o h ig h , p e r h a p s , a s i n G ondour,
Mark T w ain’ s f i c t i t i o u s r e p u b l i c w here s o c i a l r a n k and v o tin g
pow er in c r e a s e d p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o o n e 's w e a lth and e d u c a ti o n .
H ere i n t e l l e c t u a l s had a d o m in an t v o ic e i n g o v e rn m e n t, and
t h e r e were few more e x a l t e d c i t i z e n s th a n th e c o u n t r y 's l e a d ­
in g a s tro n o m e r , t o whom one and a l l d o f f e d t h e i r h a t s and
bowed d e e p ly i n h o n o r o f h i s s c h o l a r l y a t t a i n m e n t s .^
A m erican
^H enry A lle n Moe, "On th e Need f o r an A r i s t o c r a c y , "
The Second Cosmos C lub Award (W a sh in g to n . D .C .. 1 9 6 5 ). p p .
7 T T T .-------------------------------------2
[Mark I V a i n ] , "The C u rio u s R e p u b lic o f G o n d o u r,"
A t l a n t i c M o n th ly , XXXVI (O c to b e r , 1 8 7 3 ), 4 6 1 -4 6 2 .
3
s c i e n t i s t s h a r d l y e n jo y e d t h i s much d e f e r e n c e , a s was p o in te d
o u t b y Simon Newcomb, h im s e lf a n e m in e n t a s tro n o m e r and e a r l y
q
member o f th e Cosmos C lu b .
N o n e th e le s s , th e l a t t e r p a r t o f
r
th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y w itn e s s e d an a u g m e n ta tio n o f th e r e s p e c t
an d r e c o g n i t i o n a c c o rd e d W a s h in g to n 's men o f l e a r n i n g , a p h e ­
nomenon c o e v a l w ith th e b i r t h o f a s s o c i a t i o n s in fo rm in g th e
C a p i t a l C ity * 8 i n t e l l e c t u a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
Thus i n s t i t u t i o n s
l i k e th e Cosmos C lub h ad a b e a r i n g upon th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
w h at c o u ld be r e g a r d e d a s an i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e .
F u rth e rm o re ,
th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s had a s a l u t a r y e f f e c t on s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l .
B e s id e s e n h a n c in g th e p o s i t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s , th e y gave
some d e g re e o f to n e and p u rp o se t o w h at an a s t u t e c o n te m p o ra ry
d e s c r i b e d a s " f l a b b y , sh a m b lin g t i m e s . "**’
Such e x p r e s s io n s have alw ay s s e rv e d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e
th e l a c k o f form i n A m erican c u l t u r e a f t e r th e C i v i l W ar.
D u rin g t h i s e r a new w e a lth , b o m o f a n i n d u s t r i a l sy ste m w hich
was r a p i d l y m a tu rin g and e x p a n d in g , c h a lle n g e d th e l e a d e r s h i p
Simon Newcomb, "Exacw S c ie n c e i n A m e ric a ," N o rth
A m erican R ev iew . CX1X ( O c to b e r , 1 8 7 4 ), 2 8 6 -3 0 8 , and ^ A b s tr a c t
S c ie n c e i n A m eric a, 1 7 7 6 -1 8 7 6 ," i b i d . . CXXII ( J a n u a r y , 1 8 7 6 ),
8 8 -1 2 3 , an i n s i g h t f u l c r i t i q u e o f Newcomb's s t r i c t u r e s a g a i n s t
n a t i o n a l s c ie n c e may be fo u n d i n Edward L u r i e , "An I n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n o f S c ie n c e i n th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry : A S tu d y i n
H i s t o r y and H i s t o r i o g r a p h y ," J o u r n a l o f W orld H i s t o r y , V I I I
( 1 9 6 5 ) , 6 8 5 -6 8 8 .
^ C h a rle s F r a n c is Adams, J r . t o C a r l S c h u rz , M arch 1 7 ,
1 8 7 3 , S c h u rz P a p e r s , XIX, M a n u s c rip ts D i v i s i o n , L i b r a r y o f
C o n g re ss ( h e n c e f o r t h L C ); f o r an e s tim a te o f i t s im p o rta n c e
i n m odem tim e s se e Waldo 6 . L e la n d , "The Cosmos C lub and th e
N a t i o n ," November 16, 1943 ( i n th e H is to r y F i l e o f th e Cosmos
C lu b ) .
o f an o ld e r e s ta b lis h e d c l a s s .
C e r t a i n l y t h i s was t o be
e x p e c te d i n a la n d w here m a t e r i a l a c co m p lish m e n t w as h i g h l y
v a lu e d ; t h a t p r e s t i g e s h o u ld p r o p e r l y s e r v e a s th e handm aiden
o f su d d e n w e a lth h ad become so m e th in g o f a t r a d i t i o n .
S o c ia l
prom in en ce seem ed th e l o g i c a l re w a rd f o r th o s e who h ad g o t t e n
a h e a d i n th e eco n o m ic s t r u g g l e , and i n an i n c r e a s i n g l y f l u i d
s o c i a l o r d e r t h e r e h ad b e e n a b u n d a n t ex am p les o f th e r a p i d
a s c e n t from o b s c u r i t y t o d i s t i n c t i o n .
I n th e 1870*s , a s
b e f o r e , v e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y was c e l e b r a t e d a s a p o s i t i v e a s p e c t
o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r , so m e th in g w h ic h l a y a t th e v e r y h e a r t
o f t h e d e m o c r a tic f a i t h .
Was n o t th e a r r i v i s t e l i v i n g p r o o f
t h a t th e d o c t r i n e o f f r e e o p p o r tu n ity f o r a l l r e a l l y w orked?
T h is q u e s tio n h a r d l y r e q u i r e d an an sw e r; y e t th e
s w i f t r i s e o f l a r g e num bers o f p a rv e n u s d i d n o t w in u n i v e r s a l
a c c la im .
R a p id m o b i l i t y p ro d u c e d s o c i a l i n s t a b i l i t y , and
th o s e whose p o s i t i o n s w ere d i s t u r b e d r e p r o a c h e d th e new men
f o r n o t h a v in g p a u se d t o c u l t i v a t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ich d i s ­
t i n g u i s h e d an A m erican a r i s t o c r a t .
Such a t t r i b u t e s a s a p p r e ­
c ia tio n f o r s c h o la r s h ip , re c o g n itio n o f a e s th e tic e x c e lle n c e ,
w o rth w h ile c o n v e r s a t i o n , a v o id a n c e o f o p u le n t d i s p l a y , and a
s e n s e o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e — t r a i t s w h ich m ig h t be a c q u ir e d w ith ­
o u t b r e e d in g — seem ed i n s h o r t s u p p ly among th e nouveaux
ric h e s .
P e rh a p s t e n e t s o f good m anners an d good form h ad n o t
b e e n c o n s id e r e d a l l t h a t s e r i o u s l y b y p r e v io u s g e n e r a t i o n s .
N e v e r th e le s s , when th e y w ere fo u n d la c k in g i n th e u p s t a r t s ,
th e s e s ta n d a r d s w ere e n s h r in e d a s a b s o lu te v i r t u e s .
5
Thus th e e l e v a t i o n o f new w e a lth was n o t , a l o n e ,
g ro u n d s f o r a la r m , and th e s h e e r s w if tn e s s w ith w h ich t h i s
new c l a s s a s s e r t e d i t s e l f was n o t th e p r i n c i p a l i r r i t a n t .
"The s u d d e n ly r i c h a r e on a l e v e l w ith an y o f u s n o w ad a y s,"
p r o c la im e d th e B rahm in f a t h e r t o h i s so n i n The R ise o f S i l a s
Lapham.
. . . t h e r e ’s no d o u b t b u t money i s t o th e f o r e
now. I t i s th e ro m an ce, th e p o e tr y o f o u r a g e .
I t ’s th e t h i n g t h a t c h i e f l y s t r i k e s th e im a g in a tio n .
The E n g lish m en who come h e re a re more c u r io u s a b o u t
th e g r e a t new m i l l i o n a i r e s th a n a b o u t anyone e l s e ,
and th e y r e s p e c t them m o re. I t ’s a l l v e r y w e l l . I
d o n ’t c o m p la in o f i t . 5
C h a r le s F r a n c is Adams, J r . , a r e a l - l i f e B rahm in w ith one f o o t
f i r m l y p l a n t e d i n th e w o rld o f commerce and f i n a n c e , sounded
t h i s same n o te : "They may s a y w h at th e y p l e a s e , b u t to d a y
w e a lth i s th e
[ le v e ra g e g ro u n d ] i n A m erica . . .
I w ant w e a lth
a s th e s p r in g b o a r d t o i n f l u e n c e , c o n s i d e r a t i o n , p o w er, and
e n jo y m e n t."
I n 1887 he a d m itte d t h a t " I have a l l I w an t— and
/r
I w ant a g r e a t d e a l . "
T h e r e f o r e , n o t a l l men o f g e n t e e l
b ac k g ro u n d fo u n d n o u v eau r i c h e v a lu e s r e p u g n a n t.
What c a u se d
c o n s t e r n a t i o n was th e d i s r e g a r d f o r s o c i a l b e a r in g e x h i b i t e d
by th e new c l a s s .
T here was s l i g h t a w a re n e ss o f th e o b l i ­
g a t i o n s o f s o c i a l l e a d e r s h i p , o f th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
s e t t i n g c r i t e r i a o f b e h a v io r and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
In d e e d th e
W i l l i a m Dean H o w e lls , The R ise o f S i l a s Lapham
( B o s to n , 1 8 8 5 , R in e h a r t e d n . , New Y ork, 1 ^ 4 9 ) , p . 6 6 .
^Q uoted i n Edward Chase K ir k la n d , C h a rle s F r a n c is
Adams, J r . . 1 8 3 5 -1 9 1 5 : The P a t r i c i a n a t Bay (C am b rid g e.
M a s s ., 1 9 6 5 ), p p . 7 9 -8 0 .
6
new ly r i c h w ere a s v u lg a r a s th e s o c i e t y from w h ich th e y
is s u e d .
T h e ir b a r r e n n e s s was sy m p to m atic o f th e g e n e r a l low
l e v e l o f A m erican c u l t u r e , and c r i t i c s w ere co n tem p tu o u s o f
b o th .
From th e v a n ta g e p o i n t o f th e c h a i r o f f i n e a r t s a t
H a rv a rd U n i v e r s i t y , C h a rle s E l i o t N o rto n p ro n o u n ced h i s
v e r d i c t on p o s t- b e llu m A m erica: " T h is g e n e r a t i o n i s g iv e n
o v e r t o th e m aking and sp e n d in g o f money, and i s l o s i n g th e
c a p a c ity o f th o u g h t." 7
He lo o k e d a b o u t him and c o n c lu d e d
t h a t h i s co u n try m en la v i s h e d e v e r y ounce o f t h e i r m e n ta l
e n e r g i e s on m a t e r i a l p u r s u i t s , a n d , b e c a u se th e y c o u ld t h i n k
o f n o th in g e l s e , i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e
o u t.
i n A m erica was f a s t d y in g -
N o rto n f e l t t h a t t h e r e had n o t b e e n much c o n g e n i a l i t y
to w a rd th e c r e a t i v e s p i r i t t o b e g in w ith ; l i k e C la re n c e K in g ,
he b e l i e v e d t h a t A m ericans w ere s im p ly "a n u n a r t i s t i c p e o p le ,
w ith n e i t h e r an in d ig e n o u s n o r an a d o p te d a r t la n g u a g e i n
w h ich t o r e n d e r g ra n d th o u g h t s .
in g and u se o f s t y l e . • • ."®
We a r e ig n o r a n t o f th e mean­
Y et h i s own age to p p e d o t h e r s
i n i n s e n s i b i l i t y to w a rd e v e r y th in g b u t m a t e r i a l abundance and
p e t t y am usem ents.
He b ro o d e d c o n s t a n t l y o v e r th e m o ral and
i n t e l l e c t u a l d e g e n e ra c y w h ic h , he i n s i s t e d , r e s u l t e d fro m th e
h ig h prem ium p la c e d on a f f l u e n c e .
7C h a rle s E l i o t N o rto n t o Thomas C a r l y l e , November 1 6 ,
1 8 7 3 , L e t t e r s o f C h a rle s E l i o t N o rto n , e d s . S a ra N o rto n and
M. A. DeWolfe’ Howe " (B o sto n , 1913>, I I , 1 8 .
® [C laren ce K in g ] , " S ty le and th e Monument, " N o rth
A m erican R eview . CXLI (N ovem ber, 1 8 8 5 ), M*3.
7
W e a lth h a s become th e c h i e f m odem form o f
p o w er, a n d , u s u r p in g th e d o m in io n o f th e o ld i d e a l s
o v e r th e im a g in a tio n , i t i s s o u g h t, n o t o n ly a s a
m eans t o o t h e r e n d s , b u t a s i t s e l f an e n d . And i t
h a s a g r e a t a d v a n ta g e o v e r o t h e r o b j e c t s o f d e s i r e ,
i n i t s c a p a c i t y o f s e c u r in g g e n e r a l and im m ediate
r e c o g n i t i o n , and i n i t s pow er t o in fla m e th e d u l l e s t
i n t e l l i g e n c e b y i t s d i r e c t a p p e a l t o th e s e n s i b i l ­
i t i e s o f m en.
"The l a c k o f i n t e l l e c t u a l e l e v a t i o n and o f m o ra l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
i s a s o u rc e o f n a t i o n a l w e a k n e s s ," he r a i l e d .
o f v u lg a r ity i s a n a tio n a l d is g r a c e ." 9
"The p r e v a le n c e
S e a rc h a s he m ig h t i t
w as im p o s s ib le f o r him t o d i s c e r n th e f a i n t e s t glim m er o f
a e s t h e t i c o r s o c i a l a c h ie v e m e n t.
M o rto n 's a t t i t u d e to w ard A m erican l i f e h ad n o t alw ay s
b e e n so la d e n w ith gloom .
P r i o r t o th e C i v i l War he was
o p t i m i s t i c a b o u t p o r t e n t s o f n a t i o n a l im p ro v em en t.
"The
g r a n d e u r o f o u r o p p o r t u n i t i e s i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e im m ensi­
t i e s o f o u r d e f i c i e n c i e s , " he w ro te i n 1 8 5 7 , " s o t h a t one may
r e j o i c e t o be an A m erican ev en w h ile s e e in g how f a r we f a l l
10
s h o r t i n many ways o f w h at i s a c c o m p lish e d e ls e w h e r e ." ^
D u rin g th e s t r u g g l e he w atch ed th e p e o p le g ro w in g more e n ­
l i g h t e n e d and in f u s e d w ith id e a li s m .
L ik e h i s Cam bridge
n e ig h b o r , th e e v e r sa n g u in e P r o f e s s o r L o u is A g a s s iz , he f e l t
t h a t th ro u g h th e w ar e f f o r t " s lu m b e rin g c i t i z e n s h ad b e e n
^ C h a rle s E l i o t N o rto n , "The I n t e l l e c t u a l L i f e o f
A m e ric a ," Ntew P r in c e to n R eview , n . s . , VI (N ovem ber, 1 8 8 8 ),
3 1 5 , 3 2 1 -3 2 T :----------------------------^ Q u o te d i n K erm it V a n d e r b i l t , C h a rle s E l i o t N o rto n :
A p o s tle o f C u ltu r e i n a Democracy (C am b rid g e, M a s s ., 1 ^ 5 9 ),
p . 73.
8
a r o u s e d and th e n a t i o n 'm anured* t o b r i n g f o r t h a g l o r i o u s
h a r v e s t , T o make s u r e t h a t s u c c e e d in g h a r v e s t s w ould be
j u s t a s re w a r d in g , N o rto n h e lp e d la u n c h t h e N a tio n , a m agazine
d e s ig n e d t o k eep f e r t i l e th e d e m o c ra tic i d e a l s im p la n te d i n
th e w artim e g e n e r a t i o n .
He m ig h t n o t h ave gone a s f a r a s
J , W, D e F o r e s t's D r. R a v e n e l, who was made t o a s s e r t t h a t
*'In t h e s e d a y s — th e d a y s o f L in c o l n , G r a n t, and Sherm an—
f a i t h i n th e im a g in a tio n — f a i t h i n th e s u p e r n a t u r a l o r i g i n s
o f h u m a n ity — becom es p o s s i b l e , " b u t c e r t a i n l y N o rto n f e l t
t h a t th e w ar y e a r s w ould be rem em bered a s an ep o ch o f m o ral
p u r p o s e , and t h a t t h i s s p i r i t w as bound t o r e g e n e r a t e A m erican
12
dem ocracy and c u l t u r e .
The l a t e r 1 8 6 0 ’ s d is a b u s e d him o f t h i s n o t i o n .
The
e x p e r ie n c e o f s a c r i f i c e had f a i l e d t o u s h e r i n a g o ld e n a g e ;
r a t h e r th e w ar gave way t o a p e r io d o f s t e r i l i t y made more
t r a g i c b y th e h o p e f u lln e s s o f th e bygone e r a .
As th e d ecad e
w i l t e d down he en g ag ed i n a n a g o n iz in g r e a p p r a i s a l o f A m e ric a 's
p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n ancf o u tlo o k f o r —th e f u t u r e .
N ot s u r p r i s i n g ­
l y , f o r t h i s was t r u e o f many B rah m in s, som etim e aro u n d 1870
N o rto n l o s t f a i t h i n A m erican p ro m is e .
R e c u r rin g i l l n e s s ,
p e r s o n a l b e re a v e m e n t, th e d e g r a d a tio n o f G r a n t 's se c o n d te rm
^ D i a r y o f Mary H en ry , J a n u a r y k , 186 5 , I I ,
S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n A rc h iv e s ( h e n c e f o r th S I A r c h iv e s ) .
12
Jo h n W illia m D e F o re s t, M ias R a v e n e l*a C o n v e ra io n
from S e c e s s io n t o L o y a lty (New Y o rk , 1 8 6 7 , R in e h a r t e d n . ,
tiew Y ork, i S W T p . ' f e l T
9
i n o f f i c e , and th e t e a r i n g down o f " w a lls d e a r t o N o r t o n 's
memory" com bined t o underm ine h i s o p tim ism . 13 I n 1873,
tw o y e a r s a f t e r h i s w i f e 's d e a th , N o rto n la m e n te d t h a t " a l l
life
i s l i k e l y t o be s o l i t a r y i n A m erica t o one who c a n n o t
s h a r e t h a t c o n f id e n t s p i r i t o f c h e e r f u l o p t i m i s t i c f a t a l ­
ism . . .
He w ould have a g re e d w ith W alt W h itm an 's
o b s e r v a tio n : " I t i s a s i f we w ere somehow b e in g endowed w ith
a v a s t and more and more th o r o u g h ly a p p o in te d b o d y , and th e n
l e f t w ith l i t t l e
o r no s o u l . " * 5
To men who d e e p ly b e l ie v e d t h a t th e n a t i o n was
d e s t i n e d f o r some s o r t o f s p i r i t u a l g r e a t n e s s , p o s t- w a r
A m erica seemed d e p r e s s i n g l y h o llo w and s u p e r f i c i a l .
In a
s o c i e t y o f " s m a ll a im s , o r no aim s a t a l l , " s a i d W hitm an, i t
was n o t th e p o e t and th e s ta te s m a n who w ere a d m ire d , b u t
r a t h e r th e " f a s h i o n a b ly d r e s s e d s p e c u l a t o r s an d v u l g a r i a n s . "
The G ild e d Age was w orse th a n a comedy o f m a n n e rs, i t was
w re tc h e d i n th e e x tre m e .
" I came h e re f i f t y y e a r s ago w ith
h ig h and fo n d i d e a l s a b o u t A m e ric a ," r e c a l l e d E . L . G o d k in ,
e d i t o r o f th e N a tio n .
"T hey a re now a l l s h a t t e r e d , and I
a p p a r e n t l y have t o lo o k e ls e w h e re t o k eep ev e n m o d e ra te h opes
■^^Martin B. Duberm an, Jam es R u s s e ll L o w e ll (B oston:,
1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 2 3 2 -2 3 3 ; V a n d e r b i l t . N o rto n , p p . l b 6 - l l 2 .
^ ^ o r t o n t o C a r l y l e , November 1 6 , 1 8 7 3 , L e t t e r s o f
N o rto n , I I , 1 8 .
l ^ a r k Van D oren ( e d . ) , The P o r ta b le W a lt Whitman
(New Y o rk , 1945) , p . 4 0 0 ,
10
a b o u t th e human r a c e a l i v e T h e
same to n e o f b i t t e r n e s s
r e s o u n d s i n an 1878 l e t t e r from D r. J o s e p h T . Webb, R u th e r f o r d
H a y e s 's b r o t h e r - i n - l a w , r e p l y i n g t o a n i n v i t a t i o n t o a
v e t e r a n ’s g a t h e r i n g o f th e 2 3 rd O hio V o lu n te e r s : "You a s k
i f I s h a l l a t t e n d th e r e u n io n . . .
I s h a ll not . . .
th e m is ta k e o f my l i f e i n jo i n i n g th e R eg’t .
my b u s i n e s s , and a l l f o r w h at? "* ^
i t was
1 s a c rific e d
T h is l i n e o f r e a s o n in g
was h a r d t o r e f u t e .
Jo h n Adams h ad im ag in ed t h a t th e l a t t e r n i n e t e e n t h
c e n tu r y w ould be a p e r io d o f h ig h c u l t u r a l a t t a i n m e n t .
By
t h i s tim e A m erica s h o u ld have s o d e v e lo p e d t h a t th e g e n tle m a n s c h o l a r c o u ld d e v o te h im s e lf t o a l i f e o f a r t , t o a c t i v i t i e s
o f m ind and s p i r i t .
B ut su c h was n o t th e c a s e .
R a th e r th a n
h a v in g a s i t s h a llm a r k a n a t u r a l a r i s t o c r a c y o f w o r th ,
A m erican s o c i e t y was m arked by a p l u t o c r a t i c e le m e n t whose
c h i e f m e r it was th e a b i l i t y t o a c c u m u la te w e a lth —men l i k e
C h r is to p h e r Newman, H enry Ja m e s’s t y p i c a l n ouveau r i c h e , who
b e l i e v e d t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l r a i l r o a d in v e s tm e n ts s e r v e d a s a
f r e e p a s s i n t o th e b e s t s o c i a l c i r c l e s S u c h men w ere b o th
p r e t e n t i o u s and e x t r a v a g a n t , u s in g p a l a t i a l m a n s io n s, s e a ^ Q u o te d i n C h a rle s A. B eard and Mary K. B e a rd , The
A m erican S p i r i t : A S tu d y o f th e Id e a o f C i v i l i z a t i o n i n lE e
U n ite d S t a t e s (New Y ork . 19U 2). p p l’ 5 73 - m " . -------------------------17
* Q uoted i n H a rry B a rn a rd , R u th e r f o r d B. H ayes and
H is A m erica ( I n d i a n a p o l i s , I n d . , 19SU'), p . 2 1 5 .
18
H enry Ja m es, The A m erican ( B o s to n , 1 8 7 7 , L a u r e l
e d n . , New Y ork, 1 9 6 0 ), p p . 2*»9-zSd.
11
s h o re summer hom es, l a v i s h e n t e r t a i n m e n t , and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
m a r r ia g e s i n o s t e n t a t i o u s a tte m p ts t o c lo a k t h e i r humble
o rig in s .
C ongressm an " S u n s e t” Cox, o f New Y ork, summed i t up
d u r in g th e cam paign o f 1872 a s " a n in s a n e g re e d f o r w e a lth
. . .
th e d e s i r e t o s h in e i n th e c a lc iu m g l a r e o f th e p r e s e n t
f e v e r i s h ro u n d o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l j u n k e t i n g A s
th e
c e n tu r y p a s s e d i n t o i t s f i n a l q u a r t e r , G odkin ju d g e d t h a t th e
s e v e n t i e s w ere " f i l l e d w ith more s o c i a l g a r is h n e s s and b ad
t a s t e t h a n any o t h e r d ecad e i n A m erican h i s t o r y . "
20
A lf r e d N o rth W h iteh ead once rem ark ed t h a t when e v a l u ­
a t i n g c o n te m p o ra ry c u l t u r e we s h o u ld em ploy " l a r g e - s c a l e
m a p s," l e s t we l o s e p e r s p e c tiv e b etw een " th e p o i n t s o f e x c e l s
le n c e i n th e p a s t a s com pared w ith th e a v e ra g e f a i l u r e o f th e
p r e s e n t d a y ."
21
T h is a d v ic e th e p o s t- w a r J e re m ia h s m ig h t
have h e e d e d w ith p r o f i t , s in c e th e G ild e d Age was h a r d l y th e
f i r s t p e r io d t o h e a r c r i e s o f a n g u is h a b o u t th e u p su rg e o f
m a t e r i a l i s m and th e d e g r a d a tio n o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r .
O ver
tw o h u n d re d y e a r s e a r l i e r M a s s a c h u s e tts Bay P u r i t a n s h ad
r e c e i v e d an e lo q u e n t i n j u n c t i o n a g a i n s t th e p i t f a l l s o f
" w o r l d l i n e s s , " an d a s t e r n w a rn in g n o t t o l e t p r o s p e r i t y g e t
^ Q u o te d i n D avid L in d s e y , " S u n s e t” Cox; I r r e p r e s s i b l e
D em ocrat ( D e t r o i t , 1 9 5 9 ), p . 1 3 5 .
200 u o te d i n D ixon V e c to r , The S aga o f A m erican S o c i e t y :
A R eco rd o f S o c i a l A s p i r a t i o n , 1607-1937 (frew Y ork. 1 9 3 7 ),
p . 176.
^ A l f r e d N o rth W h ite h e a d , S c ie n c e and th e M odern W orld
(New Y o rk , 1 9 2 5 , M en to r e d n . , n . d . j , p p . 1 6 2 -1 6 3 , 1 8 3 .
-
12
th e b e t t e r o f p i e t y .
22
E q u a lly f a m i l i a r was th e c o m p la in t
t h a t b o o r is h men o f new w e a lth w ere r o b b in g A m erica o f
a e s th e tic a p p re c ia tio n .
" I am o u t o f p l a c e , ” Thomas C ole
n o te d r u e f u l l y i n 1838, ’’t h e r e a r e few p e r s o n s o f r e a l t a s t e ;
and no o p p o r tu n ity f o r th e t r u e a r t i s t t o d e v e lo p h i s
p o w e r s . A b r a m H e w itt d id n o t have t o w a i t u n t i l a f t e r th e
C i v i l War t o is s u e h i s s ta te m e n t t h a t "The c o n s u m p tio n o f
V
ir o n i s th e s o c i a l b a ro m e te r by w h ich t o e s t i m a t e th e r e l a t i v e
o£i
h e i g h t o f c i v i l i z a t i o n among n a t i o n s . ”
N or w as d o u r un­
c e r t a i n t y a b o u t th e d i s r u p t i v e i n f l u e n c e s stem m ing from r a p i d
s o c i a l and econom ic ch a n g es a p o s t- b e llu m phenom enon.
T h ro u g h o u t th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y A m erican s
f r e t t e d o v e r th e c o r r o s io n o f t r a d i t i o n a l i d e a l s and th e need
fo r c u ltu ra l s ta b ility .
W illia m R. T a y lo r h a s c a l l e d th e
1 8 3 0 '8 "The Age o f A n x ie ty ," a d m ittin g t h a t w h ile t h i s co n ­
d i t i o n was n o t c o n f in e d s o l e l y t o th e J a c k s o n ia n e r a , h e re
was a tim e when th e s e n s e o f v e x a tio n h ap p en ed t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y a c u te .
25
The same p o i n t can be made a b o u t th e s e v e n t i e s
^ P e r r y M i l l e r , The New E n g la n d M ind: From C olony t o
P ro v in c e (C am b rid g e, M a s s ., 1953, B eacon e d n . , B o s to n , 1 9 6 1 ) ,
pp. 8 -4 .
23
Q uoted i n R u s s e ll L y n e s, The T a ste m a k e rs (New Y ork,
1 9 4 9 ), p . 8 .
^ Q u o te d i n A lla n N e v in s , Abram S . H e w itt, W ith Some
A cco u n t o f P e t e r C ooper (New Y o rk , 1 9 3 5 ), p . 95 .
^ ^ W illia m R. T a y lo r , C a v a li e r and Y ankee: The Old
S o u th and A m erican N a tio n a l C h a r a c te r (L o n d o n . 1 9 6 3 ), p p . 9 6 I d l , s e e a l s o , p p . 1 8 , 1 2 6 -1 2 8 , 3 34; F re d Som kin, U n q u ie t
E a g le : Memory and D e s ire i n th e Id e a o f A m erican F reedom ,
1815-1860 ( I t h a c a , N. Y ., 1 9 6 7 ), p p . 1 1 -3 4 .
13
and e i g h t i e s ; E m e rs o n 's o b s e r v a tio n t h a t "E v e ry a g e , l i k e
e v e r y human b o d y , h a s i t s own d is te m p e r " i s r e l e v a n t t o b o th
p e r io d s .^
Y et th e c a s h n ex u s may have p ro v e d a g r e a t e r
a f f l i c t i o n a f t e r th e C i v i l W ar.
As Mark IV a in s a i d o f J a y
G ould and h i s g e n e r a t i o n : "The p e o p le h ad d e s i r e d money
b e f o r e h i s d a y , b u t lie ta u g h t th em t o f a l l down and w o rs h ip
it."
27
C oupled w ith th e w id e s p re a d f e e l i n g t h a t th e tim e s
w ere o u t o f j o i n t i t seem ed t h a t p o s t- w a r c u l t u r e was becom ing
h o p e le s s ly d eb ased .
I n 1873 F r a n c is Amasa W a lk e r, p r o f e s s o r o f p o l i t i c a l
economy a t Y a l e 's S h e f f i e l d S c i e n t i f i c S c h o o l and s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s C e n su s, gave v e n t t o h i s t r o u b l e d
f e e l i n g s a b o u t G ild e d Age A m eric a.
What a l e r t e d him t o th e
p ro b lem was t h a t b etw e en 1860 and 1870 t h e r e was a d im in u tio n
i n th e g e o m e tr ic a lly p r e d i c t e d r a t e o f p o p u la tio n i n c r e a s e .
T h ro u g h o u t th e a n te - b e llu m p e r io d s t a t i s t i c i a n s a f f ir m e d t h a t
a n u n b ro k en r i s e i n f u t u r e p o p u la tio n w as no l e s s i n e v i t a b l e
th a n u n i n t e r r u p t e d n a t i o n a l p r o g r e s s , and when i t came t o
m aking a f o r e c a s t f o r th e s i x t i e s Jam es D. B. DeBow, who i n
1850 had h e a d e d th e s e v e n th c e n s u s , c o n f i d e n t l y p ro c la im e d
t h a t tw e n ty y e a r s h en ce t h e r e w ould be a lm o s t f o r t y - t h r e e
m i l l i o n A m e ric a n s.
As i t tu r n e d o u t Mr. DeBow o v e r e s tim a te d
26
" L e c t u r e on th e T im e s ," December 2 , 181*1, The P ro se
Works o f R a lp h W aldo Em erson (B o s to n , 1 8 7 0 ), I , 1 5 4 .
27
B e rn a rd DeVoto ( e d . ) , Mark Twain i n E r u p tio n : H i t h e r ­
t o U n p u b lis h e d P ag es A bout Men and E v e n ts (New Y ork, 1 9 4 0 )t
p . 77.
14
by more th a n f o u r and a q u a r t e r m i l l i o n , an a s t o n i s h i n g m is ­
c a l c u l a t i o n c o n s id e r in g th e a c c u r a c y o f e x t r a p o l a t i o n s f o r
th e e a r l i e r d e c a d e s .
W alker i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s f a i l u r e t o
r e a l i z e th e p r o j e c t e d g a i n a s a s i g n o f n a t i o n a l m a l a i s e .
A c c o rd in g t o h i s d ia g n o s is th e r e w as e v e r y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t
th e c o n d i tio n w ould grow w o rs e , and v e r y l i t t l e
reaso n to
hope t h a t i t w ould g e t b e t t e r .
I f r e t a r d a t i o n c o u ld have b e e n w r i t t e n o f f a s a
co n seq u en ce o f th e C i v i l W ar, W alk er r e a s o n e d , th e n t h e r e
w ould be l i t t l e
c a u se f o r c o n c e r n .
O b v io u s ly t h i s was an
u n n a t u r a l c o n d i tio n n o t l i k e l y t o o c c u r so o n a g a in ; f o llo w ­
in g a b r i e f d e la y th e c u rv e o f p o p u la tio n c o u ld be e x p e c te d
t o resum e i t s s te a d y a s c e n t .
B ut a f t e r t o t a l l i n g up th e
n u m e ric a l l o s s due t o m i l i t a r y c a s u a l t i e s , a te m p o ra ry r e ­
d u c tio n i n th e b i r t h r a t e , and th e w a r 's e f f e c t s on im m ig ra tio n
and fo rm e r s l a v e s , th e a g g re g a te ,wgs n o t n e a r l y enough t o
a c c o u n t f o r th e d i s a p p o i n t i n g l y low p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e f o r
1870.
Thus W alker showed s t a t i s t i c a l l y t h a t th e w ar was n o t
r e s p o n s i b le f o r w hat had ta k e n p la c e and w h a t seem ed t o l i e
ahead.
I n s t e a d th e d e c lin e h ad t o be a t t r i b u t e d t o a com bi­
n a t i o n o f " s o c i a l f o r c e s and t e n d e n c i e s , n o t h e r e t o f o r e f e l t ,
o r a t l e a s t n o t h e r e t o f o r e r e c o g n iz e d , i n o u r n a t i o n a l l i f e ,
[ t h a t ] a r e b e g in n in g t o a f f e c t p o w e r f u lly th e r e p r o d u c tiv e
c a p a b i l i t i e s o f o u r p e o p l e ."
W a lk e r 's s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t th e
e n e r v a tin g in f lu e n c e s o f m ass s o c i e t y seem ed t o be s u b s t a n t i ­
a t e d a few y e a r s l a t e r b y th e w ork o f D r. G eorge B e a rd , a
15
New Y ork C i ty n e u r o l o g i s t , w ho, i n 1 8 8 1 , p u b lis h e d th e s e n ­
s a t i o n a l book A m erican N e rv o u s n e s s .
P o s t- w a r A m ericans
s u f f e r e d from n e rv o u s e x h a u s t i o n , an nounced B e a rd , b e c a u se th e
u n s e t t l i n g f o r c e s o f m odern c i v i l i z a t i o n c a u s e d a d e p l e t i o n o f
’’n e rv e f o r c e . ”
A lth o u g h th e symptoms i d e n t i f i e d by th e d o c t o r
( in s o m n ia , s w e a tin g h an d s and f e e t , in v o l u n t a r y e m is s io n s ,
d r y n e s s o f th e h a i r , f e a r o f e v e r y t h in g ) w ere l e s s a c u te th a n
th o s e n o te d b y th e p r o f e s s o r , th e y b o th a r r i v e d a t th e same
c o n c lu s io n .
F o r h i s p a r t W alk er w ro te w ith c o n s id e r a b le w i t
and many o f h i s arg u m e n ts w ere made to n g u e i n c h e e k .
Y et he
a p p e a rs t o have b e e n g r a v e ly e a r n e s t a b o u t t h i s : ’’These
f o r c e s and te n d e n c ie s h ave c o n t r i b u t e d i n a v e r y l a r g e d e g re e
w i t h i n th e l a s t d ecad e t o b r i n g down th e r a t i o o f in c r e a s e i n
th e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n . ”^ 8
What w ere th e s e f a c t o r s w h ich W alk er c o n s id e r e d s o
d e le te rio u s ?
They w ere th e b y - p r o d u c ts o f m id - n in e te e n th
c e n tu r y i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , th e m o ra l and s o c i a l ch an g es t h a t
a t e away a t t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s u n d e r p in n in g A m erican c u l t u r e .
The p r i c e o f econom ic and u rb a n g ro w th was a w eak en in g o f th e
n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r , and t h i s w as r e f l e c t e d i n th e c e n su s r e ­
s u lts .
Where e a r l i e r s t a t i s t i c i a n s h ad gone w ro n g , he a r g u e d ,
was i n a l i g n i n g th e m s e lv e s w ith th e p r o p h e ts o f p r o g r e s s by
28
F r a n c is A. W a lk e r, ’’Our P o p u la tio n i n 1 9 0 0 ,”
A t l a n t i c M o n th ly . XXXII ( O c to b e r , 1 8 7 3 ), 4 9 2 -4 9 3 ; f o r a d i s ­
c u s s io n o f A m erican N e rv o u s n e s s s e e D onald M eyer, The P o s i t i v e
T h in k e r s : A S tu d y o f th e A m erican Q u e st f o r H e a lth , W e a lth ,
and P e r s o n a l Power fro m Wary B a k er Eddy t o Norman V in c e n t
P e a le (g a r d e n gffcy. H. V .Y 1 9 55 X 7 p p . ' 2 1 -3 1 .-----------------------
16
c o n s id e r in g m a t e r i a l advancem ent c o n d u c iv e t o p o p u la tio n
in c re a s e .
R a th e r i t was th e o t h e r way a ro u n d , t h a t th e r a t e
o f p o p u la tio n d e c lin e d i n p r o p o r t i o n t o i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n
and u r b a n i z a t i o n b e c a u se t h e s e p r o c e s s e s h ad s i d e e f f e c t s
w h ich p ro v e d d e b i l i t a t i n g t o th e s p i r i t .
S in c e A m ericans
showed no i n c l i n a t i o n t o c u rb t h e i r a p p e t i t e s f o r th e f r u i t s
o f m a t e r i a l d e v e lo p m e n t, W a lk e r w as p e s s i m i s t i c a b o u t th e
fu tu re .
. . . a s th e w hole p o p u la tio n te n d s i n c r e a s i n g l y
t o f a s h i o n and s o c i a l o b s e rv a n c e ; a s d i e t { d r e s s ,
and e q u ip a g e become more and more a r t i f i c i a l ; and
a s th e d e t e s t a b l e A m erican v ic e o f " b o a r d in g , ”
m aking c h i l d r e n t r u l y " e n c u m b ra n c e s ," and u p r o o tin g
th e a n c i e n t and h o n o red i n s t i t u t i o n s o f th e f a m il y ,
e x te n d s fro m c i t y t o c i t y an d fro m v i l l a g e t o
v i l l a g e , — i t i s n o t t o be d o u b te d t h a t we s h a l l
n o te a s te a d y d e c lin e i n th e r a t e o f th e n a t i o n a l
in c r e a s e fro m d ecad e t o d e c a d e .2 ”
Though t h i s d i r e f o r e c a s t la c k e d W a lk e r’ s c u s to m a ry p r e c i s i o n ,
and ev e n a f t e r m aking a llo w a n c e s f o r th e f a c t t h a t he some­
tim e s w en t t o e x tre m e s i n p le a d in g th e im p o rta n c e o f c h a r a c ­
te r ,^ ® h i s e x p r e s s io n s o f a n x i e t y a b o u t p o s t- w a r c u l t u r e w ere
h ig h ly r e v e a l i n g .
29W a lk er, A t l a n t i c M o n th ly , XXXII, 4 9 4 .
2 0 ”M r. W a lte r Gamp, f o r so many y e a r s a s s o c i a t e d w ith
Y ale a t h l e t i c s , c o n firm s th e o p in io n o f o t h e r s t h a t W alk er
lo o k e d on f o o t b a l l o r b a s e b a l l a s a m a t t e r o f v i t a l im p o rta n c e
b e c a u se o f i t s e f f e c t upon th e m o ra le o f th e y o u th c o n c e rn e d .
He h ad no p a tie n c e w ith th e d i l e t t a n t e a t t i t u d e w h ich r e g a r d s
a game a s a means o f p a s s in g th e tim e , o r w i t h th e u t i l i t a r i a n
p o i n t o f v iew w h ich lo o k s upon i t s im p ly a s a p l e a s a n t m ethod
o f s e c u r in g e x e r c i s e . " Jam es P h in n e y M unroe, A L if e o f
F r a n c is Amasa W alk er (New Y o rk , 1 9 2 3 ), p p . 1 5 1 -1 3 2 ; G eorge M.
F r e d r ic k s o n , The I n n e r C i v i l War ; N o rth e r n I n t e l l e c t u a l s and
th e C r i s i s o f th e O nion (New Y o rk , 1 9 6 3 ), p p . 2 2 3 -2 2 4 .
17
W alk er w en t beyond so u n d in g th e f a m i l i a r n o te o f
s p i r i t u a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n b y l o c a t i n g th e c a u s e s o f t h i s p h e­
nomenon i n th e "ed d y and s w i r l o f s o c i a l and i n d u s t r i a l
c u r r e n t s th r o u g h w h ich th e n a t i o n i s now p a s s i n g . "
31
In
o t h e r w ords h i s p e s sim is m was a re s p o n s e t o c u l t u r a l d i s o r d e r
and i n s t a b i l i t y .
He c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o th e s l a s h e s i n th e
f a b r i c o f A m erican l i f e , t o th e breakdow n o f t r a d i t i o n a l
p a t t e r n s o f th o u g h t and b e h a v io r , and t o th e r u p t u r e o f w h a t­
e v e r c u l t u r a l u n i t y th e c o u n tr y h ad p o s s e s s e d , b e c a u se he
re c k o n e d t h a t
h e r e c o u ld be fo u n d th e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r th e
d is in te g r a tio n o f v a lu e s .
N a ti o n a l c h a r a c t e r h ad w aned, t h e n ,
due t o th e absence o f o r d e r f o llo w in g th e C i v i l W ar.
In d e e d
th e d i s r u p t i o n o f c u l t u r e w as s o c o m p lete t h a t a f t e r th e smoke
o f b a t t l e h ad c l e a r e d A m erica seem ed t o be a d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n .
H enry Adams c o n f e s s e d t h a t when p a r t o f h i s fa m ily
r e t u r n e d t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s from E n g lan d i n 1 8 6 8 , h a v in g
m isse d o b s e rv in g th e w ar a t f i r s t h a n d , th e y w ere b e w ild e r e d
by th e h a s t y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i t h ad w ro u g h t, and c o u ld n o t
h e lp f e e l i n g a l i e n a t e d fro m th e new s t y l e o f t h e i r n a t i v e
la n d .
Had th e y b e e n T y r ia n t r a d e r s o f th e y e a r
B .C . 1000, la n d in g fro m a g a l l e y f r e s h fro m
G i b r a l t e r , t h e y c o u ld h a r d l y have b e e n s t r a n g e r
on th e s h o re o f a w o r ld , so ch an g ed from w h at i t
h ad b ee n t e n y e a r s b e f o r e . . . . How much i t s
^ W a lk e r , A t l a n t i c M o n th ly , XXXII, 4 9 5 .
18
c h a r a c t e r h ad chan g ed o r was c h a n g in g , t h e y c o u ld
n o t w h o lly know, and t h e y c o u ld b u t p a r t l y f e e l . 32
The t e x t u r e o f A m erican c i v i l i z a t i o n h ad b e e n d e v a s ta te d and
a l l was i n f l u x .
N e a rly tw e n ty y e a r s a f t e r t h e w ar en d ed
C h a rle s F r a n c is Adams, J r . , s t i l l t a l k e d a n x io u s ly a b o u t i t s
u n s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s , and f e a r e d t h a t th e n a t i o n 's r e c o v e r y
dem anded " q u i e t more th a n a n y t h i n g ." 33
To th o s e o f th e Adams'
sta m p , men whose w atchw ords w ere c o n t i n u i t y an d com m unity,
i t a p p e a re d t h a t l i f e was d i s s o l v i n g i n t o c h a o s .
H e n r y 's
f a t h e r so m b e rly p r e d i c t e d t h a t a n a rc h y was n o t f a r o f f .
By 1873 i t seem ed t h a t h i s p ro p h e c y was on th e v e rg e
o f b e in g f u l f i l l e d .
A g a in s t th e b a c k g ro u n d o f econom ic d e ­
p r e s s i o n w h ich d e s c e n d e d o v e r th e la n d t h a t y e a r —w h ile
C h a r le s E l i o t N o rto n c o n tin u e d t o m ourn th e p a s s in g o f i d e a l ­
ism and i n t e l l e c t u a l v i t a l i t y , w hich he f e l t was a p r e lu d e
t o d e g e n e ra c y ; and F r a n c is Amasa W alk er resu m ed th e s t a t i s t i c a l
32H enry Adams, The E d u c a tio n o f H en ry Adams? An A u to ­
b io g r a p h y (B o s to n , 1 9 1 8 , G e n try e d n . , C am b rid g e, M a s s ., 1 9 6 1 ;,
33Thomas W entw orth H ig g in s o n t o h i s s i s t e r [Anna
H ig g in s o n ? ] , A ugust 6 , 1 8 8 3 , L e t t e r s and J o u r n a l s o f Thomas
W entw orth H ig g in s o n , 1 8 4 6 -1 9 0 6 , e d . M ary T 'hacher H ig g in so n
{BostonT ITOT, 322-323.-----
3M a r t i n B. Duberman, C h a rle s F r a n c is Adams, 18071886 (C am b rid g e, M a s s ., I 9 6 0 ) , p . 3 37; h i s s o n , C h a rle s
F r a n c i s , J r . , was e q u a l l y " im p a tie n t w ith 'c h a n c e , ' 'a n a r c h y , '
'c h a o s , ' w ords c o n s t a n t l y a t th e end o f h i s p e n ." Edward C.
K ir k la n d , B u s in e s s i n th e G ild e d A ge: T h e ~ C o n s e rv a tiv e s *
B a lan c e S h e e t (M ad iso n . W is e .. 1 9 5 2 ). p . 1 0 ; f o r a n a n a l y s i s
o f how s o c i a l f l u x l e d t o p r e d i c t i o n s o f doom s e e F r e d e r i c
C onle J a h e r , D o u b te rs and D i s s e n t e r s : C a ta c ly s m ic T hought i n
A m eric a, 1885-1918 (Mew Y o rk . 19 6 4 ) 7 ----4
-----------------
19
a n a ly s e s w h ic h seem ed t o c o n f ir m h i s w o r s t f e a r s a b o u t A m e r ic a 's
f u t u r e ; and H en ry Adams p ro c e e d e d w ith th e e x c u r s io n s i n
s c i e n t i f i c h i s t o r y w h ich l e d him t o c o n c lu d e t h a t th e w o rld
was b e in g draw n in e x o r a b ly and w ith i n c r e a s i n g r a p i d i t y to w a rd
a n n i h i l a t i o n 3 ^ —P r e s i d e n t G ra n t b eg an h i s se co n d te rm o f
o f f i c e , an d th e G ild e d Age c a r n i v a l r o l l e d m e r r i l y alo n g *
Many o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f G ild e d Age A m erica
c o u ld be d is c e r n e d i n W ashington*
I n d e e d , th e c i t y was a
m ic ro c o sm ic r e f l e c t i o n o f n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e , w ith f o r t u n e s
q u ic k ly g a i n e d , s t a t u s ch a n g es o f d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s , and
th e e f f e c t s o f t h e s e tr a n s f o r m a ti o n s b e in g a s v i s i b l e a s i n
th e n a t i o n a t l a r g e ’’We a l t h i s o m n ip r e s e n t,” w ro te new s­
paperm an Don P i a t t , "and th e h u m a n itie s d r iv e a b o u t i n g o rg e o u s
c a r r i a g e s and l i v e among s tu n n in g u p h o l s t e r y . ”
37
P a rv e n u s
com peted w ith e s t a b l i s h e d f a m i l i e s and t h e r e w as th e same s o r t
o f c o a r s e sh o w in e ss a s m a n if e s te d e lse w h e re *
T h is c o u ld be
s e e n i n th e c o n t r a s t i n g a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t y l e s o f th e C a p i t a l
^ A lth o u g h N o rto n an d W alk er d id n o t d u p l i c a t e Adams'
a tte m p ts t o c o n s t r u c t a s y s t e m a tic th e o r y o f d e c a y , th e y ob­
v io u s l y a d h e re d t o an a n ti- C o m tia n l i n e a r view o f h i s t o r y and
w ould h av e a g r e e d w ith Adams t h a t th e d e c e l e r a t i o n o f human
p r o g r e s s r e s u l t e d from a d e c r e a s e o f th e e n e rg y t h a t w as v i t a l
t o i t s c o n tin u a n c e • Adams' h i s t o r i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s a r e c r i t i ­
c a l l y a s s e s s e d i n W illia m H. J o r d y , H enry Adams: S c i e n t i f i c
H i s t o r i a n (New H aven, C o n n ., 1 9 5 2 ), p p . 1 2 1 -2 5 5 .
36Jo h n W. F o rn e y , A n ec d o tes o f P u b lic Men (New Y ork,
1 8 7 3 ), p . 3 5 2 .
37guot e d i n Jam es H. W hyte, The U n c i v i l W ar: W ashing­
to n D u rin g th e R e c o n s t r u c tio n , 1865-1878 (taew Y ork, 1 9 5 8 ),
p . 17.
20
C ity ,
E la b o r a te o r n a m e n ta tio n was m in g le d w ith o l d e r b u i l d i n g s
r e p r e s e n t i n g s i m p l i c i t y and r e s t r a i n t .
I n 1874 n ew ly p la n te d
t r e e s s y m b o liz e d a w e a lth y c l a s s w h ich had n o t y e t e s t a b l i s h e d
i t s r o o t s , and d u s t y , unpaved s t r e e t s w ere a n a la g o u s t o t h i s
g r o u p '8 u n £ in is h e d c h a r a c t e r .
"Much t h a t was o l d , " r e c a l l e d
one W a s h in g to n ia n , "an d p a r t o f i t s i n g u l a r l y d e l i g h t f u l , had
been d e s tro y e d .
M ost o f t h a t w h ich was new was n o t o n ly raw
38
b u t i n n ee d o f g ro w th a s w e ll a s r e f i n e m e n t ."
Newness and
im p e r f e c tio n i n a p h y s i c a l s e n s e had t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n
W a sh in g to n s o c i e t y .
F o r i n s t a n c e , th e r e w ere e le m e n ts o f a f f l u e n c e a s w e ll
a s sham i n th e n a b o b s ' e n t e r t a i n i n g .
F ra n k G. C a r p e n te r , c o r r e ­
sp o n d e n t f o r th e C le v e la n d L e a d e r , and l a t e r a member o f th e
Cosmos C lu b , r e p o r t e d t h a t " th e d in n e r s o f W a sh in g to n c o u ld
n o t be more e x p e n s iv e i f t h e i r p e p p e r and s a l t w ere g r a i n s o f
g o ld d u s t . "
Y et he a l s o d e t e c t e d a good d e a l o f c o u n t e r f e i t .
I t i s w e l l known t h a t W ash in g to n h o s t e s s e s h i r e
th e c h in a f o r t h e i r l a r g e b a l l s an d r e c e p t i o n s .
A lm o st e v e ry c h in a s t o r e i n t h i s tow n h a s s to c k s o f
p l a i n w h ite d is h e s w h ich go o u t an d come b a c k many
tim e s d u r in g th e s o c i a l s e a s o n . I a sk e d one o f
th e s e m e rc h a n ts why th e d is h e s u s e d f o r t h i s p u rp o se
w ere so p l a i n . " I t i s n o t b e c a u s e p e o p le l i k e
th e m ," he e x p l a in e d , " b u t b e c a u se t h e i r g u e s ts
c a n n o t so e a s i l y t e l l t h a t t h i s i s th e same c h in a
t h e y a t e from th e d ay b e f o r e a t a n o t h e r h o u s e .39
3s H elen N ic o la y , S i x t y Y ea rs o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty
(W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 193*0, p .
W hyte, U n c iv i l W ar, p p . 1 S -1 7 .
1 7 8 -1 8 3 .
^ F r a n c e s C a r p e n te r ( e d . ) , C a rp ' s W ash in g to n (New
Y o rk . 1 9 6 0 ), p p . 8 7 , 90; " F ra n k G. b a r p e n te r .* ' Cosmos C lub
B u l l e t i n , I I ( J u l y , 1 9 4 9 ), 8 4 .
21
I t w as ru m o red t h a t th e f i n e l a d i e s o f W a sh in g to n r e n t e d t h e i r
je w e lr y .
Some o b s e r v e r s d e n ie d t h a t W a sh in g to n h ad any e le g a n c e
w h a t s o e v e r and u p b r a id e d l i f e a t th e C a p i t a l a s an e x i s t e n c e
o f " v e n e e re d f u r n i t u r e ” and " p l a t e d sp o o n s” i n w h ich " v u lg a r
p e o p le who am ass f o r t u n e s b y s u c c e s s f u l g a m b lin g i n s t o c k s ,
p o r k , o r g r a i n c a n a t t a i n a g r e a t d e a l o f ch e ap n ew sp ap er
n o to r ie t y f o r t h e i r s o c ia l e x p e n d itu re s . . .
Ja n e W.
G em m ill, w r i t i n g f o r th e b e n e f i t o f th o s e who w ould n o t be
a b le t o v i s i t th e C a p i t a l an d v iew c o n d i t i o n s f o r th e m s e lv e s ,
n o te d t h a t " s o c i e t y , a s a t p r e s e n t e x i s t i n g i n W a sh in g to n , i s
v e r y p e c u l i a r l y made u p , and a t i t s b e s t v e r y h o llo w and u n ­
s a tis fa c to ry .
T h is c r i t i c i s m was m ild com pared w ith an
a c c o u n t t h a t s t r e s s e d th e m e r e t r i c i o u s r a t h e r th a n m e re ly th e
a rtific ia l.
T h ere a r e
more o f th e demimonde i n W ash in g to n
now th a n e v e r
b e f o r e . No law i s p u t i n t o f o r c e t o
s t o p th e m . They p a r a d e P e n n s y lv a n ia Avenue i n s c o r e s
e v e ry b r ig h t a fte rn o o n , d re s s e d in t h e i r s e a ls k in s
and s i l k s , e i t h e r w a lk in g o r d r i v i n g i n some o f th e
b e s t - l o o k i n g t u r n o u t s i n th e c i t y . They ev e n e n t e r
th e g a l l e r i e s
o f C o n g re ss . . . th e p r i v a t e g a l l e r i e s
r e s e r v e d f o r th e m em bers' f a m i l i e s , w here a member o f
C o n g ress m u st have f u r n is h e d th e t i c k e t f o r t h e i r
a d m is s io n . 42
^ B e n P e r le y P o o re , Per l e y ' s Remi n i s c e n c e s o f S ix ty
Y e a rs i n th e N a tio n a l M e tr o p o lis Q P h ila d e lp h ia » 1 5 8 6 ), 11,
p . 527.
^ J a n e W. G em m ill, N o te s on W a sh in g to n , Or S ix Y ea rs
a t th e N a ti o n a l C a p i t a l ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , l 8 8 4 ) , p . 8o; s e e a l s o
G eorge A lf r e d Tow nsend, W a sh in g to n . O u ts id e and I n s id e ( H a r t­
f o r d , C o n n ., 1 8 7 3 ), p . 6 8 4 .
^ C a r p 's W a sh in g to n , p . 1 1 0 .
22
P la c e d i n p r o p e r p e r s p e c tiv e W a s h in g to n 's seam y s id e c o u ld be
t a k e n a s e v id e n c e o f m a t u r i t y , s in c e m o ral d e lin q u e n c y i s o f t e n
a n a t u r a l p a r t o f th e p r o c e s s o f u r b a n i z a t i o n .
n o t th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i t r e c e i v e d .
Y et t h i s was
I n s t e a d , t h e r e w ere e x ­
a g g e r a te d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l e c h e r y , i n f e r r i n g t h a t th e c i t y
r e v e l l e d i n s i n and w as h o p e l e s s l y d e b a u c h e d .
— .
" C a rp " a l s o p o in te d t o b e h a v io r t h a t c o u ld be d e f in e d
o n ly a s f l a g r a n t l y b i z a r r e .
A c u r io u s f e a t u r e o f th e w in in g and d in in g o f
W a sh in g to n i s th e c r a z e f o r g iv in g e n t e r ta in m e n ts
o f s p e c i a l c o l o r s . N ot lo n g ago M iss B acon, th e
d a u g h te r o f R e p r e s e n ta tiv e Bacon o f New Y ork, gave
a r e d lu n c h e o n a t w h ich th e sh a d e s o f th e c a n d le s
and g l a s s g lo b e s w ere r e d , th e b r e a d and b ak ed
p o t a t o e s w ere t i e d w ith r e d r ib b o n , and a c u s h io n
o f r e d t u l i p s form ed th e c e n t e r p i e c e . The s o u v e n ir s
w ere J a p a n e s e b onbons w ith d w arf r e d r o s e s s p r i n g ­
in g fro m t h e i r t o p s . Even th e ic e cream was r e d ,
i n t h e fo rm o f s t r a w b e r r i e s i n l i t t l e r e d can d y
h a m p e rs .^3
So w h e th e r f o c u s in g on m o ral s h o d d in e s s o r sim p ly a b b e r a n t
c o n d u c t, w hat p a s s e d f o r s o c i e t y in W ash in g to n c o u ld be d i s ­
m is se d a s n o th in g more th a n an u n sa v o ry s p e c t a c l e .
s to o d o u t s i d e th e s o c i a l p a l e , " s a i d H enry Adams.
B o s to n ia n h ad e v e r gone t h e r e . H i s
"W ashington
"No
d is m a l o p in io n was
c o n firm e d b y a n o th e r c o n te m p o ra ry who s t a t e d f r a n k l y t h a t
" th e c i t y d o es n o t o f f e r many a t t r a c t i o n s t o a s t r a n g e r , and
^ C a r p 's W a sh in g to n , p . 8 9 .
^ A d a m s, E d u c a tio n , p . 2 4 3 .
23
few c a re t o re m a in a f t e r s e e in g th e N a ti o n a l P r o p e r t y . ”**'*
"R e n ts a r e h ig h , fo o d i s b a d , th e d u s t i s d i s g u s t i n g ,
th e mud i s d e e p , and th e m o ra ls a r e d e p l o r a b l e , ” la m e n te d a
n ew sp a p er editor.**®
He was n o t a lo n e i n ju d g in g W ash in g to n
t o t a l l y u n b e a r a b le .
F r e q u e n tly t h i s c o n d i tio n was a t t r i b u t e d
t o th e n a t u r e o f th e p o p u l a t i o n .
I n th e s p r in g o f 1861
o c c u r r e d an ex o d u s o f s o u th e r n e r s who h ad d i r e c t e d s o c i a l
l i f e a t th e C a p i t a l th ro u g h o u t i t s h i s t o r y .
F i l l i n g th e
vacuum was a hodgepodge o f " p o l i t i c i a n s o f e v e r y g r a d e , a d ­
v e n t u r e r s o f e i t h e r s e x , in v e n to r s o f a l l s o r t s o f m i l i t a r y
a p p l i a n c e s , and sim p le c i t i z e n s , good and b a d . ”**7 W a sh in g to n ,
t h e r e f o r e , was w ith o u t a c l a s s w h ich c o u ld ta k e th e le a d a s
a r e f i n i n g e le m e n t i n r e g a r d t o t a s t e s and h a b i t s .
O th e r
c i t i e s w ere more f o r t u n a t e , and seem ed t o e n jo y l o f t i e r
am usem ents w h ich b ro u g h t a b o u t m e n ta l im provem ent and n o b le
p u rs u its .
W a sh in g to n , on th e o th e r h a n d , was c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by "a d e m o r a liz in g h a s te t o be r i c h , a v u l g a r , consum ing
p a s s io n f o r d i s p l a y . ”**8
**5Jo h n B. E l l i s , The S ig h ts and S e c r e t s o f th e
N a tio n a l C a p i t a l : A Work D e s c r i p tiv e o f Washin g to n C i ty i n
A l l i t s V a rio u s P h a s e s (C h ic a g o , 1 8 6 9 ), p . 5 5 .
**®Albert W. A tw ood, G a lla u d e t C o lle g e , i t s F i r s t One
H undred Y ea rs ( L a n c a s te r , P a . , 196**), p . l b .
**7J u l i a Ward Howe, R e m in is c e n c e s . 1819-1899 (B o sto n ,
1 8 9 9 ), p . 2 6 9 .
**®Gail H a m ilto n , "The D is p la y o f W ash in g to n S o c ie ty :
C o n s id e re d a s th e O r ig in o f E v i l i n th e U n iv e r s e ,” G a la x y ,
XXI ( J u n e , 1 8 7 8 ), 7 6 2 .
2k
Members o f th e g o v ern m e n t, e s p e c i a l l y s e n a t o r s , s e t
th e to n e f o r s o c i a l l i f e b y l i v i n g on an e x p e n s iv e s c a l e .
T h e ir q u a r t e r s te n d e d t o be su m p tu o u s, and th e y e n t e r t a i n e d
l a v i s h l y w ith " e v e r y th in g t o e a t and d r i n k t h a t money c o u ld
b u y ." 1*'^
I n d e e d , d u r in g th e l a t e s i x t i e s , w h at was r e p u te d t o
be th e m ost e l e g a n t h o u se i n W ash in g to n was owned b y th e
m i l l i o n a i r e s e n a t o r fro m New Y ork, Edwin D. M organ.^®
A b ig a il
D odge, a c o u s in o f th e w ife o f Jam es 6 . B la in e who l i v e d w ith
th e B l a i n e 's i n W a sh in g to n , e x p r e s s e d th e d o m in an t v iew t h a t :
I l l - g o t t e n an d w e l l - g o t t e n w e a lth have u s u rp e d
th e l e a d e r s h i p o f s o c i e t y . I t i s th e cu sto m , we
a r e in fo rm e d , f o r a s o c i e t y woman t o d a z z l e , n o t
b y h e r b e a u ty o r c o n v e r s a tio n , b u t b y th e q u a l i t y
o f h e r d r e s s and th e v a lu e o f h e r j e w e l s , and t h a t
a costum e i s n o t rem a rk e d upon a s b e in g i n good
t a s t e and b eco m in g , b u t a s h a v in g c o s t s o many
h u n d re d d o l l a r s . 51
I n s h o r t , b ro c a d e and b an k n o te s w ere commonly em ployed t o
d i s g u i s e fu n d a m e n ta l s o c i a l d e f i c i e n c i e s ; a p p u rte n a n c e s o f
e le g a n c e p a s s e d f o r th e r e a l t h i n g .
"When you become
^ H a r r i e t t B la in e t o W alker B l a in e , M arch 1 8 , 1 8 7 2 ,
L e t t e r s o f M rs. Jam es G. B l a i n e , e d . H a r r i e t t S . B la in e B e a le
(New Y o rk , 190& ), I , 105; M rs. Jo h n A. L o g an , R e m in isc e n c e s
o f a S o l d i e r 's W ife : An A u to b io g ra p h y (New Y o rk ,
p.
A lla n N e v ln s . H a m ilto n t i s n : The I n n e r H is to r y o f th e
G ra n t A d m in is tr a tio n (New Y o r K T T W . r e v . ecT. . 1 9 5 7 1 ; I I .
5 6 8 -5 7 0 ; a more c r e d i b l e e s tim a te o f s e n a t o r s ' s ta n d a r d s o f
l i v i n g i s c o n ta in e d i n D avid J . Rothm an. P o l i t i c s and P ow er:
The U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a te . 1869-1901 (C am b rid g e, Mass
,
p p . 1 3 7 -1 4 3 .
50Jam es A. R aw ley, Edwin D. M organ. 1 8 1 1 -1 8 8 3 :
M erc h an t i n P o l i t i c s (New Y ork, 1 ^ 3 5 ) , p p . 2 0 3 -2 0 4 .
51H a m ilto n , G a la x y . XXI, 7 6 2 .
25
c o n v e r s a n t w ith o u r p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y , you w i l l f i n d , w ith a l l
i t s c h a rm in g n e ss and b r i g h t n e s s , t h a t t h e r e a r e no c o n v i c ti o n s
b e n e a th i t . " ^ 2
I t m ust have b e e n e x c e p t i o n a l f o r one l i k e
M a d ele in e L e e , i n H enry Adams* n o v e l D em ocracy, who ”was s o b e r
i n h e r t a s t e s " and "made no d is p la y ,* * t o c r e a t e th e im p re s s io n
o f "luxury.**
H er s i s t e r , M iss S y b il R o ss, w as more t y p i c a l .
She h ad P a r i s d r e s s e s and "wore them and h e r o rn am en ts a c c o r d ­
in g t o a l l th e f o r m u la s ."
B ut l i k e th e s o c i e t y she r e p r e CQ
s e n t e d , " S y b il w as t r a n s p a r e n t • **J
E x tra v a g a n c e was m ost s t r i k i n g i n W hite House s o c i a l
fu n c tio n s .
F r e q u e n tly t h e r e w ere e l a b o r a t e , crow ded r e c e p t i o n s ,
a p r a c t i c e w h ic h H enry Adams c a l l e d " d r o l l a p in g o f u o n a r c h ia l
fo rm s.* ’
F o rm al d in n e r s w ere e x c e e d in g ly s p le n d o r o u s .
D uring
th e G ra n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n th e y w ere h e ld r e g u l a r l y on W ednesday
e v e n in g s an d s to o d a s th e h ig h p o i n t s o f th e f a s h io n a b le
season.
An a v e ra g e o f t h i r t y - s i x g u e s ts w ere s e a t e d i n th e
s t a t e d in in g room , " s u g g e s tiv e o f a b a r o n i a l h a l l . "
and g i l t v a s e s w ere e v e ry w h e re .
F e s to o n s
The t a b l e was a d o rn e d w ith a
lo n g m i r r o r , "a r a r e w ork o f a r t " w h ich w ould have p e r m itte d
th e d i n e r s t o view th e m s e lv e s e a t i n g e x c e p t f o r th e colum ns
o f f e r n s w h ich form ed i t s b o r d e r .
s e rv e d tw e n ty -n in e c o u r s e s .
The I t a l i a n s te w a r d , M elah ,
S ix w in e g la s s e s w ere s e t b e f o r e
^2Tow nsend, W a sh in g to n , p . 6 8 4 .
5 % e n ry Adams, D em ocracy, an A m erican N ovel (New Y ork,
1880, S ig n e t e d n . , New Y o rk , T 9 t l ) , p p . 2 0 - 2 1 .---------
26
e a c h p l a t e and a new w in e a e rv e d w ith e v e ry t h i r d c o u rse *
5ii
Few e v e n ts e q u a le d th e w edding o f th e P r e s i d e n t 's
e i g h t e e n y e a r o ld d a u g h te r i n th e E x e c u tiv e M ansion*
N e llie
G ra n t w as a h ig h s p i r i t e d y o u th whose g ay a c t i v i t i e s a g g r a ­
v a te d p r o p e r W a sh in g to n ia n s an d c a u se d much c lu c k in g o f
to n g u e s .
They fro w n ed on an u p b r in g in g w h ich f a i l e d t o " s h i e l d
h e r fro m th e a llu r e m e n ts o f p l e a s u r e , " and sh o o k t h e i r h e a d s
i n d ism ay when sh e " s u d d e n ly 'cam e o ut* a f u l l - f l e d g e d young
woman o f f a s h i o n , sp o k en o f a lm o s t e x c l u s i v e l y a s th e d r i v e r
55
o f a p h a e to n , and th e l e a d e r o f th e a l l - n i g h t G erm an."
A lth o u g h h e r engagem ent t o A lg e rn o n S a r t o r i s , and E n g lis h
g e n tle m a n , was r o u n d ly d is a p p ro v e d o f , th e y w ere m a rr ie d i n
May, 1 8 7 4 , i n w h at was r e p u te d t o be " th e m ost e l a b o r a t e
w edding t h a t e v e r to o k p la c e i n th e W hite H o u s e . T h e
M arin e Band p la y e d w h ile g u e s ts w ere e s c o r t e d i n t o th e E a s t
Room, w here f lo w e r s b ed eck ed th e w indow s, w a l l s , m a n tle s ,
t a b l e s , c h a n d e l i e r s , and d o o rw a y s.
"The b r id e had a t r o u s s e a u
f i t f o r an e m p e r o r 's d a u g h te r , and th e g i f t s show ered upon
5i|E m ily E dson B r ig g s , The O liv ia L e t t e r s : B ein g Some
H is to r y o f W ash in g to n C i ty f o r ffo rty Y e a rs as T o ld by th e
l e t t e r s o f a N ew spaper C o rre s p o n d e n t (New Y ork. 1 0 0 6 ), p p .
1 ^ - 2 0 7 ; ,4t . i f e a t tn e N a tio n a l C a p i t a l , ” L i p p i n c o t t 's Magaz in e o f P o p u la r L i t e r a t u r e and S c ie n c e , X II (D ecem ber,
1873 ) ;' 658- 619’.
------------------------------^^Mary Clemmer Ames, Ten Y ears i n W a sh in g to n : L if e
and S cen e s i n th e N a tio n a l Ca p i t a l * a s a Woman S ees ¥hem
( H a r t f o r d , G onn.7 1 8 7 * 0 , p . 2&>; M au rice F r a n c is E g an ,
R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f a Happy L if e (New Y ork, 1 9 2 4 ), p p . 6 2 -6 3 .
^^L ogan, R e m in isc e n c e s * p . 3 4 6 .
27
h e r re p re s e n te d a f o r tu n e .”
57
A f t e r th e cerem ony t h e r e was
a b r e a k f a s t fo llo w e d b y an i n s p e c t i o n o f p r e s e n t s : a d e s s e r t
s e t o f e i g h t y - f o u r p i e c e s , a d in n e r s e r v i c e v a lu e d a t $ 4 ,5 0 0 ,
two r i n g s , an e m e ra ld and a diam o n d , w o rth $ 1 ,0 0 0 e a c h , a
$500 h a n d k e r c h ie f , and a $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 ch e ck fro m th e f a t h e r o f th e
b rid e .
" A ll th e g i f t s w ere a r r a n g e d by a s p e c i a l a g e n t from
P h i l a d e l p h i a , who a t t r a c t i v e l y c l a s s i f i e d them i n a c c o rd a n c e
w ith th e s t o r e s from w h ich th e y w ere p u r c h a s e d ! "
58
A month
l a t e r th e P r e s i d e n t p a id $ 3 ,8 2 7 i n d e p a rtm e n t s t o r e and
d r e s s m a k e r s ' b i l l s , an amount t h a t c o v e re d o n ly New York and
P h i l a d e l p h i a s t o r e s — th e d o u b lin g o f h i s s a l a r y in 1873 cam e
none to o s o o n .
E q u a lly im p e ra tiv e was th e e s ta b li s h m e n t o f r u l e s o f
e tiq u e tte .
S in c e e l e g a n t s o c i e t y e n t a i l e d a p p r o p r ia te co n ­
v e n tio n s o f b e h a v io r t h i s became a m a t t e r o f f i r s t im p o rta n c e .
Many f a m i l i e s w h ich w ere r a p i d l y a c h ie v in g n o t o r i e t y w ere
u naccu sto m ed t o o b s e rv in g p r o p e r c o u r t e s i e s , and much o f
W ash in g to n s o c i e t y was lo u d and u n c o u th .
F o r th e sak e o f
o r d e r , and t o re d u c e b o o r is h n e s s and c o n f u s io n , i t seem ed w ise
t o te a c h th e s o c i a l c lim b e rs a c c e p te d modes o f c o n d u c t.
One who e a g e r l y m et t h i s p e d a g o g ic a l c h a lle n g e was
M a d ele in e V in to n D a h lg re n , a c e l e b r a t e d W a sh in g to n ia n whose
57R ufus R ockw ell W ils o n , W ash in g to n t h e C a p i t a l C i t y ,
and i t s P a r t i n th e H is to r y o f th e N a tio n ( P h i l a d e l p h i a ,
19017
,
~--- -------- ----
^® W illiam B. H e s s e l t i n e , U ly s s e s S . G ra n t, P o l i t i c i a n
(New Y ork, 1 9 3 5 ), p p . 2 9 9 -3 0 0 .
28
f a t h e r had s e rv e d tw e n ty y e a r s i n C o n g ress and whose l a t e
h u sb a n d , R e a r A d m iral Jo h n A. D a h lg re n , became w id e ly known
th r o u g h h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o th e U .S . C o a st S u rv e y and h i s
s e m in a l w ork i n n a v a l o rd n a n c e .
M rs. D a h lg re n won fame on
h e r own a s an o r g a n iz e r o f c h a r i t a b l e a c t i v i t i e s , a s an
a u th o r and d o m in an t f o r c e i n W a s h in g to n 's L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y ,
a n d , m ost o f a l l , a s th e s e l f - a p p o i n t e d a r b i t e r o f t a s t e .
She was re m a rk a b ly s i m i l a r t o - t h e f i c t i o n a l h e r o i n e , M a d ele in e
L e e : b o th w ere s t r o n g - w i l l e d and h ig h -m in d e d ; b o th h ad l o s t
d i s t i n g u i s h e d h u sb a n d s w h ile th e y th e m s e lv e s w ere s t i l l i n
th e prim e o f l i f e ; e a c h en g ag ed i n p h ila n th r o p y b u t r e s t ­
l e s s l y s o u g h t more s a t i s f y i n g o u t l e t s f o r t h e i r r e f o r m i s t
d r i v e s ; u l t i m a t e l y , a f t e r s h e d d in g t h e i r w id o w 's w e e d s, b o th
t r i e d t o b r i n g a b o u t a r e f in e m e n t o f W a sh in g to n s o c i e t y . 5^
M rs. Lee o p e r a te d q u i e t l y , b y t u r n i n g h e r p a r l o r i n t o an
e x c lu s iv e s a lo n f o r w i t t y and c l e v e r p e o p le .
on th e o t h e r h a n d , was f a r more o b t r u s i v e .
M rs. D a h lg re n ,
H er c ru s a d e to o k
th e form o f a p ro m u lg a tio n o f o r d in a n c e s f o r p r o p e r b e h a v io r ,
E t i q u e t t e o f S o c ia l L if e i n W a sh in g to n , w h ic h f i r s t a p p e a re d
i n 1873, w en t th ro u g h many e d i t i o n s , and u p s e t many p e o p le .
A h o s t i l e c l iq u e d e v e lo p e d i n th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty and
5% a r a h G. Bowerman, " S a ra h M a d ele in e V in to n
D a h lg r e n ," D ic tio n a r y o f A m erican B io g ra p h y , e d s . A lle n
Jo h n so n and bumas Malone (New V ork, l 9 5 9 ) , I I I , 3 1 -3 2 ;
M ad elein e V. D a h lg re n t o H o r a tio K in g , F e b r u a r y 1 1 , 1 8 7 4 ,
and May 5 , 1874, K ing P a p e r s , V I, LC; C h a r le s V a n d e rs e e ,
"The P u r s u i t o f C u ltu r e m Adams* D em ocracy. " A m erican
Q u a r t e r l y , XIX (Summer, 1 9 6 7 ), 2 3 9 -2 4 S .
29
L u c r e t i a G a r f i e l d d e f i e d M rs, D a h lg re n by r e f u s i n g t o a d o p t
h e r r i g o r o u s fo rm a t f o r W hite House re c e p tio n s .® ®
N o n e th e ­
l e s s , sh e re m a in e d a p ro m in a n t f i g u r e i n f a s h io n a b le c i r c l e s ,
a s h e r " p e r s o n a l s o c i a l r e g i s t e r ” makes c l e a r .
A ls o , th e
r u l e s w h ich she l a i d down c o n tin u e d t o be o b e y e d .
F in a lly ,
t h e r e seem ed t o be g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t a b o u t t h e u r g e n t n e e d
f o r s o c i a l g u id e lin e s .® * As a co n seq u en ce th e r e a p p e a re d a s p a te o f p u b l i c a t i o n s
d e s ig n e d t o s e rv e as m an u als o f good m a n n e rs.
T hese bo oks
w ere e d u c a t i v e , ex p o u n d in g i n t r i c a t e co d e s o f c o n d u c t and
p r e p a r in g th e r e a d e r f o r e v e ry c o n c e iv a b le s i t u a t i o n .
De­
t a i l e d d i r e c t i o n s f o r t i f i e d him a g a i n s t a m y ria d o f p o s s i b l e
fa u x p a s w h ich o th e rw is e m ig h t have p ro v ed e m b a r ra s s in g i n
W ash in g to n s o c i e t y .
When t o bow, how t o sh ak e h a n d s , th e
w r i t i n g o f a c c e p ta n c e s and r e g r e t s , d r e s s , c o n v e r s a t i o n ,
d e p o rtm e n t a t t a b l e —none o f th e s e was o v e r l o o k e d . P r i m e r s
on e t i q u e t t e a l s o aim ed a t a h i g h e r o b j e c t i v e .
®°Mrs. W. C h ap in H u n tin g to n , " L a d ie s o f th e L i t e r ­
a r y , ” u n p u b lis h e d p a p e r r e a d b e f o r e th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f
W a sh in g to n , J a n u a ry 9 , 1965, L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y P a p e r s , LC;
D ia ry o f L u c r e t i a R. G a r f i e l d , M arch 1 9 , 1 8 8 1 , G a r f i e l d
P a p e r s , LC.
®**Daily R eco rd and H o u seh o ld E x p e n se s and P e r s o n a l
S o c i a l R e g i s t e r , 1 8 7 8 -1 8 8 1 , M a d ele in e V in to n D a h lg re n P a p e r s ,
New Y ork P u b lic L ib r a r y ; M a rg a re t B r e n t Downing, l i t e r a r y
L a n d m a rk s,” R eco rd s o f th e C olum bia H is t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , XIX
(W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 1 6 ), 5 0 .
®2Mary Reed B o b b itt ( c o m p .) , A B ib lio g r a p h y o f E t i ­
q u e t te Books i n A m erica B e fo re 1900 (taew Y ork, 1 §**/), p . 3 ;
A r th u r
S c h l e s i n g e r , L e a rn in g How t o B e h av e: A H i s t o r i c a l
S tu d y o f A m erican E t i q u e t t e kooks (New Y o rk , 1 9 ^ 6 ) . p p .
3 2 -3 7 .
30
W hile p r o v id in g f o r o r d in a r y d a y - to - d a y c o n t a c t s
th e y s o u g h t a t th e same tim e t o r e c o n c i l e a r i s t o c r a t i c
cu sto m s w ith a n o n a r i s t o c r a t i c s o c i a l o r d e r .
T h is c o n d i t i o n
r e f l e c t e d w h at A rth u r S c h le s in g e r te rm e d " th e l e v e l i n g - u p
p r o c e s s o f d e m o c ra c y ."
W ith o u t d e n y in g th e m y th o lo g y o f
e g a l i t a r i a n i s m and c l a s s l e s s n e s s th e d e s i r e f o r g e n t e e l
a p p e a ra n c e s w as w r i t l a r g e .
Adams' rem a rk a b o u t th e " a p in g
o f m o n a rc h ia l fo rm s” c o n ta in e d more t r u t h t h a n hum or.
"B ecause we a r e a r e p u b l i c , " p ro c la im e d M rs. D a h lg re n , "we
a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t o be d e p r iv e d o f th o s e a m e n itie s w h ich
re n d e r l i f e a g r e e a b le ."
A t th e v e ry l e a s t i t s h o u ld be
u n d e r s to o d t h a t " th o u g h d e m o c ra c ie s may be ru d e th e y m ust
n o t be i n h o s p i t a b l e .
F u rth e rm o re , r e f i n e d form s an d
p r a c t i c e s w ere n o t a l i e n t o th e A m erican e n v iro n m e n t.
On
th e c o n t r a r y , th e y w ere a s in d ig e n o u s a s th e fo u n d in g f a t h e r s ,
b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y had b e e n d i s s i p a t e d by th e w aves o f d e ­
m o c r a t i z a t i o n e a r l i e r i n th e c e n t u r y ,
S u r e ly t h e r e h a d b e e n
a " r i g i d o b s e rv a n c e " o f s o c i a l e t i q u e t t e i n W a s h in g to n 's d a y ,
w h ich e n d u re d th e " r a d i c a l s e n tim e n ts " o f J e f f e r s o n .
"B ut
G e n e ra l J a c k s o n , when he became P r e s i d e n t , f i r s t b ro k e down
^^M ad elein e V in to n D a h lg re n , E t i q u e t t e o f S o c i a l L if e
i n W ash in g to n ( 4 th e d . ; W a sh in g to n , D .O ., 1 8 7 6 ), 1 3 .
^^ i p p i n c o t t *s M ag azin e, X I I , 6 5 7 .
31
th e b a r r i e r s o f c a r e f u l r e s p e c t . . .
Now th e y h ad t o
be r e c o n s t r u c t e d .
What seems s t r i k i n g a b o u t t h i s h a n d -w rin g in g o v e r
s o c i a l g a u c h e r ie s , and b ro o d in g o v e r th e d is a p p e a r a n c e o f
id e a l i s m , i s t h a t th e r e was su c h a w id e s p re a d c o n c e rn w ith
th e l a c k o f fo rm and d i r e c t i o n i n G ild e d Age A m eric a.
Of
s i g n i f i c a n c e i s th e f a c t t h a t a g r e a t many p e o p le w ere aw are
o f th e u n s e t t l e d p a t t e r n o f p o s t- w a r l i f e .
W hile th e w ar
e f f o r t had evoked a s p i r i t o f n a t i o n a l p u r p o s e , i t had n o t
r e s u l t e d i n th e c r e a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l u n i t y , and th o s e who
lo n g e d f o r c o h e s io n w ere s o r e l y d i s a p p o i n t e d .
S o c ia l and
econom ic c h a n g e s r o o te d i n th e a n t e - b e llu m e r a and a c c e l e r ­
a t e d by th e w ar i t s e l f h ad l e f t A m erican c u l t u r e f o r m l e s s .
To young G eorge S a n ta y a n a " s o c i e t y seem ed t o l a c k c o n t r a s t
and d e f i n i t i o n , a s i f e v e r y t h in g w ere h a l f form ed and g ro p in g
fifi
a f t e r i t s e s s e n c e . " 00
__
The m ost o b v io u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s unfo rm ed co n ­
d i t i o n was th e i n d e f i n i t e s t a t u s o f t a s t e and deco ru m .
If
t h e r e had e v e r e x i s t e d w e l l r o o t e d p r e c e d e n ts f o r th e c o n d u c t
^ D a h l g r e n , E t i q u e t t e , p . 1 5 . The f i r s t p r e s i d e n t
a c t u a l l y was in v o k e d a s p a rF ~ o f th e cam paign t o im prove t a s t e
and c o n d u c t. A p p e a rin g w i t h i n a s p a n o f f o u r y e a r s w e re :
G eorge W a sh in g to n ? s F if t y - S e v e n R u le s o f B e h a v io r (1 8 8 6 );
Wa s h i n g t o n 's R u le s o f c i v i l i t y and Decen t B e h a v io r i n Company
and C o n v e rs a tio n C l 8 8 s ;; G eorge W a s h in g to n 's R u le s o f C i v i l ­
i t y T ra c e d t o T?Keir S o u rc e s ( 1 8 ^ 0 ) .
^ G e o r g e S a n ta y a n a , P e r s o n s and P l a c e s : The B ack­
g ro u n d o f My L if e (New Y ork, 1 9 d 4 ) , p p . 203-20**.
32
o f s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e th e y h ad b e e n b u r i e d i n th e a v a la n c h e
o f changes.
Thus th e u rg e n c y f o r new norm s t h a t w ould p r o p e r ­
l y f i t t h e p o s t- w a r n a t i o n .
G ra n t* s fu m b lin g a t te m p ts t o
e s t a b l i s h p r a c t i c e s f o r s t a t e f u n c tio n s s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e
th is s itu a tio n .
The W hite House d in n e r p a r t i e s and fo rm a l
r e c e p t i o n s r e v e a l more th a n f r e a k i s h b e h a v io r ; th e y co n vey a
s e n s e o f g ro p in g u n c e r t a i n t y a s t o how th e P r e s i d e n t 's s o c i a l
and c e re m o n ia l d u t i e s s h o u ld be p e rfo rm e d i n th e new e r a .
S i m i l a r l y , G r a n t 's t a b l e s e t t i n g i s s i g n i f i c a n t n o t a s an
exam ple o f g r o te s q u e n e s s , b u t b e c a u se i t b e s p e a k s th e " u n ­
a b a sh e d e x p e r im e n ta tio n " t h a t was so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e
67
age.
H ere w as one d im e n sio n o f th e l a r g e r p ro b le m o f
c u ltu ra l d is o rd e rlin e s s .
The d r iv e f o r s o c i a l c o n v e n tio n s
w h ich c o u ld a c t a s g u id e s t o p r o p e r c o n d u c t was t h e r e f o r e
aim ed a t a m e li o r a t in g th e g e n e r a l c o n f u s io n a b o u t w h at c o n ­
s t i t u t e d a c c e p ta b le d e p o rtm e n t.
Y et th e c o n f u s io n a b o u t p o l i t e c o u r t e s i e s was o n ly
th e v i s i b l e ca p o f th e i c e b e r g , n o th in g more th a n th e m ost
p ro m in e n t f e a t u r e s o f d i s o r d e r .
Commotion o v e r su c h t r i f l e s
a s w h ich f o r k t o u se when m e re ly c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o th e more
fu n d a m e n ta l d i s a r r a y o f a d i s i n t e g r a t e d c u l t u r e .
68
^^Wilcomb E . W ashburn, " M a n u s c rip ts and M a n u fa c ts ,"
A m erican A r c h i v i s t , XXVII ( A p r i l , 1 9 6 4 ), 2 4 8 .
F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e c o n c e p t o f d i s i n t e g r a t i o n
and r e i n t e g r a t i o n se e Rowland B e r t h o f f , "The A m erican S o c ia l
O rd e r: A C o n s e rv a tiv e H y p o th e s is ," A m erican H i s t o r i c a l
R eview , LXV ( A p r i l , I 9 6 0 ) , 4 9 5 -5 1 4 .
33
The W a sh in g to n o f th e 1 8 7 0 's , h o w ev er, was n o t
e n t i r e l y a w a s te la n d ; t h e r e w ere a l s o g r a t i f y i n g a s p e c t s .
In d e e d , th r o u g h o u t t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f th e c e n t u r y , C a p i t a l
l i f e was o f t e n p r a i s e d f o r i t s q u i e t d i g n i t y .
"The s o c i e t y
c i r c l e i n W ash in g to n i n 1 8 7 3 ," r e c a l l e d one o b s e r v e r , "was
s m a ll com pared w i t h t h a t o f to d a y . . . .
The o ld W ashing­
to n ia n s w ere more e n e v id e n c e th a n now and th e p o l i t i c a l
e le m e n t came and w en t w ith o u t d i s t u r b i n g i n an y m arked d e g re e
th e harm ony o f th e s o c i a l a tm o s p h e re . ^9
W ash in g to n was v e r y s m a ll . . .
b u t s im p le ." ^ 0
"The c i r c l e i n
and th e e n t e r t a i n m e n t s many
A n o th e r r e s i d e n t w ro te t h a t i t was " u n n e c e s ­
s a r y f o r anyone t o l i v e b ey o n d h i s p o s i t i o n o r t o t r y t o
d a z z le h i s n e ig h b o r s b y a t o o l a v i s h p a ra d e o f w e a l t h . " ^
Many p e o p le e n jo y e d a n u n h u r r ie d e x i s t e n c e t h a t was r i c h i n
i t s m o d e sty .
F o r th o s e w hose t a s t e s w ere n o t p r e t e n t i o u s
s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e c o u ld be consu m m ately p l e a s a n t .
In 1928,
a fo rm e r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e U .S . C o a s t S u rv e y and
p r e s i d e n t o f th e M a s s a c h u s e tts I n s t i t u t e o f T ech n o lo g y
r e m in is c e d a b o u t W a sh in g to n f i f t y y e a r s b e f o r e .
® % !arian G o u v e m e u r, As I Remember: R e c o l l e c t i o n s
o f Ameri c a n Soc i e t y D u rin g th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry (ifew “Y o rk ,
1911 >, p . 3 W .
?°E g an , R e c o l l e c t i o n s , p . 6*».
^ W i l s o n , W a sh in g to n , I I , 3 9 3 .
34
C lt was th e n ] a d e l i g h t f u l and h o s p i t a b l e tow n;
t h e r e w ere no r i c h p e o p le ; e v e ry b o d y h ad h i s d a i l y
w ork i n some d e p a rtm e n t o f th e go v ern m en t and c a r r i e d
h i s lu n c h w ith him — th e m ost a r i s t o c r a t i c i n c o t t o n
n a p k in s , th e b o u r g e o is ie i n p a p e r n a p k in s . A l l w ent
home t o a h a l f - p a s t f iv e o ’ c lo c k d i n n e r . F o r s i x
m onths o f th e y e a r th e s o c i a l l i f e o f W ash in g to n was
on th e f r o n t d o o r s te p s o f d e m o c r a tic , b u t none th e
l e s s h o s p i t a b l e h o m e s . 72
M rs. W illia m Howard T a f t m a in ta in e d t h a t th e p e r ­
n i c i o u s i n f lu e n c e o f new w e a lth was n o t f e l t u n t i l th e c lo s e
o f th e c e n t u r y .
I n 1890 s o c i e t y i n W ash in g to n s t i l l c o n s i s t e d ,
c h i e f l y , o f th e " b e s t f a m i l i e s " o f th e o ld c i t y ,
th e d ip lo m a ti c c o r p s and th e h i g h e s t among th e
g o v ern m en t o f f i c i a l s . A d in n e r p a r t y o f tw e lv e
was s t i l l c o n s id e r e d l a r g e , and o n ly a few p e o p le
h ad w ee k ly e v e n in g s a t home. T here w ere o c c a s io n a l
b i g r e c e p t i o n s , b u t f o r nobody was s o c i e t y th e mad
r u s h t h a t i t i s to d a y . We o u r s e lv e s l i v e d v e r y
s im p ly e v e n f o r th o s e sim p le d a y s . 73
T h u s, d u r in g th e C le v e la n d e r a , i t c o u ld be s a i d b y a
S m ith s o n ia n r e g e n t and member o f th e g o v ern m e n t, t h a t " t h e r e
a r e many p l e a s a n t t h i n g s a b o u t th e s o c i a l s id e o f p u b l i c l i f e
i n W a sh in g to n .
I t i s v e r y d e m o c ra tic and y e t one c a n n o t go
t o a l a r g e d in n e r w ith o u t m e e tin g somebody w e ll w o rth m eet­
in g .
As l a t e a s 1900 W ash in g to n was com pared t o "a v i l l a g e ,
72Remarks b y H enry S . P r i t c h e t t , T h e F i f t i e t h A n n iv e r s a r y o f th e F o u n d in g o f th e Cosmos C lu b , 1878-1928 (W ashing­
t o n , D .t f ., 1 9 2 9 ), p . 57 a l s o q u o te d i n Abraham F le x n e r , H enry
S . P r i t c h e t t , A B io g ra p h y (New Y ork, 1 9 4 3 ), p . 6 3 .
7^M rs. W illia m Howard T a f t , R e c o ll e c t io n s o f F u l l Y ears
(New Y o rk , 1 9 1 4 ), p . 2 7 .
7^F estus P . Summers ( e d .) , The C abinet D iary o f
W illiam L . W ilson. 1896-1897 (ChapeT M i l l , N. f l . , 1 9 5 7 ),
January 13, 1896, pp. 9-10.
35
w here ev e ry o n e knows e v e ry b o d y e l s e " ; w here " th e g e n e r a l a i r
o f i t s i n h a b i t a n t s i s one o f d i g n i f i e d e a s e " ; w here th e
c i t i z e n r y w as n o t " d e g ra d e d b y th e g r e e d o f c o m m e rc ia lis m ,"
and " t a c t and c l e v e r n e s s , b r i l l i a n c y and b e a u ty , e x e r c i s e
75
g r e a t e r i n f lu e n c e . . . th a n th e y do i n m ost c i t i e s . "
C l e a r l y th o s e who e x t o l l e d W a sh in g to n , l i k e th o s e who
d enou n ced i t , te n d e d t o s e e o n ly l i m i t e d s e t s o f c h a r a c t e r ­
i s t i c s , and a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s a s tig m a tis m t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s
w ere b a d ly o u t o f f o c u s .
B e t t e r p e r c e p t i o n w ould h ave r e ­
v e a le d a c i t y w h ich was n e i t h e r a l l gaudy an d fla m b o y a n t, n o r
c o m p le te ly c u l t i v a t e d and g e n t e e l , and a s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e
w ith s e v e r a l q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s .
As L a u ra
Hawkins d is c o v e r e d , i n The G ild e d A ge, t h r e e d i s t i n c t compo­
n e n ts made up W a sh in g to n s o c i e t y .
T here w as th e o ld a r i s t o ­
c r a t i c g ro u p w h ich a p o th e o s iz e d i t s own c u l t i v a t i o n , a n c e s t r a l
r o o t s , and d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e c o r d o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e .
F a m ilie s
i n t h i s r i g i d l y e x c lu s iv e c a te g o r y w ere r e f e r r e d t o as
" A n tiq u e s ."
A t th e o p p o s ite p o le was th e " A r i s to c r a c y o f th e
P a rv e n u s " i n t o w h ich anyone m ig h t e n t e r — p r o v id e d , o f c o u r s e ,
he had money o r o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n .
O r ig in s c o u n te d f o r
n o th in g an d im m ed iate a s s e t s w ere a l l .
The " A n tiq u e s " some­
how m anaged t o ig n o r e th e " P a r v e n u s ," w h ile th e p re s u m p tio u s
" P a rv e n u s " la u g h e d a t th e " A n tiq u e s ," e v e n th o u g h th e y
75a . M au rice Low, "W ash in g to n : The C i ty o f L e i s u r e , "
A t l a n t i c M o n th ly , LXXXVI (D ecem ber, 1 9 0 0 ), 7 6 8 -7 7 5 .
s e c r e t l y e n v ie d th e m .
I n b e tw e e n to w e re d a m id d le g ro u p ,
" th e b e s t a r i s t o c r a c y o f th e t h r e e W a sh in g to n c a s t e s , and
t h e m o st p o w e r fu l, b y f a r . . . . "
The h e a d s o f th e s e
f a m i l i e s h e l d p o s t s i n th e l e g i s l a t i v e an d e x e c u tiv e b ra n c h e s
o f g o v e rn m e n t.
E d u c a te d , c o m p e te n t, and d i s c r e e t , th e y
"moved s e r e n e l y i n t h e i r w ide o r b i t , c o n f i d e n t i n t h e i r own
s t r e n g t h and w e ll aw are o f th e p o te n c y o f t h e i r i n f l u e n c e . " 7®
The " P a r v e n u s ," a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i r b e h a v io r , w ere m ost
c o n s p ic u o u s , and a s th e y a s s e r t e d th e m s e lv e s th e o l d e r
r e s i d e n t s became more w ith d ra w n .
VThey w ere p o w e rle s s t o
r e s i s t t h e t i d e o f e x c e s s w h ich so ch an g ed th e c h a r a c t e r o f
t h e i r o ld home, and so p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t th e o r g i e s o f th e
new com ers by ta k in g no p a r t i n th e m ." 77
R e tir e m e n t b y e s t a b l i s h e d s o c i a l l e a d e r s was an
a tte m p t t o r a i s e th e d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een a u t h e n t i c q u a l i t y
and th e a r t i f i c i a l s o c i e t y o f th e n ew ly r i c h .
S e t t i n g them ­
s e l v e s a p a r t seem ed a means f o r a c h ie v in g e x c l u s i v e n e s s .
C o l l e c t i v e l y th e y w ould c o m p rise a p o l i t e s o c i a l c l a s s , th e
b e s t W ash in g to n h a d t o o f f e r .
F u rth e rm o re , w ith d r a w a l seem ed
a s u r e way o f ov erco m in g th e f r u s t r a t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l d i s ­
harm ony, a k in d o f c o u n t e r p o in t t o c r a s s n e s s .
T hose d ism ayed
7^Mark Tw ain and C h a r le s D u d ley W a rn e r, The G ild e d
A ge: A T a le o f To-Day ( H a r t f o r d , C o n n .. 1 8 7 3 , 1 9 0 2 ). d o .
295 -295 , 311 -312 .
77E dw ard W inslow M a r tin , B ehind th e S c e n e s i n Wash­
in g to n (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 8 7 3 ), p ." 48'; C o n stan c e M cL aughlin
G re e n , W a sh in g to n : V illa g e and C a p i t a l , 1800-1878 ( P r i n c e t o n .
n . j . , i w i y ; % '3 7 5 -3 76 . ---------------- — *----------------
37
b y th e t e x t u r e o f s o c i a l l i f e c o u ld fo rm f o r th e m s e lv e s a
c u l t i v a t e d c i r c l e w h ic h w o u ld s e rv e a s a r e a l com m unity o f
in te re s t.
T h is e l i t e w ould be th e em bodim ent o f s o p h i s t i ­
c a t i o n an d sim p le d i g n i t y ; a c l o s e l y k n i t g r o u p , f a s t i d i o u s
and h i g h l y c i v i l i z e d .
N ot o n ly w ould i t s few members be
t r e a t e d t o th e ch arm o f t h e i r own com pany, b u t t o g e t h e r
th e y c o u ld s n e e r a t m e d i o c r i t y .
F o r th e m o st p a r t t h e s e " c a v e - d w e l l e r s , ” a s th e y came
t o be c a l l e d , w ere l o c a t e d i n th e s t a t e l y b r i c k homes s u r ­
ro u n d in g L a f a y e t t e S q u a r e .
I r o n ic a lly , t h i s re c ta n g u la r
g r e e n o p p o s ite th e W hite House h ad once b e e n a g r a v e y a r d .
By th e 1870*s i t p ro v id e d t h e s e t t i n g f o r a " s e r i e s o f
m an sio n s p r o b a b ly more h i s t o r i c th a n any o t h e r s i n g l e g ro u p
i n th e e n t i r e c o u n t r y , " and i t s e r v e d a s th e l a s t s tr o n g h o ld
o f a p erm an en t r e s i d e n t i a l s o c i e t y whose e x i s t e n c e was in d e 78
oendent o f p o l i t i c a l ch an g es.
H ere T w a in 's " A n tiq u e s ”
s p e n t t h e i r e v e n in g s , e n t e r t a i n i n g e a c h o t h e r w h ile e sch ew in g
showy o f f i c i a l r e c e p t i o n s ; and h e r e d e v e lo p e d a s o c i e t y
79
p r a i s e d a s " th e m o st d e l i g h t f u l i n th e w o r l d ."
E s p e c ia lly
7®Hal M. S m ith . " H i s t o r i c W a sh in g to n H om es," R eco rd s
o f th e C olum bia H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , X I (W a sh in g to n , D . t i .,
1 9 0 8 ),
C i s t & l a l r , " L a f a y e tte S q u a r e ," i b i d . t XXVIII
(1 9 2 6 ), 1 3 3 -1 7 3 ; M a r i e t t a M in n ig ero d e A ndrew s, My S tu d io
Window: S k e tc h e s o f th e P a g e a n t o f W a sh in g to n L ir e (Mew Y ork,
1928), pp.~ 3 I -3 ^ .-r ---------*-------------------------------------
^ " W a s h in g to n G o s s ip ," C i n c i n n a t i C om m ercial.
November 9 , 1 8 7 6 , x e ro x e d copy i n th e R u th e r f o r d B . Hayes
L ib ra ry .
38
n o ta b le w as th e s a l o n o f M r. and M rs. H enry Adams, " a n
I n t e l l e c t u a l and h ig h - b r e d c e n t e r , a re n d e z v o u s f o r th e
b e s t to n an d th e m ost a c c e p ta b le p e o p l e . " 80
A lth o u g h th e y
so u g h t i s o l a t i o n , members o f t h i s g e n t e e l g ro u p h ad th e
e f f e c t o f o f f - s e t t i n g some o f th e f l i m s i n e s s and f r a u d o f
C a p ita l l i f e .
Many w ere im p o r ta n t f i g u r e s i n l i t e r a t u r e ,
s c i e n c e , and a r t , an d W ash in g to n a s a w hole s h a re d th e
p r e s t i g e o f t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l am usem ents.
C o in c id e n t w ith t h i s d r iv e f o r s o c i a l o r d e r , and t h e
c r e a t i o n o f a c u l t i v a t e d e l i t e , was W ash in g to n * s em ergence
a s a hub o f s c i e n t i f i c e n t e r p r i s e .
D u rin g th e l a t t e r p a r t
o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y i t was e s tim a te d " t h a t t h e r e a r e
more men o f d i s t i n c t i o n i n s c ie n c e i n W ash in g to n th a n an y
o t h e r c i t y i n th e c o u n t r y ."
81
Numbers seemed t o im ply
s i g n i f i c a n c e , a s w as f u r t h e r r e v e a le d i n 1883 when M atthew
A rn o ld v i s i t e d W a sh in g to n t o l e c t u r e on •’L i t e r a t u r e and
S c ie n c e ."
A lth o u g h no l o c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l was deemed w o rth y
o f s h a r in g th e p la tf o r m w i t h A rn o ld , c o n s id e r a b le p r id e
w as d e r iv e d fro m th e f a c t t h a t th e a u d ie n c e c o n ta in e d tw o
dozen s c i e n t i s t s fro m th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n a l o n e .
82
80H enry W a tte r s o n , "M arse H e n ry ," An A u to b io g ra p h y
(New Y o rk , 1 9 1 9 ), I I , 3 4 -3 5 “
—
8"hpoore, P e r l e y ’s R e m in is c e n c e s , I I , 5 2 9 .
8^Jam es Dow M cCallum, "The A p o s tle o f C u ltu r e M eets
A m e ric a ," New E n g lan d Q u a r t e r l y , I I ( J u l y , 1 9 2 9 ), 3 7 4 -3 7 5 .
One
39
c o n te m p o ra ry announced th e a r r i v a l o f a ’’new e r a , " d e c l a r i n g
t h a t " t h e r e seem s r e a s o n t o a n t i c i p a t e t h a t in tim e o u r
c a p i t a l c i t y o f W ash in g to n w i l l come t o be a s w e ll known a s
a c e n t r e o f l i t e r a t u r e and a r t , a s i t i s now r e c o g n iz e d a s
83
th e c e n tr e o f s ta te s m a n s h i p , law and s c i e n c e , "
A n o th e r
o b s e r v e r b o a s te d t h a t a s so o n a s i t s s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and
i n t e l l e c t u a l f o r c e s w ere f u s e d i n t o an o r d e r e d w hole
W a sh in g to n w o u ld s ta n d a s " th e m o st su p e rb m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f
c iv iliz a tio n .
Such e x t r a v a g a n t e x p e c t a t i o n s r e f l e c t e d th e a m b itio u s
p la n s o f th e s c i e n t i s t s , e d u c a t o r s , and men o f s p e c i a l i z e d
s c h o l a r s h i p who h ad g r a v i t a t e d t o W ash in g to n d u r in g th e C i v i l
War d ecad e a n d , a f t e r w a r d , s o u g h t t o make th e s e a t o f g o v e rn ­
m ent i n t o th e c a p i t a l o f n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e .
When Anna B.
D ic k in s o n d e c l a r e d h e r " u n lim ite d b e l i e f i n i t s
[W ash in g to n ’s ]
c a p a c i t y t o do a n y t h i n g s h e a c t u a l l y was g iv in g v o ic e t o th e
c o n v i c ti o n h e ld b y l o c a l s a v a n ts t h a t th e c i t y ’s p o s s i b i l ­
i t i e s f o r a d v a n c in g c u l t u r e w ere i n f i n i t e , and t h a t once i t s
*
r e s o u r c e s w ere ta p p e d W ash in g to n w ould become " th e i n t e l -
83I . Edward C la r k e , "The C o n d itio n s o f L i t e r a t u r e i n
W ash in g to n a t th e Time o f th e F o u n d in g o f T h is S o c i e t y , "
r e a d b e f o r e th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , J a n u a r y 2 1 ,
1 8 9 9 , L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty P a p e r s , LC.
Q/i
Ames, Ten Y e a rs , p . 2 5 5 .
40
l e c t u a l mecca o f th e c i v i l i z e d w o r l d . ”
85
C e rta in i n t e r ­
c o n n e c te d f a c t o r s a p p e a re d t o j u s t i f y t h i s o p t i m i s t i c v ie w .
W ith th e e x p a n s io n o f g overnm ent a g e n c ie s and q u a s i- g o v e r n m e n ta l i n s t i t u t i o n s , p ro m is in g young men w ere a t t r a c t e d t o
W ash in g to n i n g r e a t e r num bers th a n e v e r b e f o r e .
Many w orked
f o r new ly c r e a te d b o d ie s l i k e th e U n ite d S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l
S u rv e y , Army Mfedical Museum, U n ite d S t a t e s F is h C om m ission,
D ep artm en t o f A g r i c u l t u r e , and th e S m ith s o n ia n ’ s B u rea u o f
E th n o lo g y .
The S m ith s o n ia n i t s e l f b ro a d e n e d th e sco p e o f
i t s a c t i v i t i e s d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d , a s d i d o t h e r p r e - w a r
i n s t i t u t i o n s su c h a s th e C o a st S u rv e y , th e S ig n a l S e r v i c e ,
th e L ig h t House B o a rd , th e P a t e n t O f f i c e , and th e N av al
O b s e r v a to ry .
Thus W ash in g to n to o k on s t a t u r e a s a lo c u s o f
s c i e n t i f i c t r a i n i n g and r e s e a r c h , a n d , r a t h e r q u i c k l y ,
a c q u ir e d th e r e p u t a t i o n o f b e in g a ’’u n iq u e and c o l o s s a l
'e d u c a t i o n a l p l a n t .
In d e e d , w ith i t s p o t e n t i a l l y f in e
n a t i o n a l l i b r a r i e s , a r t c o l l e c t i o n s , museums, e d u c a t i o n a l
f a c i l i t i e s , and a p erm an en t c o r p s o f s c i e n t i f i c and l i t e r a r y
men th e r e seemed no r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h a t W a sh in g to n c o u ld
ta k e th e le a d i n p ro m o tin g a l l d e p a rtm e n ts o f know ledge and
e n h a n c in g A m erican c u l t u r e .
T h is v i s i o n w as s u s t a i n e d b y
®^Anna E . D ic k in s o n , A Ragged R e g i s t e r ( o f P e o p le ,
P la c e s and O p in io n s) (New Y o rk , l » / 9 ) , pT 183; T allm adge A.
L a m b e rt, ^ O b s e rv a tio n s on th e D evelopm ent o f th e N a tio n a l
C a p i t a l , ” R e co rd s o f th e C o lumbia H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , I I
(W ash in g to n , b .G ., 1 8 9 9 ), 2 9 l .
86jam es C. W e llin g t o D a n ie l C. G ilm a n , M arch 2 9 ,
1 8 8 9 , G ilm an P a p e r s , The Jo h n s H opkins U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y .
41
p o s t- w a r n a t i o n a l i s m , a c c o r d in g t o w h ich th e C a p i t a l was
c o n c e iv e d o f a s th e h e a r t o f f u t u r e advancem ent*
C o n se q u e n t­
l y , W ash in g to n and i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s became v a s t l y im p o r ta n t,
a s i l l u s t r a t e d b y F r a n c is L i e b e r 's s ta te m e n t t o th e L i b r a r i a n
o f C o n g re ss when d o n a tin g some b o o k s .
I have ta k e n a p le a s u r e i n i n s c r i b i n g i n th e s e
volum es "To th e N a tio n a l L i b r a r y . " I t i s n o t th e
o f f i c i a l nam e, b u t I ta k e th e l i b e r t y . I t i s th e
name you h ave t o come t o . L i b r a r y o f C o n g ress was
good enough i n J e f f e r s o n i a n tim e s ; b u t i s n o t now
a f t e r th e w ar . . . I g iv e t h e s e books on a c c o u n t
o f th e N a t i o n a l i t y i n y o u r l i b r a r y , and n o t o f i t s
Co n g re s s io n a 1 i t y . 87
G ild e d Age W a sh in g to n lo o k e d l i k e th e i d e a l tim e and p la c e
f o r w h at D a n ie l C o it G ilm an c a l l e d "young men b e n t on
p r o g r e s s , " and s c o r e s o f them h a s te n e d t o ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f
th e s i t u a t i o n b o th f o r th e m s e lv e s and f o r th e n atio n .® ®
W ash in g to n a f t e r th e C i v i l War p r e s e n te d a p o r t r a i t
f u l l o f l i g h t and sh ad o w s.
I t was a t once a " g r e a t and
w ic k e d " c i t y m i r r o r i n g th e b e s t and w o rs t o f th e p e rio d .® ^
In c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s t h i s c u l t u r e w as s i n g u l a r l y i n e l e g a n t .
E p ito m iz e d b y ro u g h men o f new w e a lth i t seem ed m a t e r i a l ­
i s t i c , t a s t e l e s s , and th o r o u g h ly d e v o id o f p u r p o s e .
Cus­
t o d i a n s o f g e n t e e l c u l t u r e and s o c i a l c r i t i c s w ere s c o r n f u l
87
F r a n c is L i e b e r t o A in sw o rth R. S p o f f o r d , May 2 0 ,
1 8 7 0 , S p o ff o rd P a p e r s , LC.
88
On G ilm a n 's o p tim ism a f t e r th e w ar se e Hugh
H aw kins, P io n e e r : A H is to r y o f The Jo h n s H opkins U n i v e r s i t y .
1874-1889 ( I t h a c a , N. Y.". 1 9 6 0 ), p . 1 8 .
QQ
H a r r i e t t B la in e t o W alk er B l a in e , May 2 7 , 1869,
L e t t e r s o f M rs. B l a in e , I , 1 0 .
42
o f w h at th e y r e g a r d e d a s a new A m erican s t y l e .
They h ad
lo o k e d fo rw a rd w ith hope and o p tim ism t o th e p o s t- b e llu m e r a
w h ic h , th e y c o n f i d e n t l y f e l t , was d e s t i n e d t o be one o f h ig h
m o ra l p u rp o se and s p i r i t u a l g r e a t n e s s .
B u t th e w ar y e a r s
h ad had a g r e a t e r e f f e c t i n w h e ttin g s e l f i s h a p p e t i t e s th a n
i n h e ig h te n in g i d e a l i s t i c f e r v o r , and d u r in g th e g e n e r a l
p u r s u i t o f e a r t h l y r i c h e s t r a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s w ere r u d e l y
tr a m p le d u n d e r .
A t f i r s t g la n c e W ash in g to n lo o k e d no more i n s p i r i n g
th a n th e r e s t o f th e n a t i o n .
I t s s o c i e t y was o f a low
c a l i b e r and i t s lu m i n a r ie s w ere o f t e n c o a r s e and v a p id .
Some s e n s i t i v e W a s h in g to n ia n s s o u g h t t o a m e lio r a te t h i s
c o n d i t i o n by r e s u r r e c t i n g f o r g o t t e n r u l e s o f e t i q u e t t e .
O th e r s , who w ere p e s s i m i s t i c a b o u t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r o v e r ­
a l l im p ro v em en t, r e t r e a t e d i n t o a s o c i a l c i r c l e o f t h e i r
own c h o o s in g .
B ut W a sh in g to n a l s o c o n ta in e d a p o w e rfu l
"m id d le a r i s t o c r a c y , " a s Twain l a b e l l e d i t ,
i n w h ich c o u ld
be fo u n d many o f th e fo re m o s t i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f th e l a t e
n in e te e n th c e n tu ry .
T hese men w ere d e e p ly , i f q u i e t l y ,
in v o lv e d i n p u b l i c l i f e , and t o g e t h e r th e y ad d ed an im p o r ta n t
d im e n s io n t o l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y c u l t u r e , a s c a n be s e e n
i n t h e i r f i r s t g r e a t a c h ie v e m e n t, th e o r d e r in g o f W a s h in g to n 's
i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity.
CHAPTER I I
"ELEGANT CIRCLES"
O b s e rv e rs who r e p o r t e d f a v o r a b ly on p o s t- w a r
W ash in g to n u s u a l l y w ere im p re s se d by th e c i t y ’s a b i l i t y t o
spawn s c i e n t i f i c and l i t e r a r y s o c i e t i e s .
N ot o n ly d id th e s e
o r g a n i z a t i o n s im pose a modicum o f o r d e r on an o th e rw is e
f o r m le s s c u l t u r e , th e y a l s o seem ed t o b e s p e a k a f l o u r i s h i n g
i n t e r e s t i n m a tte r s o f th e mind and s p i r i t .
But t h e n , as
now, i n t e l l e c t u a l p r e t e n t i o n s d id n o t g u a r a n te e e x c e l l e n c e .
I n th e r a s h o f a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t w ere h a s t i l y e s t a b l i s h e d
d u r in g t h i s p e r io d t h e r e c o u ld alw ay s be found p o o r i m i t a t i o n s
o f th e a u t h e n t i c .
T h is unhappy c o n d i tio n was due t o th e f a c t t h a t
m em bership i n a s c i e n t i f i c o r l i t e r a r y s o c i e t y had sy m b o lic
a s w e ll a s i n t r i n s i c v a l u e , and many p e o p le w ere a l l u r e d
more by th e fo rm e r th a n th e l a t t e r .
Those in th e g e n t e e l
c l a s s , a tte m p tin g t o s e t th e m s e lv e s a p a r t from G ild e d Age
b a r b a r i a n s , fo u n d su c h g ro u p s d e c id e d ly u s e f u l .
L ite ra tu re
a s an a v o c a tio n h ad t r a d i t i o n a l l y d e s ig n a te d a g e n tle m a n ; i t
was th e u n i v e r s a l c e r t i f i c a t e o f b r e e d in g and l e i s u r e .
S c ie n c e
i n p o s t- w a r A m erica b ro u g h t e v e n h ig h e r s o c i a l d iv id e n d s .
be d e e p ly i n t e r e s t e d i n s c ie n c e was t o be " c u l t i v a t e d , " f o r
To
44
d e v o tio n t o i t s a b s t r a c t i o n s showed t h a t one eschew ed
m a te ria l co n c ern s.
Hence th e vogue o f l i t e r a r y an d s c i e n ­
t i f i c s o c i e t i e s among th e e d u c a te d who so u g h t t o em phasize
t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e n ess.'* ’
The n o u v eau x r i c h e s c o n s id e r e d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith
i n t e l l e c t u a l l y o r i e n t e d g ro u p s j u s t a s im p o r ta n t, i f f o r
s lig h tly d iffe re n t reaso n s.
I n t h e i r c a s e th e s e a f f i l i a t i o n s
o f f s e t th e l a c k o f f a m ily b ac k g ro u n d a s th e y t r i e d t o e s ­
ta b lis h s o c ia l p o s itio n .
Once a g a in , much o f th e p o p u l a r i t y
o f s c i e n t i f i c and l i t e r a r y s o c i e t i e s stemmed from th e s t a t u s
w hich t h e y a u t o m a t i c a l l y b e s to w e d .
F a r s ig h te d and p r a c t i c a l
i n d i v i d u a l s who o r g a n iz e d l e a r n e d s o c i e t i e s a f t e r th e C i v i l
War knew t h a t th e q u e s t f o r c o n n e c tio n s c o u ld red o u n d t o t h e i r
a d v a n ta g e , and a s a r e s u l t men o f means o f te n became th e
p r i n c i p a l b e n e f a c t o r s o f s c i e n t i f i c and l i t e r a r y a s s o c i a t i o n s .
When F ra n z Boas s o l i c i t e d a d v ic e a b o u t s t a r t i n g an e th n o lo g ­
i c a l s o c i e t y i n New Y ork, f o r ex a m p le , he was rem in d ed t h a t
"you w an t p a tr o n s a s w e ll a s t a l k e r s , men who l i k e t o se e
t h e i r names among i n t e l l e c t u a l p e o p le ." ^
B ut n o t a l l th e
^ F o r a n i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f how th e f a s c i n a t i o n
w ith s c ie n c e became a m ark o f c u l t i v a t i o n se e D a n ie l J .
K e v le s , "The S tu d y o f P h y s ic s i n A m eric a, 1 8 65-1916" (u n ­
p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , D ep artm en t o f H i s t o r y , P r in c e to n
U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 4 ), p p . 2 2 -2 5 , 3 5 -4 6 .
^ O tis T. Mason t o F ra n z B o as, December 3 , 18 8 7 , Boas
P a p e r s , A m erican P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty ; J o s e p h H enry h ad s a i d
much th e same t h i n g s e v e n te e n y e a r s b e f o r e i n "E x a m in a tio n o f
P r o f e s s o r H enry b y th e E n g lis h G overnm ent S c i e n t i f i c Commis­
s i o n , " S m ith s o n ia n M is c e lla n e o u s C o l l e c t i o n s .X V III (W ash in g to n ,
D .C ., 1 8 8 0 ), 7 8 1 -7 8 2 .
45
s t a t u s s e e k e r s w ere draw n i n t o i n t e l l e c t u a l l y r e s p e c t a b l e
g ro u p s.
Many d e v e lo p e d c i r c l e s o f t h e i r own, and a s th e
y e a r s p a s s e d and t h e s e m u l t i p l i e d , W ash in g to n was s u r f e i t e d .
One who r e g a r d e d t h i s p l e t h o r a o f o r g a n iz a tio n s a s
h ig h ly am using was th e A m erican b o m w ife o f Jo h a n de
H e g e rm a n n -L in d e n cro n e, D a n ish M in i s te r t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
She was a member o f s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t c i r c l e s and ev e n h e r
N egro v a l e t , R o b e r t, b e lo n g e d t o a B row ning-T ennyson r e a d i n g
c lu b .
R o b e rt u se d t o w ear th e c lu b d e c o r a tio n i n h i s b u t t o n ­
h o le when s e r v in g fo rm a l d i n n e r s .
O fte n g u e s ts i d e n t i f i e d
i t a s th e F re n c h L e g io n o f H onor, and once he w as m is ta k e n
f o r th e M i n i s t e r fro m H a i t i .
Mne. de H e g e rm a n n -L in d e n c ro n e 's
l e t t e r s from th e C a p i t a l c o n t a i n r e p o r t s o f f,Sunday e v e n in g s "
a t Mary I s a b e l R o b e s o n 's , w ife o f G r a n t 's S e c r e t a r y o f th e
Navy and a member o f th e m u s ic a l s e c t i o n o f th e W ash in g to n
L ite r a r y S o c ie ty .
O ddly th e h o s t e s s d id n o t a llo w m usic
b e c a u se sh e f e l t i t l i m i t e d c o n v e r s a tio n .
To th e b e a u t i f u l
L i l l i e de H eg e rm a n n -L in d e n cro n e, h e r s e l f th e c e n t e r o f a
m u s ic a l s e t a s w e ll a s an a c c la im e d v i r t u o s o , t h i s p o l i c y
was p r e p o s t e r o u s .
I n 1879 th e M i n i s t e r and h i s w ife and a
few i n t i m a t e s , C a r l S ch u rz among th em , o r g a n iz e d th e N a tio n a l
R a tio n a l I n t e r n a t i o n a l D in in g C lu b .
T h ere w ere b y -la w s and
o f f i c e r s — "who h ad th e jo b o f r e c o g n iz in g and c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n
t o th e j o k e s . O t h e r g ro u p s , h o w ev er, w ere more s e r i o u s
3l . de H eg e rm a n n -L in d e n cro n e, The Sunny S id e o f D ip lo m a tic L i f e , 1875-1912 (New Y ork, 1 9 1 4 ), p p . l b , 71, 78; f o r
1*6
a b o u t e s t a b l i s h i n g a n i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity.
The im p u lse f o r e n h a n c in g W ash in g to n s o c i e t y was
e x e m p lif ie d b y th e s a lo n p r e s id e d o v e r b y H o ra tio K in g .
K in g , a fo rm e r c a b i n e t o f f i c e r and lo n g tim e r e s i d e n t had
made th e c u l t i v a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t h i s m a jo r p u rp o se in l i f e .
B om and r a i s e d on a farm n e a r P a r i s , M ain e, he r e c e iv e d
little
fo rm a l i n s t r u c t i o n beyond w hat th e common s c h o o ls
c o u ld p r o v id e , and th e b r e a d t h o f h i s know ledge was a lm o st
e n tir e ly s e lf-a c q u ire d .
He d id n o t a t t e n d Bowdoin C o lle g e
w hich d u r in g th e f i r s t t h i r d o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y s to o d
a s th e A th en s o f n o r t h e r n New E n g la n d .
Had he done so he
w ould have known th e c e l e b r a t e d company o f W illia m P i t t
F e s s e n d e n , N a th a n ie l H aw th o rn e, H enry W adsw orth L o n g fe llo w ,
F r a n k lin P i e r c e , and C a lv in S tow e.
I n s t e a d he w ent t o w ork
as a p r i n t e r ' s d e v i l , and l i k e some o f h i s f r i e n d s who
h a i l e d from th e i n v e r t e d t r i a n g l e e x te n d in g b etw een New
H am pshire and th e K ennebec R iv e r — n o ta b ly H a n n ib a l H am lin,
Anson M o r r i l l , and E lih u W ashburne and h i s b r o t h e r s
C a d w a lla d e r and I s r a e l —K ing made h i s m ark w ith o u t b e n e f i t
o f h ig h e r e d u c a ti o n .
R a th e r th a n h in d e r in g h i s p r o g r e s s
t h i s v o id i n s p i r e d him t o map o u t a c o u rse o f p e r s o n a l s tu d y
c o v e rin g a b ro a d ra n g e o f s u b j e c t s .
B e fo re th e y w ere tw e n ty he and f u t u r e V ic e - P r e s id e n t
a s k e tc h o f Mme. de H eg erm an n -L in d en cro n e see M aurice F r a n c is
E gan , R e c o ll e c t io n s o f a Happy L i f e (New Y ork, 1 92*0, p p .
6 3 -6 4 ; "W ash in g to n G o s s ip ," C i n c i n n a t i C o m m ercial, J a n u a r y
2 8 , 18 7 7 , x e ro x e d copy i n th e R u th e r f o r d B. llay es L i b r a r y .
47
H am lin became ow ners o f t h e i r hometown n e w sp a p e r, th e
J e f f e r s o n i a n , and i n 1830 K ing em erged a s i t s e d i t o r and s o le
p ro p rie to r.
U n d er h i s management th e p a p e r hewed t o a p r o -
J a c k s o n ia n p o s i t i o n , a l o y a l t y w h ich b r o u g h t a b o u t h i s rem o v a l
t o W a sh in g to n .
I n 1839 Amos K e n d a ll re w a rd e d him w ith a
c l e r k s h i p i n th e P o s t O f f ic e D e p a rtm e n t, and K ing b eg an h i s
s te a d y c lim b t o t h e r a n k o f P o s tm a s te r G e n e r a l.
Upon r e ­
tir e m e n t he d e v o te d h im s e lf t o com m unity s e r v i c e , m ost
s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s e c r e t a r y o f th e W a sh in g to n Monument S o c ie ty
and he was in s t r u m e n ta l in b r in g in g th e p r o j e c t t o c o m p le tio n .
H o r a tio K ing*s r i s e from fa rm boy t o member o f th e g o v ernm ent
r e a f f ir m e d th e n a t i o n a l f a i t h i n e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y and
i n d i v i d u a l ad v an cem en t.
Beyond t h a t i t p la c e d him i n th e
f r o n t r a n k o f W ash in g to n s o c i e t y a f t e r th e C i v i l W ar, and
g iv e n h i s commitment t o l e a r n i n g , i t w as n a t u r a l t h a t he
w ould u se t h i s p o s i t i o n in an e n d e a v o r t o e l e v a t e c u l t u r a l
sta n d a rd s.* *
S e e k in g t o f u l f i l l th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f s o c i a l
l e a d e r s h i p , K in g , l a t e i n 1869, b e g a n h o ld in g w hat w ere known
as " l i t e r a r y r e u n io n s ."
These a s s e m b lie s w ere n o t c o n d u c te d
u n d e r th e a u s p ic e s o f any o f f i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r
came a b o u t a t th e p le a s u r e o f th e h o s t .
A tte n d a n c e was by
i n v i t a t i o n o n ly and on s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s v i s i t o r s who a p p e a re d
**For a b io g r a p h ic a l a c c o u n t b y h i s so n s e e H o r a tio
K in g , T u rn in g On th e L i g h t . . . ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1 8 9 5 ), p p .
7 -2 1 .
48
w ith o u t one o f K in g ’ s h an d so m ely e n g ra v e d c a r d s fo u n d th e
p o rta l b a rre d .
M rs. H enry Rowe S c h o o l c r a f t , widow o f th e
famed e t h n o l o g i s t , w as tu r n e d away, and K ing showed no
com p u n ctio n a b o u t r e f u s i n g a f r i e n d who r e q u e s te d a d m is s io n .
On t h i s p o in t K ing was u n y ie ld in g — r e g a r d l e s s o f th e m o r ti­
fic a tio n in f lic te d .
When p r e s s e d f o r j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f th e
p o lic y he w ould e x p l a i n t h a t h i s h o u se w as s im p ly to o s m a ll
t o accommodate more th a n th e a n t i c i p a t e d n u m b e r.5
How ever,
th e r e was a l s o th e u l t e r i o r p u rp o se o f i n s u r i n g t h a t w ith o u t
e x c e p tio n g u e s ts w o u ld be p e r s o n s o f in f lu e n c e and s t a n d i n g .
K in g 's o b j e c t i v e was t o p ro v id e an atm o sp h ere f o r ’’f r e e and
p l e a s a n t i n t e r c o u r s e among th e e d u c a te d and a c c o m p lis h e d ." 5
S im ply p u t t h i s m eant e x c lu d in g l i g h t w e i g h t s b y m aking th e
r e u n io n s h ig h ly s e l e c t i v e .
T here h ad b e e n l i t e r a r y g ro u p s
a t th e C a p i t a l b e f o r e , b u t , as M rs. S c h o o l c r a f t p a i n f u l l y
d is c o v e r e d , K in g ’ s was th e f i r s t t o c o n s id e r th e q u a l i t y o f
i t s members a s i n e qua n o n .^
T h is i s n o t t o s a y t h a t K ing welcomed o n ly a u th o r s
and c r i t i c s .
Had he done s o h i s r e u n io n s w ould have f a i l e d
f o r w ant o f p a r t i c i p a n t s s in c e G ild e d Age W ash in g to n was
^U n sig n ed l e t t e r t o H o r a tio K in g , December 1 5 , 1870,
and K ing t o H enry A. B r e w s te r , J a n u a r y 1 2 , 18 7 1 , K ing
P a p e r s , 17, LC.
^ H o ra tio K ing t o W. W. B e lk n a p , M arch 2 2 , 1870, i b i d .
^M arian G o u v e rn e u r, As I Remember: R e c o lle c t i o n s o f
A m erican S o c ie ty D u rin g th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry (New Y ork.
191177 p .”377". ---------
*
49
h a r d l y w e ll s to c k e d w ith p r e s t i g i o u s l i t e r a r y f i g u r e s .
Most
w r i t e r s and s c h o l a r s o f n o te w ere e i t h e r t r a n s i e n t l e c t u r e r s
o r te m p o ra ry r e s i d e n t s .
G eorge W illia m C u r t i s o f t e n s p e n t
an e v e n in g a t K in g ’ s w hen he v i s i t e d W a sh in g to n , and Moses
C o it T y le r , th e n commencing h i s lan d m ark s tu d y o f C o lo n ia l
A m erican l i t e r a t u r e , a d d r e s s e d th e K ing g ro u p in J a n u a r y ,
1871.
Lew W a lla c e f r e q u e n te d r e u n io n s d u r in g 1873 w h ile
w o rk in g a t th e L i b r a r y o f C o n g ress p r e p a r a t o r y t o w r i t i n g
B en-H u r, b u t h i s s t a y w as b r i e f and when i t en d ed K in g 's
c i r c l e l o s t one o f i t s few fam ous a u t h o r s .
I n f a c t , th e
c o m p o s itio n o f th e r e u n io n s was l e s s a r t i s t i c th a n g o v e rn ­
m e n ta l, w h ich was t o be e x p e c te d c o n s id e r in g w h at K ing
so u g h t t o a c c o m p lis h .
He hoped t h a t h i s g a t h e r in g s m ig h t
g a i n p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n , s e t a n exam ple o t h e r s w ould f o llo w ,
and th e r e b y c r e a t e a c o u n t e r v a i l i n g f o r c e a g a i n s t w h at he
r e f e r r e d t o a s " th e crow ded and e x p e n s iv e
'r e c e p t i o n s ' h e ld
a t u n r e a s o n a b le h o u rs and w hich a r e so u n n e c e s s a r y and un­
r e a s o n a b le i n a lm o s t e v e r y r e s p e c t." ®
I t w as im p e r a tiv e ,
t h e r e f o r e , t o have c e l e b r i t i e s no m a tte r how te n u o u s t h e i r
t i e s w ith b e l l e s l e t t r e s .
W ith in th e c o n t e x t o f W a sh in g to n t h i s m eant p r i m a r i l y
o f f i c e h o ld e r s o r p e r s o n s l i k e K ing who h ad o c c u p ie d p o s i t i o n s
i n th e g o v e rn m e n t.
c o n s id e r e d .
L i t e r a r y q u a l i f i c a t i o n s w ere b u t l i g h t l y
Thus M i l l a r d F illm o r e was i n v i t e d t o r e u n io n s
® H oratio K in g t o W. W. B e lk n a p , M arch 2 2 , 1870, K ing
P a p e r s , V, LC.
50
a lth o u g h he once had b e e n o b lig e d t o r e f u s e an h o n o ra ry
d e g re e from O xford b e c a u s e , by h i s own a d m is s io n , he had done
n o th in g w o rth w h ile i n s c ie n c e o r l i t e r a t u r e .
O ver th e y e a r s
m ost w e ll known p o l i t i c i a n s w ere p r e v a i l e d upon t o a t t e n d .
P r e s i d e n t G r a n t, f o r ex am p le, was p ro m ise d "a more c o r d i a l ,
i f n o t a s warm and b r i l l i a n t a r e c e p t i o n a s he r e c e i v e d a t
F o r t D o n a ld so n , V ic k s b u rg and R i c h m o n d , w h i l e an o v e r tu r e
t o P r e s i d e n t Hayes c o n ta in e d th e a s s u ra n c e t h a t " l i t e r a r y
e x e r c i s e s w ould n o t l a s t more th a n an h o u r . ’’'*’®
S t r e s s i n g th e f e l i c i t y o f h i s r e u n io n s was one way
K ing t r i e d t o a t t r a c t im p o r ta n t p e r s o n a l i t i e s ; a n o th e r was
by m aking c e r t a i n t h a t h i s g a t h e r in g s s ta y e d a p o l i t i c a l .
W ith th e c o n v i c ti o n t h a t a r t and p o l i t i c s do n o t mix he was
s c r u p u lo u s ly c a r e f u l t o re m a in f r e e from p a r t i s a n s h i p . ^ 1^
A c c o rd in g ly K ing was a b le t o b r in g u n d e r one r o o f A le x a n d e r
S te p h e n s , fo rm e r V ic e - P r e s id e n t o f th e C o n fe d e ra c y , and
G rand Army o f th e R e p u b lic s t a l w a r t L u c iu s F a i r c h i l d , a lo n g
w ith s u c h n a t u r a l o p p o n en ts a s Thomas A. H e n d ric k s and
H a n n ib a l H am lin; Sam uel R a n d a ll and S c h u y le r C o lfa x .
A lth o u g h
an a r d e n t D em o crat, K ing a b id e d by th e same s ta n d a r d he s e t
H o r a t i o K ing t o F r e d e r ic k T. D e n t, F e b ru a ry 1 8 ,
1870, i b i d .
^ ^ H o ra tio K ing t o W illia m K. R o g e rs , J a n u a r y 1 1 , 1878,
R o g ers P a p e r s , R u th e r f o r d B. Hayes L i b r a r y .
^ F o r K in g 18 a b h o rre n c e o f p a r t i s a n s h i p i n l i t e r a t u r e
s e e H o r a tio K ing t o Ward H. Lamon, December 5 , 1887, Lamon
P a p e r s , LN 3 6 9 , H enry E . H u n tin g to n L i b r a r y .
51
f o r o th e rs .
As i f t o u n d e rs c o re t h i s he composed an a f f e c t i o n ­
a t e t r i b u t e t o J u s t i n M o r r i l l , g ra n d o ld man o f th e R e p u b lic a n
p a r t y , on th e l a t t e r * s s e v e n t y - f i f t h b i r t h d a y :
One y e a r a g o , came n o t a few
W ith in y o u r open d o o r ,
E x u lti n g a t th e th o u g h t t h a t you
Were young a t s e v ’n t y - f o u r .
A g ain we g r e e t you w ith d e l i g h t ,
W hile we o u r s e lv e s s u r v i v e ,
T h at you a re w e ll and b r i g h t t o - n i g h t ,
And young a t s e v ’n t y - f i v e .
M ean tim e, y o u r o ld G reen M o u n tain S t a t e ,
By r e s o l u t i o n f ir m ,
H ath w i s e l y v o te d y o u , o f l a t e ,
A n o th e r s i x y e a rs * te rm .
H en ce, you a r e bound a s a l l m ust s e e ,
To f i l l th e te rm b eg u n ,
And n e ’e r f o r g e t , a t l e a s t t o be
S t i l l young a t e ig h ty - o n e
I t i s n o t h a r d t o u n d e r s ta n d why Jam es B uchanan t o l d
K ing t h a t "you w ere more d i s t i n g u i s h e d a s A s s i s t a n t P o s tm a s te r
G e n e ra l and a s c h i e f o f th e D ep artm en t th a n you w i l l e v e r
become a s a poet."*-'*
U sin g K in g 's v e r s e a s a p o i n t o f r e f e r ­
ence i t a l s o i s e a s y t o se e why th e atm o sp h ere o f h i s r e ­
u n io n s more c l o s e l y re s e m b le d e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r m e e tin g s o f
*-2K in g * s poem t o J u s t i n M o r r i l l , A p r i l 1*4-, 1 8 8 5 , K ing
P a p e r s , V I I I , LC. D u rin g th e n e x t few y e a r s K ing became th e
s e l f - a p p o i n t e d " p o e t - l a u r e a t e , i n MORRILL s e n s e , " and h i s
v e r s e i n h o n o r o f th e s e n a t o r ’s e ig h ty - s e c o n d b i r t h d a y i s r e ­
p r i n t e d i n K in g , T u rn in g On th e L i g h t , p p . 1 9 -3 0 .
1-3Jam es B uchanan t o H o r a tio K in g , June 23, 1866,
K ing P a p e r s , IV , LC.
52
p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s th a n s e m in a rs o f l i t e r a t i .
L e c tu r e s w ere
som etim es w i t t y , b u t n e v e r e r u d i t e o r c o m p lic a te d .
T h ere
was n e i t h e r c r i t i c i s m n o r d i s c u s s i o n a f t e r w a r d , an d th e y
w ere k e p t a s s h o r t as p o s s i b l e .
The b r e v i t y o f p ro g ram s was
w hat s p e a k e r s em p h asized m ost when p ro p o s in g t o p i c s f o r
K in g 's a p p r o v a l: " I w ould l i k e much t o o f f e r my l e c t u r e on
'T h e o ry and P r a c t i c e , ’ o r 'T he P r a c t i c a l M a n '. . . .
I t is
s h o r t —b y f a r th e s h o r t e s t l e c t u r e I h a v e ," w ro te one
c a n d id a te ; a n o th e r v o lu n te e r e d t o r e a d a new poem, "A T rue
H is to r y o f J a c k and G i l l
[s ic ] w h i c h
c o u ld be c u t fro m
tw e n ty t o t e n m in u te s s h o u ld t h a t s u i t K in g 's p l e a s u r e . 1-**
In a d d i t i o n t o c h o o s in g t h e i r s u b j e c t s s p e a k e r s a l s o named
t h e i r a u d ie n c e s b y s u b m ittin g g u e s t l i s t s w h ich K ing w ould
ra tify .
A l l t h i s made f o r e v e n in g s t h a t w ere c o n g e n ia l and
r e l a x i n g i f n o t i n t e l l e c t u a l l y in c a n d e s c e n t.
Y et e v e r y th in g i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s was w h at K ing
d e s ire d .
" S o c ia l i n t e r c o u r s e , " he p r o c la im e d , w as " th e m ain
6 b j e c t o f th e s e r e c e p t i o n s , " and c o n s id e r in g
w h at he s e t
o u t t o a c c o m p lis h , th e l i t e r a r y r e u n io n s w ere e m in e n tly
s u c c e s s f u l . 1-^
By th e m id - s e v e n tie s th e y o c c u p ie d a f i x e d
p o s i t i o n i n th e s o c i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e
C ity .
o f th e C a p i t a l
R e f l e c t i n g w hat K ing te rm e d " th e c u l t i v a t e d s e n s e o f
l ^ a r i a A. S te ts o n t o H o r a tio K in g , A p r i l 3 , 1 8 7 0 ,
and Jo h n S . Cunningham t o H o r a tio K in g , M arch 2 1 , 18 7 2 ,
i b i d . , V.
^ H o r a t i o K ing t o W illia m K. R o g e rs , J a n u a r y 1 1 ,
1 8 7 8 , R o g ers P a p e r s , R u th e r fo r d B. Hayes L i b r a r y .
53
th e co m m u n ity ,1’ th e y w ere c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s t a t e l i n e s s ,
w h ich d i s t i n g u i s h e d them from th e d i s t a s t e f u l f a r e o f G ild e d
Age c u l t u r e . 1** E v e ry o p p o r tu n ity was s e iz e d t o sh u n o s t e n ­
t a t i o n , a s K ing p o in te d o u t i n a n o te t o a new g u e s t : •’We
e x p e c t o u r f r i e n d s t o come i n t h e i r o r d in a r y c a l l i n g costum e
—n o t a t a l l a s t o a ’d r e s s p a r t y . ’
We a s k them t o s te p
up t o th e 3d s t o r y and l a y o f f t h e i r h a t s , b o n n e t, and o v e r
d r e s s , as we r e c e i v e them w ith o u t any d i s p l a y i n th e
p a r l o r . ” 17
By u s in g th e gaudy r e c e p t i o n s a s a f o i l K in g ’ s
l i t e r a r y r e u n io n s became m odels o f d i g n i t y and mediums f o r
im p ro v in g th e to n e o f l o c a l s o c i e t y .
When he was t o l d in
1871 t h a t h i s m e e tin g s had a l r e a d y come t o c o n s t i t u t e one
o f th e C a p i t a l ’s m ost ’’e l e g a n t c i r c l e s , ” n o th in g c o u ld have
p le a s e d him m o re .18
E le g a n t th e r e u n io n s may have b e e n , and c e r t a i n l y
th e y had a d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t on t a s t e and c o n d u c t, b u t a s a
f o r c e i n th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f A m eric a’s l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n
th e K ing g ro u p was i n s i g n i f i c a n t .
To d e c la r e t h a t King
su c c e e d e d i n ’’c o n c e n t r a t i n g and d e v e lo p p in g
[s ic ] L ite ra ry
t a l e n t , a t th e N a tio n a l M e t r o p o l i s ,” c la im e d to o much f o r
l^ H o r a tio K ing t o W. W. B e lk n a p , M arch 2 2 , 1870,
K ing P a p e r s , V, LC.
17H o r a tio K ing t o W illia m K. R o g e rs , J a n u a ry 11,
1 8 7 8 , R o g ers P a p e r s , R u th e r f o r d B. Hayes L i b r a r y .
IS m . E. N. H o w ells t o H o r a tio K in g , J a n u a r y 12 ,
18 7 1 , K ing P a p e r s , V, LC.
54
h i s r e u n io n s , and t h e r e s im p ly i s no h a r d e v id e n c e t o s u p p o r t
th e a s s e r t i o n t h a t th r o u g h h i s e f f o r t s W ash in g to n became a
fo u n t o f n a tio n a l i n f l u e n c e .^
H ere was no B o sto n S a tu r d a y
C lu b , whose m em bership r o s t e r o f E m erson, H aw th o rn e, H o w e lls,
H olm es, L o n g fe llo w , M o tle y , P r e s c o t t , L o w e ll, W h i t t i e r , and
o t h e r s a p p ro x im a te d a w ho’ s who o f A m erican l e t t e r s .
W ith
th e e x c e p tio n o f th e re u n io n s * s t r i c t s i m p l i c i t y and c o n c is e
p ro g ra m s, w h ich i n a way m ir r o r e d th e new t e r s e n e s s i n
f i c t i o n —w h at Edmund W ilso n h a s d e f in e d a s " th e c h a s te n in g
o f A m erican p r o s e s t y l e " —K in g ’ s g ro u p f a i l e d t o r i p p l e th e
s tr e a m o f l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y .
20
In th e e y e s o f c o n te m p o ra ry W a s h in g to n ia n s , h o w ever,
th e r e u n io n s lo o k e d l i k e a m a jo r a c h ie v e m e n t, and i f some
w ere prone t o e x a g g e r a te t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e i t was b e c a u se
th e s e g a t h e r in g s b r o u g h t a r e f r e s h i n g change i n th e l o c a l
atm o sp h ere and h e l d s u c h p ro m ise f o r th e f u t u r e .
At la s t i t
seem ed t h a t th e c h e r i s h e d hope f o r an i n t e l l e c t u a l com munity
a t th e C a p i t a l m ig h t be f u l f i l l e d ; t h a t th ro u g h l e a r n e d i n ­
s t i t u t i o n s form ed t o s t a b i l i z e G ild e d Age c u l t u r e w ould be
l a i d a f o u n d a tio n f o r th e n a t i o n a l e s ta b li s h m e n t o f s c ie n c e
and l i t e r a t u r e w h ic h men h ad t a l k e d a b o u t a l l d u r in g th e
1 9 jo se p h S . W ilso n t o H o r a tio K in g , J a n u a r y 2 0 ,
1872 , and Jam es A . E k in t o H o r a tio K in g , J a n u a ry 1 6 , 1875,
i b i d . , V and V I.
2®Edmund W ils o n , P a t r i o t i c G o re : S tu d ie s i n th e
L i t e r a t u r e o f th e A m erican C i v i l War (Mew Y ork, 1962),
pp. 635-669.
55
n in e te e n th c e n tu ry .
K in g 's g ro u p r e p r e s e n t e d a s t e p to w ard
th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h a t d ream .
T ru e , t h e r e was no o r g a n i­
z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e , no r e g u l a r m em bership, no m e e tin g
s c h e d u le , no p u b l i c a t i o n , and n o t ev e n an o f f i c i a l nam e, y e t
t h e s e in f o r m a l r e u n io n s showed t h a t W a sh in g to n was r i p e f o r
s e r io u s - m in d e d a s s o c i a t i o n s .
What b eg a n a s e n te r ta in m e n ts
d e s ig n e d f o r th e b e n e f i t o f f r i e n d s i n p a r t i c u l a r and Wash­
in g to n c u l t u r e i n g e n e r a l s u g g e s te d t o o t h e r s th e e f f i c a c y
o f in te lle c tu a l a s s o c ia tio n s .
I t may be assu m ed , f o r
i n s t a n c e , t h a t Jo h n J a y Knox, a fo u n d e r o f th e Cosmos C lu b ,
w as i n f lu e n c e d t o some d e g re e by h i s w i f e 's m u s ic a le s w hich
y i e l d e d f a s c i n a t i n g im p l i c a t i o n s f o r th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
W a sh in g to n c u l t u r e .
C a r r ie K n o x 's e l e g a n t c i r c l e was n o te d
f o r d ra w in g t o g e t h e r co n g ressm en , c a b in e t m em bers, s c i e n t i s t s ,
Supreme C o u rt j u s t i c e s , and v a r io u s p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,
and s u r e l y t h i s l e s s o n w eig h ed on th e m ind o f h e r h u sb an d
21_
when he d e c id e d t o h e lp c r e a t e an e l i t i s t i n s t i t u t i o n . x
G ra n te d , t h e r e w ere i r r e d u c i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een K in g ’s
c i r c l e and Mrs Knox’s p ia n o r e c i t a l s on th e one h a n d , and
th e Cosmos C lub on th e o t h e r .
B ut w h ile th e fo rm e r g ro u p s
s u f f e r e d from a d e f i c i e n c y o f t a l e n t , s u c c e s s o r s o c i e t i e s —
n o ta b ly th o s e d e v o te d t o s c i e n c e —w ere i n c r e a s i n g l y p r o ­
f e s s i o n a l i n c h a r a c t e r and f u n c t i o n .
The l a t e 1 8 8 0 *s w itn e s s e d a c u r t a i l m e n t and f i n a l l y
2]-Knox C i r c u l a r L e t t e r , J a n u a r y 16 and M arch 9 , 18 8 0 ,
V, New Y ork H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty .
56
a c e a s in g o f th e l i t e r a r y r e u n i o n s .
P a r t o f th e r e a s o n was
b e c a u se K ing fo u n d t h a t more and more o f h i s tim e was b e in g
m o n o p o lize d b y th e W ash in g to n Monument C om m ittee.
B ut t h i s
does n o t e n t i r e l y e x p l a i n why th e y w ere d i s c o n tin u e d .
C l e a r l y th e r e u n io n s had s e r v e d t h e i r p u rp o se s in c e W ashington
was n o t th e b o o r i s h b a c k w a te r i t had b e e n i n 1 8 6 9 .
More
im p o r t a n t l y , t h e r e w ere now s e v e r a l o t h e r o r g a n iz a tio n s w h ich
K ing had h e lp e d i n s p i r e and w h ic h , i n t u r n , w ere e n d e a v o rin g
t o b u i l d upon h i s s u c c e s s .
Such a g ro u p was th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W ash in g to n
w h ich a f t e r th e m id -1 8 7 0 ’ s a c c e l e r a t e d th e d r iv e f o r s o c i a l
o r d e r and i n t e l l e c t u a l ad v a n ce m en t.
i t s p r o p e r l y a b b r e v i a te d t i t l e )
22
"The L i t e r a r y " ( t o use
grew up in d e p e n d e n t o f
K in g ’ s c i r c l e and p r e s e n te d some m arked c o n t r a s t s .
T here
w ere s tr o n g h i n t s , h o w ev er, t h a t th e o ld P o s tm a s te r G e n e ra l
may have b e e n one o f i t s p r o g e n i t o r s — e s p e c i a l l y s in c e b o th
to o k s u c h p a in s t o avow t h e i r com m itm ent t o a r t .
E ach so u g h t
t o in f u s e W a sh in g to n w ith th e e le g a n c e t h a t o f f i c i a l s o c i e t y
c o u ld n e v e r p r o v id e , and o u tw a rd ly th e y w ent a b o u t g a in in g
t h e i r m u tu a l o b j e c t i v e i n th e same w ay: by h o ld in g e l i t e
a s s e m b lie s f o r th e e n jo y m en t and e d i f i c a t i o n o f th e m s e lv e s ,
22M rs. W illia m C h ap in H u n tin g to n h a s r e c o u n te d how
she was f i r s t i n s t r u c t e d t h a t "no o n e—no one who i s anyone —
c a l l s i t a n y th in g b u t ’The L i t e r a r y , ’ " " L a d ie s o f The L i t e r ­
a r y , " u n p u b lis h e d p a p e r r e a d b e f o r e th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f
W a sh in g to n , J a n u a r y 9 , 1 9 6 5 , L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty P a p e r s , LC;
se e a l s o th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e f i v e h u n d re d th m e e tin g in
The W ash in g to n H e r a ld , M arch 2 8 , 1 9 2 7 .
57
w h ile a t th e same tim e h o p in g t h a t t h e i r ex am p les w ould be
w id e ly e m u la te d .
The c h i e f d i f f e r e n c e was i n t e r n a l , and
b e c a u s e i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l fram ew ork was b e t t e r d e v e lo p e d
The L i t e r a r y * s in f lu e n c e was more e n d u r in g .
23
T h is r e s u l t e d from th e f a c t t h a t a s soon a s The
L i t e r a r y was begun i t s e a r l y o r g a n iz e r s fa d e d i n t o th e b a c k ­
g ro u n d .
Numerous q u a s i - i n t e l l e c t u a l a s s o c i a t i o n s d a r te d
a c r o s s th e h o r iz o n o f l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y c u l t u r e ; t h e i r
p r o g r e s s was m e te o r ic and when th e y v a n is h e d i t was u s u a l l y
due t o th e l a c k o f b r i l l i a n c e o f t h e i r p r i n c i p a l m em bers.
What h e lp e d s u s t a i n th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty was th e p r e s t i g e
o f i t s l e a d e r s , p e r s o n a l i t i e s w ith whom th e o r g a n i z a t i o n
was i d e n t i f i e d .
Had i t ch o sen t o r e l y on th o s e who d id th e
o r i g i n a l p la n n in g i t s l i f e sp a n p r o b a b ly w ould have b ee n a s
e v a n e s c e n t a s many s i m i l a r g r o u p s , f o r E sm erald a B o y le , S a ra
C a r r U p to n , and e v e n O liv e R i s l e y Sew ard w ere am ia b le b u t
<•>
r e l a t i v e l y anonym ous.
Of th e t h r e e M iss Sew ard was th e b e s t known.
H anson
R i s l e y , h e r f a t h e r , was a l i f e l o n g a l l y o f W illia m H enry
Sew ard who had p r o v id e d him w ith a m in o r p o s t i n th e T r e a s u r y .
I t was th e d a u g h te r , h o w ev er, whom Sew ard found th e more
i n t e r e s t i n g member o f th e f a m ily — in d e e d he was i n f a t u a t e d
^ H e l e n N ic o la y , S i x t y Y ears o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty
(W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1934) .p a s s i m ; Thomas M. S p a u ld in g , ‘The
L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty i n Peace and War (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 3 7 J,
pp. 6 -1 0 .
58
w ith h e r .
D e s p ite th e f o r ty - o d d y e a r s s e p a r a t i n g t h e i r ag e s
sh e r e t u r n e d h i s a f f e c t i o n s , and g r a d u a l l y th e y became
c o n s ta n t co m p an io n s.
D u rin g th e l a t e s i x t i e s t h e r e w ere
c a r r i a g e r i d e s and p i c n i c s a lo n g Rock G re ek , e v e n in g s s p e n t
in s tu d y in g th e c l a s s i c s , t r i p s t o g e t h e r t o u p s t a t e New
Y ork, a t o u r o f th e O r i e n t , and much g o s s ip a b o u t th e aged
w idow er c a v o r t in g w ith th e r a t h e r p r e t t y d a u g h te r o f h i s
a s s o c ia te .
A p p a r e n tly th e o n ly way t o c o n tin u e th e r e l a t i o n ­
s h ip and s a f e g u a r d t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n s was a d o p tio n .
A ccord­
i n g l y , a f t e r d is c u s s i o n s w ith H anson R i s l e y and S ew ard ’s
2h
c h i l d r e n , she to o k th e name o f h e r d e v o te d a d m ire r.
Even b e f o r e m e e tin g Sew ard O liv e had shown a m ild ly
in te lle c tu a l b e n t.
As a g i r l i n New Y ork b e f o r e th e w ar she
e x p e r ie n c e d th e e x c i t i n g r e c e p t i o n s o f th e s i s t e r s A lic e and
Phoebe G ary , whose house on T w e n tie th S t r e e t was th e c e n t e r
of a lite r a r y c irc le .
E ach Sunday e v e n in g , i n th e C a ry f s
l i b r a r y , g a th e r e d a re m a rk a b le c o t e r i e o f men and women
n o te d f o r t h e i r g r a c e , w i t , and a r t i s t i c s e n s i b i l i t i e s r a t h e r
th a n mere s o c i a l p o s i t i o n .
Though v a r io u s sh a d e s o f p o l i t i ­
c a l p e r s u a s io n w ere r e p r e s e n t e d th e atm o sp h ere n e v e r grew
te n s e and th e c o n v e r s a tio n was alw ay s s t i m u l a t i n g . 2 S
O liv e
R i s le y S ew ard ’ s e a g e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s t a r t i n g a s i m i l a r
^G ly n d o n G. Van D eusen, W illia m H enry Seward (New
Y ork, 1 9 6 7 ), p p . 5 5 3 -5 6 2 .
-----------^^Mary Glemmer Ames, A M em orial o f A lic e and Phoebe
C a ry , W ith Some o f T h e ir L a t e r Poems (New V ork, 1 8 7 3 ), p p .
38'! 'S9",""<>P=ST.------- “-------------------------------
59
g ro u p i n W ash in g to n stemmed from g lo w in g
rem em brances o f
tim e s p a s t y and th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e new
o r g a n i z a t i o n b o re
th e stam p o f h e r y o u th f u l im p r e s s io n s .
I t was i n M iss
S ew ard ’ 8 home t h a t p la n s f o r The L i t e r a r y w ere f i r s t d i s ­
c u s s e d , l a t e i n 18 7 3 , a f t e r w hich sh e s l i p p e d o u t o f s i g h t
so t h a t more i l l u s t r i o u s p e rs o n a g e s c o u ld become th e o b j e c t s
of a tte n tio n .^
At t h i s
c r i t i c a l ju n c tu r e Jo h n G eorge N ic o la y t h r u s t
h im s e lf fo rw a rd and th r o u g h h i s p r e s e n c e
on an a u ra o f d i s t i n c t i o n .
The L i t e r a r y to o k
N ic o la y h ad a c h ie v e d p ro m in en ce
w h ile s e r v in g w ith Jo h n Hay as P r e s i d e n t L i n c o l n 's p r i v a t e
s e c re ta ry .
F o llo w in g th e a s s a s s i n a t i o n he to o k c h a rg e o f
th e A m erican C o n s u la te in P a r i s , and re m a in e d o v e r s e a s u n t i l
1869.
P a r i s , w hich he a d o re d , p ro v e d t o be th e sc e n e o f
r e p e a te d v e x a tio n s when N ic o la y was c h a rg e d w ith in c o m p eten ce
— and w o rse —by p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e r s who c o v e te d h i s p o s t .
Nor was l i f e
in th e U n ite d S t a t e s much h a p p i e r .
I l l h e a lth
p la g u e d him a f t e r he r e t u r n e d , th e a r t i c l e s he w ro te w ere
r e c e iv e d w ith i n d i f f e r e n c e , and he was d i s t r a u g h t b y w h at
seem ed an om inous d e g e n e r a tio n o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r .
P a t r i o t i s m and id e a lis m w ere s h ro u d e d i n c o r r u p t i o n w ith
c o n d i tio n s a t th e C a p i t a l C ity b e in g b l e a k e s t o f a l l .
He
lo n g e d f o r some way t o a m e lio r a te th e s i t u a t i o n , b u t w hat
2 ^ H u n tin g to n , " L a d ie s o f The L i t e r a r y , " p . 1 , and
J u l i a Ten Eyck M c B la ir, "The B e g in n in g s o f th e L i t e r a r y
S o c i e t y : A P a p e r Read a t i t s G olden A n n iv e r s a r y , J a n u a r y 12,
1 9 2 4 ," L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty P a p e r s , LC.
60
was t o be d o n e?
B e q u e th in g t o A m erica a d e t a i l e d p o r t r a i t
o f Abraham L in c o l n , one t h a t w ould e n s h r in e th e L in c o ln
t r a d i t i o n b y show ing him t o have b e e n i n f i n i t e l y g r e a t ,
27
o f f e r e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r r e k i n d l i n g m o ral f e r v o r .
Y et
a w ork o f t h i s m ag n itu d e w ould be a lo n g te rm p r o j e c t ,
le a v in g u n an sw ered th e n e e d f o r an im m ediate rem ed y .
T h e re ­
f o r e , he was a l a c r i t o u s i n a c c e p tin g th e i n v i t a t i o n o f th e
W ash in g to n L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y , a g ro u p t h a t b id f a i r t o e n ­
hance l o c a l c u l t u r e and w h ic h , u l t i m a t e l y , owed a s much t o
N ic o la y as he t o i t .
I n 187^ N ic o la y was M a rsh a l o f th e Supreme C o u rt;
h i s i n f l u e n c e , h o w ev er, d e r iv e d from h o ld in g th e u n o f f i c i a l
p o s itio n o f a re s id e n t in te lle c tu a l.
T h is r e p r e s e n t e d a
p e r s o n a l triu m p h b e c a u se N ic o la y b eg an l i f e
in a u s p ic io u s ly .
H is em ergence a s a s o c i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l e a d e r was
r e d o l e n t o f H o r a tio K in g ’s c lim b from o b s c u r i t y .
In f a c t ,
l e a v in g o u t a c o u p le o f b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e s t h e i r c a r e e r s
seem i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e .
W hereas K ing was a n a t i v e Yankee
N ic o la y im m ig ra te d fro m Germany t o th e M iddle W est, and
d u r in g th e p o l i t i c a l m a e lstro m o f th e a n te - b e llu m y e a r s
K ing s ta y e d w ith th e D em ocrats w h ile N ic o la y became a
R e p u b lic a n .
B ut m ost o th e r e s s e n t i a l s w ere th e sam e: f e n d ­
in g f o r th e m s e lv e s a s a p p r e n t ic e p r i n t e r s and r i s i n g t o th e
^ B e n j a m i n p . Thomas, P o r t r a i t f o r P o s t e r i t y :
L in c o ln and H is B io g ra p h e rs (New B ru n sw ic k , N . J . , 1 9 ^ 7 ),
pp. ^ 4 -1 3 1 .
61
to p a s young e d i t o r s ; c u l t i v a t i n g l i t e r a r y i n t e r e s t s and
p u r s u in g s e l f - e d u c a t i o n ; e n t e r i n g g o v ern m en t b u r e a u c ra c y a t
lo w e r l e v e l s and becom ing p r e s i d e n t i a l c o n f i d a n t s ; a n d ,
f i n a l l y , w r i t i n g f a v o r a b le a c c o u n ts o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s
i n w h ich th e y s e r v e d .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y t h e r e was l i t t l e
a f f e c t i o n b e tw e e n them — p e rh a p s b e c a u s e th e y h ad so much in
common— and t h e r e was n e v e r th e r e m o te s t p o s s i b i l i t y o f
c o lla b o ra tio n .
W orking s e p a r a t e l y , h o w ev er, th e y w ere
i n s t r u m e n ta l i n g u id in g W a s h in g to n 's i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o g r e s s .
T h is was e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i n th e c a s e o f N ic o la y , whose
S o c ie ty was more a m b itio u s and t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d more
e l a b o r a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n . 28
P u t t i n g a s id e h i s d r a f t s o f th e mammoth Abraham
L in c o ln : A B io g ra p h y , N ic o la y s e t t o w ork w r i t i n g a c o n s t i ­
tu tio n .
Sam uel T y l e r , P r o f e s s o r o f Law a t C olum bian C o lle g e
l e n t a s s i s t a n c e , and b y th e b e g in n in g o f th e 1875-76 s e a s o n
th e docum ent was c o m p le te .
I t p ro v id e d f o r a S o c ie ty o f
t h i r t y members ( t h i s was sooti in c r e a s e d t o f o r t y ) who w ould
m eet on a l t e r n a t e S a tu r d a y e v e n in g s f o r p u rp o s e s o f " l i t e r ­
a r y and a r t i s t i c
im provem ent and e n t e r t a i n m e n t . "
G o v ern in g
pow er was d e l e g a t e d t o a f iv e member E x e c u tiv e C om m ittee,
e l e c t e d a n n u a lly , w h ic h w ould a p p o in t a l l o t h e r o f f i c e r s and
c o m m itte e s , choose m e e tin g s i t e s , have c h a rg e o f p ro g ra m s,
28H e le n N ic o la y , L in c o ln * s S e c r e t a r y : A B io g ra p h y o f
Jo h n G. N ic o la y (New Y o rk , 19*f9), p a s s im ; N o r a tio K ing t o
Ward &. Lamon, Decem ber 5 , 1 8 8 7 , Lamon P a p e r s , LN 3 6 9 , H enry
E . H u n tin g to n L i b r a r y .
62
and ap p ro v e n o m in a tio n s f o r m em bership.
When v a c a n c ie s
o c c u r r e d new members c o u ld be i n s t a l l e d o n ly b y s e c u r in g
tw o s p o n s o rs w ith in The L i t e r a r y and a f t e r r e c e i v i n g a
unanim ous v o te o f th e E x e c u tiv e C om m ittee.
T h is s c r e e n in g
p r o c e s s im p lie d s ta n d a r d s w h ich c a n d id a te s had t o m e e t,
c r i t e r i a f o r w innow ing e x c e lle n c e from m e d io c r ity .
P erso n al
w e a lth was i r r e l e v a n t s in c e t h e r e was no i n i t i a t i o n f e e , no
d u e s , and h e n c e , no t r e a s u r y .
So h ig h ly v a lu e d was th e
a b se n c e o f f i n a n c i a l r e q u ir e m e n ts t h a t when i t became n e c e s ­
s a r y t o r a i s e money f o r some s p e c i a l o c c a s io n th e E x e c u tiv e
C om m ittee a sk e d f o r v o lu n ta r y c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n s t e a d o f
le v y in g g e n e r a l a s s e s s m e n t s . ^
The im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n was
w h e th e r th e c a n d id a te c o u ld add so m e th in g o f l i t e r a r y o r
a r t i s t i c s u b s ta n c e .
A cc o rd in g t o th e c o n s t i t u t i o n : " A ll
members p le d g e th e m s e lv e s t o c o n t r i b u t e a t l e a s t once in
e a c h y e a r , a s th e y may be i n v i t e d b y th e E x e c u tiv e C om m ittee,
a n o r i g i n a l e s s a y , poem, o r t r a n s l a t i o n . "
O b lig a to r y
p a r t i c i p a t i o n s i g n a l e d th e u n iq u e n e s s o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty
and t h i s q u a l i t y c a u s e d i t s fo u n d e rs t o p r o c la im th e o p e n in g
o f a new, e x h i l i r a t i n g c h a p te r i n W a s h in g to n 's h i s t o r y .
30
29
Edward M. G a lla u d e t t o Mary B. C l a f l i n , December
1 2 , 18 8 1 , C l a f l i n P a p e r s , R u th e r f o r d B. Hayes L i b r a r y .
3 0 l . Edw ards C la r k e , "The C o n d itio n s o f L i t e r a t u r e i n
W a sh in g to n a t th e Time o f th e F ounding o f T h is S o c i e t y , " un­
p u b lis h e d p a p e r r e a d b e f o r e th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W ashing­
t o n , J a n u a r y 2 1 , 1 8 9 9 , L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty P a p e r s , LC; c o p ie s o f
th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a r e in c lu d e d i n M in u tes o f th e L i t e r a r y
S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , i b i d .
63
I n an a tte m p t t o c r e a t e optim um c o n d i tio n s f o r p a r ­
t i c i p a t i o n , and t o in s u r e t h a t t h e r e w ould be an a p p r o p r ia te
b a la n c e b e tw e e n w r i t e r s and a r t i s t s , th e m em bership was
d iv id e d i n t o c l a s s e s .
On November 1 3 , 1875, l e s s th a n two
w eeks a f t e r th e a d o p tio n o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n , i t was r e s o lv e d
t o have tw e n t y - f iv e l i t e r a r y m em bers, t e n p a i n t e r s , and f iv e
m u s ic ia n s .
These r u b r i c s w ere n o t alw ay s h o n o re d .
O ver th e
y e a r s t h e r e e v o lv e d a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e num ber o f th e l i t e r a r y
e le m e n t— p e r s o n s who w ere n o m in a lly w r i t e r s no m a tte r how
i n f r e q u e n t l y t h e i r e f f o r t s a p p e a re d i n p r i n t .
T h at many
members h ad means o f s u p p o r t o th e r th a n t h e i r p e n s was e v i ­
d en c ed b y The L i t e r a r y * s o c c u p a tio n a l c o m p o s itio n w hich
ra n g e d fro m b u s in e ss m a n and clerg y m an t o d ip lo m a t, s e n a t o r ,
and e v e n P r e s i d e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
The P r e s i d e n t a u t o ­
m a t i c a l l y a t t a i n e d m em bership a s an H o n o rary A s s o c i a t e , a
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w h ich a l s o a p p l ie d t o th e C h ie f J u s t i c e ,
S p e a k e r o f th e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , A tto r n e y G e n e ra l,
and S e c r e t a r y o f th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n .
In a d d itio n
t h e r e w ere H o n o ra ry A s s o c ia te s whose h ig h s ta n d in g in th e
com m unity made them d e s i r a b l e m em bers.
W illia m W ilso n
C o rc o ra n , M rs. R u th e r f o r d B. H ay es, and A le x a n d e r S te p h e n s ,
in v e s t e d The L i t e r a r y w ith r i c h e s b o th t a n g i b l e and s y m b o lic .
T h is a s p e c t o f a d m is s io n s p o l i c y d id n o t a d u l t e r a t e th e
m em b ersh ip , h o w ev er, s in c e th e t o t a l o f H o n o rary A s s o c ia te s
was n o t a llo w e d t o ex c ee d o n e - q u a r te r o f th e a c t i v e m em bers.
M o reo v e r, th o s e i n th e s p e c i a l c a te g o r y te n d e d t o be more
6k
th a n s o c i a l lu m i n a r ie s .
B anker C o rc o ra n was a l s o a p a t r o n
o f th e a r t s , and C ongressm an S te p h e n s , who l e d h i s c l a s s a t
th e U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o rg ia , was p u b lis h in g t r e a t i s e s on co n ­
s t i t u t i o n a l p ro b le m s .
Thus The L i t e r a r y was c o n s i s t e n t in
i t s demand t h a t members be c o n t r i b u t o r s r a t h e r th a n f i g u r e ­
h e a d s .* ^
The L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty w ent f a r t h e r th a n K in g ’s
r e u n io n s to w ard a c h ie v in g th e happy c o m b in a tio n o f s o c i a l
r e p u te and i n t e l l e c t u a l m e r i t .
Not o n ly was t h i s a boon i n
te rm s o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n 's im age, i t a l s o m eant t h a t The
L i t e r a r y drew from a b o u n te o u s r e s e r v o i r o f t a l e n t when
p la n n in g m e e tin g s .
A c c o rd in g ly , J o s e p h H enry was ta p p e d t o
sp e a k on th e p h ilo s o p h y o f s c ie n c e ; Jo h n W esley P o w e ll a b o u t
co stu m es o f N o rth A m erican I n d ia n s ; Edward M inor G a l l a u d e t ,
p r e s i d e n t o f th e c o lle g e t h a t was so o n t o b e a r h i s nam e,
d e s c r ib e d how d e a f-m u te s w ere e d u c a te d ; G e n e ra l A lb e r t J .
M yer, th e Army’ s c h i e f s i g n a l o f f i c e r and a f o u n d e r o f th e
W eath er B u reau , l e c t u r e d on m e te o r o lo g ic a l o b s e r v a tio n s ;
and g e o l o g i s t C la re n c e Edward D u tto n was a sk e d t o s h a re h i s
know ledge o f w e s te r n m o u n ta in r a n g e s .
T here w ere a u th o r s
su c h a s F ra n c e s Hodgson B u r n e t t , Thomas N e lso n P a g e , and
p o e t R ic h a rd Hovey t o le a d l i t e r a r y e x e r c i s e s .
Members l i k e
N ic o la y , who h ad l i v e d a b ro a d , so u n d ed a c o s m o p o lita n n o te
^ M in u te s o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , I ,
a s s im , i b i d . ; l i s t s o f members a p p e a r th ro u g h o u t th e
i n u t e s and i n N ic o la y , S i x t y Y e a rs , p p . 2 3 -3 5 , and S p a u ld in g ,
L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y , p p . 2 3 -3 ? .
S
65
i n th e p r o c e e d in g s .
S h o r tl y b e f o r e becom ing S e c r e t a r y o f
S t a t e , Jo h n W. F o s t e r gave h i s im p r e s s io n s o f M exico w here
he had s p e n t se v e n y e a r s a s M i n i s t e r .
S i m i l a r l y , G eorge
Kennan o f t e n to o k th e f l o o r and r e c o u n te d p e r s o n a l e x p e r i ­
e n c e s i n R u s s ia — i n c l u d i n g , on a t l e a s t one o c c a s io n , h i s
own r e n d i t i o n s o f c h a n te d p r a y e r s and b o a t s o n g s .
A n o th e r
tim e , f o r a t a l k on p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s , he came c l a d in
th e g r a y u n ifo rm , c h a i n s , and f e t t e r s w orn b y c o n v i c t s i n
e a s te rn S ib e r ia .
K ennan*s e n th u s ia s m b o th t y p i f i e d th e
s p i r i t w ith w h ich e x p e r t s i n v a r io u s f i e l d s s u p p o r te d The
L i t e r a r y and d e m o n s tra te d e m p h a tic a lly t h a t th e s e w ere th e
32
i n d i v i d u a l s who form ed i t s b a c k b o n e .
Among th e m ost este e m e d members was Jam es G a r f i e l d .
G a r f i e l d s t a r t e d v i s i t i n g m e e tin g s th e y e a r a f t e r th e y
commenced, w h ile s t i l l a c o n g re ssm a n , an d i n 1876 he f o r m a lly
jo in e d th e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
U n f o r tu n a te ly th e b u rd e n o f p u b l i c
d u t i e s made h i s a tte n d a n c e i r r e g u l a r .
1877-78 he r a n a f o u l o f a new a r t i c l e
D u rin g th e s e a s o n o f
i n th e c o n s t i t u t i o n
w h ich s t i p u l a t e d t h a t t h r e e s u c c e s s iv e u n e x p la in e d a b s e n c e s
w ould be p e n a liz e d b y e x p u l s io n .
B ut th e Sage o f M entor
redeem ed h im s e lf when he d u t i f u l l y a p p e a re d a t th e n e x t
m e e tin g and commented upon a p a p e r c o n c e rn in g th e h a b i t s o f
th e a e r o n a t s p i d e r .
T h e r e a f t e r he spoke f r e q u e n t l y , becom ing
^ M in u t e s o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , I
and I I , p a s s im , LC.
66
su c h a v a lu a b le member t h a t he was tw ic e e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t .
In f a c t , G a r f i e l d h e ld The L i t e r a r y 's h i g h e s t o f f i c e d u r in g
h i s a b b r e v i a te d te r m i n th e W hite H o u se.
L u c re tia G a rfie ld
rem a in e d an H o n o ra ry A s s o c ia te f o r t h i r t y - s i x y e a r s f o llo w ­
in g h e r h u s b a n d ’s a s s a s s i n a t i o n , and th e P r e s i d e n t ’s fo rm e r
s e c r e t a r y , J o s e p h S ta n le y -B ro w n , was s u b s e q u e n tly a c c e p te d
a s a m em ber.
Soon a f t e r G a r f i e l d d i e d , and on th e f i f t i e t h
a n n i v e r s a r y o f h i s b i r t h , com m em orative e x e r c i s e s w ere h e ld
a t th e r e s i d e n c e o f D r. G a l l a u d e t .
E u lo g ie s and t r i b u t e s
w ere r e a d i n c lu d in g a poem by M rs. B u r n e t t .
T h ere w ere fo n d
r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f G a r f i e l d 's c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o th e L i t e r a r y
S o c i e t y , and a d i s p l a y o f p h o to g ra p h s and p o r t r a i t s by f e llo w
m em bers.
T h is was th e f i r s t m e e tin g o f i t s k in d , a l a s t i n g
m em orial t o one o f th e b r i g h t e s t l i g h t s i n The L i t e r a r y 's
e a rly h i s t o r y .^
As a r u l e g a t h e r i n g s
g ran d .
The s e a s o n e x te n d e d
o f The L i t e r a r y w ere n o t t h i s
fro m December th ro u g h May w ith
m e e tin g s h e ld w h e re v e r f a c i l i t i e s w ere a v a i l a b l e .
U s u a lly
t h i s m eant a s s e m b lin g i n m em bers' hom es, th o u g h som etim es
sp a c e w as p r o v id e d a t a s i t e su c h a s th e S m ith s o n ia n o r th e
W i lla r d H o t e l .
I n v a r i a b l y th e E x e c u tiv e C om m ittee w o u ld a l o t
tw o and a h a l f h o u rs f o r an
e v e n i n g 's a c t i v i t i e s , and a lm o st
S ^ D ia ry o f Jam es A.G a r f i e l d , D ecem ber 1 1 , 1 8 7 5 ,
G a r f i e l d P a p e r s , IV , Box 2 , LC; A T r ib u te o f R e s p e c t from
th e L i t e r a r y Soc i e t y o f W ash in g to n t o i t s L a te P r e s i d e n t
Jam es Abram G a r f i e l d (W a sh in g to n , U .C ., 1 8 8 2 ), p a s s im .
67
w ith o u t f a i l th e m e e tin g s c o n tin u e d w e ll beyond th e tim e f o r
a d jo u rn m e n t.
I t was common f o r th e s e c r e t a r y t o c l o s e th e
M in u te s w ith : "A t a l a t e
h o u r th e S o c ie ty a d j o u r n e d ," o r , "The
h o u r o f m id n ig h t b ro u g h t
th e tim e f o r p a r t i n g . "
A m e e tin g a t
G a r r i c k M a l l e r y 's once l a s t e d so lo n g t h a t s t r e e t c a r r i d e r s
fo u n d th e m s e lv e s s tr a n d e d b e c a u se
r u n n in g f o r th e n i g h t . 3if
th e l i n e s had s to p p e d
I n v i t e d g u e s ts w ere p e r m it te d
e x c e p t a t th e f i r s t m e e tin g i n D ecem ber, th e a n n u a l b u s in e s s
s e s s i o n and e l e c t i o n o f o f f i c e r s .
In d e e d th e o p p o r tu n ity
t o make th e " a c q u a in ta n c e o f a d i s t i n g u i s h e d a r t i s t , sa v a n
[ s i c ] , a c t o r o r a c t r e s s o r m u s ic ia n who may be f o r a few
d a y s i n tow n" r a t e d h ig h among The L i t e r a r y ’s a t t r i b u t e s .
35
As w e ll as g r a c in g m e e tin g s w ith t h e i r p r e s e n c e fam ous
v i s i t o r s w ere e n c o u ra g e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e , and comments from
th e l i k e s o f G eorge W. C a b le , Sam uel C lem en s, and Monoure
Conway made memorable e v e n in g s .
B ut i n th e m ain r e g u l a r
members w ere r e s p o n s i b l e f o r The L i t e r a r y ’s p r o g ra m s .3 **
The s c h e d u le d e v is e d b y th e E x e c u tiv e Com m ittee
c a l l e d f o r two p a p e rs e a c h m e e tin g .
T h e s e , p lu s th e c r i ­
t i q u e s t h a t f o llo w e d , c o n s t i t u t e d th e e x e r c i s e s i n w h ich
3i|D ia r y o f Edward M. G a ll a u d e t , M arch 1 2 , 188 1 ,
G a ll a u d e t P a p e r s , LC.
35"W ashington G o s s ip ," C i n c i n n a t i C o m m ercial,
Decem ber 2U, 1 8 7 6 , x e ro x e d copy i n th e R u th e r f o r d B. H ayes
L ib ra ry .
3 **Minutes o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , I
and I I , p a s s im , LC.
68
l i t e r a r y members made t h e i r r e q u i r e d c o n t r i b u t i o n s .
As
m ig h t be e x p e c te d th e r e was an enorm ous v a r i e t y o f t o p i c s
and form s o f p r e s e n t a t i o n , and a q u a l i t a t i v e u n e v e n n e ss i n
th e p a p e r s th e m s e lv e s .
Some o f th e b e t t e r e s s a y s , poem s,
s h o r t s t o r i e s , and d e s c r i p t i v e s k e tc h e s w ere l a t e r p r i n t e d
b y th e L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y .
F o r th e m ost p a r t th e s e s t i l l
h o ld th e r e a d e r 's a t t e n t i o n .
On th e o th e r hand one b e g in s
t o s q u irm j u s t t h i n k i n g a b o u t e n d u r in g "The S to n y B rook
and What I t S a i d , " by P e t e r B aum gras, o r A nnie S t o r y 's
r e c i t a t i o n o f "When You and I Were Young L a d ."
The o n ly
s t i p u l a t i o n a b o u t l e c t u r e s was t h a t th e y n o t e x c e e d tw e n ty
m in u te s i n l e n g t h ; sa v e t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n s p e a k e r s e n jo y e d
a b s o lu te fre e d o m . The m o n th ly d i s c u s s i o n s , h o w ev er, w ere
more r e g im e n te d . 37
E v ery t h i r d m e e tin g was g iv e n o v e r t o th e g e n e r a l
d i s c u s s i o n o f some s u b j e c t w hich th e E x e c u tiv e C om m ittee
an no u n ced i n a d v a n c e .
No one was exem pt from p a r t i c i p a t i o n ;
a r t i s t i c and m u s ic a l members a s w e l l a s th o s e i n th e l i t e r ­
a r y c a te g o r y w ere e x p e c te d t o have i n hand p r e p a r e d e x ­
p o s i t i o n s on th e t o p i c .
F iv e m in u te s w ere a llo w e d f o r e a c h
s p e a k e r , t h e i r names b e in g c a l l e d by th e p r e s i d e n t fro m an
a l p h a b e t i c a l m em bership l i s t . 38 W hile th e g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n s
S^B oth MSS and p u b lis h e d l e c t u r e s a r e c o n ta in e d i n
b o x e s l a b e l e d " V a rio u s P u b l i c a t i o n s , " and "Some P a p e r s P r e ­
s e n te d a t M e e tin g s ," L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W ash in g to n P a p e r s ,
LC.
^ ^ i n u t e s o f th e E x e c u tiv e C om m ittee, Decem ber 1 1 ,
1876, ib id .
69
w ere more s t r u c t u r e d th a n th e r e g u l a r l i t e r a r y e x e r c i s e s th e
fo rm e r showed an e q u a l v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r .
"What
D e s ir a b le S o c ia l E lem en ts a re E n d an g ered b y th e R ap id
Advance o f C i v i l i z a t i o n ? ” ; "Who Were th e C h ie f P ro m o te rs o f
A m erican In d e p e n d e n c e ? 1'; "The C h a r a c te r and P u b lic L if e o f
J e f f e r s o n ” ; "What S h a l l We Do W ith Our L e is u r e ? " ;a n d "The
I n f lu e n c e o f F i c t i o n i n Reform " w ere b u t a few o f th e
p ro b lem s d i s c u s s e d .
The o n ly t o p i c s e x c lu d e d w ere th o s e
to u c h in g upon p o l i t i c s and r e l i g i o n .
on
" I n o u r l i t e r a r y s y m p o s ia ," e m p h a siz e d an o ld member,
" c o n tr o v e r s y h a s no p l a c e . W h a t e v e r e l s e m ig h t be s a i d
a b o u t th e d e s i r e s o f th e fo u n d e rs th e y h a r d l y in c lu d e d p r o ­
v id in g a forum f o r v ig o ro u s d e b a te .
"O ur aim and p u rp o se
i s t o a s s i m i l a t e c o n t r a r i e s , " p ro c la im e d M ad elein e V in to n
D a h lg re n , The L i t e r a r y ’s le a d in g m a t r i a r c h .
" T h is S o c ie ty
c la im s t o be n e u t r a l ground r a t h e r th a n a b a t t l e f i e l d — f o r
w h ile a f r e e e x p r e s s io n o f o p in io n s i s in te n d e d o u r d i s ­
c u s s io n s a re e x p e c te d t o e l i c i t t r u t h . H e r ' s
was th e
dom in an t v o ic e i n p o l i c y m a tte r s th r o u g h o u t th e f i r s t p h a s e —
^^M in u tes o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y o f W a sh in g to n , I
and I I , p a s s im , i b i d .
^ A in s w o r th R. S p o f f o r d , u n p u b lis h e d comments on th e
t w e n t y - f i f t h a n n iv e r s a r y o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y o f W ashing­
t o n , J a n u a r y 2 1 , 1899, box la b e le d "D ocum ents R e la t in g t o
th e H is to r y o f th e S o c i e t y , " i b i d .
^ M a d e le in e V. D a h lg re n , " S ta te m e n t o f th e P u rp o se s
o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W ash in g to n " ( 1 8 8 8 ) , i b i d . , Box 5 .
70
so much s o , i n f a c t , t h a t t h i s p e r io d came t o be known a s
The P r o t e c t o r a t e .
A lth o u g h sh e n e v e r became p r e s i d e n t (n o
woman e v e r d i d ) , M rs. D a h lg re n h e ld a p la c e on th e p o w e rfu l
E x e c u tiv e C om m ittee, and t a k i n g a d v a n ta g e o f t h i s p o s i t i o n
she was a b le t o u s u r p th e r o l e o f p e rm a n e n t h o s t e s s .
One
fo u n d e r e v e n r e f e r r e d t o i t a s th e "D a h lg re n L i t e r a r y
S o c i e t y . ”^ 2
O f f i c i a l l y b a n n in g c o n t r o v e r s y r e f l e c t e d th e
w i l l o f h e r s e l f , and b e c a u se she deemed th e q u e s t f o r t r u t h
and s p i r i t e d d e b a te in c o m p a tib le she s o u g h t t o g i r d The
L i t e r a r y a g a i n s t d i s r u p t i v e p o le m ic s .
Y et M rs. D ah lg ren * s w ish e s w ere n o t alw a y s o b e y e d ,
and i t w ould be a m is ta k e t o i n t e r p r e t th e f o u n d e r s ’ p r o ­
f e s s i o n s o f c o n s e n su s t o mean t h a t m e e tin g s w ere su b d u e d .
On th e c o n t r a r y , a s u rv e y o f th e M in u te s r e v e a l s t h a t
p rog ram s w ere p u n c tu a te d by in te n s e i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o b in g ,
c h a lle n g in g o f e n tre n c h e d o r th o d o x ie s , and d is c o u r s e t h a t
was r e s p e c t f u l b u t som etim es v eh em en t.
C e rta in ly g r e a te r
a t t e n t i o n was p a id t o s e n s i t i v e q u e s tio n th a n M rs. D a h lg r e n ’s
s ta te m e n t i m p l i e s .
I n th e S p rin g o f 1881 members l i s t e n e d
a t t e n t i v e l y w h ile H. Pelham C u r t i s t r a n s l a t e d The S tr u g g le
o r th e P le a G u i l t y , a r e a l i s t i c German poem w h ic h , n o te d
^ C h r i s t o p h e r C. Cox, "To th e Members o f th e
’D a h lg re n L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y , *" i b i d . ; f o r M rs. D a h lg r e n ’s
in f lu e n c e i n The L i t e r a r y ’s a f f a i r s see M a d ele in e V.
D a h lg re n t o S p e n c e r F . B a ir d , December 3 , 1 8 7 8 , S p e n c e r F .
B a ir d P e r s o n a l P a p e r s , S I A rc h iv e s ; F lo re n c e P . S p o f f o r d
t o N ev in M. Fennem an, J a n u a r y 2 9 , 1923, box l a b e l e d "Docu­
m en ts R e la t in g t o th e H is to r y o f th e S o c i e t y , " and H u n t­
i n g t o n , " L a d ie s o f The L i t e r a r y , " p . 2 , L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty
P a p e r s , LC.
71
S e c r e t a r y T heodore D w ig h t, "p ro d u ced a d ee p im p r e s s io n .
It
was a n o th e r re m in d e r o f th e momentous s o c i a l q u e s tio n s w h ich
a re p r e s s i n g f o r a s o l u t i o n a t home and a b ro a d .'*
E a rlie r
th e d i s c u s s i o n t o p i c h ad b e e n i n d u s t r i a l em ploym ent, show ing
t h a t The L i t e r a r y was n o t a v e r s e t o t a k i n g up p r o v o c a tiv e
s u b je c ts .
Nor w ere i n d i v i d u a l members e v a s iv e i n h a n d lin g
d e lic a te is s u e s .
G eorge K ennan made no s e c r e t o f h i s
o p p o s it io n t o C z ar A le x a n d e r I I I and r e p r e s s i o n s i n R u s s ia .
A f t e r one l e c t u r e Sam uel C lem ens commented on th e c r u e l t y
and ty r a n n y d e s c r i b e d b y K ennan, “ and th e a p p a r e n t im p o s s i­
b i l i t y o f e f f e c t i n g a change f o r th e b e t t e r i n any way b u t
by r e v o l u t i o n . ”
T a lk o f r e v o l u t i o n , i n d u s t r i a l v i o l e n c e ,
and d o m e s tic d i s c o r d d i d n o t sq u a re w ith th e s o o th in g m e e t­
in g s i d e a l i z e d b y M rs. D a h l g r e n . ^
In a d d i t i o n t h e r e was more h e a l t h y d i s p u t a t i o n th a n
The L i t e r a r y Ts spokesm en ch o se t o a d m it.
When C la re n c e
D u tto n a rg u e d t h a t t h e r e s h o u ld be no l i m i t a t i o n s p la c e d on
th e a c c u m u la tio n o f w e a lth , b e c a u se la r g e f o r t u n e s w ere
re w a rd s f o r s o c i a l u s e f u l n e s s , H enry U lke r e t o r t e d t h a t
econom ic i n e q u a l i t y was th e o r i g i n o f much s u f f e r i n g .
p rom p ted o t h e r s t o j o i n i n th e d i s p u t e . 44
T h is
A t a n o th e r m e e t­
in g a h e a te d d e b a te e n su e d o v e r th e q u e s tio n o f w hat c a u se d
p o v e r ty .
I . Edw ards C la rk e o f f e r e d „ a n e x p l a n a t io n w h ich
4^ M in u tes o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n ,
M arch 2 6 , 1 8 8 1 , and J a n u a r y 1 5 , 1 8 8 1 , and M arch 2 ^ , 1888,
ib id . , I .
44I b i d . , May 1 3 , 1882.
72
a n t i c i p a t e d l a t e r d e n u n c ia tio n s o f m a le f a c to r s o f g r e a t
w e a l t h , w h ile D r. G a lla u d e t m a in ta in e d i t was due t o s h i f t ­
l e s s n e s s and a l a c k o f t h r i f t .
S e v e ra l c o n c u rre d , c a llin g
a t t e n t i o n t o th e I r i s h a s a c a se i n p o i n t .
S o c i a l i s t s and
a n a r c h i s t s w ere r o u n d ly condemned e x c e p t b y U lke who once
a g a in e p ito m iz e d th e s p i r i t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s s e n t . ^
Q u a r r e ls o v e r th e r e l a t i v e m e r it s o f a u th o r s w ere a l s o
liv e ly .
D u rin g a s e s s i o n d e v o te d t o B ro w n in g , A u g u stu s
H ea to n c h a rg e d t h a t h i s " J a c o b in s t y l e was a d e f ia n c e o f
th e c l a s s i c e le g a n c e and form o f th e h i g h e s t m a s te r s o f
p o e tr y .”
T hen, p r e s s i n g h i s a t t a c k , he lik e n e d B ro w n in g ’s
poems t o ” a mob e n t e r i n g a c i t y p i l l a g i n g a t t i c s and c e l l a r s
on th e w a y .”
T h is d is p a ra g e m e n t was to o much f o r A in s w o rth
S p o f f o r d , who s p ra n g t o th e d e fe n s e b y p r o c la im in g him th e
’’g r e a t e s t d r a m a tic p o e t s in c e S h a k e s p e a r e .”**® I t w ould
seem , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t on many e v e n in g s th e m u s ic a l p o r t i o n
o f th e p ro g ram came as a welcome r e s p i t e a f t e r th e g o o d n a t u r e d — i f tu m u lto u s — ex c h an g e s o f i d e a s .
Why was th e r e so l i t t l e
c a n d o r a b o u t an a s p e c t o f
th e o r g a n i z a t i o n w h ich i n th e a f te r g lo w o f h i s t o r y a p p e a rs
a s one o f i t s m ost commendable f e a t u r e s ?
The an sw er l i e s
i n th e h ig h premium a c c o rd e d th e image o f e le g a n c e .
F o llo w ­
in g i n t h e f o o t s t e p s o f H o r a tio K ing th e f o u n d e rs s t r o v e f o r
45I b i d . , F e b ru a ry 2 2 , 1890, I I .
**® Ibid., J a n u a r y 2 5 , 18 9 0 .
73
d i g n i t y w h ile a t th e same tim e m a in ta in in g t h e i r g u a rd
a g a i n s t a n y th in g t h a t t h r e a t e n e d t o d e t r a c t from th e s t a t e l y
im p r e s s io n th e y had a l r e a d y m ade.
I d e a l l y m e e tin g s o f The
L i t e r a r y w ere t o be su c h t h a t when one e n t e r e d he c o u ld
f e e l h im s e lf p a s s in g from th e h u r l y - b u r l y w o rld o f p o l i t i c s
and commerce i n t o an atm o sp h ere o f g r a c e f u l t r a n q u i l i t y .
N ot s u r p r i s i n g l y , th e n , s in c e t h e i r o b j e c t i v e was th e
o p p o s ite o f G ild e d Age o s t e n t a t i o n , th e fo u n d e rs p la y e d
down w h a te v e r m ig h t be c o n s tr u e d a s bad t a s t e o r c o a rs e
b e h a v io r .
T h is c o n c e rn f o r r e f in e m e n t c o u ld be s e e n i n
The L i t e r a r y * s p r a c t i c e o f d i s r e g a r d i n g fo rm a l t i t l e s and
m i l i t a r y r a n k , a cu sto m r i g i d l y o b s e rv e d .
H ere was a
p a t e n t r e a c t i o n t o th o s e who in u n d a te d W ash in g to n d u r in g
and a f t e r th e C i v i l War s p a n g le d w ith sym bols o f im p o rta n c e .
L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty members r e g a r d e d su ch d i s p l a y a s a tte m p ts
to v e il in f e r io r ity .
Hence th e y s t r i p p e d - o f f a l l a r t i ­
f i c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s t o b e t t e r exp o se t h e i r t r u e e x c e l l e n c e .
I n much th e same s p i r i t i t was d e c re e d t h a t s u p p e rs p r o ­
v id e d b y m e e tin g h o s t s w ere t o be o n ly l i g h t r e p a s t s .
A lth o u g h n o t r e a d i l y a d m itte d b y th e o r g a n i z a t i o n t h i s r u l e
was a l s o b ro k e n from tim e t o tim e , a f u r t h e r t r a n s g r e s s i o n
a g a i n s t th e i d e a l o f a b s o lu te s i m p l i c i t y . ^
I t i s i r o n i c t h a t w h ile m o d esty and r e t i c e n c e r e ­
c e iv e d h ea v y s t r e s s members w ere o u tsp o k e n when d e s c r i b i n g
^ I b i d . , December 1 1 , 1880, I .
74
th e r o l e o f t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n i n p o s t- b e llu m A m erican
c u ltu re .
" I t s h o u ld aim a t n o th in g l e s s th a n t o be th e
c e n t e r o f th e a r t i s t i c and l i t e r a r y l i f e
t h i s was i t s " i n s p i r i n g m o ti v e ."
NO
o f th e C a p i t a l " ;
I f W ash in g to n was th e
i n t e l l e c t u a l hub o f th e n a t i o n , th e n c e r t a i n l y th e L i t e r a r y
S o c ie ty m ust s ta n d a t th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c e n t e r o f W a sh in g to n .
"We d e s i r e t o become a th o u g h t n u c l e u s , ” announced M rs.
D a h lg re n b o l d l y .
T h is C a p i t a l i s f i l l e d w ith r e p r e s e n t a t i v e men
e l e c t e d t o m old th e d e s t i n i e s o f t h i s g r e a t n a t i o n ,
a s a l s o w ith men c h o sen t o r e p r e s e n t o t h e r n a t io n s
n e a r u s . I t becom es th e n a c e n t e r f o r f o r e n s i c
e lo q u e n c e and o f s t a t e c r a f t and d ip lo m a c y — s h a l l
i t n o t as w e ll become a fo c u s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l f o rc e
i n e v e ry dom ain, and th u s e x e r t a c o rr e s p o n d in g
pow er o v e r th e n a t i o n a l w i l l i n th e v a r io u s d e p a r t ­
m ents o f human know ledge? B ut su c h i n f l u e n c e , t o
be f e l t , m u st be a g g r e g a te d . W ith t h i s view o u r
S o c ie ty s e e k s a s o l i d a r i t y o f i n t e r e s t f o r th e
s c i e n t i s t , th e s c h o l a r , th e w r i t e r , and th e a r t i s t . 49
T h is d e c l a r a t i o n o f i n t e n t d e s e r v e s more th a n
p a s s in g n o t i c e .
I t s c e n t r a l a s s u m p tio n seem s t o be t h a t
" i n t e l l e c t u a l f o r c e " i s no l e s s im p o r ta n t i n th e a f f a i r s o f
men th a n " s t a t e c r a f t . "
T h u s, i n A m e ric a , mind m ust be made
"a c o r r e s p o n d in g pow er" o f p o l i t i c s .
In d e e d t h e r e e x i s t s a
n a t u r a l c o n n e c tio n b etw een th e two w h ich s h o u ld be u n d e rs to o d
and c u l t i v a t e d .
B o u n tif u l r e t u r n s a w a it th e n a t i o n i f o n ly
th o u g h t and g overnm ent c a n be h a rm o n iz e d .
B ut how m ig h t t h i s
^® 01ive R i s le y S e w a rd 's s ta te m e n t o f th e p u rp o se o f
th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty , i b i d . , Box 5 .
^ M a d e le in e V. D a h lg re n , " S ta te m e n t o f th e P u rp o se s
o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y , " i b i d .
75
be b ro u g h t t o p a s s ?
How make i n t e l l e c t th e e q u a l p a r t n e r
o f in s titu tio n a liz e d p o l i t i c a l a u th o rity ?
To th e f o u n d e rs
o f The L i t e r a r y th e s o l u t i o n was t o be fo u n d i n e s t a b l i s h ­
in g an a s s o c i a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s ; b y c r e a t i n g an i n s t i ­
t u t i o n o f b ro a d c u l t u r e t h a t c o u ld ta k e i t s p la c e i n an
A m erica w h ic h , a t e v e r y t u r n , was becom ing more r a t i o n a l i z e d
— o r more ''a g g r e g a te d ” a s M rs. D a h lg re n w o u ld have d e s c r ib e d
it.
S h e, o f c o u r s e , was n o t a lo n e i n p e r c e i v i n g t h a t b e f o r e
i n t e l l e c t u a l s c o u ld in f lu e n c e n a t i o n a l l i f e
i t was f i r s t
n e c e s s a r y t o a d o p t th e n a t i o n a l mode o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , t o
u t i l i z e th e t a c t i c o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t i n o r d e r t o
a c h ie v e p o w er.
O th e rs re c o g n iz e d t h i s im p e r a tiv e a n d , w ith
g ro w in g f o r c e , th e y to o so u g h t "a s o l i d a r i t y o f i n t e r e s t
f o r th e s c i e n t i s t , th e s c h o l a r , th e w r i t e r , and th e a r t i s t . ”
The W ash in g ton L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty s e t i t s e l f a f o r ­
m id a b le t a s k , t h i s much i s a b u n d a n tly c l e a r .
i s th e d im e n sio n o f i t s s u c c e s s .
N ot s o c l e a r
Even spokesm en s h ie d away
from m aking d e f i n i t i v e ju d g m en ts l e s t t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n s be
p re m a tu re .
D r. G a ll a u d e t , in r e v ie w in g i t s h i s t o r y , was
vague a b o u t The L i t e r a r y 's r o l e i n p o s t- w a r c u l t u r e and
foun d i t im p o s s ib le t o s p e c i f y w h at i t s
im p o rta n c e h ad b e e n .
N o n e th e le s s , he was c e r t a i n t h a t i n an i n d e s c r i b a b l e way
W ash in g to n was a b e t t e r p la c e b e c a u s e o f i t s e x i s t e n c e — i f
f o r no o t h e r r e a s o n th a n b e c a u s e i t k e p t th e p r o c e s s o f
76
e s t a b l i s h i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s m oving s t e a d i l y
alo n g .A s
i t s f i r s t q u a r t e r c e n tu r y drew t o a c lo s e
A in sw o rth S p o ff o rd s t a t e d a s u n e q u iv o c a lly a s he d a r e d : "We
c o u n t n o t o u r s e lv e s a s h a v in g a t t a i n e d g r e a t o r n o te w o rth y
r e s u l t s , b u t we a re on th e r o a d . " ^
O th e r s , more im p a tie n t w ith t e n t a t i v e a c c o m p lis h ­
m e n ts , showed l e s s s a t i s f a c t i o n and l e s s o p tim ism .
I n s te a d
o f b e in g buoyed by th e w o rth w h ile c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f members
th e y w ere dism ayed b y th e m ixed q u a l i t y o f p ro g ra m s; r a t h e r
th a n h a v in g c o n fid e n c e t h a t The L i t e r a r y w ould e v e n t u a l l y
em erge as th e em bodim ent o f r e c o g n iz e d a c h ie v e m e n t th e y
te n d e d t o a s k w h e th e r i t was d e g e n e r a tin g i n t o a n o th e r
v e r s io n o f h o th o u se c u l t u r e .
I n s h o r t , t h e r e w ere g ra v e
d o u b ts t h a t , g iv e n i t s p r e s e n t d i r e c t i o n , th e L i t e r a r y
S o c ie ty c o u ld become an e l i t i s t a s s o c i a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l
m e rit.
G a r r ic k M a lle r y , f o r o n e , u rg e d th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f
s c ie n c e , p o e t r y , and m u sic from th e p ro g ra m s.
The fo rm e r
m ig h t b e t t e r be l e f t t o W a s h in g to n ’s s c i e n t i f i c s o c i e t i e s ,
w h ile th e p o e tr y and m u sic p ro d u c e d b y The L i t e r a r y w ere
h o p e l e s s l y seco n d r a t e .
V e rs e s l i k e "R ead in g t o G rand­
mamma," and tu n e s su c h as " S a l l y i n Our A lle y " and " C h a r lie
50i«Dr. G a l l a u d e t ’s R e m a rk s," u n d a te d , b ox l a b e l e d
"Some P a p e rs P r e s e n te d a t M e e tin g s ," i b i d .
"^ A in sw o rth R. S p o f f o r d , u n p u b lis h e d comments on
th e t w e n t y - f i f t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f
W a sh in g to n , J a n u a r y 2 1 , 1899, box l a b e l e d "Docum ents Re­
l a t i n g t o th e H is to r y o f th e S o c i e t y , " i b i d .
77
i s My D a r lin " f a i l e d t o co n v ey th e d e s i r e d im p r e s s io n o f
c r e a t i v i t y . 52
More th a n once G a r f i e l d c r i t i c i z e d th e
b a n a l i t y o f l e c t u r e s and d i s c u s s i o n s , b e t r a y i n g d i s a p p o i n t ­
ment i n The L i t e r a r y 's la c k o f p r o g r e s s . 55
As e a r l y a s
1877 Mme. de H eg erm an n -L in d en cro n e i n f e r r e d t h a t i t was i n
e c lip s e .
W ith s a r c a s t i c humor she c a r i c a t u r e d th e L i t e r a r y
S o c ie ty a s th e " e n c h a n te d c i r c l e o f th e B r a in C lu b ," and
r e c o u n te d th e d i s c u s s i o n o f a p a p e r on "The M etam o rp h o sis
o f N e g a tiv e M a t t e r . "
A t a s u b s e q u e n t m e e tin g M rs. D a h lg re n
r e q u e s te d h e r t o s in g "T en d e r and T r u e ," a m e la n c h o ly
b a l l a d r e l a t i n g th e d e a th o f a young s o l d i e r who had gone
i n t o - b a t t l e w ith a momento fro m h i s l o v e , a r ib b o n o f b l u e ,
p in n e d o v e r h i s h e a r t .
The c o m p o ser, J e n n ie L in c o ln ,
happ en ed t o be p r e s e n t , and cap p ed th e p e rfo rm a n c e — i n a
p r o p e r V i c t o r i a n m an n er—b y f a i n t i n g d e a d away.
L ik e M rs.
L in c o ln , th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty a p p e a re d t o be on th e w a n e .5**
I t was t r u e t h a t The L i t e r a r y was f a s t f a l l i n g o u t
o f d a te so f a r a s i t s own t a s t e
i n l e t t e r s was c o n c e rn e d .
A t a tim e when r e a l i s m and n a t u r a l i s m w ere v y in g t o become
th e d o m in an t g e n re members s t i l l i n c l i n e d to w a rd p ro s e t h a t
^ M in u te s o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n ,
F e b ru a ry 2 4 , 18 8 8 , i b i d . , I .
55D ia ry o f Jam es A. G a r f i e l d , J a n u a r y 1 0 , 1880 and
A p r i l 3 , 1 8 8 0 , G a r f i e l d P a p e r s , IX , Box 5 , LC3,
5I+de H eg e rm a n n -L in d e n cro n e, Sunny S i d e , p . 1 6 ; E gan,
R e c o lle c tio n s , p . 64.
78
oozed s e n t i m e n t a l i t y .
To end th e 1889 s e a s o n t h e r e was a
g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f R e a lism i n F i c t i o n , w h ich tu r n e d i n t o
a c a s t i g a t i o n o f Z o la and a n a f f i r m a t i o n o f th e e n o b lin g
d u t i e s o f th e w rite r." * ^
D e s p ite th e c a l l by le a d in g c r a f t s ­
men f o r d e p i c t i o n s o f l i f e w ith s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d f r a n k n e s s ,
th e in n o c e n ts o f The L i t e r a r y rem a in ed e n tr a n c e d b y r o m a n tic
home l i e s .
"A S e n tim e n ta l J o u r n e y ,11 "What i s th e D ee p est
G r i e f ? ” an d "Where D uty C a l l s , ” a m e lo d ra m a tic t a l e a b o u t a
g i r l in th e c o u n tr y who d e s p a ir e d o f e v e r p e rfo rm in g a
h e r o i c d ee d u n t i l sh e s u d d e n ly had th e o p p o r tu n ity t o save
tw o c h i l d r e n from a fla m in g farm house w ere t y p i c a l p r o d u c ts
of lite ra ry e x e r c i s e s . A s
one o f th e fo u n d e rs o b s e rv e d ,
h i s S o c ie ty was p a r t i a l t o ” s t o r i e s o f p a t h e t i c mould t h a t
le a v e th e e y e l i d s w e t . ” 5^
The in f lu e n c e o f fe m in in e c u s ­
t o d i a n s o f c u l t u r e —- th e v e r y ty p e s who la u n c h e d The L i t e r a r y —
o b v io u s ly p e rv a d e d i t s a c t i v i t i e s th ro u g h o u t th e n i n e t e e n t h
c e n tu ry .
M o reo v er, i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t d u r in g an e p o c h a l
p e r io d o f change in l i t e r a r y c o n v e n tio n s th e W ashington
g ro u p was becom ing p a s s e .
Y et ev e n i n i t s s l i g h t l y e n f e e b le d and somewhat
r e t r o g r a d e s t a t e The L i t e r a r y c o u ld c la im c e r t a i n s u c c e s s e s .
55M inutes o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n ,
May 4 , 1 8 8 9 , I , L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty P a p e r s , LC.
5^ I b i d . , J a n u a r y 1 5 , 18 8 9 .
^ C h r i s t o p h e r c. Cox, ”To th e Members o f th e
'D a h lg re n L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y , '” i b i d . , Box 5 .
79
F i r s t o f a l l i t p ro v id e d an o u t l e t f o r W a s h in g to n ia n s more
i n t e r e s t e d in w r i t t e n e x p r e s s io n th a n s c i e n c e .
By 1874
th e g ro u n d was a l r e a d y b e in g p r e p a r e d f o r a h a r v e s t o f
lo c a l s c ie n ti f i c a s s o c ia tio n s .
C o n t r a r iw is e , no l i t e r a r y
o r g a n i z a t i o n w o rth y o f th e name g r a c e d W ash in g to n e x c e p t
K in g ’ s , and members o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty q u e s tio n e d
w h e th e r h i s r e u n io n s d id j u s t i c e t o th e c a u se o f w h e ttin g
a p p e tite s fo r p o lite l e t t e r s .
Was n o t th e k ey t o g e n e r ­
a tin g i n t e r e s t o f fe rin g o p p o rtu n itie s f o r a c tu a l w ritin g
and c r i t i c i s m ?
A c i r c l e o f lu m in a r ie s was im p o r ta n t, th e y
a g r e e d , b u t so was a c o t e r i e i n w h ich a l l p e rs o n s w ere
a c tiv e c o n tr ib u to r s .
B oth g ro u p s s e l e c t e d members w ith
g r e a t c a r e , b u t w h ile K ing c o n s id e r e d s o c i a l r a n k a t th e
ex p en se o f e v e r y th in g e l s e ( i t m ig h t be a rg u e d t h a t h i s
program s w ere m e re ly e x c u s e s f o r h o ld in g r e u n i o n s ) , The
L i t e r a r y 's fo u n d e rs th o u g h t i n te rm s o f e n c o u ra g in g r e g u l a r
p a rtic ip a tio n .
F u rth e rm o re , i n l i g h t o f th e r e u n i o n s '
i n d e f i n i t e c h a r a c t e r , w hat g u a r a n te e d t h a t th e y w ould n o t
e n t e r th e g ra v e w ith t h e i r s p o n s o r?
Thus th e L i t e r a r y
S o c ie ty an sw ered a tw o - f o ld n e e d : i t o f f e r e d g r e a t e r perm a­
nence th a n K in g 's g ro u p and gave more ch an ce t o th o s e who
s e r i o u s l y w anted t o t r y t h e i r h an d s a t c o m p o s itio n .
Aim ing a t e x c e lle n c e and f a l l i n g s h o r t o f th e m ark
was a n o th e r common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .
B oth w ere more c e l e ­
b r a t e d f o r s o c i a l e le g a n c e th a n a r t i s t i c ac co m p lish m e n t;
f o r e n a b lin g W a sh in g to n ia n s t o assume th e m a n tle o f
80
c u l t i v a t i o n r a t h e r th a n d e n o tin g r e a l i n t e l l e c t u a l f e r m e n t.
The L i t e r a r y , h o w ev er, was d e f i n i t e l y a c u t above K in g ’s
c irc le .
I t s m em bership r o l l s c o n ta in e d a c a ta lo g u e o f
W a s h in g to n 's s c i e n t i f i c com m unity, men who w ere b u i l d i n g
n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ile a t th e same tim e
e s t a b l i s h i n g l o c a l s o c i e t i e s f o r th e p ro m o tio n o f t h e i r
d is c ip lin e s .
The L i t e r a r y c o o p e ra te d w ith t h e s e o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n s t h a t w ere p r i m a r i l y s c i e n t i f i c a n d , i n t h i s w ay,
c o n t r i b u t e d t o th e g e n e r a l s tr e n g t h e n in g o f i n t e l l e c t u a l
a s s o c i a t i o n s , t o th e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s s h a r in g
l i k e i n t e r e s t s and t a l e n t s .
F i n a l l y th e r e rem a in ed i t s
b r o a d e r c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e , w h ich th o u g h am orphous was no
l e s s d e e p ly f e l t .
R e f r e s h in g ly d i f f e r e n t from th e f r i v o l i t y
o f d a n c in g p a r t i e s and r e c e p t i o n c r u s h e s th e L i t e r a r y
S o c ie ty b r ig h te n e d th e l o c a l a tm o s p h e re .
H e re , th e n , was
th e c u lm in a tio n o f M rs. D a h lg re n * s c ru s a d e t o have The
L i t e r a r y c a s t a " r a d ia n c e o v e r th e c o n v e n tio n a l i n a n i t y o f
s o c ia l l i f e
i n W ashington."® ®
I n t h i s r e s p e c t i t d id have
an " in f lu e n c e w h ich was h e a l t h f u l i n th e h i g h e s t d e g r e e ,"
b u t w h ich was a s h a rd t o d e l i n e a t e a s an i n v i g o r a t i n g b r e a t h
o f f r e s h air.®^
®®Madeleine V. D a h lg re n t o C a rl S c h u rz , December
[1 8 7 8 ? ], S c h u rz P a p e r s , XLVII, G e n e ra l C o rre sp o n d e n c e , LC.
50
"D r. G a lla u d e t* s R e m ark s," u n d a te d , box la b e le d
"Some P a p e rs P r e s e n te d a t M e e tin g s ," L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty
P a p e r s , LC.
CHAPTER I I I
"FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE”
MThe a r t o f d e s tr o y i n g l i f e , " o b s e rv e d J o s e p h H enry
d a r in g th e g rim w i n t e r o f 1 8 6 2 -6 3 , " a s w e l l a s t h a t o f
p r e s e r v in g i t , c a l l s f o r th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c
p r i n c i p l e s , and th e i n s t i t u t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p e rim e n ts
on a s c a le o f m ag n itu d e w h ich w o u ld n e v e r be a tte m p te d i n
tim e o f p e a c e ." 1
Thus H enry s u g g e s te d t h a t a p o s i t i v e
r e s u l t o f th e C i v i l War w ould be i t s in f lu e n c e i n a d v a n c in g
A m erican s c i e n c e .
Y et t h i s w is h w en t u n f u l f i l l e d , and th e
s ta te m e n t m u st be r e a d a s a n e x a g g e r a ti o n o f s c i e n c e 's r o l e
i n th e U n io n w a r e f f o r t .
H en ry , h i m s e l f , a d m itte d a s much
i n 1870 i n r e s p o n s e t o q u e s tio n s fro m members o f th e E n g lis h
G overnm ent S c i e n t i f i c C om m ission.
The C om m ission h ad b e e n
a p p o in te d t o s tu d y means f o r im p ro v in g s c i e n t i f i c e d u c a tio n
an d r e s e a r c h , and w h ile v a c a ti o n in g i n L ondon H enry a g re e d
t o t e s t i f y on how s c ie n c e was s u p p o r te d i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
T h ere was l i t t l e he c o u ld t e l l h i s B r i t i s h p e e r s —a s i d e from
c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n t o ways th e S m ith s o n ia n w en t a b o u t i n ­
c r e a s i n g an d d i f f u s i n g know ledge among men— s in c e a t t h a t
1J o s e p h H e n ry , " R e p o rt o f th e S e c r e t a r y , ” A nnual
R e p o rt o f t h e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n . 1862 (W a sh in g to n ,
B .e ;,■T r a j T p T i s .
■~ --------------------- -------81
82
tim e n a t i o n a l s c ie n c e h ap p en ed t o be r e l a t i v e l y s ta g n a n t*
A nnu al a p p r o p r i a t i o n s b y th e s t a t e s and C o n g re ss t o t a l e d a
p a l t r y h a l f - m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , d iv id e d b e tw e e n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s
C o a s t S u rv e y , th e N av al O b s e r v a to ry , s e v e r a l l i g h t h o u s e s , and
v a r io u s w e s te r n r e c o n n a is s a n c e g ro u p s*
No sums w ere s p e n t f o r
s c i e n t i f i c s c h o la rs h ip s o r o r ig in a l in v e s tig a tio n s .
S c ie n ­
t i f i c s o c i e t i e s — in c lu d in g th e N a tio n a l Academy—r e c e i v e d
n o th in g fro m th e g overnm ent a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly , h ad l i t t l e
v o ic e i n m a tte r s o f p u b l i c p o lic y *
L ik e th e man who b e l i e v e d
t h a t th e ste a m e n g in e d id more f o r s c ie n c e t h a n s c ie n c e f o r
th e ste a m e n g in e , A m erican s c o n tin u e d t o a p p r e c i a t e o n ly th e
u t i l i t a r i a n im p l i c a t i o n s o f p u re r e s e a r c h .
I n a w o rd , th e
im m ediate im p a c t o f th e C i v i l War on s c ie n c e h a d b e e n
n e g lig ib le . 2
T h is was due t o th e f a c t t h a t th e War o f th e R e b e ll io n
was n o t n o ta b ly s c i e n t i f i c *
S in c e n e i t h e r s i d e c la im e d a
m i l i t a r y te c h n o lo g y s u f f i c i e n t l y ad v an ced t o t h r e a t e n th e
o t h e r , th e w ar la c k e d th e k in d o f new w eap o n ry dem anding
re s e a rc h in e x a c t s c ie n c e .
H o st in n o v a tio n s came fro m th e
h an d s o f a m a te u r in v e n to r s r a t h e r th a n fro m th e t r a i n e d m inds
o f c h e m is ts and p h y s i c i s t s , and t h e r e was n e v e r much c o n s i d e r ­
a t i o n g iv e n t o m o b iliz in g p r o f e s s i o n a l s c i e n t i s t s i n o r d e r t o
ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f t h e i r e x p e r t i s e .
P r a c tic a l in d iv id u a ls
2 [Jo se p h Henry] , "E x a m in a tio n o f P r o f e s s o r H en ry by
th e E n g lis h G overnm ent S c i e n t i f i c C o m m issio n ," S m ith s o n ia n
M is c e lla n e o u s C o l l e c t i o n s , X V III (W a sh in g to n , D . d . , l a s u ) ,
773 - 801 .
83
b l e s s e d w ith m e c h a n ic a l i n t u i t i o n w ere w h at th e c o u n tr y
n e e d e d , i t was f e l t , n o t t r u e s a v a n t s .
The l a t t e r w ere i n
s h o r t s u p p ly anyw ay, a f a c t h e l p in g t o e x p l a i n why th e y
w ere g e n e r a l l y ig n o r e d b y th e g o v e rn m e n t.
F u rth e rm o re ,
p h y s i c a l s c ie n c e h ad n o t y e t r e a c h e d th e s ta g e a t w h ich i t
c o u ld be e x p l o i t e d f o r p u r p o s e s o f m ass a n n i h i l a t i o n ; i n ­
d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h w as n o t a d e q u a te ly d e v e lo p e d t o y i e l d
in s tr u m e n ts o f d e s t r u c t i o n ; a n d , o f c o u r s e , u n i v e r s i t i e s
w ere s t i l l d e c a d e s away fro m b e i n g su c k e d i n t o th e w a r
m a c h in e .
T h e r e f o r e , th e c o u n tr y w as w ith o u t th e n e c e s s a r y
i n g r e d i e n t s f o r w ag in g a s c i e n t i f i c w a r .
B etw een 1861 and
1865 th e N a tio n a l Academy o f S c ie n c e s an d th e P erm an e n t
Com m ission i n s t i t u t e d t o a d v is e t h e Navy D ep a rtm en t on
s c i e n t i f i c m a tte r s a c c o m p lis h e d d i s t r e s s i n g l y l i t t l e .
Even
th e N a tio n a l A cadem y's a tte m p t t o a s c e r t a i n th e age o f
w h isk e y u se d i n m i l i t a r y h o s p i t a l s p ro v e d a f a i l u r e .
Such
sh o rtc o m in g s and d is a p p o in tm e n ts have l e d t o th e c o n c lu s io n
t h a t , "D u rin g th e C i v i l W ar, th e n e a r e s t t h i n g t o a r e s e a r c h
and d ev elo p m en t a g e n cy w as th e P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f . ” '’
Though th e w a r f a i l e d t o h a s t e n s c i e n t i f i c b r e a k ­
th ro u g h s th e m id d le p e r io d o f A m erican h i s t o r y w as a n y th in g
^ R o b e rt V . B ru c e , L in c o ln and th e T o o ls o f War
( I n d i a n a p o l i s , I n d . , 1 9 5 6 ), p .
N a th a n R e in g o ld , " S c ie n c e
i n th e C i v i l W ar: The P e rm a n e n t C om m ission o f th e Navy De­
p a r t m e n t ,” I s i s . XLIX (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 5 8 ) , 3 0 7 -3 1 8 ; f o r th e
C o m m ittee. on th e Q u e s tio n o f T e s ts f o r th e P u r i t y o f W hiskey,
1 8 6 ^ , s e e F r e d e r i c k W. T ru e ( e d . ) , A H i s t o r y o f th e F i r s t
H a lf - C e n tu ry o f t h e N a tio n a l Academy o f S c ie n c e s . 1 S 6 3 -I9 1 3
(Was h in g t o n , B .C ., 1 9 1 3 ) , p p . 2 2 5 -2 2 6 .------------------------------------
b u t d o rm a n t i n te rm s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n and p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n *
As e a r l y a s 1840 a l i v e l y i n t e r e s t w as shewn i n e v e r y b r a n c h
o f s c i e n c e , and t h i s e n th u s ia s m l e d t o an d r e s u l t e d fro m
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ic h m u l t i p l i e d a t a b r e a t h t a k i n g
p ace*
B etw een 1842 and 1 8 4 8 , th e N a v y 's D epot o f C h a r ts and
I n s tr u m e n ts was tr a n s f o r m e d i n t o th e N a v a l O b s e r v a to ry ; u n d e r
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f F r a n k lin * s sh rew d an d c a p a b le g r e a t g r a n d ­
s o n , A le x a n d e r D a lla s B a c h e , t h e C o a s t S u rv e y w as r e v i t a l i z e d ;
th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n w as e s t a b l i s h e d a s a n a t i o n a l
c e n t e r f o r s c i e n c e ; B en jam in S i l l i m a n e n l a r g e d h i s A m erican
J o u r n a l o f S c ie n c e and A r t s , th e p r i n c i p a l o rg a n f o r s c i e n ­
t i f i c p u b l i c a t i o n i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s ; new o b s e r v a t o r i e s ,
museums, and l a b o r a t o r i e s w ere e r e c t e d a t C i n c i n n a t i , W illia m s
C o lle g e , T a le , an d H a rv a rd ; H a rv a rd * s L aw rence S c i e n t i f i c
S c h o o l opened i t s d o o r s ; th e A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e
A dvancem ent o f S c ie n c e was b o r n ; v ig o r o u s s o c i e t i e s and
a c ad e m ies o f s c ie n c e f l o u r i s h e d i n many s o u th e r n c i t i e s ;
and a l l th e w h ile v a r io u s p u b l i c and p r i v a t e a g e n c ie s c o v e re d
th e e a r t h w ith r e s e a r c h p a r t i e s w h ic h tu m e d - u p v a s t q u a n t i ­
t i e s o f sp ecim en s an d d a t a , p u b lis h e d num erous r e p o r t s , an d
a l s o h e lp e d e d u c a te th e s c i e n t i s t s th e m s e lv e s *
S im u lta n e o u s ly
th e s e men w ere b e in g more am ply re w a rd e d w i t h money and s t a t u s *
D e s p ite th e f e d e r a l g o v e rn m e n t's h e s i t a n c y a b o u t e n c o u ra g in g
le a im in g , th e m id d le 1 8 4 0 's c o n s t i t u t e d a w a te rs h e d i n th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f s c ie n c e i n A m e ric a .
As I . B. Cohen h a s p o in te d
85
o u t , "A m erican s c ie n c e was a p p a r e n t l y r e a c h in g i t s m a j o r i t y . ”
T h e r e f o r e , th e C i v i l War c o u ld n o t h av e b r o u g h t m a tu r a tio n
f o r t h a t h ad a l r e a d y o c c u r r e d .
J u s t a s o t h e r d e p a rtm e n ts o f
n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e e x p e r ie n c e d a n te - b e llu m " t a k e - o f f " p e r i o d s ,
so w i t h A m erican s c i e n c e , and t h e im p e tu s s u s t a i n e d s c i e n ­
t i f i c e n t e r p r i s e u n t i l th e G ild e d A ge.
T hen, i n th e 1 8 7 0 's ,
came a n o t h e r e p o c h o f fe rm e n t an d a c c e l e r a t i o n a s C o n g re ss
moved t o im p lem en t th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n t o "prom ote
th e p r o g r e s s o f s c ie n c e and u s e f u l a r t s . "
Some y e a r s l a t e r C la re n c e Edward D u tto n r e c a l l e d th e
s e v e n t i e s a s a tim e when " a l l o f th o s e g r e a t b u r e a u s f o r
s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n u n d e r g o v e rn m e n ta l a u s p ic e s and
s u p p o r t , w h ic h a r e su c h c o n s p ic u o u s f e a t u r e s o f o u r s y s te m ,
w ere th e n i n e x i s t e n c e and i n f u l l c a r e e r . • • . ”5
D u tto n knew w h e re o f h e s p o k e .
M a jo r
H is own a n a ly s e s o f r o c k
f o r m a tio n s an d v i v i d , p a n o ra m ic d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e h ig h
p l a t e a u s o f U ta h and G rand Canyon c o u n tr y w ere made p o s s i b l e
b y m ore th a n f i f t e e n y e a r s s e r v i c e w ith th e P o w e ll S u rv e y ,
th e P u b l i c L ands C om m ission, t h e U n ite d S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l
S u rv e y , and th e I r r i g a t i o n S u rv e y .
D u tto n 's e x p e r ie n c e i s
i l l u s t r a t i v e o f s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y u n d e r th e a e g is o f th e
4I . B e rn a rd C ohen, "H a rv a rd and t h e S c i e n t i f i c
S p i r i t , ” H a rv a rd A lum ni B u l l e t i n . L ( F e b ru a ry 7 , 1 9 ^ 8 ) , 3 9 6 .
^A d d ress d e l i v e r e d b y M ajo r C. E . D u tto n , The
T w e n ty - F if th A n n iv e r s a r y o f th e F o unding o f th e Cosmos Club
o T W5 s KIngEoh T '.
( W a s K i h ^ ^ T T O . T T 9Pti) . "W " 2 5 : ------------
jj.
86
g o v e rn m e n t.
I t i s d o u b ly i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e he w as draw n
i n t o p u b l i c s e r v i c e m a in ly th r o u g h h i s a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h one
o f th e s c i e n t i f i c co m m u n ity 's n o t a b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , th e
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n .
Members o f th e P h i l ­
o s o p h ic a l S o c ie ty h e lp e d n u r t u r e h i s g e o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s ,
and th e c o n t a c t s w h ich i t a f f o r d e d e n a b le d h im t o p u rs u e a
lo n g c a r e e r i n g o v ern m en t a g e n c i e s .^
W hile n o t o f f i c i a l l y fo u n d ed u n t i l 1 8 7 1 , th e P h i l ­
o s o p h ic a l S o c i e t y 's r o o t s re a c h e d b a c k i n t o p r e - C i v i l War
A m e ric a .
To a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g re e t h i s i l l u s t r a t e d th e l i n k ­
age c o n n e c tin g p o s t and a n te - b e llu m s c i e n t i f i c i n s t i t u t i o n s .
A ls o , th e e x i s t e n c e o f J o s e p h H en ry le a d i n g th e way a s a
p r i n c i p a l o r g a n iz e r o f b o th g ro u p s u n d e r s c o re d th e c o n t i n u i t y
b e tw e e n th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y an d i t s e a r l i e r v a r i a n t .
T h a t H enry s h o u ld h av e b e e n c o n s p ic u o u s ly i n th e f o r e f r o n t
i n 1871 w as a t once u n d e r s ta n d a b le and a p p r o p r i a t e .
U n d er­
s ta n d a b le b e c a u se he had j u s t r e t u r n e d fro m h i s i n te r v i e w
w i t h th e E n g lis h C om m ission, d u r in g w h ich th e in a d e q u a c y o f
A m e ric a '8 s c i e n t i f i c e s t a b l i s h m e n t h ad b e e n f o r c e f u l l y
b r o u g h t hom e.
O rg a n iz in g th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y was
th e r e f o r e a c a lc u la te d resp o n se to t h i s c h a lle n g in g r e a l ­
iz a tio n .
I n a n o th e r way H e n r y 's p r e s e n c e seem ed f i t t i n g a s
he w as a l r e a d y th e c e n t e r o f W a s h in g to n 's m o st l e a r n e d c i r c l e ,
^W allace E . S te g n e r , C la re n c e Edward D u tto n : An
A p p r a is a l ( S a l t Lake C i t y , U ta n [ jl93 o j j , p . j.u; G eorge P .
B e c k e r, ^M ajor C. E . D u t t o n .'' A m erican J o u r n a l o f S c ie n c e ,
U th s e r . , XXXIII ( A p r i l , 1 9 1 2 )' ,"387^388.--------------------------
87
a g ro u p w h ic h s t y l e d i t s e l f th e S c i e n t i f i c C lu b .
The d e s i g n a t i o n " c lu b ” s h o u ld n o t be t a k e n to o
l i t e r a l l y , h o w ev e r, s in c e t h i s body w as n e v e r a s t i g h t l y
o r g a n iz e d a s th e te rm i m p l i e s .
In d e e d i t la c k e d e v e n th e
m o st r u d im e n ta r y e le m e n t o f a c l u b : a r o s t e r o f r e g u l a r
m em bers.
T h ere w as a good d e a l o f v a g u e n e ss a b o u t th e nam e,
w i t h some c a l l i n g i t "The S a tu r d a y C lu b " and S p e n c e r B a ir d
r e f e r r i n g t o i t s im p ly a s "The W ash in g to n S c i e n t i f i c s . "
T h is i l l - d e f i n e d c o t e r i e to o k i t s e x i s t e n c e fro m t h e cu sto m
o f H enry and h i s f r i e n d s o f p a s s in g S a tu r d a y e v e n in g s i n
e a c h o t h e r s 1 com pany.
Commencing e a r l y i n th e 1 8 5 0 * s, t h e s e
p l e a s a n t g a t h e r i n g s w ere h e l d " f o r th e d i s c u s s i o n o f s c i e n ­
t i f i c s u b j e c t s an d f o r g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c c o n v e r s a t i o n ," 7
aim s w h ic h , i n p r a c t i c e , p ro v e d b ro a d enough t o encom pass
d is p a ra te s p e c i a l t ie s .
Hugh M cC ulloch le a r n e d t h i s upon
com ing t o W a sh in g to n a s c o m p tr o l le r o f th e c u r r e n c y .
S h o rtly
a f t e r a r r i v i n g he r e c e i v e d an i n v i t a t i o n from th e S c i e n t i f i c
C lu b , w h ic h he r e f u s e d , a p o lo g iz in g t h a t he was p o o r ly v e r s e d
in s c ie n c e .
No m a t t e r , i n s i s t e d H en ry , " f in a n c e i s a s u b j e c t
i n w h ic h th e c o u n tr y i s j u s t now d e e p ly i n t e r e s t e d , and th e
C lu b w a n ts a member who knows so m e th in g a b o u t i t . " 8
M cC ulloch
7"L ocked Book" e n t r y f o r D ecem ber 2 3 , 1 8 5 4 , J o se p h
H en ry P e r s o n a l P a p e r s , S I A r c h iv e s ; J o u r n a l o f S p e n c e r F .
B a i r d , M arch 6 , 1 8 7 1 , i b i d . ; on i n f o r m a l i t y s e e , Simon
Newcomb, The R e m in isc e n c e s o f a n A stro n o m er ( B o s to n , 1 9 0 3 ),
p . 243. ”
®Hugh M cC ulloch, Men an d M easu res o f H a lf a C e n tu ry
(New Y o rk , 1 8 8 8 ), p p . 2 6 1 -2 6 2 .
88
so o n became a s te a d y v i s i t o r * a lo n g w ith o t h e r s whose m e t i e r s
l a y o u ts i d e o f p u re s c i e n c e .
S e v e r s i h ad p o s i t i o n s i n th e
P a t e n t O f f i c e , in c lu d in g T i t i a n P e a l e , e x p l o r e r , a r t i s t ,
m e c h a n ic , p h o to g r a p h e r , and n a t u r a l i s t —a f a s c i n a t i n g p r o d u c t
o f one o f th e c o u n t r y 's m ost s i n g u l a r f a m i l i e s .
Q u a r te r ­
m a s te r G e n e ra l Montgomery C. M e ig s, G eorge S c h a e f f e r ,
l i b r a r i a n o f th e I n t e r i o r D e p a rtm e n t, and M ajo r G e n e ra l
Andrew A tk in s o n H um phreys, c h i e f o f t h e arm y C o rp s o f
E n g in e e rs augm ented a n u c le u s o f m a th e m a tic ia n s , g e o d e s i s t s ,
a s tr o n o m e r s , and p h y s i c i s t s .
These men w ould a ssem b le a t
one o f t h e i r n u m b e r's r e s i d e n c e , h e a r a p a p e r , t h e n c lo s e
th e e v e n in g w ith s u p p e r .
S in c e H enry was a n e v e r - w i l l i n g
h o s t m e e tin g s f r e q u e n t l y to o k p la c e a t th e S m ith s o n ia n , and
th e s e o c c a s io n s l e f t p a r t i c u l a r l y v i v i d im p r e s s io n s i n th e
m inds o f p a r t i c i p a n t s —n o t o n ly b e c a u s e th e p r o f e s s o r u s e d
h i s s c i e n t i f i c know ledge t o c o n c o c t a p u n ch w i t h a b a s e o f
p u re a l c o h o l .
I n t e l l e c t u a l o f f e r i n g s w ere e q u a l l y im a g i­
n a t i v e , and w e ll- d e s e r v e d w as th e a c c o la d e t h a t t h e s e m e e tin g s
w ere " th e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e exam ple o f s o c i a l l i f e a t th e
N a t i o n 's C a p i t a l . " ^
9" D r. G a l l a u d e t 's R e m a rk s," u n d a te d , b o x la b e le d
"Some P a p e rs P r e s e n te d a t M e e tin g s ," L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty P a p e r s ,
LC; so m e th in g o f th e c h a r a c t e r o f m e e tin g s i s r e n d e r e d i n
G eorge C .S c H a e f f e r t o A le x a n d e r D. B ach e, S a tu r d a y , 1 8 6 1 , RH
2 2 4 3 , and J o s e p h H enry t o B ach e, December 1 1 , 1 8 6 1 , Box 2 9 ,
H enry t o B ach e, F e b ru a ry 1 , 1 8 6 2 , RH 1 5 0 3 , Box 3 0 , Hugh
M bC ulloch t o H en ry , F e b ru a ry 1 7 , 1 8 7 0 , RH 3 4 9 2 , Box 4 1 ,
W illia m J . R hees C o l l e c t i o n , H enry E . H u n tin g to n L i b r a r y .
89
The f a t a l f la w o f t h e S c i e n t i f i c C lub w as a l a c k o f
in s titu tio n a l s tru c tu re .
U n lik e m ost e l e g a n t c i r c l e s a l l
i t s members w ere "g e n tle m e n o f s u p e r i o r c u l t u r e ,* ' and i t
j u s t i f i a b l y to o k p re c e d e n c e o v e r g ro u p s l i k e H o r a tio
K in g '8
I n no s e n s e was i t a h av e n f o r mere a f ic io n a d o s
o f t h e a r t s and s c i e n c e s , b u t i n s t e a d an e l i t i s t body o f
s p e c i a l i s t s and p r o f e s s i o n a l s .
A re v e a lin g a s p e c t o f i t s
h i s t o r y was th e a b se n c e o f an y t a l k a b o u t m e rg in g w ith th e
W a sh in g to n S c i e n t i f i c A s s o c i a t i o n , a c o l l e c t i o n o f b u f f s
w h ich h a d l i t t l e
fro m i t s n am e.1*1
i n common w i t h th e S c i e n t i f i c C lu b a s id e
S a tu r d a y g e t t o g e t h e r s w ere lo o k e d fo rw a rd
t o w ith su c h e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t men w ould v e n tu r e o u t on t h e
m o st b i t t e r and b l u s t e r y J a n u a r y n i g h t r a t h e r t h a n f o r f e i t
th e warm f e llo w s h i p o f th e S c i e n t i f i c C lu b .
B ut f o r a l l
t h a t , H e n r y 's g ro u p was n o t w e ll - o r g a n iz e d , a p ro b le m w h ic h
became a c u te w ith th e e n la rg e m e n t o f W a s h in g to n 's s c i e n t i f i c
c o r p s d u r in g th e l a t e 1 8 6 0 's .
By 1871 a tte n d a n c e a t m e e tin g s
was r u n n in g a s h ig h a s f i f t y ; c l e a r l y t h e S c i e n t i f i c C lub
had o u tg ro w n i t s c a s u a l c h a r a c t e r and th e tim e w as r i p e f o r
a more co m p reh en siv e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
B e fo re th e f i r s t q u a r t e r
o f th e new y e a r h a d r u n i t s c o u rs e i t w ould be f o r m a liz e d
-*-°McCulloch, lien and M e a su re s, p . 2 5 9 : J o s e u h H enrv
t o H o r a tio K in g , D ecember 2 b , 157b, k in g P a p e r s , V, LC.
11
S e e , P ro c e e d in g s o f th e W ash in g to n S c i e n t i f i c
A s s o c ia ti o n ( F h i l a a e l p n i a , P a . , jlbc& j .
90
i n t o th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y o f W a s h in g to n .12
R esp o n d in g t o th e p le a o f f o r t y - t h r e e W a sh in g to n ia n s
i n t e r e s t e d i n s c i e n t i f i c p u r s u i t s , J o s e p h H en ry c a l l e d a m e et­
in g f o r th e p u rp o se o f c r e a t i n g a s o c i e t y w h ich w ould s a t i s f y
th e n e e d s o f l o c a l s a v a n t s .
B en jam in P e i r c e , A saph H a l l ,
S te p h e n V in c e n t B e n e t, G e n e ra l S h erm an , Salm on P . C h a s e , P e a l e ,
M e ig s, S c h a e f f e r , H um phreys, and Newcomb t o t a l e d a s m a ll
p e r c e n ta g e o f th o s e who a f f ir m e d t h e i r com m itm ent t o th e
i d e a l o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n " h a v in g f o r i t s o b j e c t th e f r e e e x ­
chan g e o f v ie w s and s t u d i e s on s c i e n t i f i c s u b j e c t s , an d th e
p ro m o tio n o f s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y among i t s m em b ers."
On
Monday, M arch 1 3 , i n t h e S m ith s o n ia n R e g e n t 's Room, t h e y
a d o p te d a c o n s t i t u t i o n and e l e c t e d o f f i c e r s .
H en ry , h i m s e l f ,
was c h o sen t h e f i r s t p r e s i d e n t o f th e S o c i e t y , and i t s con­
s t i t u t i o n and b y -la w s w ere f o r m a lly r a t i f i e d on A p r i l f i r s t .
A lm ost o v e r n ig h t p r o f e s s i o n a l t i e s b e tw e e n th e C a p i t a l
C i t y 's men o f s p e c i a l i z e d know ledge h ad b e e n s tr e n g t h e n e d .
More d e f i n i t e form h ad b e e n g iv e n t o th e c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f
re s id e n t in te lle c tu a ls .
And now, a c r o s s th e s e a t o f g o v e rn ­
m e n t, f e l l th e shadow c a s t b y " a s o c i e t y f o r th e advancem ent
o f S c i e n c e ." 1^
12D ia r y o f M ary H en ry , J a n u a r y 2 0 , 1 8 6 6 , I I , S I
A rc h iv e s ; J o u r n a l o f J o s e p h H e n ry , J a n u a r y 1 4 , 1 8 7 1 , i b i d . ;
Thomas C o u lso n , J o s e p h H en ry . H is L i f e an d Work ( P r i n c e t o n ,
N . J . , 1 9 5 0 ), p . 7 3 2 7
^ J o s e p h H en ry , " A n n iv e rs a ry A d d re ss o f th e P r e s i d e n t
o f th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t y o f W a s h in g to n ," November 1 8 ,
1871, B u l l e t i n o f th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y . o f W a sh in g to n . I
91
C o n s id e r in g th e S o c i e t y ’s f o c u s o f a t t e n t i o n w ould
i t n o t have b e e n a p p r o p r i a t e t o r e t a i n th e t i t l e S c i e n t i f i c
C lu b ?
H ere was ”a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f a s t r i c t l y s c i e n t i f i c
c h a r a c te r * ’; 1^ why, t h e n , g iv e up a name w h ic h seem ed p e r f e c t ­
ly s u ita b le ?
The an sw er l a y i n th e fo u n d e rs * b e l i e f t h a t
a l l " th o s e b r a n c h e s o f know ledge t h a t r e l a t e t o th e p o s i t i v e
f a c t s and la w s o f th e p h y s i c a l and m o ra l u n i v e r s e " to u c h th e
e s s e n c e o f s c i e n c e , and b e c a u s e t h e s e men w ere c o n c e rn e d
w i t h t r u t h and w isdom i n th e f u l l e s t s e n s e , th e y ch o se t o
d e s c r i b e th e m s e lv e s a s " P h i l o s o p h i c a l • ”
M o reo v e r, th e y h ad
n o t u n i t e d f o r r e l a x a t i o n o r am usem ent, b u t t o s t i m u l a t e
t h e i r m u tu a l q u e s t f o r e m p i r i c a l u n d e r s ta n d in g .
To a n e x t e n t
th e f o u n d e r s p a r te d company w i t h H e n ry ’ s c i r c l e , a n d , i n th e
p r o c e s s , "C lu b " was r e p la c e d b y " S o c i e t y . "
S o c ie tie s had
alw a y s g e n e r a te d much o f th e e n e rg y f o r s c i e n t i f i c p r o g r e s s ,
a t r a d i t i o n w h ich t h e f i r s t p r e s i d e n t deem ed w e ll- w o r th
p e rp e tu a tin g .
T h is c o u ld b e a c c o m p lis h e d , he a d v i s e d ,
th r o u g h th e c o r p o r a te s h a r in g o f new d i s c o v e r i e s , b y im prov­
in g t h e image o f A m erican s c i e n c e , an d a s a r e s u l t o f i n ­
f lu e n c in g p o p u la r th o u g h t.
(M arch , 1 8 7 1 -J u n e , 1 8 7 4 ), v i i i ; th e i n i t i a t o r y l e t t e r t o
H e n ry , F e b ru a ry 7 , 1 8 7 1 , i s i n th e u n d a te d box l a b e l e d
" M a te r ia l o f H i s t o r i c a l I n t e r e s t , " P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y o f
W a sh in g to n A rc h iv e s ( h e n c e f o r th P5W A r c h i v e s ) , U n ite d S t a t e s
N av a l R e s e a rc h L a b o r a to r y , and p u b lis h e d i n i b i d . . 1 9 -2 0 ;
J o u r n a l o f J o s e p h H e n ry , M arch 6 , 1 8 7 1 , S I A r c h iv e s •
^ S le n r y , B u l l e t i n , I ,
92
How ever w id e th e d i f f u s i o n o f g e n e r a l k n o w led g e ,
p u b l i c o p in io n i n r e g a r d t o s c i e n t i f i c q u e s tio n s
m u st e v e n t u a l l y be d e te r m in e d b y th e a u t h o r i t y
o f s o c i e t i e s . J o u r n a l s , an d i n d i v i d u a l s , o f e s ­
ta b lis h e d s c i e n t i f i c re p u ta tio n . I t i s th e re fo re
o f th e f i r s t im p o rta n c e t h a t th e o p e r a t io n s o f
t h i s S o c i e t y b e c o n d u c te d w ith g r e a t c a r e , and
t h a t n o th in g b e g iv e n t o th e w o rld u n d e r i t s
s a n c t i o n w h ic h i s n o t b a s e d upon th o ro u g h i n .5
v e s t i g a t i o n o r e s t a b l i s h e d s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s . 1*
The P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty r e g a r d e d i t s e l f a s more th a n a
c l i q u e o f hometown s c i e n t i s t s .
A c c o rd in g t o H enry i t a s p i r e d
t o h e l p c h a r t th e c o u rs e o f n a t i o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t, a n immense
c h a lle n g e t o s a y th e l e a s t .
I n v iew o f t h i s i t u n d o u b te d ly
was w e l l t o h av e em barked on i t s m is s io n c l a d i n th e r o b e s
o f a s o c i e t y o f p h ilo s o p h e r s r a t h e r t h a n so m e th in g more
m o d e s t.
N a t u r a l l y , much d ep en d ed on th e c a l i b e r o f th e member­
s h ip .
A t th e v e r y o u t s e t i t was made c l e a r t h a t th o s e who
m ig h t f a i l t o p a s s m u s te r n e e d n o t a p p ly .
"W hile b u t com par­
a t i v e l y few q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r a d m itta n c e ,"
H enry e x p l a i n e d , "no p e r s o n i s e l e c t e d who i s n o t su p p o se d
t o h av e a t l e a s t a h ig h a p p r e c i a t i o n o f s c i e n c e ; h a s some
f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h i t s p r i n c i p l e s , an d i s c a p a b le o f d o in g
so m e th in g i n th e way o f p ro m o tin g th e o b j e c t s o f th e A s s o c i­
a t i o n . " '1'^
The l a t t e r m ig h t e n t a i l J u s t m aking a "good
a u d ie n c e " — a s su m in g , o f c o u r s e , t h a t th e c a n d id a te m et th e
*--* Ib id . , v i i i .
^ J o s e p h H en ry , "A nnual A d d re ss o f t h e P r e s i d e n t , "
November 2 4 , 1 8 7 7 , i b i d . . I I (O c to b e r 1 0 , 1874-Novem ber 2 ,
1 8 7 8 ), 162.
93
c r i t e r i o n o f " g e n e r a l c u l t u r e ” —b u t on no a c c o u n t w o u ld th e
S o c i e t y a c c e p t " p s e u d o - s c i e n t i s t s . ”17
T ak in g o n ly r e l a t i v e l y
t r a i n e d m inds v o u c h s a fe d th e S o c i e t y 's p o s i t i o n v i s - a - v i s
th e e l e g a n t c i r c l e s .
T hese a g g r e g a tio n s w ere w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d
an d w o r th w h ile , i n s o f a r a s t h e y e n c o u ra g e d s e lf - im p r o v e m e n t,
b u t t h e ,O p t i o n a l Q a p i t a l w as b o th d e s e r v in g an d c a p a b le o f
b e tte r.
W ash in g to n a l r e a d y c la im e d p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y more men
en g ag ed i n s c i e n t i f i c a l l y o r i e n t e d p u r s u i t s t h a n a n y o t h e r
c i t y , an d w ith th e p r e d i c t e d g ro w th o f g o v ern m en t s c ie n c e
t h i s num ber w as bound t o m u l t i p l y .
B e fo re lo n g th e S o c ie ty
w ould r e v o lv e aro u n d o r i g i n a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s c o l l e c t i v e l y
co m p arin g an d t e s t i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h .
So b y
a t t r a c t i n g th e s u p e r i o r t a l e n t o f n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s th e
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty w ould s im u lta n e o u s ly n o u r is h t h e s p i r i t
o f i n q u i r y i n W ash in g to n and "h av e r e f l e x in f lu e n c e upon
e v e r y p a r t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s . ”1®
The s ta n d a r d s s e t f o r m e e tin g s w ere s t i l l more r i g o r o u s
th a n th o s e p e r t a i n i n g t o m em b ersh ip .
S in c e t h e S o c ie ty assum ed
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s c r u t i n i z i n g c la im s t o a d v a n c e s i n know ledge
i t s p r o c e e d in g s w ere c o n d u c te d w ith u tm o s t s e r i o u s n e s s .
In
t h i s v e i n e v e n in g d r e s s was de r i g u e u r f o r p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
17M in u te s o f th e G e n e ra l C o m m ittee, M arch 2 , 1 8 8 9 , PSW
A r c h iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s N av al R e s e a rc h L a b o r a to r y .
18H en ry , B u l l e t i n . I I , 1 62; A saph H a l l , "A nnual
A d d re ss o f th e P r e s i d e n t , " December 5 , 1 8 8 5 , i b i d . . V I I I
------(1 8 8 5 ), x l v i .
9^
t h e r e b y im p a r tin g an a u r a o f fo rm a l d i g n i t y .
Twice a m onth
b e tw e e n tw e n ty and t h i r t y members co n v en ed t o h e a r and comment
upon p r e p a r e d p a p e r s .
T hese c o n t r i b u t i o n s w ere a lm o st i n ­
v a r i a b l y o f a h ig h o r d e r , an d re m a rk s from th e a u d ie n c e t h a t
h i n t e d o f p e d e s tr ia n i s m w ere c o l d l y r e c e i v e d .
"F re e c r i t i c a l
d i s c u s s i o n , " a s H enry u n d e r s to o d i t , w as m eant t o be co n­
s t r u c t i v e , c a llin g a tte n tio n t o n e g le c te d f a c t s , c la r if y in g
h y p o th e s e s , and r e f i n i n g t e n t a t i v e c o n c lu s io n s .
In fo rm ed
c r i t i c i s m was t h e r e f o r e an i n d i s p e n s i b l e p a r t o f th e
S o c i e t y 's o p e r a t i o n s .
A lth o u g h i n th e b e g in n in g m ost
l e c t u r e s d e a l t w i t h p u re s c i e n c e , th e sc o p e o f th e S o c i e t y 's
i n t e r e s t in c lu d e d "Dreams i n T h e ir R e l a t i o n t o P s y c h o lo g y ,"
a t a l k o n th e B ro o k ly n B r id g e , W illia m H. D a l i 's "On th e
R e l a t i v e V alu e o f A la s k a t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s , " "An A tte m p t
a t a T h eo ry o f O d o r," a tr a v e lo g u e o f th e M iddle E a s t b y
G e n e ra l S herm an, C . E . D u t t o n 's tr e a t m e n t o f th e s i l v e r
q u e s t i o n , J . H. S a v i l l e , "On th e New Ja p a n e s e C o in a g e ,"
S p e n c e r B a i r d 's "The A r t i f i c i a l P r o p a g a tio n o f th e C o d ,"
and e u l o g i e s o f fam ous m em bers, one o f th e f i r s t b e in g
o c c a s io n e d b y t h e d e a th o f A . D. Bache i n 1 8 7 1 .
An un­
f o r g e t t a b l e e v e n in g w as when P r o f e s s o r B e l l gave th e f i r s t
p u b l i c d e m o n s tr a tio n o f h i s t e l e p h o n e .
S ig n ific a n tly ,
t h e s e p a p e r s a p p e a re d i n m ass c i r c u l a t i o n p e r i o d i c a l s a s
w e ll a s l e s s e r known s c h o l a r l y j o u r n a l s .
C u ltiv a te d re a d e rs
o f S c r i b n e r 's o r H a r p e r 's New M o n th ly M ag azin e, and th o s e
who p o u re d o v e r A rm ais o f th e H a rv a rd C o lle g e O b s e rv a to ry
and th e A nnual R e p o rt o f th e U .S . F ia h C om m ission, w ere
e q u a l l y a p t t o be t r e a t e d t o a P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y p ap e r*
I n e i t h e r c a s e th e y w ere bound t o be im p re s s e d b y th e
com petence o£ th e a u t h o r and th e s e l f - e v i d e n t e a r n e s t n e s s o f
h is o rg a n iz a tio n .
19
Y et c o n v i v i a l i t y a l s o h ad a p la c e i n th e S o c ie ty * s
e x i s t e n c e , a s i l l u s t r a t e d b y th e t r a d i t i o n o f " a d jo u rn e d
m e e ti n g s ."
R e g u la r m e e tin g s w ere h e ld f o r t n i g h t l y i n t h e
o ld F o rd * s T h e a t r e .
A f t e r L in c o ln * s a s s a s s i n a t i o n th e
b u i l d i n g h ad b e e n tu r n e d i n t o a n an n ex o f th e S u rg e o n G e n e ra l* s
o f f i c e t o hou se th e Army M e d ic a l Museum and L i b r a r y , and Dr:. Jo h n
Shaw B i l l i n g s i n c h a r g e .
By h ap p y c o in c id e n c e B i l l i n g s , and
S u rg eo n G e n e ra l J . K. B a r n e s , h ap p en ed t o be f o u n d e r s o f th e
P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c ie ty .
T hrough t h e i r o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t i e s
t h e y a r r a n g e d f o r th e S o c ie ty * s f i r s t hom e.
B etw een 1871
and 1887, when th e Cosmos C lub a u d ito r iu m became a v a i l a b l e ,
th e n a rro w s t a i r s o f F o rd * s T h e a tre w ere a sc e n d e d c o u n t l e s s
tim e s a s me sobers made t h e i r way t o th e d in g y , " r a t h e r gloom y"
room w h ich D r. B i l l i n g s fo u n d n o n e t h e le s s " a p p r o p r i a t e t o th e
o b j e c t s an d p u rp o s e s o f th e company g a th e r e d t h e r e i n . "
Maybe t h i s som ber am bience c o n t r i b u t e d t o th e m ain o r d e r o f
b u s i n e s s , b u t i t a l s o seem s t o h av e p r e p a r e d members f o r
19F r a n c o is N. F r e n k i e l , " O r ig in and E a r l y Days o f t h e
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a s h in g to n ," i b i d . . XVI ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 19;
W illia m H. D a l i , i b i d . . X II ( 1 8 9 2 -1 8 9 4 7 7 3 6 2 .
20Jo h n S . B i l l i n g s , i b i d . . X I I (1 8 9 2 -1 8 9 4 ), 5 4 9 .
96
t h e i r r e t i r e m e n t im m e d ia te ly a f te r w a r d t o a t a v e r n a ro u n d th e
c o m e r f o r b e e r , p r e t z e l s , and o y s t e r s .
T h u s, P h i l o s o p h i c a l
S o c i e t y e v e n in g s alw ay s c o n c lu d e d b y moving fro m th e g r a y o f
th e o r y i n t o th e g r e e n o f l i f e .
The p o l i c y o f p o s tp o n in g
r e f r e s h m e n ts may have r e f l e c t e d a p p r e h e n s io n o v e r th e t a r n i s h ­
e d im age o f th e M eg ath eriu m C lu b , an o r g a n i z a t i o n o f W a sh in g to n
n a t u r a l i s t s i n th e l a t e 1 8 5 0 's w h ich was ru m o red t o h a r b o r
d is s ip a te s .
Of g r e a t e r im p o rt was th e way a d jo u rn e d m e e tin g s
c a r r i e d on t h e H enry t r a d i t i o n o f t r y i n g t o b le n d s o c i a b i l i t y
w ith i n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s .
21
A n o v e l t y w ith o u t p r e c e d e n t i n th e S c i e n t i f i c C lub w as
a p u b l i c a t i o n o f M in u te s .
The B u l l e t i n o f t h e P h i l o s o p h i c a l
S o c i e t y o f W a sh in g to n , p r i n t e d b y th e S m ith s o n ia n , f i r s t
a p p e a re d i n 1 8 7 4 .
Somewhat s p o r a d i c a l l y , d u r in g th e n e x t
s e v e n te e n y e a r s , t e n more volum es c o n t a in i n g resu m e s o f a s
few a s one an d a s many a a f o u r y e a r s o f m e e tin g s w ere made
a v a ila b le .
E ach volume in c lu d e d a l i s t o f o f f i c e r s an d
m em bers, t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n and r u l e s .
B ut o u t o f eco n o m ic
n e c e s s i t y s c i e n t i f i c j o u r n a l s , g o v ern m en t d o cu m en ts, and th e
S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n ' s M is c e lla n e o u s C o l l e c t i o n s ( t h e
s e c r e t a r y o f t h e S m ith s o n ia n o c c u p ie d a p erm a n en t p la c e on
th e p u b l i c a t i o n s co m m itte e ) h ad t o be r e l i e d on f o r th e
21C h a rle a V. R i l e y , i b i d . . X II (1 8 9 2 -1 8 9 4 ), 5 5 7 ;
W illia m H e a le y D a l i , S p e n c e r F u l l e r t o n B a ir d : A B io g ra p h y
( P h i l a d e l p h i a , P a . , 1 9 1 5 ), p p .' 2 3 r^ 2 3 2 ; W iin : am"g 7 f c l m e s ,
T w e n ty - F if th A n n iv e r s a ry o f th e Cosmos C lu b , p . 4 5 .
97
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f co m p lete p a p e r s . 22
B e fo re 1888 j u s t t i t l e s
and a b s t r a c t s o f co m m u n icatio n s w ere p r e s e n t e d , w i t h o n ly
th e p r e s i d e n t * 8 a n n u a l a d d r e s s g iv e n i n f u l l .
C o n s e q u e n tly ,
th e e a r l y B u l l e t i n r e v e a le d b u t a b a r e o u t l i n e o f th e S o c i e t y 's
su b s ta n c e •
N o n e th e le s s , t h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a b r e a k th r o u g h b o th f o r
th e S o c ie ty and i n te rm s o f th e p ro m o tio n o f W a sh in g to n
s c ie n c e .
V i r t u a l l y an y r e c o r d o f p r o c e e d in g s s e r v e d t o d i f f e r ­
e n t i a t e b etw e en t r u l y dynam ic o r g a n i z a t i o n s an d e l e g a n t
c i r c l e s , and "W ith o u t a t l e a s t su c h a p u b lic a tio n ,* * w arned
H en ry , " th e s o c i e t y c a n n o t have a r e c o g n iz e d e x i s t e n c e . "
23
The B u l l e t i n m et t h i s p u b l i s h - o r - p e r i s h demand b y p a r t i a l l y
f i l l i n g th e n e e d s o f i n d i v i d u a l members f o r a n o u t l e t , w h ile
a t th e same tim e g iv in g an im p r e s s io n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
v ita lity .
H enry h ad alw ay s m a in ta in e d t h a t one o f th e m ost
e f f e c t i v e means f o r a d v a n c in g s c ie n c e was b y r e g u l a r l y d i s ­
s e m in a tin g n o t i c e s o f a c c r e t i o n s t o k n o w led g e .
Such a t a s k
was beyond th e ra n g e o f th e S c i e n t i f i c C lu b , b u t th e more
e l a b o r a t e m a c h in e ry o f t h e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y made t h i s
p o s s ib le .
As p r e s i d e n t , H enry d e p lo r e d th e d e l a y i n g e t t i n g -
o u t th e f i r s t v o lu m e, and th e B u l l e t i n n e v e r s a t i s f i e d h i s
h o p es f o r a co m p reh en siv e s e r i e s o f t r a n s a c t i o n s .
N ot u n t i l
22M arcus B a k er t o S p e n c e r F . B a ir d , D ecem ber 2 8 ,
1887 , L e t t e r s R e c e iv e d from W a sh in g to n S o c i e t i e s , S I A r c h iv e s .
23H en ry , B u l l e t i n . I , x .
98
t e n y e a r s a f t e r h i s d e a th w as th e p u b l i c a t i o n p o l i c y r e v i s e d
t o p e r m it th e p r i n t i n g o f e n t i r e a r t i c l e s .
Y et a d e l i n q u e n t
j o u r n a l o f l i m i t e d sco p e was p r e f e r a b l e t o n o th in g a t a l l .
By 1 8 7 9 , when i t b e g a n a r e g u l a r y e a r l y s c h e d u le , t h e B u l l e t i n
was r e c e i v e d b y m a jo r l i b r a r i e s an d r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s
th r o u g h o u t N o rth A m erica and E u ro p e ; ex c h a n g e s h a d b e e n e s ­
t a b l i s h e d w i t h o v e r a d o z e n r o y a l s o c i e t i e s an d im p e r i a l
a c a d e m ie s ; an d t o a n i n c r e a s i n g e x t e n t th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l
S o c i e t y o f W ash in g to n w as em erg in g a s a le a d in g spokesm an
f o r n a tio n a l s c ie n c e .
I t w as J o s e p h H enry*s cu sto m t o b e g in m e e tin g s b y
r e a d i n g fro m a volume o f R oyal S o c ie ty T r a n s a c t i o n s , th e r e b y
e s t a b l i s h i n g a f a v o r a b le mood and fro m w h ich m ig h t be i n f e r r e d
c o m p a r a b ili ty w ith th e o l d e r B r i t i s h i n s t i t u t i o n .
241-
As a
m a t t e r o f f a c t t h i s h ad some j u s t i f i c a t i o n : b o th g ro u p s w ere
fo u n d e d , i n t h e m ain , b y m a th e m a tic ia n s , a s tr o n o m e r s , and
p h y s i c a l s c i e n t i s t s ; w ith r e s p e c t t o o r i g i n s , th e m id­
s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y c i r c l e a t London and th e S c i e n t i f i c C lub
i n a n te - b e llu m W a sh in g to n w ere l o o s e l y k n i t ; th o u g h th e y
a c c e p te d members fro m o u ts i d e th e r a n k s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l
s c i e n c e , and d e s p i t e t h e i r a v o id a n c e o f r i g i d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ,
th e tw o s o c i e t i e s s t r e s s e d e n l ig h te n e d d i s c u s s i o n ; and g ra d u ­
a l l y b o th grew more f o r m a l, n a t i o n a l , and i n f l u e n t i a l .
D u rin g
th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y e l i t i s t c lu b and s o c i e t y b u i l d i n g to o k
p la c e a g a i n s t b a c k g ro u n d s t h a t w ere u n m is ta k a b ly s i m i l a r .
k illin g s ,
i b i d . . X II, 550.
99
The E n g lis h e x p e rie n c e was c o l o r e d b y th e a f te r m a th o f th e
N a p o le o n ic W ars.
R a p id s o c i a l and eco n o m ic ch a n g es r e v e r ­
b e r a t i n g th r o u g h o u t t h e c l a s s s y s te m , an d th e g e n e r a l
c o n d i t i o n o f c u l t u r a l d i s o r d e r com bined t o p ro d u ce " th e g r e a t
age o f th e London c l u b . " ^ 5
A ls o , a s was th e c a s e i n A m erica
l a t e r o n , a p r o t r a c t e d m i l i t a r y e f f o r t b r o u g h t a b o u t a co n ­
c e n t r a t i o n i n th e N a tio n a l C a p i t a l o f s c i e n t i s t s an d t a l e n t e d
c i v i l s e rv a n ts .
T hese new men o f common i n t e r e s t s s o u g h t
o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a s s o c i a t i o n l i k e th o s e a l r e a d y e n jo y e d by
a r i s t o c r a t s and p o l i t i c i a n s .
t e l l e c t u a l o rg a n iz a tio n s .
Hence th e f o rm a tio n o f i n ­
Though th e y s u r f a c e d i n t h e wake
o f h e ig h te n e d n a t i o n a l i s m t h e s e g ro u p s w ere n o t n o ta b ly
n a tio n a lis tic .
On th e c o n t r a r y , th e y o f t e n s e rv e d a s m e e tin g
p la c e s f o r f o r e i g n s c i e n t i s t s and men o f l e t t e r s .
As
P r e s i d e n t A saph H a ll re m in d e d th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y :
" L e t u s welcome a l l e a r n e s t m en, rem em b erin g t h a t th e
p r i n c i p l e s o f s c ie n c e a r e u n i v e r s a l , an d a r e n o t c o n f in e d
t o an y la n g u a g e o r c o u n t r y . "
26
F i n a l l y , t h e r e w ere s t r i k i n g
2 5C h a rle s P e t r i e , The C a r l to n C lub (L ondon, 1 9 5 5 ),
p . 41.
26A saph H a l l , B u l l e t i n . V I I I , x l v i ; H e r b e r t S p e n c e r
t o Sam uel P . L a n g le y , F e b r u a r y 2 8 , 1 8 8 5 , L a n g le y P a p e r s ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f M ic h ig a n L i b r a r y ; A lla n N e v in s , H enry W h ite :
T h i r t y Y ears o f A m erican D iplom acy (New Y o rk , 1930) , p . 104;
"We nave n o t a llo w e d any l e a r n e d a s s o c i a t i o n com ing h e r e f o r
a m e e tin g , o r an y man o f em inence i n th e le a r n e d w o rld t o
v i s i t th e c i t y , w i t h o u t , i f t h e c a s e was known t o o u r m em bers,
te n d e r i n g o u r h o s p i t a l i t i e s . We th u s aim t o show t o th e w o rld
a t la r g e w hat W a sh in g to n i s t r y i n g t o be and t o d o ." Simon
Newcomb, T w e n ty - F ifth A n n iv e r s a r y o f th e Cosmos C lu b , p . 3 4 .
100
p a r a l l e l s o f c o m p o s itio n an d c h a r a c t e r .
The L ondon A thenaeum ,
f o r i n s t a n c e , w as e s t a b l i s h e d f o r em in en c es i n th e a r t s and
27
s c i e n c e s , a g e n u in e i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e .
C e r t a i n l y th e
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y o f W ash in g to n a p p ro x im a te d t h i s s t a t u s
a s i t came t o in c lu d e more and more men o f n a t i o n a l d i s ­
tin c tio n .
U n d e r g ir d in g t h i s r i s e t o p ro m in en ce w as a h i e r a r c h i a l
s t r u c t u r e d e s ig n e d t o ta k e u tm o s t a d v a n ta g e o f th e p r e s t i g e
o f i n d i v i d u a l m em bers.
The P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t y h ad b e e n
c r e a t e d a s a n e l i t e o r g a n i z a t i o n , and th o s e i n c h a rg e
s t u d i o u s l y made c e r t a i n t h a t i t w ould be i d e n t i f i e d w ith t h e
cream o f o f f i c i a l W a sh in g to n .
" I t i s n o t a p u b lic e s t a b l i s h ­
m e n t,” w ro te H e n ry , " a n d i s com posed o f members and s u c h
p erso n s as a re e s p e c i a lly in v it e d ." ^ 8
M o re o v e r, i t s l e a d e r s
and i t s m o st fam ous p e rs o n a g e s w ere one an d th e sam e,
g u a r a n te e in g t h a t b r i l l i a n t e x h i b i t s w ould c o n s t a n t l y be on
d is p la y .
H en ry , who a l s o w as p r e s i d e n t o f th e N a tio n a l
Academy, h e l d th e S o c i e t y 1s h i g h e s t o f f i c e e v e r y y e a r u n t i l
h i s d e a t h , w hen i t d e v o lv e d t o th e se c o n d r a n k in g member,
Simon Newcomb.
L ik e w is e , B a ir d , G e n e ra l H um phreys, M e ig s,
J u l i u s H i l g a r d , J . J . Woodward, A bbe, A saph H a l l , C h a r le s
S c h o t t , Thomas L . C a se y , G i l l , an d J . H. C . C o f f in — a l l i n
27
Humphrey W ard, H is to r y o f t h e A thenaeum . 1824-1925
(L o n d o n , 1 9 2 6 ), p . 14; J o h n T lm bs. C lub L i f e o£ L ondon. . .
(L ond o n , 1 8 6 6 ), I , 2 4 1 -2 4 2 .
^® Joseph H enry t o S . Mann, A p r i l 6 , 18 7 6 , S I
A r c h iv e s .
101
th e N a ti o n a l Academy—w ere s o r e p e t i t i o u s l y r e t u r n e d t o
o f f i c e t h a t t h e i r names became synonymous w ith th e S o c ie ty
its e lf.
The t a c t i c o f b u i l d i n g a r e p u t a t i o n a ro u n d i l l u s ­
t r i o u s f i g u r e s h a d b e e n p r o f i t a b l y em ployed b y o t h e r g r o u p s ,
and no p o i n t s f o r o r i g i n a l i t y c a n be aw arded t o th e S o c ie ty
on t h i s s c o r e .
H ow ever, i n c o n t r a s t t o th e m a j o r i t y o f
e x q u i s i t e c i r c l e s i t s o rn am e n ts n o t o n ly d a z z le d , t h e y a l s o
g o v e rn e d .
As s t i p u l a t e d i n th e c o n s t i t u t i o n and s ta n d in g
r u l e s , t h e e x e c u ti v e o f f i c e r s an d n in e -m a n g e n e r a l com m ittee
t r a n s a c t e d a l l b u s i n e s s in d e p e n d e n t o f th e r e s t o f th e member­
s h ip .
M e e tin g s e p a r a t e l y , p r i o r t o th e r e g u l a r s e s s i o n s ,
th e y p a s s e d ju d g m en t on c o m m u n ic a tio n s , c o n s id e r e d amendments
t o th e b y - la w s , s e t f i n a n c i a l p o l i c i e s , an d e v e n d e c id e d
upon m em bership n o m in a tio n s .
" F o r th e go v ern m en t o f men
whose o b j e c t i s th e ad v an ce o f t r u t h , b u t few r u l e s a r e
n e c e s s a r y , " a s s u r e d th e p r e s i d e n t upon in tr o d u c i n g h i s
S o c ie ty t o th e p u b l i c .
E l i t i s t r u le b ro u g h t o p e r a tio n a l
e f f i c i e n c y an d t h e " d e v o tio n o f a lm o s t e v e r y e v e n in g e x d u s i v e l y t o i t s l e g i t i m a t e p u r p o s e s ."
29
T h is b r a n d o f
a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m f o llo w e d fro m H e n ry Ts b e l i e f t h a t f e d e r a l
o f f i c e h o ld e r s s h o u ld have lo n g e r te r m s , and t h a t th e P r e s i d e n t
m ig h t s e r v e f o r l i f e . 3 ® W ith r e g a r d t o h i s own S o c ie ty i t
e n a b le d t h e s t a r p e r f o r m e r s t o ch o o se s u p p o r tin g c a s t s t h a t
^ % fe n ry . B u l l e t i n , I , x i v ; J o u r n a l o f J o s e p h H enry.
November 1 7 , 1871 , S I A rch i v e s .
30D ia ry o f Mary H e n ry , J a n u a r y 3 , 1 8 6 5 , I I , 31
A r c h iv e s .
102
w ere c o n s o n a n t w ith th e c h a r a c t e r an d p u rp o s e s o f t h e i r
o r g a n i z a t i o n . 3 *’
C e r t a i n members to o k e x c e p tio n t o t h e s e e l i t i s t
c o n fig u ra tio n s .
I n May 1 8 8 3 , s c a r c e l y tw o m onths a f t e r h i s
a d m is s io n , A l b e r t W illia m s p r i v a t e l y d e p r e c a te d i t a s " th e
W a sh in g to n M u tu al A d m ira tio n S o c ie ty " and d e s c r i b e d th e
l e c t u r e s a s " s l u s h . ”32
S in c e W illia m s o c c u p ie d one o f t h e
f a s h io n a b le r e s i d e n c e s on L a f a y e t t e S q u are an d w as em ployed
b y th e U n ite d S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y , t h i s low o p in io n o f
a g ro u p p a t e n t l y w e l l - t a i l o r e d t o h i s own p o s i t i o n seem ed t o
d efy re a so n .
Some e l u c i d a t i o n was sh e d b y t h e c o n f i d e n t i a l
r e p o r t o f a c o l l e a g u e , Sam uel F r a n k l i n Emmons, a f t e r a d d r e s s in g
th e S o c i e t y .
I w is h I w as a l i t t l e b e t t e r up i n C h e m istry and
P h y s ic s m y s e lf , b u t d o n 't seem t o have tim e t o do
an y s tu d y in g on so a b s t r a c t a l i n e a s t h a t . . . .
The p a p e r o f w h ic h you h e a rd . . . I w ro te o u t a t
G i l b e r t 's r e q u e s t f o r th e W a sh in g to n P h i l o s o p h i c a l
S o c i e t y . He t o l d me th e y w ere a l o t o f o ld f o g i e s
t o whom a n y th in g o f t h a t k in d w o u ld b e a n o v e l t y .
I t h e r e f o r e to o k v e r y l i t t l e p a in s a b o u t i t , and
m e re ly r e a d th e p a p e r and s e n t i n a h u r r i e d
a b s t r a c t . • • . 33
By t h i s ja u n d ic e d c o n f e s s io n Emmons l i f t e d th e v e i l fro m th e
s t a t e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l je a l o u s y w h ich a g g r a v a te d r e l a t i o n s h i p s
3 **See, M in u te s o f th e G e n e ra l C o m m ittee, PSW A r c h iv e s ,
U n ite d S t a t e s N av al R e s e a rc h L a b o r a to r y .
32A l b e r t W illia m s , J r . t o G eorge F . B e c k e r, May 4 ,
1 8 8 3 , B e c k e r P a p e r s , Box 1 5 , LC.
ib id .
33Sam uel F . Emmons t o G eorge F . B e c k e r, May 3 0 , 1 8 8 3 ,
103
b e tw e e n W a s h in g to n 's men o£ s c i e n c e .
As g e o l o g i s t s , W illia m s ,
Emmons, and G i l b e r t r e s e n t e d th e d e n i g r a t i o n o£ t h e i r s p e c i a l ­
t i e s b y p h y s i c a l s c i e n t i s t s and th e m in o r it y s t a t u s o f n a t u r a l
s c ie n c e w i t h i n th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y .
Had n o t t h e i r
fo rm e r p r e s i d e n t , Simon Newcomb, sp o k en d i s p a r a g i n g l y o f them
i n h i s N o rth A m erican R eview a r t i c l e s
b efo re?
a few s h o r t y e a r s
What m eaning w as t h e r e i n th e S o c i e t y 's e s ta b li s h m e n t
o f a M a th e m a tic a l S e c t i o n d u r in g th e p r e v io u s m onth i f n o t t o
s i g n a l t h e a b s o lu te hegemony o f e x a c t s c ie n c e ?
A c tu a lly t h e r e
w as n o s u c h ju g g e r n a u t o f p h y s i c i s t s , a s tro n o m e r s , and m athe­
m a tic ia n s ( a t tim e s th e M a th e m a tic a l S e c t io n w ould n o t m eet
f o r m onths on e n d ) .
N a tu r a l s c i e n t i s t s l e c t u r e d o f t e n , and
i n 1 8 8 3 , w h ile th e t h r e e g e o l o g i s t s w ere s h a r in g t h e i r d i s ­
s a t i s f a c t i o n s , th e p r e s i d e n t was Jo h n W esley P o w e ll.
Thus
th e " o ld f o g i e s " s n ip e d a t b y Emmons and G i l b e r t w ere m e re ly
sy m b o ls; W i llia m s ' " s l u s h " had l e s s t o do w ith S o c ie ty p a p e rs
t h a n w ork p e rfo rm e d i n o t h e r b r a n c h e s ; t h e i r i m p l i c i t co n tem p t
f o r th e e l i t i s t c o n t r o l o f th e S o c ie ty w as r e a l l y d i r e c t e d a t
th e s t a t u s a c c o rd e d a b s t r a c t s c i e n c e , " t h a t p ro fo u n d r e s p e c t
^ S im o n Newcomb, " E x a c t S c ie n c e i n A m e ric a ." N o rth
A m erican R ev iew . CXIX (O c to b e r , 1 8 7 4 ), 2 8 6 -3 0 8 , and " A b s tr a c t
S c ie n c e i n A m eric a, 1 7 7 6 -1 8 7 6 ," i b i d . , CXXII ( J a n u a r y , 1 8 7 6 ),
8 8 -1 2 3 . D o u b tle s s Newcomb's n e g a tiv e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f n a t u r a l
s c ie n c e "w as a c o n t r i v e d o n e , a tte m p tin g t o d e m o n s tra te th e
p o o r s t a t e o f n a t i o n a l s c ie n c e i n th e p a s t d e c a d e s ." Edward
L u r i e , "An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c ie n c e i n th e N in e te e n th
C entury*;. A S tu d y i n H i s t o r y and H i s t o r i o g r a p h y ," J o u r n a l o f
----------------W orld H i s t o r y , V I I I ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 6 8 5 fn .
104
w h ich p e r t a i n s t o c o m p a ra tiv e ig n o r a n c e . . • • "
Y et th e murmurs o f p iq u e b y d i s g r u n t l e d members c a n n o t
be d is m is s e d l i g h t l y f o r th e y p o i n t
th e W ash in g to n P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y .
t o a m uted w eak n ess o f
The S o c i e t y 's p aram o u n t
o b j e c t i v e was th e advancem ent o f s c ie n c e , b u t a t th e same
tim e i t s o u g h t t o o p e r a te in f o r m a ll y a s a s o c i a l c l u b .
T hese
e n d s w ere m u tu a lly in c o m p a tib le ; p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e j u d i c e an d
d i s t r u s t w ere to o s t r o n g among g o v e r n m e n t- s c ie n tis t s t o p e r m it
a co m p re h en siv e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f g en u in e f e llo w s h ip and good
w ill.
E i t h e r i t c o u ld , i n a s e r i o u s f a s h i o n , pro m o te n a t i o n a l
s c ie n c e an d f o r g e t a b o u t s o c i a b i l i t y , o r i t m ig h t d i s r e g a r d
s u b s t a n t i v e m a tte r s an d th e r e b y in c r e a s e th e c h a n c e s f o r
d e v e lo p in g a p l e a s a n t m i l i e u .
T h is dilem m a was n o t o f th e
S o c i e t y 's m ak in g , b u t i n a d v e r t e n t l y th e S o c ie ty i n s t i t u t i o n ­
a liz e d i t .
E ncom passing d i s p a r a t e g ro u p s o f s c i e n t i s t s
a s s u r e d th e e x a c c e r b a tio n o f e x i s t i n g r i v a l r i e s , and t h r a s h i n g o u t i s s u e s o v e r w h ic h men h ad a l r e a d y ta k e n s i d e s le n g th e n e d
th e odds i n f a v o r o f a f a c t i o n a l i z e d a s s o c i a t i o n .
No w onder
th e m e rrim e n t o f a d jo u rn e d m e e tin g s w as som etim es b r i t t l e .
H enry h ad a n t i c i p a t e d t h i s , and from t h e b e g in n in g he p le a d e d
f o r t o l e r a t i o n and s e l f - c o n t r o l .
B u t th e p ro b lem was more
d e e p - s e a t e d th a n th e i n a b i l i t y o f members t o m a s te r p e r s o n a l
fo ib le s .
The S o c ie ty was th e w o rld o f A m erican s c ie n c e i n
m icrocosm — a l l i t s p e t t y a n ta g o n ism s in c lu d e d .
3SB i l l i n g s , B u l l e t i n . IX ( 1 8 8 6 ) , x x x v i i .
H ere was th e
105
suprem e I r o n y : th e S o c ie ty h ad in d e e d become a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e
v o ic e o f n a t i o n a l s c i e n c e , b u t i n s o d o in g i t s s e c o n d a ry
f u n c t i o n w as a t t e n u a t e d .
The h e a r t o f th e m a tte r was t h a t H e n r y 's o r g a n i z a t i o n
s o u g h t t o prom ote s c ie n c e i n g e n e r a l , h a r d ly n o t i c i n g th e flo w
o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n w h ich p e r i o d i c a l l y t h r e a t e n e d t o e n g u l f i t .
T h is became i n c r e a s i n g l y f r u s t r a t i n g and t h e r e was much
c h a f in g u n d e r th e com m itm ent t o g e n e r a l i z a t i o n lo n g a f t e r i t
had h a d i t s d a y .
The s ta n d in g r u l e s seem ed t o s u g g e s t a
rem edy b y s a n c t i o n i n g s u b - o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o r e p r e s e n t p a r t i c u ­
l a r b ran ch e s o f s c ie n c e .
A c c o r d in g ly , on M arch 2 9 , 1 8 8 3 , a
s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n w as form ed f o r th e r e a d in g o f p a p e rs i n
a p p l ie d m a th e m a tic s .
B u t t h i s e x h a u s te d th e S o c i e t y 's
w i l l i n g n e s s t o em brace s p e c i a l i z a t i o n .
Two y e a r s l a t e r
P r e s i d e n t H a l l , who was a l s o th e m a th e m a tic a l c h a irm a n ,
v o ic e d h i s a c c e p ta n c e o f t r a d i t i o n : "O ur s o c i e t y h a s b ee n
e s t a b l i s h e d on a b ro a d b a s i s . . .
th e p u rp o se o f a p a p e r
s h o u ld be t o p r e s e n t th e p r i n c i p l e p o i n t s c l e a r l y , an d th e
a u t h o r may g e n e r a l l y t r u s t t o th e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f h i s
37
a u d ie n c e t o f i l l i n th e d e t a i l s . "
R e s ig n e d ly e c h o in g h i s
p r e d e c e s s o r , Jo h n Shaw B i l l i n g s d is a p p ro v e d o f th e " p o l a r ­
i z a t i o n " o f s c ie n c e and e v e n r e g i s t e r e d h i s o p p o s it io n t o
^ ^ " O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e M a th e m a tic a l S e c t i o n , 1 8 8 3 ,"
PSW A r c h iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s N av a l R e s e a rc h L a b o r a to r y .
37H a l l , B u l l e t i n , V I I I , x l v i .
106
th e d i s t i n c t i o n s draw n b e tw e e n d i f f e r e n t b r a n c h e s , th o u g h
38
" t h e r e seem s t o be no way o f p r e v e n t in g i t . ”
The is s u e
w as ig n o r e d u n t i l G. K. G i l b e r t o b s e rv e d t h a t th e S o c ie ty
was n o t " a d a p te d t o th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d
re se a rc h e s . . .
i t h a s d is c o u n te n a n c e d th o s e p a p e r s w h ich
fro m t h e i r n a tu r e c a n i n t e r e s t o n ly th e d e v o te e s o f a s i n g l e
s c i e n c e , and i t , t h e r e f o r e , h a s n o t f u l l y m et th e n e e d s o f
th e s c i e n t i f i c co m m u n ity .1,39
R e g a r d le s s o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s , t h i s dilem m a c o u ld
n o t o b s c u re th e S o c i e t y 's s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r A m erican c u l t u r a l
h is to ry .
On th e c o n t r a r y i t m a g n ifie d i t ,
f o r th e S o c i e t y 's
s t e a d f a s t e n c o u ra g em e n t o f th e g e n e r a l i z i n g m ind t e s t i f i e d
t o th e s h a llo w n e s s o f th e e m e rg in g t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t , th e
" t r a i n e d man w ith s p e c i a l a b i l i t i e s i n one f i e l d " whose
n a rro w m a rg in o f c o m p re h e n sio n l e f t h im in c a p a b le o f u n d e r­
s ta n d in g "w h e re , i n s o c i e t y , h i s own s k i l l s became m ixed
w ith a l l o t h e r k n o w le d g e ." 1*® On a n o t h e r l e v e l th e S o c i e t y 's
fo u n d in g i l l u s t r a t e d th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l p a t t e r n o f s c i e n t i f i c
in s titu tio n s .
A f t e r th e p o t e n t e i g h t e e n f o r t i e s and f i f t i e s ,
and f o llo w in g th e s u b s e q u e n t " p e r io d o f d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , " an
3 ® B illin g 8 , i b i d . . IX , x x x v i i .
3 ®G. K. G i l b e r t , " S t a t i s t i c s o f th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l
S o c ie ty From i t s F o r m a tio n ," i b i d . . X ( 1 8 8 8 ), 3 5 .
^ ^ M u rie l R u k e y s e r, W i lla r d G ib b s (G a rd e n C i t y , N .Y .,
1 9 4 2 , D u tto n p a p e rb a c k e d n . , tiew Yorie,“ T 9 6 4 ) , p . 3 1 6 .
107
I n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e d e d i c a t e d t o a d v a n c in g s c ie n c e h ad ta k e n
sh ap e a t th e n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l H e r e w as a n a c h ie v e m e n t o f
th e f i r s t w a t e r , b u t b ey o n d t h a t th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y
f u l f i l l e d a d ream w h ich w as a lm o s t a s o ld a s th e r e p u b lic *
I n e a r l y au tu m n , 18 0 0 , V ic e - P r e s id e n t J e f f e r s o n r e c e i v e d a
l e t t e r fro m P a r i s w r i t t e n b y J o e l Barlow *
B a r lo w 's b r i e f
m essage w as t u r g i d w ith e n th u s ia s m o v e r th e p ro m o tio n o f
n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e i n F ra n c e and how i t m ig h t be d u p l i c a t e d
a t home*
A propos o f th e F re n c h e x p e r i e n c e , he w r o te , t h e r e
s h o u ld be e s t a b l i s h e d a n i n s t i t u t i o n " c a l l e d t h e P o ly s o p h ic
S o c ie ty o r some s u c h co m p re h en siv e n am e," t o d i r e c t s c ie n c e
and l e a r n i n g i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , " i t s members t o be c h o s e n
f o r t h e i r em in en c e* "
L o c a te d a t " th e s e a t o f g o v ern m en t i n
A m erica" i t s i n f lu e n c e w o u ld be " n a t i o n a l , " an d i t s e f f e c t
upon th e " a m e l i o r a t i o n o f s o c i e t y " n o th in g s h o r t o f
momentous.**2
L i t t l e came o f B a r lo w 's p r o p o s a l and o v e r th e
y e a r s h i s i d e a l grew dim*
I t n e v e r fa d e d c o m p le te ly , h o w ev er,
due t o th e v i s i o n o f men l i k e H en ry .
And o f c o u rs e i t was
H enry who red eem ed th e c o n c e p t t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a c e n tu r y
la te r.
I n th e wake o f h i s E u ro p e an t r i p , w ith th e u rg e n c y
f o r l e a r n e d i n s t i t u t i o n s v e r y much i n m ind, he saw t o i t
Brown G oode, "F o u r H u n d re d th M e e tin g ," B u l l e t i n
o f t h e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y o f W a sh in g to n , X I I (1892'-lfl*M*),
**2J o e l B arlo w t o Thomas J e f f e r s o n , S ep te m b er 1 5 ,
1 8 0 0 , J e f f e r s o n P a p e r s , C V II, LC.
108
t h a t th e n a t i o n f i n a l l y was p r o v id e d w ith a s o c i e t y i n
W a sh in g to n f o r th e ad v an cem en t o f s c i e n c e .
So f o r c e f u l w as H e n r y 's l e a d e r s h i p t h a t th e S o c i e t y ,
l i k e th e S m ith s o n ia n , seem ed a lm o s t a n e x t e n s io n o f th e
P r o f e s s o r 's m ind and s p i r i t .
B oth i n s t i t u t i o n s m a n if e s te d
h i s a w a re n e s s o f n a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , an d u n d e r h i s
t u t e l a g e e a c h h e lp e d t o e n r i c h A m erican c u l t u r e .
"The
S m ith s o n ia n ,” w ro te Jam es D w ight D ana, " i s a c e n t r a l f in d i n g
e s t a b l i s h m e n t f o r t h e Museums o f th e c o u n t r y , and w h a te v e r
hQ
h e lp s th em h e l p s th e s c ie n c e o f th e w hole l a n d ." " ^ A f o r e i g n
v i s i t o r c a l l e d i t th e "one i n s t i t u t i o n i n A m erica w h ich
p ro m ise s t o e x e r c i s e a c o n s id e r a b le in f lu e n c e on th e d e v e lo p ­
m ent o f s c ie n c e an d o f s c i e n t i f i c lif e ." * * 1* O ver th e y e a r s
—e s p e c i a l l y d u r in g th e l a t t e r p a r t o f h i s l i f e t i m e —H enry
b o l s t e r e d th e S m ith s o n ia n th r o u g h h i s e x t e n s iv e s u p p o r t o f
s e v e ra l a d d itio n a l o rg a n is a tio n s .
N one, h o w ev e r, m atched
th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y i n h i s c o n c e p tio n s o f n a t i o n a l
p ro g re ss.
On th e o c c a s io n o f h i s l a s t p r e s i d e n t i a l a d d r e s s
th e fo u n d in g f a t h e r r e i t e r a t e d t h a t i t s h o u ld , above a l l
e l s e , " k e e p a l i v e a n a c t i v e s p i r i t o f s c i e n t i f i c ad v a n ce­
ment."**5
By t h i s t i m e , h o w ev e r, h i s i n j u n c t i o n h ad l e s s
**3Jam es D. Dana t o O th n ie l C. M arsh [F e b ru a ry , 1 8 6 7 ],
M arsh L e t t e r b o o k s , P eabody Museum L i b r a r y , T a le U n i v e r s i t y .
****?. A . S i l j e s t r o m , The E d u c a tio n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s o f
th e Un i t e d S t a t e s , The i r Char a c t e r an d O r g a n iz a tio n , t r a i l s .
F r e d e r i c a Rowan (L ondon, 1 8 5 3 ), p . issfi.
**^Henry, B u l l e t i n . I I , 1 6 2 .
109
r e le v a n c e t o th e f u t u r e th a n t o an a c c o m p lis h e d f a c t , f o r
th e s u c c e s s o f h i s S o c ie ty was now i r r e f u t a b l e .
A f t e r he w as gone H enry*s g r e a t r u l e o f c o n d u c t
re m a in e d i n t a c t .
T h ere was no d e v i a t i n g fro m th e f i r s t
p r i n c i p l e o f th e S o c i e t y , n o t e v e n f o r th e sa k e o f c r e a t i n g
a n a tm o sp h e re o f g r e a t e r accom m odation.
N or d i d th e S o c ie ty
become much more a t t u n e d t o s p e c i a l i z a t i o n .
The o r i g i n a l
o r d e r o f p r i o r i t i e s was m a in ta in e d , k e e p in g i t a S o c i e t y f o r
th e s tu d y an d p ro m o tio n o f a l l new c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o s c i e n t i f i c
k n o w led g e .
As s u c h , members c o u ld ta k e p r i d e i n th e e x c e l l e n t
r u n o f d i v e r s i f i e d l e c t u r e s and t h e i r own " b ro a d e n in g o f
m e n ta l b o u n d a r i e s . V o l u m e s o f th e B u l l e t i n w ere e n la r g e d
by f i v e and s i x tim e s s o t h a t t h e y c o u ld c a r r y up t o f i f t e e n
a r t i c l e s an d more i l l u s t r a t i o n s .
I n 1888 th e B u l l e t i n c e a s e d
t o be p r i n t e d a t th e S m ith s o n ia n 's e x p e n s e , show ing t h a t th e
S o c i e t y h ad g r a d u a te d t o s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . * 1^
T h is a l s o
i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e S o c ie ty was on a f i r m f i n a n c i a l f o o t i n g ,
h a v in g su p p le m e n te d i t s income fro m th e $ 5 .0 0 a member a n n u a l
d u e s w ith th e i n t e r e s t on U n ite d S t a t e s , C olum bia R a ilw a y ,
and Cosmos C lub b o n d s .
A t th e en d o f th e c e n tu r y i t was
d e c id e d t h a t b e c a u se " s c ie n c e an d e x a c t know ledge may be
c u l t i v a t e d , n o t o n ly b y th e r e a d in g and d i s c u s s i o n o f p a p e rs
46D a l l , i b i d . . X I I , 5 6 2 .
^ S a m u e l P . L a n g le y t o M arcus B a k e r, November 5 ,
1888, PSW A r c h iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s N av al R e s e a rc h L a b o r a to r y .
110
e x p l a in i n g th e r e s e a r c h e s c a r r i e d o u t b y i n d i v i d u a l s • • •
b u t a l s o b y d i r e c t a g e n c ie s te n d in g t o prom ote s c ie n c e w here
i t m o st n e e d s a c t i v e w o rk ,” t h e r e was a demand f o r a co m m ittee
t o a p p r is e members o f a v a i l a b l e g r a n t s i n a i d .
il O
M em bership had in c r e a s e d t o a ro u n d two h u n d red
m em bers, many fro m o u ts id e W a sh in g to n , w ith b o th p ro m is in g
y o u n g e r men an d th e N e s to r s o f A m erican s c i e n c e .
U n f o r tu ­
n a t e l y , th e s u c c e s s o f th e S o c ie ty i n e n g e n d e rin g t h e i r m u tu a l
a f f e c t i o n s was i n d i f f e r e n t a t b e s t , and t o a d e g re e i t h a d
in c o r p o r a te d p e e v is h n e s s r a t h e r th a n d im in is h i t .
B ut t h i s
was a lw a y s a s u b o r d in a te p u rp o se anyway; b e t t e r t o r e a l i z e
th e p r im a r y g o a l th a n th e one o f l e s s e r im p o rta n c e .
Even i f
th e s e e n d s had n o t b e e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y th e y c e r t a i n l y w ere
to o much f o r a s i n g l e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
B e s id e s , a new g ro u p
h ad a l r e a d y a c c e p te d th e c h a lle n g e o f f o s t e r i n g a s e n s e o f
c o n m u n ity among W a sh in g to n f s men o f s c i e n c e .
The im p e r f e c tio n
o f th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty h a d , i n an a lm o s t u ncanny w ay,
spawned a d i f f e r e n t s o r t o f i n s t i t u t i o n t o a tte m p t w h at
H e n r y 's f a i l e d t o a c h ie v e .
As th o u g h f o r e o r d a in e d b y some
c o m p e n sa to ry p r o c e s s th e y e a r 1 8 7 8 , when J o s e p h H enry was
l a i d t o r e s t , a l s o m arked th e b i r t h o f th e Cosmos C lu b .
^® M inutes o f th e G e n e ra l C om m ittee, November 2 6 ,
1898, i b i d .
CHAPTER IV
"BY A SOCIAL T IE "
I t was common f o r th o s e i n th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty
a l s o t o be members o f th e Cosmos C lu b .
T h i r t y - s i x o f th e
C lub *8 s i x t y f o u n d e rs came from th e S o c i e t y an d i t s f i r s t
o f f i c e r s w ere a l l S o c ie ty m em bers.
I n d i r e c t l y th e S o c ie ty
c o u ld c la im p a r t i a l c r e d i t f o r th e C l u b 's e x i s t e n c e , an d from
th e v e r y b e g in n in g i t p r o v id e d t h e c o r e o f t h e C l u b 's member­
s h ip .
Once th e s t r e n g t h o f t h i s f o r m a tiv e in f lu e n c e i s ta k e n
i n t o a c c o u n t i t becom es u n d e r s ta n d a b le why th e m a n if e s to o f
W a s h in g to n 's Cosmos C lub h a s a f a m i l i a r r i n g : " th e advancem ent
o f i t s members i n s c i e n c e , l i t e r a t u r e , an d a r t [and] t h e i r
m u tu a l im provem ent b y s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e •
H ere was a n o th e r
o r g a n i z a t i o n d e d i c a t e d t o i n d i v i d u a l c u l t i v a t i o n and th e
enhan cem en t o f l o c a l c u l t u r e .
Y e t, fro m i t s e a r l i e s t m om ents,
no one e v e r c o n fu s e d th e Cosmos C lub w i t h t h e c i t y ' s e l e g a n t
c irc le s .
I n s t e a d o f b e in g an a s s o c i a t i o n i n w h ich a lm o s t any
i n t e r e s t e d p a r t y m ig h t be c o n s id e r e d e l i g i b l e f o r m em b ership,
th e Cosmos was a h ig h ly s e l e c t i v e body l i m i t e d t o th o s e who
w ere a c t u a l l y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o k n o w led g e .
As th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
^ -A rtic le s o f I n c o r p o r a t i o n o f t h e Cosmos C lub o f
W ash in g to n C i t y , By-Law s. R u le s an d R e g u la tio n s o f th e Cosmos
-----------------------------------C lub (W a s h in g to n ,’t : C . IB 797 7
111
112
o f a W ash in g to n econom ics a s s o c i a t i o n ack n o w led g ed t o L e s t e r
F ra n k W ard, one o f th e s i x t y f o u n d e r s , " th e 'Cosm os C lu b ' i s
9
r e a l l y a C lu b , & u n lik e o u r A ssn . w h ic h some c a l l a C lu b ."
I t w as t h e r e f o r e s u i g e n e r i s , and b e c a u s e o f i t s u n iq u e n e s s
th e Cosmos im m e d ia te ly became th e h e a d q u a r te r s o f W a s h in g to n 's
in te lle c tu a l e l i t e .
C lu b s w ere n o t unknown i n th e C a p i t a l C i t y , n o r d id
t h e Cosmos r e p r e s e n t th e f i r s t a tte m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a c lu b
p r i m a r i l y f o r men o f s c i e n c e .
J o s e p h H e n r y 's c i r c l e to o k
t h e a p p e l a t i o n " S c i e n t i f i c C lu b " a s e a r l y a s 1854 an d w ent
b y t h a t name f o r n e a r l y tw e n ty y e a r s .
I n 1 8 7 1 , h o w e v e r, i t s
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t y te r m i n a te d i t s
c lu b s t a t u s , le a v in g o n ly th e P o to m ac -S id e N a t u r a l i s t s Club
t o m eet th e n e e d s o f l o c a l s c i e n t i s t s .
C r e a te d i n 1858 f o r
th e p u rp o se o f d raw in g t o g e t h e r s t u d e n t s o f fa u n a and f l o r a
i n th e im m ediate v i c i n i t y , t h i s g ro u p was j u s t s l i g h t l y l e s s
v e n e r a b le th a n th e S c i e n t i f i c C lu b and h ad a n im p r e s s iv e
r o l l o f m em bers.
By th e m id -1 8 7 0 's i t h ad grow n s t e a d i l y ,
e s t a b l i s h e d a s p e c i a l b o t a n i c a l s e c t i o n , fo u n d a p erm a n en t
m e e tin g p l a c e , and a c q u ir e d p a t r o n s who made p o s s i b l e th e
p u b l i c a t i o n o f a m o n th ly w h ich i n t h r e e y e a r s tim e ex p an d ed
fro m tw e lv e t o tw e n ty -tw o p a g e s .
T h is j o u r n a l , F i e l d and
F o r e s t , was d e s ig n e d n o t o n ly a s a medium f o r i n s p i r i n g a
p o p u la r a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r n a t u r a l h i s t o r y , b u t a l s o t o in s u r e
^Edward Young t o L e s t e r F . W ard, F e b ru a ry 2 , 1883,
Ward P a p e r s , A u to g ra p h s , I , 2 9 , Brown U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y .
113
t h a t " th e C lub s h a l l no l o n g e r h id e i t s l i g h t u n d e r a b u s h e l . "
By i t s own e s t i m a t i o n th e N a t u r a l i s t s had come a lo n g w ay.
M o re o v e r, C lub spokesm en w ere c o n f id e n t t h a t i t s u s e f u l n e s s
w as bound t o i n c r e a s e , and th e y in v o k e d a f i t t i n g m e tap h o r
t o p o i n t o u t t h a t i n s c ie n c e "some o f th e m o st s t u r d y oaks
have s p ru n g fro m a c o r n s l i k e t h i s o n e ."
B ut i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s th e P o to m ac -S id e N a t u r a l i s t s
showed w e a k n e sse s w h ic h c a s t d o u b t upon i t s a b i l i t y t o s ta n d
a s an e n d u r in g i n s t i t u t i o n .
F o r i n s t a n c e , th e c u r t a i l m e n t
o f m e e tin g s d u r in g th e C i v i l War was a s u b t l e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t
i t la c k e d th e v i a b i l i t y o f H e n r y 's a g g r e g a tio n , w h ich con­
t i n u e d i n f u l l sw in g th r o u g h o u t th e c o n f l i c t .
More s e r i o u s
was i t s r e f u s a l t o d e v e lo p a p erm a n en t s t r u c t u r e .
As l a t e
a s 1875 th e C l u b 's f o u n d e rs s t i l l w ere p r a i s e d f o r a d o p tin g
th e " s i m p l e s t p la n o f o p e r a t i o n , " and i t w as a m a t t e r o f
c o n s id e r a b le p r id e t h a t th e P o to m ac -S id e N a t u r a l i s t s c a r r i e d
on " w ith o u t m a c h in e ry t o g e t o u t o f o r d e r —w ith o u t e v e n an
o f f i c e r e x c e p tin g th e S e c r e t a r y . • . •"**
T h is b ra n d o f a n t i ­
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m was p r e - w a r , d a t i n g b a c k t o a tim e when a l l
a lo n g a b r o a d f r o n t more o r l e s s a u t h o r i t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e s
^ E l l i o t t C o u es, " S a l u t a t o r y , " F i e l d an d F o r e s t , I
( J u n e , 1 8 7 5 ), 2 ; J . W. C h ic k e r in g , "The P o to m a c -s id e N a t u r a l ­
i s t s ' C l u b ," S c ie n c e , n . a . , X X III ( F e b ru a ry 1 6 , 1 9 0 6 ), 2642 6 5 ; f o r a g lim p s e "o f C lub a c t i v i t i e s o v e r th e y e a r s se e
J o u r n a l o f S p e n c e r F . B a ir d , F e b ru a ry 1 8 , 1 8 6 1 , S I A r c h iv e s ,
an d Ward P a p e r s , B io g ra p h y , I , 4 0 , Brown U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y .
^ o u e s , F i e l d and F o r e s t . I , 1 .
114
w ere a s s a i l e d a s i n h i b i t o r s o f i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i o n .
The
w a r, h o w ev e r, h ad th e e f f e c t o f b l u n t i n g t h i s im p u ls e , and
i n i t s a f te r m a th many i n t e l l e c t u a l s te n d e d t o a c c e p t and
p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e .
O r g a n iz a tio n b u i l d i n g became th e o r d e r o f th e d a y , and th e
im a g in a tiv e men who r e f a s h io n e d th e S c i e n t i f i c C lub w ere n o t
th e o n ly o n es t o be p e rs u a d e d o f i t s e f f i c a c y .
Y et e v e n i n
th e f a c e o f t h i s d e v e lo p m e n t th e N a t u r a l i s t s re m a in e d im­
p la c a b le .
title
B e fo re lo n g th e “P o to m a c -S id e " p o r t i o n o f t h e i r
to o k on a m eaning t h a t w as i r o n i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e , f o r
c l e a r l y th e y w ere n o t i n th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l m a in s tre a m , and
a s th e y c o n tin u e d t o a b ju r e th e flo w o f p o s t- w a r c u l t u r e
t h e i r g ro u p became so m e th in g o f an a n a c h ro n is m .
To i t s m ost
l o y a l members th e C lub l o s t none o f i t s a p p e a l, b u t i t s im p ly
was n o t e q u a l t o th e t a s k o f assu m in g a m a jo r r o l e i n th e
c r e a t i o n o f W a sh in g to n fs i n t e l l e c t u a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
A n o th e r p r e d e c e s s o r o f th e Cosmos was th e M e tr o p o lita n
C lub w h ic h drew many members fro m s c i e n t i f i c and e d u c a t i o n a l
in s titu tio n s .
J o s e p h H en ry , T heodore N ic h o la s G i l l , and
S p e n c e r B a ir d r e p r e s e n t e d th e S m ith s o n ia n ; Jam es C . W e llin g
a c a d e m ia ; B enjam in P e i r c e , J u l i u s H ilg a r d , R ic h a r d C u tts and
C a r l i s l e P a t t e r s o n th e C o a s t and G e o d e tic S u rv e y ; A l b e r t J .
Myer and A dolphus W. G re e ly th e Army S ig n a l S e r v ic e ; J o s e p h
K. B a rn e s th e S u rg e o n G e n e r a l 's o f f i c e ; Jo h n G. P ark e and
Andrew A . Humphreys th e C o rp s o f Army E n g in e e r s ; C h a rle s H.
D av is th e N av al O b s e rv a to ry ; C h a rle s S . Boggs th e L ig h th o u s e
115
B o ard ; Jam es A ld en th e B u reau o f N a v ig a tio n ; and J . H. C.
C o f f in t h e N a u ti c a l A lm anac,
Many, o f c o u r s e , w ere i n th e
N a ti o n a l Academy and th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , and th e y
gave t h e M e tr o p o l ita n an a u r a o f i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s .
B u t, a s w ith th e P o to m ac -S id e N a t u r a l i s t s , i n h e r e n t weak­
n e s s e s p r e v e n te d t h i s c lu b fro m c o n t r i b u t i n g much t o th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n i n t e l l e c t u a l community*
O rig in a lly e s ­
t a b l i s h e d i n O c to b e r, 1 8 6 3 , th e M e tr o p o lita n d i s s o l v e d a f t e r
o n ly f o u r y e a r s , s t a r t e d up a g a in i n 1 8 7 2 , and u n d erw en t a
t h i r d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n 1882; i t s s p o r a d ic h i s t o r y seems t o
h av e o f f e r e d th e Cosmos C lu b fo u n d e rs a m odel o f w hat t o
av o id *
I n c o n t r a s t t o th e N a t u r a l i s t s th e M e tr o p o lita n d id
h av e a w r i t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n and b y - la w s , th e u s u a l e l e c t e d
o f f i c e r s , and a n e x e c u tiv e com m ittee t o c a r r y on i t s b u s in e s s *
T hese p r a c t i c e s w o u ld be a d o p te d b y t h e Cosmos Club*
M ore­
o v e r , l i k e th e Cosm os, i t s o u g h t t o p r o v id e a s o c i a l o u t l e t
f o r men new t o t h e C a p i t a l who h ad a c c e p te d p o s i t i o n s i n
e x p a n d in g b u r e a u s and d e p a r tm e n ts .
"To prom ote s o c i a l and
l i t e r a r y i n t e r c o u r s e and en jo y m en t among i t s m em bers" was
th e p u rp o s e s e t f o r t h i n i t s f i r s t c o n s t i t u t i o n * ^
Y et th e M e tr o p o lita n C lub w as s o s te e p e d i n s o c i ­
a b i l i t y t h a t i t n e v e r e n jo y e d th e k in d o f g ro u p s p i r i t w h ich
5C o n s t i t u t i o n . By-Laws and L i s t o f Members o f th e
M e tr o p o lita n C lub o f W a sh in g to n C i t y , o r g a n iz e d O c to b e r 1 .
1863 ( n * p ., n . d . ) ; Jo h n A . B a r k e r . A B r i e f H is to r y o f th e
M e tr o p o lita n C lub o f W a sh in g to n , W ith a S k e tc h o f th e tw o
C lu b s o f S i m i l a r T i t l e W hicn P re c e d e d i t . C o v e rin g a P e r io d
o f W w l V 'a 1H a lf - C o u tu r e ( n . p . . T TOTn— *------------- ---------------
116
became su c h an I m p o rta n t f e a t u r e o f th e Cosmos C lu b .
In
1 8 7 3 , a t th e tim e o f i t s r e b i r t h when e n th u s ia s m s h o u ld have
b e e n h ig h , th e a n n u a l m e e tin g p u l l e d o n ly t e n m em bers.
C r e a tin g and m a in ta in in g i n t e r e s t i n th e C lu b p o se d a
p e r p e t u a l p ro b lem and fro m tim e t o tim e th e o f f i c e r s r e ­
s o r t e d t o d e s p e r a t e m e asu res i n h o p es o f b u i l d i n g v i t a l i t y .
D u rin g th e m id - s e v e n ti e s f o r e i g n d ip lo m a ts s t a t i o n e d i n
W ash in g to n a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e c e iv e d m em bership i n v i t a t i o n s ,
b u t t h e r e was o n ly one a c c e p ta n c e , t h a t by th e T u rk is h
£
M i n i s t e r A r i s t a r c h i B ey.
T h is ab se n c e o f e s p r i t de c o rp s may have stemmed
fro m th e f a c t t h a t th e M e tr o p o lita n r e a l l y w as n o t v e r y
p r i v a t e , a s i l l u s t r a t e d b y th e o p en n e ss o f C lub f u n c t i o n s .
A tte n d a n c e a t th e M e t r o p o l i t a n 's s o i r e e s w as b a s e d m a in ly
on s o c i a l r e p u t e , m aking i t s d i n n e r s , l e c t u r e s , and a r t
e x h i b i t s i n c l u s i v e r a t h e r th a n e x c l u s i v e .
M o reo v e r, t h e r e
was no common bond o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i d e n t i t y among th e m em bers.
J o s e p h H en ry , s e c r e t a r y o f th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n , and
Hew Y ork C ongressm an Jam es B ro o k s, who w as l a t e r c e n s u r e d f o r
h i s i m p l i c a t i o n i n th e C r e d i t M o b ilie r s c a n d a l , s h a r e d few
in te re s ts .
V i r t u a l l y ev e ry o n e a s s o c i a t e d w ith o f f i c i a l
W a sh in g to n was g a th e r e d i n t o th e M e tr o p o lita n — fro m Abraham
L in c o ln t o He H i e G r a n t 's g lam o ro u s h u sb a n d , A lg e rn o n
S a rto ris .
H ot o n ly w as th e C lub l a r g e ( t h e l i m i t w as s e t
^ C a rl C h a r l i c k , The M e tr o p o lita n C lub o f W a sh in g to n :
The S to r y o f I t s Men and o f I t s fclace i n 6 i t y an d d o u n tr y
CUasTiington;~fi .'CT,' T 9 6 4 ) , ppT W -4 S '.-------------- *------------------- *
117
a t 5 0 0 ) , b u t i t a l s o was e x p e n s iv e .
When S e n a to r Jam es
M cM illan o f M ic h ig an jo i n e d , i n 1889, th e c o s t was $ 1 5 0 — s i x
tim e s th e f e e c h a rg e d b y th e Cosmos C lu b . ^
A n o th e r d i f f e r e n c e b etw een th e Cosmos C lu b an d th e
M e tr o p o lita n was th e l a t t e r * s l a c k o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n
s e l e c t i n g m em bers.
The e a s e w ith w h ich one m ig h t j o i n t h e
M e tr o p o lita n was r e v e a le d i n an a n e c d o te t o l d b y C l i f f o r d
R ic h a r d s o n , who had come t o W ash in g to n i n 1878 a s a s c i e n ­
t i f i c s t a f f a s s i s t a n t i n th e D ep a rtm en t o f A g r i c u l t u r e .
As I was p a s s in g th e C lub on th e 8 th o f J u l y
1881 C a p ta in G eorge Dewey, who w as s i t t i n g a t an
open window on H S t r e e t , h a i l e d me and s a i d , "Come
I n and h av e a c o c k t a i l I " I a c c e p te d th e o f f e r .
I n th e c o u rs e o f c o n v e r s a tio n my h o s t s a i d , "Why
d o n 't you j o i n th e C lu b ? " I r e p l i e d t h a t I had
th o u g h t m y s e lf to o young t o do s o . H ow ever, my
name was p u t u p . . . .
The n e x t d ay 1 m et C o lo n e l A rc h ib a ld H o p k in s,
th e S e c r e t a r y o f th e C lu b , i n th e s t r e e t . He
s to p p e d me an d spoke o f my n o m in a tio n , a d d in g t h a t
th e B oard o f G o v ern o rs w ould n o t m eet u n t i l th e
f o llo w in g November b u t s a i d t h a t I m ig h t a s w e ll
c o n s i d e r m y s e lf a s e l e c t e d and u se th e C lub
im m e d ia te ly . I d id s o w ith o u t h e s i t a t i o n . ®
The Cosmos C lub was f a r l e s s l o o s e l y com posed.
The b e g in n in g s o f th e Cosmos C lub c a n be t r a c e d t o
th e f a l l o f 1878 when a s m a ll g ro u p o f g o v e r n m e n t - s c i e n t i s t s ,
unhap p y w ith p r e v io u s a tte m p ts t o c r e a t e th e p r o p e r s o c i a l
a tm o sp h ere f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y , d e c id e d t o e s t a b l i s h
^F . W. P o o r t o Jam es M cM illan , A p r i l 2 0 , 1 8 8 9 ,
M cM illan P a p e r s , B u rto n H i s t o r i c a l C o l l e c t i o n , D e t r o i t P u b lic
L ib ra ry .
^Q uoted i n C h a r l ic k , M e t r o p o l ita n , p . 6 7 .
118
a c lu b i n W ash in g to n f o r t h e i r own u s e .
A t th e i n i t i a t i o n
o f M ajo r G. E . D u tto n , G a r r ic k M a lle r y , an d Jo h n W esley
P o w e ll, p r e lim in a r y s o u n d in g s w ere ta k e n among g e o l o g i s t s t o
a s c e r t a i n th e f e e l i n g s o f l i k e l y f o u n d e r s .
The r e s u l t s w ere
h e a r t e n in g a n d , a f t e r a more e x h a u s tiv e c a n v a s s o f th e U .S .
N av al O b s e rv a to ry an d th e S m ith s o n ia n , i t was d e c id e d t o
f o rg e ah e ad w ith th e p r o j e c t .
On November 16 an in f o r m a l
g ro u p a sse m b le d a t P o w e l l 's h o u se w here i t was r e s o l v e d t o
o r g a n iz e a s o c i a l c lu b com posed o f "men d e v o te d t o o r i n t e r e s t e d i n s c i e n c e , p r o f e s s i o n a l l y o r o t h e r w i s e ."
T em porary o f f i c e r s w ere named an d a s u b s e q u e n t m e e tin g
c a l l e d f o r Monday t h e t w e n t y - f i f t h o f N ovem ber, a t w h ich
tim e a c o n s t i t u t i o n w as a d o p te d m ark in g th e C l u b 's o f f i c i a l
in c e p tio n .
When S p e n c e r B a ir d r e t u r n e d home t h a t n i g h t ,
and b e f o r e tu r n i n g i n , he n o te d t h a t th e w e a th e r h ad b e e n
e x c e p t i o n a l l y f a i r an d m ild , so m e th in g w h ich a u g u re d w e ll
f o r th e f u t u r e o f th e Club.*"®
C o n s id e r a b le l a t i t u d e was r e n d e r e d t o q u a l i f i c a t i o n s
f o r a d m is s io n , and th o u g h a t th e o u t s e t i t was r e f e r r e d t o
^ J . w. P o w e ll an d Edward S . H o ld en t o W illia m H enry
H olm es, November 1 8 , 1 8 7 8 , H olm es, "Random R e c o rd s o f a L i f e ­
tim e • . .
N a tio n a l C o l l e c t i o n o f F in e A r t s L i b r a r y , S I ;
t h i s fo rm i n v i t a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n fo u n d in g th e C lub i s
r e p r i n t e d i n W illia m A. D eC Sindry (c o m p .) , "D ocum entary
H i s t o r y o f th e Cosmos C lu b ," The T w e n ty - F ifth A n n iv e r s a ry o f
th e F o u n d in g o f th e Cosmos C lub o f W a sh in g to n (W a sh in g to n ,
b . f f : ; 1 9 0 1 0 7 -p . 6 6 .
-----------------------------56—
^ J o u r n a l o f S p e n c e r F . B a ir d , November 2 5 , 1 8 7 8 , S I
A r c h iv e s ; K ip R o s s , " F a t e f u l M e e tin g , F a t e f u l T e a r , 1 8 7 8 ,”
Cosmos C lub B u l l e t i n , X I (N ovem ber, 1 9 5 8 ), 2 - 1 2 .
119
a s th e “S c i e n t i f i c C lub o f W a s h i n g t o n , t h e r e w e r e , among
th e f o u n d e r s , a num ber o f men who w ere n o t s c i e n t i s t s *
M a rc e llu s B a ile y was a p a t e n t a t t o r n e y , an d H enry Adams an
a u t h o r ; Jo h n J a y Knox a b a n k e r , and C h a r le s V a le n tin e R ile y
a n a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t ; Edward M. G a l l a u d e t , Jam es C. W e llin g ,
and D a n ie l C o it G ilm an p r e s id e d o v e r c e n t e r s o f h i g h e r ed u ­
c a tio n .
G ilm an , r e c e n t l y i n s t a l l e d a t The Jo h n s H opkins
U n i v e r s i t y , o f f e r e d a p r e c e p t b y show ing how th e s o c i a l u n io n
o f h i s f a c u l t y gave r i s e t o an i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s t i m u l a t i n g
e n v iro n m e n t.^
O r i g i n a l members w ere a l s o s u rg e o n s and
p h y s ic ia n s s u c h a s J o s e p h M. T o n e r, Newton L . B a te s , R o b e rt
F l e t c h e r , G eorge F e c k , and Jo h n Shaw B i l l i n g s .
W hile
T heodore F r e lin g h u y s e n D w ight w as a l i b r a r i a n , s e v e r a l
f o u n d e rs w ere c a r e e r o f f i c e r s i n th e arm y and n a v y , u s u a l l y
s c i e n t i s t s i n u n if o rm .
One o f th e n o ta b le f e a t u r e s o f th e
■ ^Pow ell an d H olden t o H olm es, November 1 8 . 1 8 7 8 ,
H olm es, “Random R e c o r d s ,” N a tio n a l C o l l e c t i o n o f F in e A r t s
L ib ra ry , S I .
**^Hugh H aw kins, "The B i r t h o f a U n i v e r s i t y : A H is to r y
o f The Jo h n s H o p k in s U n i v e r s i t y fro m t h e D e a th o f th e F o u n d er
t o th e End o f th e F i r s t Y ear o f A cadem ic W ork, 1 8 7 3 -1 8 7 7 ,"
( u n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , D e p t, o f H i s t o r y , The Jo h n s
H opkins U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 5 4 ), p p . 3 2 5 -3 2 8 ; G ilm an h ad a l s o b e e n
a member o f “The C lu b " a t Y ale d u r in g th e l a t e f i f t i e s and
e a r l y s i x t i e s , a n i l l u s t r i o u s f a c u l t y c i r c l e w h ich m et t o
d i s c u s s s c i e n c e , p o l i t i c s , and r e l i g i o n , Hugh H aw kins,
P io n e e r : A H is to r y o f The J o h n s H o p k in s U n i v e r s i t y , 1874-1889
( TEK'a c'a . CT.YTTlW iy.
p p
.
"18=17:" 18blah F r a n k l i n . C TiToT ----------
D a n ie l C o it G ilm an (New Y o rk , 1 9 1 0 ), c h a p . i i .
120
Cosmos C lub w as i t s d i s p o s i t i o n t o tr a n s c e n d p r o f e s s i o n a l
b o u n d a r ie s i n c h o o s in g m em bers.
’H e a r l y a l l th e w e ll-k n o w n
a r t i s t s , a r c h i t e c t s , and men o f l e t t e r s a t th e c a p i t a l b e lo n g
t o i t , ” r e p o r t e d H a r p e r ’ s W eek ly , ” an d e v e r y s t r a n g e r who h a s
made h i s m ark i n one o f th e l i b e r a l p r o f e s s i o n s f i n d s i t s
13
d o o rs w ide o p en t o him w hen he v i s i t s th e c i t y . ”
H ow ever,
m em bership w as n o t m eant t o be h o n o r i f i c ; r a t h e r i t was
in s tru m e n ta l.
A s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e C lub a c te d s u b t l y t o
ad v an ce i n t h e i r c h o se n s p e c i a l t i e s men o f u n m is ta k a b le
p r o m is e , i n d i v i d u a l s who, l i k e W a sh in g to n ’s i n t e l l e c t u a l
com m unity, w ere r a p i d l y m oving a h e a d .
The f o r e g o in g i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e f a t h e r s o f th e Cosmos
C lub d i d n o t d e f in e e x c e ll e n c e n a r r o w ly .
On th e c o n t r a r y ,
t h e i r p l a n r e v e a l e d a n a d m ira b le harm ony o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
and d i v e r s i t y .
R e s t r i c t i v e i n th e s e n s e t h a t members w ere
c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d , th e c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i o n p e r m it te d a
w ide ra n g e o f i n t e r e s t s .
D r. L a n g le y a f f ir m e d t h i s on th e
o c c a s io n o f th e C lu b ’s s i l v e r a n n i v e r s a r y :
One o f th e b e s t p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r a p r o p e r m ind
i n w h ic h t o m eet . . . c h a n g e s o f s c i e n t i f i c d o c t r i n e
l i e s , t h e n , i n th e c a t h o l i c s p i r i t i n w h ich we may
lo o k o u t on a l l l i f e , n o t on th e s c i e n t i f i c l i f e
a l o n e , an d t h i s s p i r i t i s f o s t e r e d i n a c lu b w h ich
o p en s i t s d o o rs w ide t o a l l th o u g h t, and whose m o tto
m ig h t be ’’n o th in g human i s f o r e i g n t o m e .”!**
1 3 ”The Cosmos C lub o f W a sh in g to n , D .C .,” H a r p e r ’s
W eekly. XXXII (S e p te m b e r 2 9 , 1 8 8 8 ), 7 3 8 .
^ A d d r e s s d e l i v e r e d b y Sam uel P ie r p o n t L a n g le y , The
T w e n ty - F if th A n n iv e r s a r y o f th e Cosmos C lu b , p . 2 1 .
121
The i n t e l l e c t u a l ra n g e o f th e fo u n d e rs and th e C l u b 's g e n e r a l
c h a r a c t e r w ere no l e s s b ro a d th a n know ledge i t s e l f , a n d ,
l i k e th e cosm os fro m whence i t s name was d e r i v e d , th e Club
r e p r e s e n t e d a n o r d e r l y w hole i n w h ich t h e r e was a p la c e f o r
e v e ry th in g .
S eem in g ly th e fo u n d e rs drew i n s p i r a t i o n fro m H enry
Adams, one o f t h e i r n u m b e r,15 and s o u g h t t o a c h ie v e t h a t
" u n i t y th r o u g h m u l t i p l i c i t y " w h ich so f a s c i n a t e d Adams.
H is
p e r s o n a l an d s c h o l a r l y q u e s ts f o r o r d e r w e re , i n a w ay,
r e a l i z e d b y t h e c r e a t o r s o f th e Cosmos C lu b .
I t c o n ta in e d
m u l t i t u d e s , y e t a l l w ere f u s e d i n t o a c o h e r e n t w hole b y th e
s y n th e s iz in g f a c t o r o f p r o f e s s io n a l w o rth in e s s .
I n 1882 th e
W a sh in g to n E v en in g S t a r co m p la in e d t h a t w h e re a s c lu b s f o r
t h e " a v e ra g e A m erican c i t i z e n " w ere becom ing p l e n t i f u l
th ro u g h o u t th e l a n d , t h e r e was s c a n t e v id e n c e t h a t th e t r e n d
h ad r e a c h e d th e C a p i t a l . 1 ® A p p a r e n tly th e Cosmos C lu b , w h ich
h ad b e e n i n o p e r a t i o n f o r f o u r y e a r s , d id n o t f a l l i n t o t h i s
15A1 th o u g h Adams was e l e c t e d t o th e f i r s t co m m ittee on
a d m is s io n s he was n o t n o t i c e a b l y a c t i v e i n th e C lub a f t e r i t s
f o u n d in g . P e r h a p s , i n t h i s m a t t e r , he o b ey ed h i s own maxim
t h a t " s i l e n c e , n e x t t o g o o d -te m p e r, w as t h e m ark o f s e n s e . "
H enry Adams, The E d u c a tio n o f H enry Adams; An A u to b io g ra p h y
(B o s to n , 1 9 1 8 , S e n tr y e d n . , C am b rid g e, M a s s ., t 9 6 i j , p . c o l ;
on Adams b e in g t o m b etw e en " p a s s iv e p e r c e p tio n " an d " r e ­
a c t i o n " s e e J . C. L e v e n so n , "H enry Adams an d th e A r t o f
P o l i t i c s , " S o u th e rn R eview , n . s . , IV ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 6 8 ), 5 0 -5 8 .
15W aahington E v en in g S t a r , J u l y 1 , 1 8 8 2 .
122
c a te g o r y — and p r o p e r l y s o , f o r th e Cosmos w as more a t tu n e d t o
m e r i t t h a n th e d e m o c r a tic m ean.
An e a r l y r e p o r t s t a t e d f r a n k l y
t h a t "n o c lu b r e c r u i t e d fro m o u r own c l a s s o f men h ad p r e v io u s ­
l y e x i s t e d i n th e c i t y , " a n d , a s i t s members have alw ay s
e n jo y e d p o i n t i n g o u t : t h e r e a r e many c lu b s i n th e cosm os,
b u t o n ly one C osm os.17
Compounding t h i s s i n g u l a r i t y was th e C lu b ’ s aim t o
"make a p la c e w here i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e f o r th e members o f
th e C lub t o m eet s o c i a l l y a t an y tim e u n d e r p l e a s a n t s u r ro u n d in g s ."
I n tim a c y an d charm w ere t o be i t s h a llm a r k s , a n d ,
s a i d th e b y - la w s , th e "m u tu a l im provem ent" o f th e m em bership
w as t o be g a in e d th r o u g h " s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e . "
Hence i t was
n o t e x t r a o r d i n a r y f o r o u t s i d e r s t o d e s c r ib e i t a s a "company
o f d i s t i n g u i s h e d w o rk e rs i n v a r io u s f i e l d s o f p u b l i c u s e f u l ­
n e s s who g a t h e r f o r s o c i a l r e l a x a t i o n w i t h i n th e h o s p i t a b l e
w a l l s o f th e Cosmos. . . . "
U n lik e th e L i t e r a r y , th e P h i l o ­
s o p h i c a l , and th e new p r o f e s s i o n a l s o c i e t i e s , members d id n o t
j o i n t o g e t h e r f o r th e p u rp o s e o f r e a d in g w e ig h ty d i s q u i s i t i o n s
t o one a n o t h e r .
C a s u a ln e s s w as i t s v e r y e s s e n c e s o t h a t o t h e r
th a n th e a n n u a l e l e c t i o n s e a c h J a n u a r y , and m o n th ly b u s in e s s
m e e tin g s , t h e r e w ere no f u n c t i o n s i n w h ic h members w ere
o b lig e d t o ta k e p a r t .
17Thomas M. S p a u ld in g , The Cosmos C lub on L a f a y e tte
S q u are (W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 4 9 ), p . 5 ; Cosmos C lub B u l l e t i n .
----------------------------------I (M arch , 1 9 4 8 ), 2 .
18P o w e ll and H o ld en t o H olm es, November 1 8 , 18 7 8,
H olm es, "Random R e c o r d s ," N a tio n a l C o l l e c t i o n o f F in e A r ts
L ib ra ry , S I.
123
I t s members do n o t assem b le t o * • • a i r t h e i r
s c h o l a r l y a t t a i n m e n t s , b u t f o r r e c r e a t i o n p u r e ly ;
and th e u se th e y make o f t h e i r tim e w hen o f f d u ty
i s w e ll a t t e s t e d t o b y th e m e rry c l i c k o f th e
b i l l i a r d b a l l s , th e g a t h e r in g aro u n d th e c h e s s
t a b l e s , th e a n im a te d c h a t t e r o f th e sm o k in g -ro o m s,
an d th e d r a f t s made n i g h t l y upon th e m ass o f
p o p u la r m a g azin es an d w e e k lie s w ith w h ic h th e
t a b l e s a r e s tr e w n .1-"
T h is to n e o f g r a c io u s i n f o r m a l i t y y i e l d s a n i n s i g h t i n t o why
i t s fo u n d e r s c o n s id e r e d a new and d i f f e r e n t ty p e o f o r g a n i­
z a tio n so n e c e ssa ry .
The s o c i a l m o tif o f t h e Cosmos C lub was in te n d e d t o
k in d le a s p i r i t o f com m unity among W a s h in g to n 's i n t e l l e c t u a l s ,
e s p e c i a l l y men in v o lv e d i n g o v e m m e n t- s c ie n c e .
By f i l l i n g
t h e v o id l e f t b y th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty i t was f e l t t h a t
t h e Club w ould h e lp p r e v e n t th e k in d o f f e a r and s u s p i c i o n
w h ich te n d e d t o c ro p up among th o s e en g ag ed i n r e s e a r c h , a n d ,
c o n v e r s e ly , c r e a t e a mood o f m u tu a l a p p r e c i a t i o n and good
w ill.
G rove K a r l G i l b e r t , one o f th e d i s g r u n t l e d g e o l o g i s t s
i n th e S o c i e t y , p u t i t s u c c i n c t l y when he s a i d t h a t th e
Cosmos C lub e n d e a v o re d t o " b in d th e s c i e n t i f i c men o f W ashing­
to n b y a s o c i a l t i e and th u s prom ote t h a t s o l i d a r i t y w h ich i s
im p o r ta n t t o t h e i r p r o p e r w ork and i n f l u e n c e . "
20
A c o rro la ry
t o t h i s was a n i n e v i t a b l e im provem ent o f co m m u n icatio n s w i t h i n
^H a r p e r 's W eekly, XXXII, 738; th e C l u b 's a d m ira b le
c o l l e c t i o n ox p e r i o d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e i s d e s c r ib e d i n J . S .
P a t t e r s o n t o L e s t e r F . W ard, M arch 2 5 , 1 8 8 5 , Ward P a p e r s ,
A u to g ra p h s , I , 5 0 , Brown U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y .
^ A d d r e s s d e l i v e r e d b y G rove K a r l G i l b e r t , The T w entyF i f t h A n n iv e r s a ry o f th e Cosmos C lu b , p . 4 0 .
12ft
t h e s c i e n t i f i c c o r p s , and a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e C lub so o n
became a n e f f e c t i v e w ay t o k e e p a b r e a s t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l n ew s.
” 1 h a v e n * t g iv e n you much g o s s i p , have I , " w ro te Sam uel F .
Emmons t o a f e llo w g e o l o g i s t , w hereupon he r e f e r r e d h i s
c o r r e s p o n d e n t t o a n o t h e r man who was bound t o be a b e t t e r
s o u r c e o f e n lig h te n m e n t, " f o r he g o es r e g u l a r l y t o th e Cosmos,
and p la y s c a r d s w ith th e M ajo r [ P o w e ll] , G i l b e r t & C o .”
The C lub seem ed t o be an im m ediate s u c c e s s .
21
As e a r l y a s
1880 i t h ad ex p an d ed i t s f a c i l i t i e s and b eg u n h o ld in g w ee k ly
"C lub N ig h ts ” w h ich o c c a s io n e d p a r t i c u l a r l y good t u r n o u t s .
Some members s t i l l fo u n d W ash in g to n u n c o n g e n ia l, l i k e C la re n c e
K in g , who c o n s id e r e d i t ”a p la c e o f su c h t r a n s i e n t r e s id e n c e
t h a t p erm a n en t f r i e n d s h i p s , w h ich a r e , a f t e r a l l , th e m i t i ­
g a t i n g c irc u m s ta n c e o f l i f e , seem o u t o f th e q u e s t i o n .
B ut K in g Ts s e n tim e n ts w ere u n t y p i c a l .
D u rin g th e summer o f
1883 th e S m ith s o n ia n 's T a r le t o n Bean and G . Brown Goode
jo u rn e y e d t o E n g lan d f o r th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l F i s h e r i e s Ex­
h ib itio n .
One o f th e m ost s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s o f L o n d o n 's
i n t e l l e c t u a l a tm o sp h ere was th e in te n s e je a l o u s y among
s c i e n t i f i c men—- " q u ite i n c o n t r a s t w ith th e o r d in a r y c o n d i t i o n
^ S a m u e l F . Emmons t o G eorge F . B e c k e r, A p r i l 2 6 ,
1 8 8 3 , B e c k e r P a p e r s , Box 1 5 , LC.
^ c l a r e n c e K ing t o D a n ie l C . G ilm an , F e b ru a ry 2 7 ,
1 8 8 5 , G ilm an P a p e r s , The Jo h n s H opkins U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ;
Grove K. G i l b e r t t o W illia m H. H olm es, F e b ru a ry 1 2 , 1 8 8 0 ,
H olm es, "Random R e c o r d s ," N a tio n a l C o l l e c t i o n o f Fxne A r ts
L ib ra ry , S I.
125
o f t h i n g s a t home,** th e y r e p o r t e d .
23
T h a t Bean and Goode
w ere a c t i v e i n th e Cosmos C lub s h o u ld come a s no s u r p r i s e .
L e s s p r e d i c t a b l e was th e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t s u d d e n ly
d e v e lo p e d b etw een th e C lub an d th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y .
As a s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n whose members w ere c h o s e n w ith e v e n
g r e a t e r c a r e th e Cosmos d i d n o t d u p l i c a t e th e S o c i e t y ; a t
th e same tim e i t s e x i s t e n c e c o u ld be c o n s id e r e d a v e i l e d
t h r e a t t o th e o l d e r g ro u p .
T h ere w ere en o u g h s i m i l a r i t i e s
betw een th e two t o s u g g e s t t h a t th e C l u b 's d ev e lo p m e n t m ig h t
p r o g r e s s a t th e ex p e n se o f t h e S o c i e t y .
Some f e a r e d t h a t a
f l o u r i s h i n g C lub w ould e m a s c u la te th e S o c ie ty b y a b s o r b in g
i t s im p o r ta n t m em bers.
W ith t h i s c o n d i t i o n a s t h e b a c k d ro p
a se q u en ce o f e v e n ts e n su e d w h ic h h ad a l l th e f a s t- m o v in g
e x c ite m e n t o f a c a r e f u l l y s t a g e d m elo d ram a.
The a c t i o n opened
when i t became known t h a t th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y w ould
s h o r t l y be r e c a s t a lo n g c lu b l i n e s , t h e r e b y g u a r a n te e in g i t s
s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n an d m o u n tin g a c h a lle n g e t o th e Cosmos
C lu b 's r e a s o n f o r b e i n g .
D ecem ber 1 2 , 1 8 7 8 , was when t h i s
was t o be e f f e c t e d , a t a m e e tin g s c h e d u le d f o r e i g h t o 'c l o c k
a t th e Army M e d ic a l Museum.
Q u ic k ly P o w e ll and a few o t h e r s
moved t o f o i l th e S o c i e t y 's p l a n .
I t w as d e c id e d t o h o ld an
em ergency m e e tin g on th e same d a t e , a l s o a t th e Army M e d ic a l
MUseum, b u t t o have i t b e g in p ro m p tly a t s e v e n - t h i r t y , h a l f
a n h o u r b e f o r e th e S o c ie ty w as s e t t o c o n v e n e .
The s i n g l e
2^ T a r le to n H. B ean t o W illia m J . R h e e s, A u g u st 1 0 ,
1 8 8 3 , R hees C o l l e c t i o n , RH 2 7 1 4 , Box 5 1 , H enry E . H u n tin g to n
L ib ra ry .
126
ite m o f b u s in e s s was a r e s o l u t i o n e n a b lin g anyone i n th e
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty t o j o i n th e Cosmos C lub b e f o r e J a n u a r y
1, 1879.
T h is was r u s h e d th r o u g h w ith o u t d e l a y , a llo w in g
p l e n t y o f tim e f o r W e llin g , who was i n b o th g r o u p s , t o s t e p
a c r o s s th e h a l l and p r e s e n t a g e n e r a l i n v i t a t i o n t o th e
S o c i e t y 's a sse m b le d m em b ersh ip .
The movement t o t r a n s f o r m
th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty i n t o a c lu b im m e d ia te ly c o l l a p s e d ,
an d b y t h i s g a m b it th e Cosmos made s e v e r a l w o rth w h ile a d d i t i o n s t o i t s num ber.
2 lt
The e p is o d e w as n o t c o m p le te ly e n d e d , h o w ev e r, and
i t s r e s i d u a l e f f e c t s c o n s t i t u t e d a l i n g e r i n g i n t r u s i o n on
th e s e r e n i t y o f th e C l u b 's e a r l y d a y s .
I r o n i c a l l y , th e
o r g a n i z a t i o n w h ic h h ad b e e n form ed t o m i t i g a t e r i v a l r y and t o
s t i l l r a n c o r was e n v e lo p e d b y i t fro m th e s t a r t .
Some r e ­
s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h i s m u st be l a i d t o th e s tr a t e g e m u s e d
a g a i n s t th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , b u t e v e n more t o blam e
was th e p a r t se e m in g ly p la y e d b y th e Cosmos i n th e w h o le s a le
r e o r d e r i n g o f go v ern m en t g e o g r a p h ic a l and g e o l o g i c a l w o rk .
B etw een 1867 and 1874 f o u r s e p a r a t e s u r v e y s w ere
com m issio n ed e s s e n t i a l l y t o i n v e s t i g a t e w h e th e r an y u se
c o u ld be made o f t h i s l a s t , u n s e t t l e d p a r t o f th e c o u n tr y ,
an d t o s tu d y r o c k s t r a t a i n th e f a r w e s t .
D r. F e rd in a n d V.
H a y d e n 's U n ite d S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y o f th e T e r r i t o r i e s
was f i r s t i n t o th e f i e l d , f o llo w e d s h o r t l y b y th e U n ite d
2**fCip R o s s , "The F i r s t F o u r Y e a r s ,” Cosmos Club
B u l l e t i n , X I I I (M arch , 1 9 6 0 ), 3 ; The T w e n ty - F ifth A n n iv e r­
s a r y o f " t h e Cosmos C lu b , p p . 6 8 - 7 i .
127
S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l E x p l o r a t i o n o f th e F o r t i e t h P a r a l l e l , l e d
b y C la re n c e K in g , th e U n ite d S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y W est
o f th e One H u n d re d th M e r id ia n , L ie u t e n a n t G eorge M ontague
W h eeler i n c h a r g e , and P o w e l l 's U n ite d S t a t e s G e o g ra p h ic a l
a n d G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y o f th e Rocky M o u n tain R e g io n ,
From
w h at I n d ia n s c a l l e d th e sum m it o f t h e w o r ld , n e a r Y e llo w s to n e ,
t o th e a l k a l i f l a t s o f N e v a d a 's G re a t B a s in , and fro m th e
d r i f t i n g s a n d s o f D ea th V a lle y t o th e t u r b u l e n t w a te r s o f th e
lo w e r C o lo ra d o t h e s e e n t e r p r i s e s t r a v e r s e d A m e r ic a 's m ost
m a j e s t i c s e c t i o n s , l e a v i n g b e h in d them a lo n g l i s t o f n o te ­
w o rth y a c h ie v e m e n ts .
They p r o v id e d r e l i a b l e maps o f w h at had
h i t h e r t o b e e n t e r r a i n c o g n i t a ; th e y opened th e way f o r m in e r s ,
r a n c h e r s , lum berm en, an d r a i l r o a d b u i l d e r s ; th r o u g h t h e i r
d e s c r i p t i v e w r i t i n g s , p h o to g r a p h s , p a i n t i n g s , and s k e tc h e s
th e y p o p u la r iz e d an im age o f th e w e s t w h ic h was a t once
c r e d i b l e and e n t h r a l l i n g ; a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i r c o l l e c t i o n s
o f I n d ia n a r t i f a c t s , m y th s, an d v o c a b u la r ie s th e y gave
momentum t o t h e s tu d y o f A m erican e th n o lo g y ; and w ith r e s p e c t
t o g e o lo g y , b o ta n y , an d p a le o n to lo g y , t h e i r e f f o r t s w ere so
f r u i t f u l a s t o in f l u e n c e p e rm a n e n tly th e e a r t h s c i e n c e s .
W ith s ta n d in g f o rm id a b le h a r d s h ip s and d a n g e rs th e s e e x p e ­
d i t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t t h e i r t a s k s w i t h e n th u s ia s m and co m p ete n ce,
c o m p le tin g many t e c h n i c a l p r o j e c t s and s e t t i n g g u i d e l i n e s f o r
ev e n m ore.
" E ig h te e n h u n d re d and s i x t y - s e v e n , " w ro te C la re n c e
K in g , "m a rk s , i n th e h i s t o r y o f n a t i o n a l g e o l o g i c a l w o rk , a
t u r n i n g p o i n t , when th e s c ie n c e c e a s e d t o be d ra g g e d i n th e
128
d u s t o f r a p i d e x p l o r a t i o n an d to o k a commanding p o s i t i o n i n
th e p r o f e s s i o n a l w ork o f th e c o u n tr y • ”
25
I t i s w i t h good
r e a s o n t h a t th e y have come t o be c a l l e d ”t h e G re a t S u r v e y s .”
26
By th e l a t e 1 8 7 0 ’s , h o w ev er, t h e i r g r e a t n e s s was
t h r e a t e n i n g t o p u t them o u t o f b u s i n e s s .
L e s s and l e s s o f
th e w e s t was unknown, and now t h a t good r a i l r o a d t r a c k b e d s
had b e e n fo u n d and r i c k s i l v e r d e p o s i t s i d e n t i f i e d , th e o v e r ­
la p p in g and d u p l i c a t i o n o f th e s u r v e y s became n e ttle s o ro e t o
C o n g re s s .
I t was C o n g ress w h ich h e ld th e pow er o f l i f e and
d e a th o v e r th e s u r v e y s s in c e th e y w ere p r o v id e d f o r n o t b y
s t a t u t e s , b u t th r o u g h a n n u a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n s .
I n 187 4 , a f t e r
b r o a c h in g th e s u b j e c t o f co m b in in g th e m , th e House Com m ittee
on P u b l i c L ands h ad c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h i s m ig h t j u s t a s w e ll
be p o s tp o n e d ; b u t f o u r y e a r s l a t e r , when th e A p p r o p r ia tio n s
C om m ittee o f th e House announced t h a t f u r t h e r fu n d s w ould be
w ith h e ld u n t i l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n e f f i c i e n c i e s w ere o v ercom e,
^ ^ F i r s t Annual Report o f the U .S . Geological Survey,
in Edward Salisbury Dana e t a l . . A Century of Science in
America. With Special Reference to the American Journal of
Science. i s I S - i l l s qNew flavenT Conn., 1918). pp. 2di-2o2; for
h is ownpart king "had incorporated the West into the i&alm
o f academic sc ie n c e ,” William H. Goetzmann, Exploration and
Empire: The Explorer and the S c ie n tist in the winning olTthe
American We's F (New York. 1965) , p'."4'6’5 .------------------- -----------2 ® R ichard A. B a r t l e t t , G r e a t S u rv e y s o f th e A m erican
W est (Norm an, O k la ., 1 9 6 2 ), p p . 3 7 3 -3 7 6 ; Thomas 6 . M anning,
G overnm ent i n S c ie n c e : The U .S . G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y . 1867-1894
<X& I5 iffogri5F:VTg8y) ." p p ^ i 7 ;‘m r g irF. B erelllT TEe-----
F i r s t One H undred Y ea rs o f A m erican G eo lo g y (New H aven,
C o n n ., 1 9 2 4 , New V ork, 1 9 6 4 ), p p . 3 0 0 - 5 5 2 ; Howard D . K ram er,
”The S c i e n t i s t i n th e W e st, 1 8 7 0 -1 8 8 0 ,” P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l
R ev iew . X II (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 4 3 ), 2 3 9 -2 5 1 .
129
t h e r e c o u ld be no d o u b t t h a t th e tim e f o r d e c i s i o n h ad
a rriv e d .
U n le s s th e s u r v e y s w ere c o n s o lid a t e d s c i e n t i f i c
i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n th e w e s t w ould c e a s e a l t o g e t h e r .
E x p re s s io n s
o f c o n c e rn h ad a l r e a d y b e e n h e a rd fro m th e r a n k s o f s c i e n c e ,
m ost n o ta b ly J o s i a h D w ight W h itn e y ’s e x te n d e d a r t i c l e i n th e
N o rth A m erican Review c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n t o th e f a c t t h a t
s e v e r a l s u r v e y s w ere p e rfo rm in g v i r t u a l l y th e same f u n c tio n s
i n more o r l e s s th e same t e r r i t o r i e s , and C o n g re ss c o u ld n o t
be e x p e c te d t o a b id e t h i s c o n d i t i o n i n d e f i n i t e l y . ^
Thus th e c o n g r e s s io n a l w a rn in g o f 1878 fo u n d a s i g ­
n i f i c a n t b o d y o f s c i e n t i s t s f a v o r a b ly d is p o s e d to w a rd th e
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f w e s te r n r e s e a r c h .
When th e N a ti o n a l Academy
o f S c ie n c e s was i n s t r u c t e d t o r e p o r t on how g e o l o g i c a l and
g e o g r a p h ic a l s u r v e y s c o u ld be s tr e a m li n e d , a s e l e c t com m ittee
com posed o f A le x a n d e r A g a s s iz , Jam es D w ight D ana, a c t i n g
P r e s i d e n t 0 . C. M arsh , J . S . N ew b erry , Simon Newcomb, W illia m
B a rto n R o g e rs , and W illia m P . T ro w b rid g e to o k up th e p ro b lem
w ith o u t d e l a y .
R e q u e s ts f o r in f o r m a tio n w ere s e n t t o th o s e
i n c h a rg e o f e x i s t i n g s u r v e y s s o t h a t t h e i r id e a s c o u ld be
c o n s id e r e d i n p r e p a r in g th e f i n a l r e p o r t .
As i t tu r n e d o u t ,
27J . D. W h itn e y , " G e o g ra p h ic a l an d G e o lo g ic a l
S u r v e y s ,” N o rth A m erican R ev iew . CXXI ( J u l y and O c to b e r,
1 8 7 5 ), 3 7 - 8 5 , 2yo-3iL4; W h itn ey w as w e ll v e r s e d i n how g o v e rn ­
m ent s u r v e y s c o u ld s u d d e n ly be a b o lis h e d once th e y l o s t p u b lic
f a v o r , h a v in g h ad h i s own C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y
s c u t t l e d b y th e l e g i s l a t u r e th e y e a r b e f o r e , G e ra ld D. N ash,
"The C o n f l i c t B etw een P u re an d A p p lie d S c ie n c e i n N in e te e n th C e n tu ry P u b lic P o l i c y : The C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e G e o lo g ic a l
S u rv e y , 1 8 6 0 -1 8 7 4 ," I s i s . LIV ( J u n e , 1 9 6 3 ), 2 1 7 -2 2 8 .
130
P o w e ll's r e p l y was u s e d v e r b a tim , w h ich m eant t h a t th o u g h he
h ad n o t y e t b e e n named t o th e N a tio n a l Academy he w as form u­
l a t i n g i t s o f f i c i a l p o l i c y on th e s u b j e c t o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n .
A t i t s s p e c i a l New T o rk m e e tin g , November 6 , 18 7 8 , th e
c o m m itte e 's ( o r P o w e l l 's ) reco m m en d atio n s w ere a d o p te d w ith
o n ly one d i s s e n t i n g v o t e : m e n s u ra tio n w ork s h o u ld be com bined
u n d e r th e C o a s t and G e o d e tic S u rv e y , w ith a l l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i n th e p u b l i c dom ain and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
o f p u b l i c la n d s becom ing th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a new b u re a u
i n th e I n t e r i o r D e p a rtm e n t, th e U n ite d S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l
S u r v e y .^ 8
I f a c te d upon b y C o n g ress t h i s w ould e l i m i n a t e
th e G re a t S u rv e y s .
U l tim a te ly c o n s o l i d a t i o n was a c h ie v e d , b u t n o t w ith o u t
a s t r u g g l e and o n ly a f t e r th e N a tio n a l A cadem y's o r i g i n a l p la n
h ad b e e n w a te re d down.
H is to r y h a s rem em bered t h e a c rim o n io u s
d e b a te s o f th e F o r t y - F i f t h C o n g re s s , a c o n g re s s so f r e i g h t e d
w i t h d i s c o r d t h a t i t came t o r e g r e t th e d ay o f i t s b i r t h .
The s e s s i o n s w ere p u n c tu a te d w ith c o n t r o v e r s i e s o v e r th e s i z e ,
s u p p o r t, and i n t e r n a l u s e s o f th e arm y; w h e th e r s o l d i e r s
s h o u ld be s t a t i o n e d a t p o l l i n g p l a c e s ; th e r e m o n i t i z a t i o n o f
s i l v e r and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o g o ld ; r e s u m p tio n o f s p e c ie
2®u.S., C o n g re s s , In d e x t o th e M is c e lla n e o u s Docu­
m ents o f th e House • . . k&th. tio n g ., 1 s t & e s s ., 1 8 7 9 , M is c .
£)oc. 7 , 1 , 6 -8 ; The N a tio n a l A cadem y's r o l e i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n
i s sum m arized i n F r e d e r i c k W. T rue ( e d . ) , A H is to r y o f th e
F i r s t H a lf - C e n tu ry o f th e N a ti o n a l Academy o f s c i e n c e s .
i g e r j -1 9 1 3
iw ifiE s fe m .
B . 'g ; ;
m
T )T “ p p .
2 5 5 - 2 7 9 . -------------- 1
131
p a y m e n ts; a l l e g e d f r a u d s and v o tin g i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n th e
p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n o f 1876; and th e r e s t r i c t i o n o f C h in e se
im m ig r a tio n .
The r e c a s t i n g o f go v ern m en t g e o l o g i c a l an d
g e o g r a p h ic a l w ork d i d n o th in g t o e a s e t h i s S tu rm an d D ra n g .
When a d v o c a te s p f th e N a ti o n a l A cadem y's p r o p o s a ls d e c l a r e d
t h a t c o n s o l i d a t i o n w ould r e p r e s e n t a s u b s t a n t i a l s a v in g s o f
m oney, o p p o n e n ts r e t o r t e d t h a t t h i s w as f a l s e econom y, s in c e
d i s c o n t i n u i n g L ie u t e n a n t W h e e le r's S u rv e y w o u ld d e p r iv e th e
army o f a v i t a l i n t e l l i g e n c e so u rc e f o r w ag in g I n d ia n
c a m p a ig n s, "a n d u n le s s t h i s in f o r m a tio n i s o b ta in e d b y th e
War D ep a rtm en t d i s a s t r o u s r e s u l t s a r e l i a b l e t o f o llo w a t
an y tim e
The p o i n t a b o u t r e d u c in g b u r e a u c r a t i c w a s te was
c h a lle n g e d b y th o s e who m a in ta in e d t h a t th e C o a s t S u rv e y ,
w h ic h was t o have j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r s u r v e y s o f m e n s u r a tio n ,
was o v e r s t a f f e d , u n e c o n o m ic a l, and " th e m o st i r r e s p o n s i b l e
and e x t r a v a g a n t s c i e n t i f i c body t h a t C o n g re ss h a s e v e r p r o ­
v id e d f o r . "
D enying t h a t u n i f i c a t i o n was t r u l y p r o g r e s s i v e ,
th e a n t i - c o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r c e s a rg u e d t h a t su c h a change i n
th e s y s te m o f p a r c e l l i n g o u t u n s e t t l e d t e r r i t o r y w o u ld r a i s e
"unnum bered h in d r a n c e s t o th e prom pt o b t a i n i n g o f t i t l e
homes by th e h a rd y p io n e e r s o f o u r c o u n t r y .
to
C o n s e r v a tio n ­
i s t c la im s w ere d is m is s e d b r u s q u e ly : "P ay t h e s e s c i e n t i f i c
2 % J .S ., C o n g r e s s io n a l R e c o rd . 4 5 th C o n g ., 3d S e s s . ,
1 8 7 9 , V I I I , P a r t 2, 1282.
30I b i d . , 2 1 8 .
132
men t o h u n t b u g s , p ay them t o g e t up f a n c y c o l o r e d m aps, and
y e t c h a rg e t h e s e t t l e r w ith th e e x p e n se o f d e f i n i n g th e
31
b o u n d a r ie s o f h i s l i t t l e h o m e s te a d I”
C le a rly th e o p p o s itio n
was to o s tr o n g f o r th e N a ti o n a l A cad em y 's p la n t o be p a s s e d
in ta c t.
H ow ever, th e s e c t i o n c a l l i n g f o r a new g e o l o g i c a l
s u rv e y u n d e r th e I n t e r i o r D ep a rtm en t d i d c a r r y , a s a r i d e r
t o th e S u n d ry C i v i l A p p r o p r ia tio n A c t, w h ich w as s ig n e d b y
P r e s i d e n t H ayes on M arch 3 , 1 8 7 9 .
B e fo re th e in k was d r y t h e r e w ere murmurs o f c o m p la in t
a b o u t th e r o l e p la y e d i n t h e s e p r o c e e d in g s b y a c o t e r i e o f
l o c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s l e d b y P o w e ll.
"The schem e h a s h a d i t s
o r i g i n h e re i n W a s h in g to n ," g ro u s e d M ontana C ongressm an
M a rtin M a g in n is , " i n th e lo b b i e s o f th e H ouse— s c i e n t i f i c
l o b b y i s t s p e r h a p s — c e r t a i n l y s c i e n t i f i c i n th e m anner i n
w h ich th e y have c o n d u c te d t h e i r a p p ro a c h e s on t h i s b o d y ."
M a g in n is , who d is d a in e d " th e c o n c e i t o f n e w -fle d g e d c o l l e g i a t e s and o f g o v e rn m e n ta l s c i e n t i s t s , " h a d l i t t l e
th e C a p i t a l C i t y 's s a v a n t s .
u se f o r
Y e t, i n a b a c k h an d e d f a s h i o n ,
he was c r e d i t i n g them w ith p r o f i c i e n t l y m anaging t h e i r c a u se
a n d , b y way o f in n u e n d o , th e h i g h e s t t r i b u t e w en t t o P o w e ll.32
^ I b i d . , P a r t 7 , 1211; th e m o tiv e s o f co n g ressm en
o p p o sin g th e fcow ell p la n a r e t h o u g h t f u l l y a n a ly z e d i n
G oetzm ann, E x p lo r a ti o n and E m p ire , p p . 5 8 7 -5 8 8 ; M anning,
G overnm ent i n s c i e n c e , p p .
32I b i d . , P a r t 2 , 1202; H enry N ash S m ith , " C la re n c e
K in g , Jo h n W esley P o w e ll, and th e E s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e U n ite d
S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l S u r v e y ," M i s s i s s i p p i V a ll e y H i s t o r i c a l
R eview . XXXIV ( J u n e , 1 9 4 7 ), 3 7 -5 8 .
133
P o w e ll ' 3 s i n g u l a r c o n t r i b u t i o n came i n th e fo rm o f
tw o g o v ern m en t r e p o r t s p r i n t e d i n 18 7 8 , L ands o f th e A rid
R eg io n o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , an d M ethods o f S u rv e y in g th e
33
P u b lic Domain.
T hese t o u r s de f o r c e n o t o n ly d e m o n s tra te d
th e v a lu e o f h i s own s u r v e y , th e y a l s o p r e s e n te d a c o n v in c in g
arg u m en t i n f a v o r o f r e v i s i n g f e d e r a l la n d p o l i c i e s so t h a t
W ash in g to n c o u ld p la n f o r b o th th e d ev e lo p m e n t and th e co n ­
s e r v a t i o n o f w e s te r n t e r r i t o r i e s .
L ands o f th e A r id R e g io n ,
p u b lis h e d o v e r th e s i g n a t u r e o f S e c r e t a r y o f th e I n t e r i o r
S c h u r z , was d i s t r i b u t e d b y th e a l l - i m p o r t a n t House Com m ittee
on A p p r o p r ia tio n s , an d o f c o u r s e , M ethods o f S u rv e y in g th e
P u b lic Domain was a c t u a l l y th e N a tio n a l Academy’s r e p o r t
recom m ending u n i f i c a t i o n .
T hese docum ents e n a b le d i n f l u ­
e n t i a l f r i e n d s o f s c ie n c e i n b o th p a r t i e s — e s p e c i a l l y
D em ocrats Jo h n D. C. A tk in s , C hairm an o f A p p r o p r ia tio n s i n
th e H ouse, h i s f e llo w co m m ittee member Abram S . H e w itt, and
C ongressm an Jam es A. G a r f i e l d , l e a d e r o f th e R e p u b lic a n
m in o r it y — t o b u i l d a p e r s u a s iv e c a s e f o r th e c r e a t i o n o f a
U n ite d S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y .
A ls o , C la re n c e K in g ,
P o w e ll's c a n d id a te f o r t h e d i r e c t o r s h i p o f th e S u rv e y , was
p u t i n c h a rg e o f th e new e n t e r p r i s e , w h ile a t th e same tim e
C o n g ress w en t a lo n g w ith tw o o f th e M a jo r 's f a v o r i t e d e s ig n s
^ i n th e judgm ent o f th e h i s t o r i a n o f th e a r i d
r e g i o n P o w e l l 's a n a ly s e s an d reco m m en d atio n s "w ere th e m ost
i n t e l l i g e n t an d co m p reh en siv e t h a t h a d b e e n m ade, and th e y
have n o t b e e n s u r p a s s e d s i n c e , " W a lte r P r e s c o t t Webb, The
G re a t P l a i n s (New Y ork, 1 9 3 1 , U n iv e r s a l L i b r a r y e d n . , n . d . ) ,
p . MET.
134
f o r p ro m o tin g s c i e n c e : r e q u i r i n g t h a t a l l c o l l e c t i o n s made
b y f e d e r a l s u r v e y s be d e p o s i t e d i n th e N a ti o n a l Museum, and
i n s t i t u t i n g a B u reau o f E th n o lo g y a s p a r t o f th e S m ith s o n ia n .
By th e end o f th e c o n g r e s s io n a l s e s s i o n P o w e ll h ad c a r r i e d
a l l b e f o r e h im .
" T h e re c a n be no d o u b t t h a t t h i s w hole t h i n g
came a b o u t w ith v a r i o u s o t h e r c h a n g e s o f a r e v o l u t i o n a r y
c h a r a c t e r , th r o u g h th e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f th e M a jo r ,” w ro te
e t h n o l o g i s t F ra n k H a m ilto n G u sh in g .
T h en , r e v ie w in g th e
c o n t r a s t i n g p r o s p e c ts o f P o w e ll an d H ayden,
i t i s my b e l i e f t h a t th e f o rm e r w i l l be d i r e c t l y
and l a r g e l y b e n e f i t t e d — th e l a t t e r i n j u r e d and
W h e ele r— a l r e a d y d e a d fro m s t a r v a t i o n —-c o n sig n e d
t o th e in e x h a u s ta b le t o u r o f m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e ,
a s a l i e u t e n a n t i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s A r m y . 34
The fo u n d in g o f th e Cosmos C lub seem ed t o c o n s t i t u t e
a s u s p i c i o u s l y v i t a l l i n k i n t h i s c h a in o f e v e n t s .
W illia m
H e a le y D a l i , a n e a r l y member, n o te d "some p e r tu r b e d i n d i ­
v id u a ls who had s e e n i n th e f o r m a tio n o f su c h a c lu b a scheme
t o c o n t r o l g o v e rn m e n ta l s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t i e s . ”35
T h is
c h a rg e h ad a c e r t a i n v a l i d i t y , t o th e e x t e n t t h a t th e C lu b ’ s
o r g a n iz e r s in c lu d e d many who e n v is io n e d th e n e e d f o r th e
c e n t r a l i z e d d i r e c t i o n o f n a t i o n a l s c i e n c e , and t h a t i n s u b ­
s e q u e n t p e r i o d s —e s p e c i a l l y d u r in g th e w o rld w a rs — th e Club
3i*Frank H. C u sh in g t o [ ? ] T u r n e r , May 1 5 , 1 8 7 9 ,
C u sh in g P a p e r s , S o u th w e s t Museum L i b r a r y .
35D a l l , B a i r d , p . 3 9 7 ; m ild e r h i n t s t h a t th e Cosmos
C lub m ust have h ad so m e th in g t o do w ith th e c r e a t i o n o f th e
— S u rv e y a p p e a r i n W illia m C ulp D a r ra h , P o w e ll o f th e C o lo ra d o
( P r i n c e t o n , N . J . , 1 9 5 1 ), p p . 247-248 and G oetzm ann, Ex­
p l o r a t i o n and E m p ire , p . 5 9 1 .
135
in d ir e c tly a ffe c te d p u b lic p o lic y .
Y et a l l t h i s came i n
th e f u l l n e s s o f tim e ; d u r in g i t s e a r l y y e a r s th e C l u b 's
in f lu e n c e was more im a g in a ry th a n r e a l .
P re su m ab ly D a l i 's
" p e r tu r b e d i n d i v i d u a l s " w ere P o w e l l 's e n e m ie s , men who
r e s e n t e d h i s a c c o m p lis h m e n ts , e n v ie d h i s p o l i t i c a l i n g e n u i t y ,
and who w ere q u ic k t o c o n s tr u e h i s e v e r y a c t i o n a s p a r t o f
a l a r g e r cam p aig n o f a g g ra n d iz e m e n t w h ich w o u ld end w i t h th e
M a jo r an d a s m a ll d e ta c h m e n t o f c h o s e n l i e u t e n a n t s " r u n n in g "
A m erican s c i e n c e .
As th e g r a y em inence o f go v ern m en t g e o lo g y
he w as a man who d e s e r v e d t o be e y e d w a r i l y l e s t h i s pow er
ex p an d i n t o o t h e r d e p a r tm e n ts .
A c c o rd in g ly th e Cosmos Club
a p p e a re d t o be a v e h i c le f o r a d v a n c in g P o w e ll’s p o s i t i o n i n
th e s c i e n t i f i c e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
The t r o u b l e w i t h t h i s c o n j e c t u r e was t h a t i t o v e r ­
lo o k e d th e tim in g o f c e r t a i n im p o r ta n t f a c t o r s : f i r s t , P o w e ll
h ad a l r e a d y g a r n e r e d t h e e s te e m o f le a d in g men o f s c ie n c e
th r o u g h h i s r e p o r t f o r th e N a ti o n a l Academy, and s e c o n d , l i k e
K in g , he e n jo y e d a w id e s p re a d p o p u la r f o llo w in g .
T hrough
t h e i r e x p l o i t s b o th h ad g a in e d s u c h n o t o r i e t y t h a t mere m e n tio n
o f th e names P o w e ll an d K ing im m e d ia te ly c o n ju r e d up im ages
f a m i l i a r t o th e p u b l i c .
The o n e-arm ed e x p l o r e r to o k on
f a s c i n a t i o n i n 1869 when he and h i s p a r t y w ere b e l i e v e d t o
have d is a p p e a r e d i n a w h ir lp o o l w h ile a tte m p tin g t o n a v ig a te
th e te m p e stu o u s G re en R iv e r .
Soon a f te r w a r d "The K ing o f
D iam onds" c r e a t e d a s e n s a t i o n b y e x p o s in g a cach e o f f r a u d ­
u l e n t gems t h a t h ad c o n v in c e d none o t h e r th a n C h a rle s T i f f a n y .
136
Men who n a rro w ly e s c a p e d b e in g b i l k e d th a n k e d God and
C la re n c e K ing i n t h e same b r e a t h , th e r e b y show ing how c lo s e
th e l a t t e r h ad come t o im m o rta lity .^ * *
On th e p r o f e s s i o n a l
f r o n t th e r e p u t a t i o n s o f K ing and P o w e ll w ere en h an ced by
th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f su c h m onographs a s M o u n ta in e e rin g i n th e
S i e r r a Nevada and P o w e llTs E x p l o r a t i o n o f th e C o lo ra d o R i v e r ,
These two h ad a l s o b e e n a s s i d u o u s l y c o u r tin g o f f i c i a l
W ash in g to n f o r y e a r s b e f o r e th e C lub was c o n c e iv e d .^7
Thus
th e Cosmos C lub w as n o t e v e n on th e sc e n e when th e f o u n d a tio n
f o r th e S u rv e y w as b e in g l a i d .
To t h e p e r c e p t i v e o b s e r v e r ,
w a tc h in g s im u lta n e o u s ly t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e C lub and th e
e s ta b li s h m e n t o f th e S u rv e y , t h e r e s im p ly w as l e s s t h e r e
th a n m et th e e y e .
F u rth e rm o re , i n t h i s i n s t a n c e P o w e l l 's s u c c e s s
^^M anning, G overnm ent i n S c ie n c e . p . 10; A . J .
L i e b l i n g , "A n n als o f C rim e: fh e A m erican G o lc o n d a ," New
Y o rk e r, XVI (November 1 6 , 1 9 4 0 ) , 4 9 -6 2 ; Jam es D, H ague,
M e m o r a b ili a , " C la re n c e K ing M em oirs (New Y o rk , 1 9 0 4 ), p p .
3 9 6 -4 0 0 ; Thurman W i lk in s , C la r e n c e k in g : A B io g ra p h y (New
Y o rk , 1 9 5 8 ), £ p . 1 5 8 -1 7 2 ; W a lla c e f f te g n e r , Seyond th e
H u n d red th M e rid ia n : Jo h n W esley P o w e ll and th e S econd OpenI ng 'oF tKe We sE CB6stohT T 3 T O
5 4 -5 7 : P a r r a h ." Powel l /
p p T T Z B - if e r :—
--------------
3 ^ In l a t e r y e a r s a c o lle a g u e w ro te o f K in g : " I t
w as h i s p e r s o n a l charm an d c a p t i v a t i n g s p e e c h t h a t won f o r
him a n im m ediate and e n d u r in g s u c c e s s . S e n a t o r s , r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i v e s an d g o v ern m en t o f f i c i a l s o f e v e r y g ra d e became
a t once h i s a d m irin g f r i e n d s . F e s s e n d e n , o f M ain e, a f t e r
a n e v e n i n g 's c o m p an io n sh ip w i t h King a t Sam H o o p e r 's g e n i a l
d i n n e r - t a b l e , w as h im s e lf a lm o s t p e r s u a d e d t o be a s c i e n t i s t ,
and p r o f e s s e d h i s c o n v e r s io n i n s a y in g , ' I f I w ere n o t
U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a to r I w ould be U n ite d S t a t e s G e o l o g i s t . '"
H ague, K ing M em oirs, p . 3 8 2 .
137
r e s u l t e d n o t from d e f t m a c h in a tio n s b u t b e c a u se h i s p la n f o r
r e o r g a n i z i n g f e d e r a l l y s p o n s o re d g e o lo g y o f f e r e d s e v e r a l
p a t e n t a d v a n ta g e s .
On th e l e v e l o f e x p e d ie n c y i t p ro v id e d
a tim e ly a l t e r n a t i v e t o th e s u rv e y s o f W h e ele r and H ayden,
b o th o f w h ich s u f f e r e d from c r i t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s an d co n ­
t i n u e d o n ly b y th e g ra c e o f b u r e a u c r a t i c i n f e r t i a .
For a l l
p r a c t i c a l p u rp o s e s th e k in d o f to p o g r a p h ic a l r e c o n n a is s a n c e
u n d e r ta k e n b y W h e ele r had p e r is h e d i n th e C i v i l W ar, a lo n g
w i t h o t h e r p r o j e c t s o f s o l d i e r - s c i e n t i s t s t h a t e a r l i e r had
c o n t r i b u t e d m i g h t i l y t o th e w in n in g o f th e west.®®
In d eed ,
one o f th e few e x c u s e s f o r r e s u r r e c t i n g th e m i l i t a r y s u rv e y
i n 1871 was t h a t m ap-m aking h ad alw ay s b e e n a l e g i t i m a t e
arm y f u n c t i o n .
D u rin g i t s h i s t o r y th e U n ite d S t a t e s Geo­
g r a p h i c a l S u rv e y W est o f th e One H u n d re d th M e rid ia n made
some c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o p a le o n to lo g y , b o ta n y , o r n ith o lo g y , and
z o o lo g y , th a n k s t o c i v i l i a n em ployees l i k e F i e l d i n g B ra d fo rd
M eek, a s w e ll a s Cosmos Club fo u n d e rs G. K. G i l b e r t , H enry
® ® M ilitary r e c o n n a is s a n c e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y gave s h o r t
s h r i f t t o e x p l o i t a t i o n and c o n s e r v a t i o n , b o th o f w h ich
loom ed l a r g e r t h a n e v e r b e f o r e i n p o s t-1 8 6 5 c o n c e p tio n s o f
th e t r a n s - M i s s i s s i p p i w e s t. As th e h i s t o r i a n o f t h i s
s u b g e c t h a s w r i t t e n : ,rN e a rly t o a man e v e r y T o p o g ra p h ic a l
O f f i c e r fro m S te p h e n H. Long onward h ad d e s c r ib e d th e p l a i n s
w e s t o f th e 1 0 0 th m e r id ia n a s b e in g o f l i t t l e v a lu e t o a
c i v i l i z a t i o n l a r g e l y a g r a r i a n i n i t s b a s i c econom ic a c t i v i t y .
To th em th e p l a i n s c o u n tr y form ed a b a r r i e r t o p r o g r e s s • "
W illia m H. G oetzm ann, Army E x p lo r a ti o n i n th e A m erican W e st.
1803 -1 8 6 3 (New H aven, C o n n ., 1 9 5 9 ;, p p .
" p e rh a p s
th e c lim a x o f th e War D e p a rtm e n t's g e o l o g i c a l e f f o r t came
i n 1 8 5 9 . • • . ” M anning, G overnm ent i n S c ie n c e , p . 2 .
138
W. H enshaw , and H enry C. Y arrow .
Y e t, th e in h e r e n t r i g i d i t y
o f th e army way p ro v e d i n h i b i t i n g a n d , b y 1 8 7 8 , a l l sa v e th e
C orps o f E n g in e e rs a g re e d t h a t a b o l i s h i n g W h e e le r 's S u rv e y
3Q
w ould be a good t h i n g .
A s i g n i f i c a n t body o f o p in io n a l s o f a v o r e d d is b a n d in g
th e s u r v e y h e a d e d b y F e rd in a n d V . H ayden, b u t f o r d i f f e r e n t
reaso n s.
U n lik e W h e e le r 's , th e H ayden e n t e r p r i s e was p r i ­
m a r il y g e o l o g i c a l and a s s u c h i t was more r e l e v a n t t o th e
needs o f n a tio n a l s c ie n c e .
B ein g p a r t o f th e I n t e r i o r De­
p a rtm e n t i t e n jo y e d a c i v i l i a n s t a t u s r e n d e r in g i t e s tim a b le
i n th e e y e s o f th e s c i e n t i f i c e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
I t s p ro fe s s io n ­
a l s t a f f , in c lu d in g C yrus Thomas, W illia m H enry H olm es,
H enry G a n n e tt, F r e d e r ic k E n d lic h , Edward D r in k e r C ope, one
o f th e le a d in g v e r t e b r a t e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s i n th e c o u n tr y ,
and " th e N e s to r o f A m erican p a l e o b o t a n i s t s , " Leo L e s q u e re u x ,
was s u p e r i o r t o W h e e l e r 's .
B e g in n in g i n 1867 and f o r th e
n e x t e le v e n y e a r s i t u n c o v e re d g r e a t p o r t i o n s o f n a t u r a l
h is to ry .
The p h o to g ra p h s o f W illia m H enry J a c k s o n an d th e
^ B a r t l e t t , G r e a t S u r v e y s , p p . 3 3 3 -3 7 2 ; th e House
A p p r o p r ia tio n s C o m m ittee1s r e f u s a l t o fu n d f u r t h e r s u rv e y s
"was r e a l l y a v o te o f no c o n fid e n c e i n W h e e le r 's w o rk , and
i t m arked th e b e g in n in g o f th e en d o f l a r g e - s c a l e army e x ­
p l o r a t i o n i n th e W e s t," G oetzm ann, E x p lo r a ti o n and E m p ire ,
p . k8 5 ; G e n e ra l A. A . H um phreys, C h ie f o f E n g in e e r s , s u b m i t t e d h i s r e s i g n a t i o n t o th e N a ti o n a l Academy and th e
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty when he saw t h a t th e s p e c i a l com­
m it te e a p p o in te d t o s tu d y w e s te r n s u r v e y s was composed o f
g e o l o g i s t s and t h e r e f o r e s ta c k e d a g a i n s t to p o g ra p h y , A. A.
Humphreys t o T heodore N. G i l l , and Humphreys t o Simon
Newcomb, December 3 1 , 1 8 7 8 , FS9 A r c h iv e s , N aval R e se a rc h
L a b o r a to r y .
139
la n d s c a p e p a i n t i n g s o f Thomas M oran k e p t i t c o n s i s t e n t l y i n
th e p u b lic e y e , i t was v a lu e d by w e s te r n a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s ,
r a i l r o a d p r o m o te r s , an d m in e rs , and th e e n t r e p r e n e u r a l s k i l l
o f i t s d i r e c t o r made i t i n c r e a s i n g l y p o p u la r w ith C o n g re s s .
I n d e e d , th e m e r c u r ia l Hayden •'became th e m ost p o w e rfu l and
40
m ost c e l e b r a t e d p u b l i c s c i e n t i s t o f th e s e v e n t i e s . ”
H is
s u r v e y had o n ly one w e a k n e ss: a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
B u t, b y 1 8 7 8 ,
t h i s h ad become an in s u p e r a b le p ro b le m .
Though s l i g h t o f fram e F e rd in a n d Hayden was b le s s e d
w i t h unbounded e n e rg y w h ich e n a b le d him t o s c u r r y up and
down m o u n ta in s and a c r o s s d e s e r t s l i k e a man p o s s e s s e d .
"T h ere was a vehemence and a s o r t o f w ild n e s s i n h i s n a t u r e , ”
rem em bered J . P e t e r L e s l e y .
He was p a s s i o n a t e l y d e v o te d t o
t h e v i r g i n w e s t, a d o re d w hat he te rm e d i t s " b e a u t i f u l d e c o r a ­
t i o n s , " and seem ed d e te rm in e d t o make known a s much o f i t a s
w as p o s s i b l e b e f o r e d e a th o v e r to o k h im .
W ith h i s e v e r - p r e s e n t
sp ecim en b ag and g e o l o g i s t 's p i c k , f e r r e t i n g i n w i n t e r and
summer b o t h , w h e th e r accom panied by a s s i s t a n t s o r a l o n e ,
H ayden became a f a m i l i a r s i g h t — a s w e ll a s a c u r i o s i t y — t o
th e n a t i v e s .
The S io u x had a name f o r him : "M an-W ho-Picks-
U p -S to n e s -R u n n in g ."
T h is n e rv o u s i n t e n s i t y was r e f l e c t e d i n
th e w ork o f th e s u r v e y .
S p a t i a l l y s p e a k in g i t a c c o m p lish e d
^ ^ B a r t l e t t , G re a t S u rv e y s , p p . 3 -1 2 0 ; M anning, G o v ern ­
m ent i n S c ie n c e , p . 1 5 ; b o etzm an n , E x p lo r a ti o n an d E m p ire, p p .
4 9 5 -5 2 9 ; f o r a n i n c i s i v e c r i t i q u e o f H a y d e n 's S u rv e y s e e J u l e s
M arcou t o H ayden, J a n u a r y 2 7 , 1 8 7 4 , i n M e r r i l l , F i r s t One
H undred Y e a rs , p p . 7 2 1 -7 2 2 .
1M>
much, b u t more o f t e n t h a n n o t t h i s m eant s a c r i f i c i n g d e t a i l e d
a n a l y s i s ; s e l f - d e s c r i p t i o n s o f i t s m a n ifo ld a c t i v i t i e s
f i l l e d to m e s, b u t a l l to o f r e q u e n t l y t h e s e a c c o u n ts c o n ta in e d
in a c c u r a c i e s t h a t made H ayden lo o k l i k e e i t h e r a c h a r l a t a n
o r an in c o m p e te n t.
"He w orked w ith a te le s c o p e i n s t e a d o f
w ith a m ic ro s c o p e .
He w orked s o r a p i d l y and p u b lis h e d s o
q u ic k ly t h a t s h o d d in e s s became th e h a llm a r k o f h i s r e p o r t s . " *■
S in c e d e l i b e r a t e , m e th o d ic a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n was beyond h i s k en
i t became c l e a r t h a t H a y d e n 's S u rv e y h a d — i n a v e r y l i t e r a l
s e n s e —r u n i t s c o u r s e .
I n a d d i t i o n t o th e s h o rtc o m in g s o f d e f i n i t i o n and
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p la g u in g b o th s u r v e y s an i n t e r n e c i n e r i v a l r y
had grown up b etw een th e m .
Once H ayden and W h eeler s e n s e d
th e im m inence o f e x t i n c t i o n th e y c o n f r o n te d e a c h o t h e r l i k e
im p la c a b le f o e s .
So g r e a t w as t h e i r e n m ity t h a t m a lic io u s
p e r s o n a l a t t a c k s became com m onplace.
W h eeler c h a rg e d t h a t
h i s o p p o n en t la c k e d s u f f i c i e n t s k i l l ev en t o " r e v i s e th e w ork
done b y h i s own to p o g r a p h e r s ," w hereupon Hayden vowed t h a t
" i f he s t i r s a f i n g e r , o r a tte m p ts t o i n t e r f e r e w ith me o r
my s u r v e y i n an y way, I w i l l u t t e r l y c r u s h him —a s I have
^ B a r t l e t t , G r e a t S u rv e y s , p . 2 0 ; J . P . L e s l e y ,
" O b itu a ry N o tic e o f F e rd in a n d V andevere H ay d e n ," P ro c e e d in g s
o f th e A m erican P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t y , XXV ( J a n u a r y zO ,
1 8 8 8 ), 6l; Charles A. White, "Memoir of Ferdinand Vandxveer
Hayden, 1839 [sic ] - 1 8 8 7 ." National Academy of Sciences Bio­
graphical Memoirs. I l l ( 1 8 9 5 ) , 3 9 ^ -4 1 3 ; Time Exposure: The
Autobiography of William Henry Jackson t.N'ew Vorfe, 1990), pp.
186-137; Tor HaycTen^s appreciati on oT untamed nature see
Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven,
Conn., 1 9 6 7 ), pp. I l l - l l 3 .
141
enough c o n g r e s s io n a l in f lu e n c e t o do s o , an d w i l l b r i n g i t
t o bear."**2
S uch venemous g iv e an d ta k e u n d e r s c o r e s a
g e n e r a l c o n d i tio n o f th e p u r s u i t o f n a t u r a l s c ie n c e i n l a t e
n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y A m erica: u n r e l e n t i n g a n t i p a t h i e s w ere
a lm o s t th e r u l e r a t h e r th a n th e e x c e p tio n *
I t w as p r e c i s e l y t h i s p ro b lem w h ic h P o w e ll s o u g h t t o
a l l e v i a t e , an d i n s o d o in g he a p p ro a c h e d i t fro m s e v e r a l
d if fe re n t d ire c tio n s .
A b o lis h in g co m p etin g s u r v e y s w ould
c a s t o u t one a p p le o f d i s c o r d .
S im ila rly , re q u irin g th a t
a l l n ew ly d is c o v e r e d a r t i f a c t s , f o s s i l s , an d sp e c im e n s be
d e p o s ite d i n n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ( t h e U n ite d S t a t e s Museum
and th e B ureau o f E th n o lo g y ) was aim ed a t c u r b in g c o m p e titio n
b etw een i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i a l i s t s , su c h a s Cope an d M a rsh .
T h e ir
t i t a n i c s t r u g g l e s o v e r th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n
o f e x t i n c t a n im a ls , p i t t i n g a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r tw o g i a n t s o f
p a le o n to lo g y , w ere e x a c e r b a te d b y r e p e a t e d c o n t e s t s o v e r
f o s s i l t r o v e s i n th e w e s t.
f,They w e r e ,” i n N ath a n R e i n g o l d 's
p h r a s e , "R obber B aro n s t r y i n g t o c o m e r th e o ld - b o n e s
m a r k e t.”
j.3
R ed u cin g t h i s s p e c u l a t i v e f e v e r w as t h e r e f o r e
^ Q u o te d i n F ra n c e s W illia m s Bi n k l e y^ "The Hayden
S u rv e y " (u n p u b lis h e d M.A. t h e s i s , D e p t, o f H i s t o r y , U n i v e r s i t y
o f C o lo ra d o , 1 9 4 5 ), p . 6 1 .
J N ath an R e in g o ld ( e d . ) , S c ie n c e i n N in e te e n th - C e n tu r y
A m e ric a : A D ocum entary H is to r y (New Y o rk , 1 9 6 * 0 , p .
C lyde
S c h u c h a rt an d C la r a Mac LeV ene, O th n ie l C . M arsh : P io n e e r i n
P a le o n to lo g y (New H aven, C o n n ., 1940
p p . 26
67 H enry
F a i r f i e l d O sb o rn , C ope: M a s te r N a t u r a l i s t . . . ( P r i n c e t o n .
N . J . , 1 9 3 1 ), p p . 1 7 7 -2 7 3 .
),
!-£ ;
142
bound t o d im in is h h o s t i l i t i e s and y i e l d h a p p i e r r e l a t i o n s
among th e b i g p lu n g e r s .
F i n a l l y , an o r g a n i z a t i o n d e s ig n e d
a s a m o ll if y in g f o r c e p ro m ise d t o e n g e n d e r m u tu a l t r u s t and
good w i l l .
I n t h i s way th e H ayden-W heeler f i g h t d r a m a tiz e d
th e u r g e n t n eed f o r th e Cosmos C lub a n d , b y th e same to k e n ,
th e C lu b ’s fo u n d in g was bound up w ith th e U n ite d S t a t e s
G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y .
B ut i t d id n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y f o llo w t h a t th e Cosmos
C lub was in d is p e n s a b le t o th e c r e a t i o n o f th e S u rv e y o r th e
a p p o in tm e n t o f i t s p e r s o n n e l.
On th e c o n t r a r y , th e C lub
d id i t s u tm o s t t o re m a in a l o o f fro m c o n s o l i d a t i o n q u a r r e l s
by f o llo w in g th e le a d o f a s e a s o n e d s c i e n t i f i c i n s t i t u t i o n ,
th e C o a s t S u rv e y , and a d o p tin g a p o s i t i o n o f d i s c r e e t non*
in v o lv e m e n t.
Thus th e d e c i s i o n t h a t H ayden and W h eeler had
become e x p e n d a b le was re a c h e d b y s c i e n t i s t s o u ts i d e th e
C lu b ’s o r b i t .
P o w e ll's r e p o r t was s i l e n t on th e q u e s tio n o f
who s h o u ld h ead th e new b u r e a u ; c o n s e q u e n tly i t c o u ld n o t be
deemed u n f r i e n d l y to w a rd e i t h e r a n t a g o n i s t .
T ru e , th e r e p o r t
was s l a n t e d a g a i n s t m i l i t a r y s u r v e y s , b u t t h i s p r e j u d i c e was
w id e ly h e l d and c e r t a i n l y P o w e ll’s b i a s d i d n o t c a u se th e
d o w n fa ll o f W h e e le r.
Nor d i d th e C lub a c t t o sa v e H ayden,
d e s p i t e p e r s o n a l a p p e a ls t o S p e n c e r B a ir d i n t h e f o r m e r 's
h o u r o f need.****
C l e a r l y , t h e n , th e Cosmos C lub e x e r c is e d no
****Julius E . H ilg a r d t o O th n ie l C. H a rs h , November 28,
1878 ( M arsh L e tt e r b o o k s , Peabody Museum L i b r a r y , T a le U n i­
v e r s i t y ; F e rd in a n d V. H ayden t o S p e n c e r F . B a ir d , S ep tem b er
18 and 2 0 , 1 8 7 8 , B a ird P e r s o n a l P a p e r s , S I A r c h iv e s .
143
a p p r e c ia b l e le v e r a g e i n c o n s ig n in g H ayden and W h e ele r t o
p re m a tu re r e t i r e m e n t .
M o reo v er, th e man who u l t i m a t e l y r e c e i v e d th e d i r e c t o r s h i p , C la re n c e K in g , was named n o t a s a r e s u l t o f h i s
a f f i l i a t i o n w ith th e Cosmos C lu b , b u t b e c a u s e , a s 0 . C. M arsh
s a i d , he commanded " th e r e s p e c t an d h e a r t y s u p p o r t o f th e
b e s t s c i e n t i f i c men i n th e c o u n t r y . " ^
K in g , r a t h e r th a n
th e C lu b , assum ed th e m ain b u rd e n o f s o l i c i t i n g l e t t e r s from
th e s e men b a c k in g h i s c a n d id a c y .
"1 am h e r e i n th e t h i c k o f
th e f i g h t , " he w r o te , a f t e r t a k i n g up a p o s i t i o n i n W ash in g to n
fro m w h ich t o m a rs h a l s u p p o r t f o r h i s n o m i n a t i o n . ^
A lre a d y
P r e s i d e n t H ayes h ad b eg u n r e c e i v i n g n o te s f a v o r a b le t o K in g ,
in c lu d in g th e g lo w in g s e n tim e n ts o f W i l l i a n Dean H o w ells
and th e l e t t e r fro m M rs. H o w ells t o "D ear C o u s in L u c y ,"
p r o c la im in g K ing " th e m ost a c c o m p lish e d man o f h i s age i n
* 5 0 . C. M arsh t o R u th e r f o r d B. H a y e s, J a n u a r y 1 4 ,
1 8 7 9 , H ayes P a p e r s , R u th e r f o r d B. Hayes L i b r a r y .
^ C l a r e n c e K ing t o D a n ie l C . G ilm a n , J a n u a r y 1 5 ,
1 8 7 9 , G ilm an P a p e r s , The J o h n s H opkins U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ;
K ing was an o ld han d a t u s in g h i s i r r e s i s t a b l e charm t o
w in c h o ic e governm ent p o s i t i o n s . I n 1 8 6 7 , a t th e age o f
t w e n t y - f o u r , he in d u c e d C o n g ress and t h e War D ep a rtm en t t o
ap p ro v e th e 4 0 th P a r a l l e l S u rv e y a n d , th r o u g h p e r s o n a l
e f f o r t s , s e c u r e d th e d i r e c t o r s h i p f o r h i m s e l f . I n b id d in g
him a d ie u S e c r e t a r y o f War S ta n to n s a i d : "How, M r. K in g ,
th e s o o n e r you g e t o u t o f W a sh in g to n t h e b e t t e r — you a r e
e n t i r e l y to o young t o b e s e e n a b o u t tow n w ith t h i s a p ­
p o in tm e n t i n y o u r p o c k e t—t h e r e a r e f o u r m a jo r - g e n e r a ls
who w ant y o u r p l a c e . " Q uoted i n W ilk in s , K in g , p . 9 6 .
S m a ll w onder t h a t e v e n H enry Adams s to o d i n awe o f K in g .
th e co u n try ."* * ^
Now m e ssa g e s e q u a l l y s a t u r a t e d w ith p r a i s e
e n g u lf e d th e W hite H o u se.
D u rin g th e f i r s t t h r e e m onths o f
1879 Hayes h e a r d fro m s t a t e g e o l o g i s t s , th e p r e s i d e n t s and
f a c u l t i e s o f m a jo r s c i e n t i f i c s c h o o l s , members o f th e N a tio n a l
Academy, a s w e l l a s g e o l o g i s t s f o r m e r ly em ployed b y th e
d e f u n c t s u r v e y s , n o t a b l y G rove K a r l G i l b e r t ( W h e e l e r 's ) ,
C la re n c e Edward D u tto n ( P o w e l l 's ) a n d , o f c o u r s e , P o w e ll
h im s e lf .
The o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t name m is s in g b e lo n g e d t o
Jam es D w ight D ana, K in g 's o ld m e n to r a t Y ale and th e
v e n e ra b le e d i t o r o f S i l l i m a n 's J o u r n a l , who f e l t c o n s t r a i n e d
t o l i m i t h im s e lf t o a c o u r s e o f b e n e v o le n t n e u t r a l i t y . 2*8
G iven t h i s e m b a rra ssm e n t o f r i c h e s th e v o ic e o f th e Cosmos
C lub was h a r d ly n e c e s s a r y t o s e c u r e K in g 's a p p o in tm e n t.
Even th o u g h t a l k o f th e C l u b 's o m n ip o ten ce i n
g o v e m m e n t-s c ie n c e may h av e b ee n p r e m a tu r e , th e m em bership
was n o t i n d i f f e r e n t t o p o l i t i c s .
N or s h o u ld i t be assum ed
t h a t i n g r e a t w ays an d s m a ll th e g o v ern m en t d id n o t have a
b e a r in g on i t s e a r l y d e v e lo p m e n t.
The p r a c t i c e o f a d m ittin g
fem ale g u e s ts t o th e C lub room s b e g a n w ith th e c e l e b r a t i o n
o f P r e s i d e n t G a r f i e l d 's i n a u g u r a t i o n , show ing t h a t th e C lub
^ W i l l i a m Dean H o w ells t o R u th e r f o r d B. H ay e s, and
E l i n o r H o w ells t o L ucy Webb H ay e s, J a n u a r y 4 , 1 8 7 9 , H ayes
P a p e r s , R u th e r f o r d B. H ayes L i b r a r y , h e r f a t h e r ' s l e t t e r i s
r e p r i n t e d i n M ild re d H o w ells ( e d . ) , L if e i n L e t t e r s o f
W illia m Dean H o w ells (G ard en C i t y , N . V . , l 9 2 s ) , j£, 2 6 1 -2 6 2 .
J a m e s D w ight Dana t o C la re n c e K in g , J a n u a r y 7 ,
1 8 7 9 , Hayes P a p e r s , R u th e r f o r d B. H ayes L i b r a r y ; th e b a t t l e
o f th e t e s t i m o n i a l s i s d e s c r ib e d i n M anning, G overnm ent i n
S c ie n c e , p p . 5 6 -5 8 .
145
was s u s c e p t i b l e t o p o l i t i c a l i n f e c t i o n . T h i s m ean t f o r ­
s a k in g a h a llo w e d t r a d i t i o n , f o r i t h a d lo n g b e e n f e l t t h a t
r e l a x i n g th e p r o h i b i t i o n s a g a i n s t women w ould be a n open
in v ita tio n to decadence.
"We may, i n t h e s p i r i t o f s c i e n t i f i c
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , " avowed B i l l i n g s , " s e c u r e good s e a t s t o
i n s p e c t th e l a t e s t p a t t e r n s o f s k i r t - d a n c i n g an d h ig h - k ic k i n g
i n t h e p l a c e s w here th e s e a r e so m e th in g o f a s p e c i a l t y , b u t
we d o n 't w an t them a t home.
Ye t t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n ta g io n s
o f W a sh in g to n c a u se d a lo w e rin g o f r e s i s t a n c e .
M o reo v er i t
was b e l i e v e d t h a t th e C lub s h o u ld e v e n t u a l l y r e c i p r o c a t e by
e x e r t i n g in f lu e n c e i n g o v ern m e n t.
Simon Newcomb l e f t no
d o u b t " t h a t th e b r in g in g i n t o c l o s e r to u c h o f th e acad em ic
and th e p o l i t i c a l s i d e s o f W ash in g to n s h o u ld be one o f o u r
g re a t o b je c ts ." ^
A n o th e r o b j e c t i v e , an d one m o st s e r i o u s l y p u rs u e d ,
was s a f e g u a r d in g t h e C lub*s e x c l u s i v e n e s s .
A f t e r th e g e n e r a l
i n v i t a t i o n t o th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t y , m em bership i n th e
Cosmos C lub was l i m i t e d by th e b y -la w s t o two h u n d re d .
When
v a c a n c ie s o c c u r r e d th e s e c r e t a r y and t r e a s u r e r n o t i f i e d th e
com m ittee on a d m is s io n s w h ic h , i n t u r n , w ould r e c e i v e
^^Denys P . M yers, 'Women and t h e C lu b ," Cosmos C lub
B u l l e t i n , X I ( O c to b e r , 1 9 5 8 ), 2 - 5 .
50J . S . B i l l i n g s . "F o u r H u n d re d th M e e tin g ," B u l l e t i n
o f th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y o f W a sh in g to n , X II ( 1 8 9 i - i k 9 4 ) ,
5 5 0 -5 5 1 .
^N ew com b, The T w e n ty -F ifth A n n iv e r s a r y o f th e Cosmos
C lu b , p . 3 4 .
146
p r o p o s a ls f o r new m em bers.
The c a n d i d a t e s ' names w ere th e n
p o s te d on a c e n t r a l b u l l e t i n b o a rd f o r f i f t e e n d a y s d u r in g
w h ic h reco m m en d atio n s w ere i n v i t e d and th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s
c a r e f u l l y gone o v e r .
The co m m ittee num bered t e n , and o n ly
tw o n e g a tiv e b a l l o t s w ere n e c e s s a r y f o r r e j e c t i o n .
C a n d i­
d a t e s who s u r v iv e d t h i s t e s t w ere f i n a l l y p a s s e d upon b y th e
C lu b , and th o s e g e t t i n g a t w o - t h i r d s m a j o r i t y w ere a c c e p te d ,
w h ile th o s e who w ere v o te d down c o u ld n o t be re n o m in a te d
f o r tw e lv e m o n th s .
None o f th e o t h e r g ro u p s h ad m em bership
p o l i c i e s t h a t w ere c o m p arab ly s t r i c t , b u t l i k e th e r e s t ,
t h e Cosmos C l u b 's e x c lu s iv e n e s s d i d n o t p e r t a i n t o m a t e r i a l
s ta tu s .
Newcomb.
"We have n e v e r aim ed a t s o c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n , " s a i d
"We i n v i t e no one t o o u r m id s t b e c a u s e he i s
p ro m in e n t i n th e ey e o f th e p u b l i c . "
52
I t i s n o te w o rth y t h a t t h e Cosmos C lub was a b le t o
re m a in in e x p e n s iv e w ith o u t im p ed in g i t s s te a d y p r o g r e s s .
A
*
tw e n ty d o l l a r a d m is s io n fe e an d a n n u a l d u e s s e t a t a m odest
tw e n ty d o l l a r s f o r r e s i d e n t s an d t e n d o l l a r s f o r n o n - r e s i d e n t s
w ere th e o n ly m em bership c o s t s .
U n d e rs ta n d a b ly th e o p e r a tin g
b u d g e t was alw ay s s m a ll, and b e f o r e th e C lub was two weeks
o ld i t became n e c e s s a r y t o r e q u e s t im m ed iate paym ent o f
i n d i v i d u a l c h a rg e s i n o r d e r t o m eet e x p e n s e s .
L a t e r on th e
o f f i c e r s w ere o b lig e d t o s o l i c i t v o lu n ta r y s u b s c r i p t i o n s t o
f in a n c e s p e c i a l e v e n t s .
5^I b id . , p . 3Zf
Even s o , th e u n w r i tte n r u l e o f
147
k e e p in g a s s e s s m e n ts t o a minimum was h e ld i n v i o l a t e .
In
1881— th e y e a r W illia m H. H ow gate, one o f i t s f o u n d e r s , was
c h a rg e d w ith e m b e z z lin g o v e r $ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 fro m th e S ig n a l S e r v ic e
D isb u rse m e n t O f f i c e —th e b o a rd o f management p r o u d ly n o te d
t h a t th e Cosmos C lub was f a r more r e a s o n a b le th a n s i m i l a r
o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n E n g lan d and A m e ric a .
A t th e same tim e i t
was becom ing s e c u r e l y e s t a b l i s h e d and p la n s w ere b e in g l a i d
f o r th e move t o a much g r a n d e r c lu b h o u s e .
F o r f i v e y e a r s th e Club r e n t e d cram ped b u t te m p o ra ry
q u a r t e r s , th e C o rc o ra n B u ild in g a t F i f t e e n t h S t r e e t and
P e n n s y lv a n ia A venue, b e f o r e f i n d i n g a p erm a n en t s i t e on th e
o t h e r s id e o f th e T r e a s u r y D e p a rtm e n t.
Number 23 L a f a y e t t e
S q u are s to o d among th e m ost fam ous la n d m ark s i n w h at was
i n d i s p u t a b l y th e m ost i l l u s t r i o u s r e s i d e n t i a l s e c t i o n i n th e
c ity .
M o reo v e r, 1 8 8 3 , when th e C lub to o k up i t s new r e s i ­
d e n c e , was th e h eyday o f w hat h ad c u s to m a r ily b e e n known a s
th e ’'P r e s i d e n t ’s P a r k ."
The o f f i c i a l name was b e sto w e d i n
1 8 7 8 , th e same y e a r L a f a y e tte S q u are a c q u ir e d i t s l o n g e s t
r e s i d e n t , H enry Adams.
D u rin g th e n e x t f o r t y y e a r s Adams
l i v e d a b lo c k w e st o f th e C lu b , o p p o s ite th e E x e c u tiv e
53Jo h n S . B i l l i n g s t o S p e n c e r F . B a ir d , Decem ber 3 ,
1 8 7 8 , B a ir d P e r s o n a l P a p e r s , S I A r c h iv e s ; Simon Newcomb t o
Jo h n S . B i l l i n g s , Decem ber 3 , 1 8 8 3 , Newcomb P a p e r s , Box S , LC;
Edward S . H olden t o W illia m J . R h e e s, A u g u st 3 0 , 1 8 7 9 , R hees
C o l l e c t i o n , RH 3 3 2 3 , Box 4 8 , H enry E . H u n tin g to n L i b r a r y ;
The T w e n ty - F ifth A n n iv e r s a ry o f th e Cosmos C lu b , p . 8 9 ; f o r
d e t a i l s a b o u t H ow gate' s e sc a p a d e s e e J o s e p h M. H awes, "The
S ig n a l C orps and I t s W eath er S e r v i c e , 1 8 7 0 -1 8 9 0 ,” M i l i t a r y
A f f a i r s , XXX (Summer, 1 9 6 6 ), 7 4 ; an d D onald R . W h itn a h , A
H is to r y o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s W eath er B u rea u (U rb a n a , I l l T ,
19TO 7 p . W .
-----------------------------------
M ansio n i n th e d o u b le h o u se H enry H. R ic h a rd s o n h ad d e s ig n e d
s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e Adamses and t h e Jo h n H ay s.
A t once t h i s
Romanesque m a s te r p ie c e became a c e l e b r a t e d s a lo n p r e s id e d
o v e r b y th e " F iv e o f H e a r ts ” C its o c c u p a n ts p lu s th e i r r e ­
p r e s s i b l e C la re n c e K in g ) , f u r t h e r e n r i c h i n g th e n e ig h b o r ­
h o o d ^ le g e n d a r y q u a l i t y i n t h i s , i t s g o ld e n a g e .
The
d w e llin g p l a c e s a d j a c e n t t o Adams, and f la n k in g th e S q u a re ,
w ere i n h a b i t e d a s th e y alw ay s h a d b e e n , b y c a b in e t m em bers,
c o n g re ssm e n , n a v a l and m i l i t a r y h e r o e s , and d i s t i n g u i s h e d
p riv a te c itiz e n s .
E x c e p t f o r a row o f s t a t e l y elm s th e
r e m a in in g s i d e , t o th e s o u th , w as b a r e .
T h is gave C lub
members a n a lm o s t u n im p a ire d v iew o f th e n a t i o n ’ s p o l i t i c a l
h e a d q u a r te r s a n d , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , a llo w e d th e P r e s i d e n t t o
c2t
lo o k b a c k a t one o f A m erica* s fo re m o s t i n t e l l e c t u a l c e n t e r s . ^
Soon th e Cosmos Club on L a f a y e tte S q u are tu r n e d i n t o
th e common m e e tin g s i t e f o r W a sh in g to n ’ s p r o f e s s i o n a l
s o c ie tie s .
I n 1886 th e T ay lo e p r o p e r t y im m e d ia te ly n e x t d o o r
was p u rc h a s e d and c o n v e rte d i n t o an a sse m b ly h a l l n o t o n ly
f o r th e C lub b u t o t h e r s o c i e t i e s a s w e l l .
By r e n t i n g t o
th e s e g ro u p s th e Cosmos showed t h a t w h ile th e r e w ere fu n d a ­
m e n ta l d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n s o c i e t i e s f o r th e d is s e m in a tio n
5**Hal M. S m ith t " H i s t o r i c W ash in g to n H om es," R ecords
o f th e C olum bia H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , X I (W ash in g to n , D7C.,
1 9 o S ), im is- 2 6 h t G i s t B l a i r , ^ a t 'a y e t t e S q u a r e ,” i b i d . . XXVIII
(W a s h in g to n , D .C . 1 9 2 6 ), 1 3 3 -1 7 3 ; S p a u ld in g , Cosmos C lu b , p p .
2 -1 0 ; E r n e s t S a m u e ls, H enry Adams: The M iddle Y ea rs ((Cam bridge.
M a s s ., 1 9 5 8 ), p p . 143- l8 t) ; T y le r D e n n e tt. Jo h n Hay; From
P o e tr y t o P o l i t i c s (New Y ork, 1 9 3 3 ), p p . 1 5 6 -1 6 7 .
149
o f l e a r n i n g and a s o c i a l c l u b , m u tu al a s s i s t a n c e was d e s i r a b l e .
The income from i t s t e n a n t s e n a b le d th e C lub t o ex p an d i t s
f a c i l i t i e s w ith o u t r a i s i n g d u e s , and th ro u g h th e C lu b ’s
s ta n d in g i n v i t a t i o n s th e s o c i e t i e s w ere s p a r e d th e ex p e n se
o f s e p a r a te q u a r t e r s .
From th e tim e o f th e C l u b 's i n c e p t i o n
i t was in te n d e d t h a t l o c a l s o c i e t i e s w h ich w ere " p u r e ly
l i t e r a r y , a r t i s t i c , o r s c i e n t i f i c and i n no way c o n c e rn e d
w ith th e r e g u l a t i o n o f b u s in e s s o r co m m ercial a f f a i r s " be
p e r m it te d u se o f th e a ssem b ly h a l l .
The m a jo r p r e r e q u i s i t e s
( b e s id e s dem anding t h a t g u e s ts u se a s e p a r a t e e n t r a n c e ) w as
t h a t th e s o c i e t y i n q u e s tio n have a t l e a s t f o r t y - f i v e members
from th e Cosmos C lub r o s t e r , and t h a t n o fe w e r th a n tw e n ty
o f th e s e men r e g u l a r l y a t t e n d i t s m e e tin g s .
55
T h is was
h a r d ly a n im pedim ent s in c e d u a l m em bership w as u s u a l , m ost
o f th e s u p e r i o r g overnm ent s c i e n t i s t s d e r i v i n g t h e i r s o c i a l
s u s te n a n c e fro m th e Cosmos C lu b .
I f J o s e p h H en ry ’s s p i r i t h o v e re d o v e r th e P h ilo s o p h ­
i c a l S o c ie ty th e Cosmos C lub was p e r s o n i f i e d b y P o w e ll, and
i t s r o l e a s c a t a l y t i c a g e n t i n m o ld in g th e com m unity o f
govern m en t s c i e n t i s t s b esp o k e h i s image o f th e C lu b ’s im­
p o r ta n c e .
A f t e r H en ry ’s d e a t h , when i t became a p p a r e n t t h a t
th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c ie ty w ould n o t a l t e r h i s le g a c y by
c a p i t u l a t i n g t o s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , a num ber o f p a r t i c u l a r i z e d
5^The T w e n ty - F ifth A n n iv e r s a r y , p p . 1 4 2 -1 5 5 ; K ip
R o s s . "The F i r s t T w en ty -F iv e Y e a r s ,1' cosmos C lub B u l l e t i n ,
X3X (May, 1 9 6 6 ), 4 .
150
g ro u p s came i n t o b e i n g .
These o r g a n iz a tio n s w ere a t once
c a u s e s and e f f e c t s o f th e b ro a d e n in g i n f l u e n c e s o f s c ie n c e i n
th e f e d e r a l g o v e rn m e n t, and t h e i r n a s c e n t d ev e lo p m e n t
p a r a l l e l e d th e e a r l y h i s t o r i e s o f r e l a t e d p u b l i c a g e n c i e s .
"The moment we exam ine c l o s e l y o u r own n a t i o n a l a d m in is ­
t r a t i o n , ” o b s e rv e d a c o n t r i b u t o r t o th e P o p u la r S c ie n c e
M o n th ly , "we f i n d an am azing d ev elo p m en t i n c e r t a i n l i n e s o f
s c i e n t i f i c in d u s try .
N e a rly e v e r y e x e c u tiv e d e p a rtm e n t e i t h e r
h a s s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r t s r e g u l a r l y c o n n e c te d w i t h i t , o r em ploys
su c h e x p e r t s o c c a s i o n a l l y f o r th e c o n d u c t o f im p o r ta n t i n ­
v e s t i g a t i o n s . ” '*^
T h is t r e n d r e c e iv e d i t s m o st d r a m a tic
t h r u s t from th e G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y , b u t t h e r e w ere many o t h e r
b u re a u s and a g e n c ie s a b u n d a n tly s t a f f e d b y s c i e n t i s t s .
B etw een E n g ra v in g and P r i n t i n g , w h ic h p e r i o d i c a l l y o f f e r e d
em ploym ent, and th e C o a st and G e o d e tic S u rv e y , p r o b a b ly th e
m ost s c i e n t i f i c i n c h a r a c t e r , w ere th e O rdnance C o rp s ,
W eath er S e r v i c e , L ig h th o u s e B o ard , D ep artm en t o f A g r i c u l t u r e ,
F i s h C om m ission, th e P a t e n t O f f ic e , W eig h ts and M e a s u re s,
m i l i t a r y m e d ic a l c o r p s , and th e N av al O b s e r v a to ry .
The
e m e rg in g p r o f e s s i o n a l s o c i e t i e s h e ig h te n e d th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
o f t h e s e men a s p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e i r s e p a r a t e s p e c i a l t i e s ,
w h ile a t th e Cosmos Club th e y fo u n d a s o c i a l a tm o sp h ere t h a t
deepened a p p r e c ia tio n o f a l l d i s c i p l i n e s .
The Cosmos C lub
was t h e r e f o r e c r u c i a l t o a v e r t i n g f r a g m e n ta tio n w i t h i n th e
5 % . w. C la r k e , " S c ie n c e i n P o l i t i c s , ” P o p u la r
S c ie n c e M o n th ly , XXVI (M arch, 1 8 8 5 ), 5 7 7 .
151
s c i e n t i f i c co rp s.
In d e e d , a s t h e e p ito m y o f s y n t h e s i s , i t
was p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r k e e p in g a b a la n c e b etw e en
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and com m unity.
T h is f u n c t i o n w as c o n s i s t e n t
w ith P o w e ll’ s w hole c a r e e r w h ic h was l e s s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f o r
a b s t r a c t th o u g h t o r o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h th a n f o r a c h ie v in g
harm ony and o r d e r .
H is f o r t e was r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , c a u s in g
some c o lle a g u e s t o c o m p la in t h a t he ”w a n ts t o c o r r a l e v e r y ­
b o d y .” ^
Y et few w ould g a in s a y h i s f l a i r f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n ,
o r d en y t h a t i n c a r r y i n g o u t h i s e x p a n s iv e schem es he w en t
from s t r e n g t h t o s t r e n g t h — r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e th e r he was
c o d if y in g I n d ia n la n g u a g e s , c o n s o l i d a t i n g sy s te m s o f map
c o l o r a t i o n , u n if y in g w e s te r n s u r v e y s , o r d ra w in g t o g e t h e r
th e members o f s c i e n t i f i c s o c i e t i e s .
The ’’e x p e rim e n t” w h ic h P o w e ll h o ped w o u ld ”a t l e a s t
g e t a f a i r t r i a l ”'*® h ad b r o u g h t f o r t h g r a t i f y i n g r e s u l t s .
As a s o c i a l body i t s u b t l y a l l i e d c o n g lo m e ra te s p e c i a l i s t s ;
i t s e f f e c t i n im p ro v in g i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s was su c h
t h a t one c o u ld f i n d "much i n th e a tm o sp h e re o f W ash in g to n
. . . t o i n s p i r e and e n c o u ra g e u s e f u l a c t i v i t i e s ” ; 59 and by
u n if y in g th e C a p i t a l C i t y 's men o f s c ie n c e i t h e lp e d i n ­
c r e a s e t h e i r p o te n c y .
Of c o u r s e t h e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts d i d n o t
5 7 M b e rt W illia m s , J r . t o G eorge F . B e c k e r, December
3 , 1 8 8 3 , B e c k e r P a p e r s , LC.
S Spow ell and H o ld en t o H olm es, November 18- 1 8 7 8 ,
H olm es, ’’Random R e c o r d s ,” N a ti o n a l C o l l e c t i o n o f F in e A r ts
L ib ra ry , S I.
^ T h o m as C. M e n d e n h a ll, A u to b io g r a p h ic a l N o te s , V,
1 5 1 -1 5 2 , M en d en h all P a p e r s , A m erican I n s t i t u t e o f P h y s ic s .
152
ta k e p la c e i n a vacuum , b u t w ere in te rw o v e n w ith th e l a r g e r
p a t t e r n o f l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y p r o f e s s i o n a l an d i n s t i ­
t u t i o n a l g ro w th .
P a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e Cosmos C lub
w as th e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f th e s u r v e y s .
T h is triu m p h in f u s e d
g o v ern m en t s c i e n t i s t s w ith a s e lf - a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i r own
im p o rta n c e i n o f f i c i a l W a sh in g to n , and i t a l s o f o s t e r e d a
g ro u p c o n s c io u s n e s s c o n g ru e n t w ith th e them e o f th e Cosmos
C lu b .^
Thus th e c r e a t i o n o f th e C lub an d th e e s ta b li s h m e n t
o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l S u rv ey h ad a r e c i p r o c a l
b e a r i n g on one a n o t h e r .
The t h i r d p ie c e o f t h i s m o sa ic
w h ich to o k sh ap e i n 1878-79 w as th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f
W a sh in g to n , a d i f f e r e n t k in d o f " e x p e r im e n t," b u t a g a in one
w h ich q u ic k ly p ro d u c e d h ap p y c o n s e q u e n c e s .
GQGoetzmann, E x p lo r a ti o n an d E m p ire , p . 579; an
i l l u m i n a t i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f th e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y t r e n d
to w a rd p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n and g ro u p i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s i n
R o b e rt W ieb e, The S e a rc h f o r O rd e r, 1877 -1 9 2 0 (New Y ork,
1 9 6 7 ), p p . l l l ’=TS2"
CHAPTER V
"THE MINUTE SEED"
A c u l t i v a t e d W a s h in g to n ia n , r e a d in g th e E v en in g S t a r
o f F e b r u a r y 7 , 1 8 7 9 , w ould have b e e n b o th p le a s e d and c u r io u s
t o l e a r n t h a t h i s c i t y was a b o u t t o become th e home o f a new
s c i e n t i f i c b o d y , t h e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n .
I t s o b j e c t o f a t t e n t i o n was d e f in e d a s "A m erican a r c h e o lo g y " ;
i t s p u rp o se w o u ld be t o " p ro m o te , s tu d y , and d i f f u s e know l­
edge a b o u t th e s u b j e c t . "
An o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e e tin g h ad b e e n
c a l l e d f o r th e f o llo w in g Monday i n th e R egentd ’ Room o f th e
S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n , and a l l th o s e w i l l i n g t o j o i n su c h
an a s s o c i a t i o n w ere i n v i t e d t o a t t e n d .
T h is announcem ent
ended w ith th e nam es o f t h r e e v a lu a b le c o n t r i b u t o r s t o th e
f o r m a tio n o f W ash in g to n * s i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity: C o lo n e l
G a r r ic k M a lle r y , P r o f e s s o r O tis T. M ason, and D r. J o s e p h
M e re d ith T o n e r. *•
M a lle r y w ould alw a y s lo o k b a c k upon 1879 a s a s i g ­
n if ic a n t p o in t in h is l i f e .
T h a t was when he h e lp e d fo u n d
th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c i e t y , and i t was th e n t h a t he m u s te re d
o u t o f th e r e g u l a r army an d a c c e p te d a p o s i t i o n i n P o w e ll's
^-W ashington E v e n in g S t a r , F e b ru a ry 7 , 1879.
153
154
r e c e n t l y c r e a t e d B ureau o f E th n o lo g y .
The C o lo n e l h ad n o t
s o u g h t r e t i r e m e n t , r a t h e r i t came a s th e r e s u l t o f wounds
s u f f e r e d i n th e C i v i l War w h ich e v e n t u a l l y r e n d e r e d him
u n f it fo r s e rv ic e .
I n f a c t , i t i s r e a s o n a b le t o su p p o se
t h a t h a d h i s d is c h a r g e n o t b ee n f o r c e d he w ould have re m a in e d
a c a r e e r o f f i c e r , f o r he t h r i v e d i n th e m i l i t a r y .
When F o r t
S u m ter f e l l M a lle r y was a f a s t r i s i n g P h i l a d e l p h i a a t t o r n e y .
He h ad g r a d u a te d fro m Y ale and th e n ta k e n h i s law d e g re e a t
th e U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia .
B a r e ly t h i r t y a t th e w a r ’ s
o u tb r e a k , he w as a l r e a d y p ro s p e ro u s and g e n e r a l l y w e ll th o u g h t
o f , an d h i s f u t u r e seem ed g l o r i o u s .
T hese c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
d e t e r r e d him n o t a w h it; he l i t e r a l l y d a sh e d t o th e c o l o r s
an d v o lu n te e r e d a s a p r i v a t e .
I n Ju n e 1861 he w as made a
c a p t a i n o f i n f a n t r y i n th e 7 1 s t P e n n s y lv a n ia , and o v e r th e
c o u r s e o f th e n e x t f o u r y e a r s r o s e t o b r e v e t - c o l o n e l .
T here
f o llo w e d d u ty w i t h th e S ig n a l S e r v ic e and th e G e o g ra p h ic a l
an d G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y o f th e Rocky M o u n tain R eg io n b e f o r e he
a
f i n a l l y succum bed t o l i n g e r i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s .
The arm y ’s l o s s soon p ro v e d t o be a g a in f o r s c i e n c e .
E ven b e f o r e o f f i c i a l l y la u n c h in g a n o th e r c a r e e r M a lle r y had
b eg u n s tu d y in g I n d ia n c u l t u r e and p u b lis h in g h i s f i n d i n g s .
^ F o r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f M a lle r y by c o n te m p o r a r ie s see
R o b e rt F l e t c h e r , B r ie f Memo i r s o f C o lo n e l G a r r ic k M a lle r y ,
U .S .A ., Who D ied O c to b e r 247* 1 8 ^ (W a sh in g to n , P .O ., 18^5$;
J o h n W esley P o w e ll, " G a r r ic k M a lle r y ," J o h n s o n ’s U n iv e r s a l
_ C y c lo p a e d ia , e d . C h a rle s K e n d a ll Adams, V C1 ^ 9 /0 , 4 ^ 6 ;
A n n u al Repor t o f th e B oard o f R e g e n ts o f th e Smi t h s o n x an I n ­
s t i t u t i o n f o r the Y ear E n d in g Ju n e 30, 1895 (W a sh in g to n , b . C . ,
r 5TO ^pp'^ ?^-3?;,----------------* ------------ 1--------
155
A c c o rd in g ly , when he jo in e d th e B u re a u , h i s n o v i t i a t e was
b e h in d him and he was p r e p a r e d t o t u r n h i s a t t e n t i o n t o
p ro b lem s o f fu n d a m e n ta l im p o r ta n c e .
M a lle r y w a n te d t o know
how I n d ia n s a c q u ir e d and t r a n s m i t t e d i d e a s .
seem ed t o l i e
The an sw er
i n a th o ro u g h u n d e r s ta n d in g o f s i g n la n g u a g e
and p ic to g r a p h y .
He t h e r e f o r e u n d e r to o k th e " c o l l e c t i o n
and c o l l a t i o n " o f a l l sy m b o ls, g e s t u r e s , and f a c i a l e x A
p r e s s io n s t h a t w ere la n g u a g e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . 0
A id ed by an
a s s o r tm e n t o f c a v a l r y o f f i c e r s , m i s s i o n a r i e s , d o c t o r s , la n d
o f f i c i a l s , and I n d ia n a g e n ts s c a t t e r e d o v e r th e w e s te r n
p a r t s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s an d Canada who f u r n is h e d d e s c r i p ­
t i v e l i s t s o f " s i g n t a l k , " he p ro d u c e d s e v e r a l co m p reh en siv e
m onographs t h a t w ere p u b lis h e d b y th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i ­
tu tio n .
These r e p o r t s r a n k w i t h th e n o ta b le a c co m p lish m e n ts
o f th e B u r e a u 's e a r l y p e r i o d .
M a lle r y Ts w ork co n v ey s an a f f i n i t y f o r N o rth A m erican
n a t i v e s show ing why he f e l t a t home among th e can y o n s and
p r a i r i e s o f th e w e s t.
Even s o , i n c e r t a i n q u a r t e r s h i s
m o tiv e s w ere s u s p e c t , and i t was h e l d t h a t , a s a n e t h n o l o ­
g i s t , he was e x p l o i t i n g th e I n d ia n i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t h i s
own j o b .
Some o f h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s who w ere en g ag ed i n
" c i v i l i z i n g " th e r e d man c o n te n d e d t h a t e t h n o l o g i s t s h ad no
r e a l sym pathy f o r I n d i a n s , and t h a t th e y w an ted t o k eep them
^ G a r r ic k M a lle r y t o R ic h a rd H. P r a t t , O c to b e r 2 9 ,
1 8 7 9 , C o rre sp o n d e n c e o f th e B u reau o f E th n o lo g y , O f f ic e o f
A n th ro p o lo g y A r c h iv e s , S I .
156
s e g r e g a te d on r e s e r v a t i o n s and h o ld b a c k I n d ia n advancem ent
s o th e y c o u ld be s t u d i e d i n t h e i r a b o r i g i n a l s t a t e .
C a p ta in
P r a t t , who fo u n d ed th e C a r l i s l e I n d ia n S c h o o l i n th e same
y e a r t h a t th e B ureau o f E th n o lo g y was e s t a b l i s h e d , i n s i s t e d
t h a t th e e d u c a tio n o f I n d ia n s c o u ld p ro c e e d o n ly a f t e r th e y
h a s b e e n " i s o l a t e d fro m t h e i r s a v a g e r y ."
H ow ever, o b s t a c l e s
w ere c o n s t a n t l y b e in g s tre w n i n th e p a th o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n
b y e t h n o l o g i s t s and t h e i r i l k a t th e B u reau o f I n d ia n A f f a i r s .
P r a t t saw i n th e "B u reau o lig a r c h y " an i n s i d i o u s scheme t o
"k e ep th e I n d ia n s from th e o p p o r t u n i t i e s and e n v iro n m e n t o f
c i v i l i z e d l i f e , ” b e c a u s e I n d ia n c i t i z e n s h i p w ould r e n d e r
th e b u re a u s o b s o l e t e .^
I t i s t r u e t h a t a f r e q u e n t l y h e a rd j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r
th e B u reau o f E th n o lo g y was t h a t i t e x i s t e d t o g a t h e r d a ta
a b o u t c u l t u r e s t h a t w ere r a p i d l y d i s a p p e a r in g , th u s le a v in g
p r e c io u s l i t t l e
tim e i n w hich t o c a r r y o u t m e a n in g fu l
e t h n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . Y et many o f th o s e who made t h i s argum ent
w ere a l s o o u tsp o k e n cham pions o f j u s t i c e f o r th e I n d ia n .
When Jo h n W esley P o w e ll, on b e h a l f o f th e N a tio n a l Academy
o f S c ie n c e s , a p p e a le d f o r governm ent s u p p o r t f o r e th n o lo g y ,
he u se d th e o p p o r tu n ity t o c a l l f o r a more e n lig h te n e d
a p p ro a c h t o th e " I n d ia n p ro b le m ."
"The b lu n d e r s we have made
**Richard H. P r a t t t o F ra n k H. C u s h in g , Decem ber 2 7 ,
1 8 8 1 , C u sh in g P a p e r s , S o u th w est Museum L i b r a r y .
^ R ic h a rd H enry P r a t t , B a tt l e f i e l d and C la ssro o m :
F o u r D ecades W ith th e A m erican I n d ia n , 1867-19047 e d . R o b e rt
M. U tle y (New N aven, C o n n ., i m ) 7 2 9 3 . ------------
157
and th e w rongs we have i n f l i c t e d upon th e I n d ia n s , ” he
c h a rg e d , "have b e e n c r u e l and in e x c u s a b le , e x c e p t on th e
g ro u n d o f o u r ig n o ra n c e ." * ’
P o w e ll’s h u m a n ita r ia n v ie w s —
and l a c k o f s c i e n t i f i c n e u t r a l i t y —w ere s h a r e d b y M a lle r y .
He w ro te c o m p a s s io n a te ly a b o u t I n d i a n s , and d e s i r e d th e
im m ediate a s s i m i l a t i o n o f a " r a c e e n t r u s t e d t o o u r n a t i o n a l
h o n o r, w h ich may r e a d i l y an d w ith no lo n g d e l a y , become a
v a lu a b le e le m e n t i n o u r m o tle y co m m u n ity ."^
M a lle r y ’ s B u rea u r e p o r t s e x h i b i t th e c r e a t i v e
b r i l l i a n c e o f an a c t i v e m ind, th e r e b y h e l p in g t o e x p l a i n why
he was so h ig h ly e ste e m e d b y W a s h in g to n 's i n t e l l e c t u a l
com m unity.
The C o lo n e l was a l s o a man o f p e r s o n a l ch arm .
He p o s s e s s e d a k e e n s e n s e o f humor and was a n e n t e r t a i n i n g
r a c o n t e u r , q u a l i t i e s t h a t made him welcome i n th e m ost
c u l t i v a t e d L a f a y e tte S q u are s a l o n s .
R e ce n t a c q u a in ta n c e s
som etim es m is to o k h i s c y n ic is m f o r s u r l i n e s s , y e t M a lle r y
h a d many c l o s e f r i e n d s , and th o s e who w ro te a b o u t him w ere
s t r u c k b y th e f a c t t h a t he n e v e r l o s t h i s m i l i t a r y b e a r i n g .
P e rh a p s i t was h i s s t e r n c o u n te n a n c e , o r h i s e r e c t c a r r i a g e ;
a t any r a t e he was a n im p o sin g i n d i v i d u a l who gave an im­
p r e s s i o n o f ru g g e d m a n lin e s s .
W ith h i s s tr o n g c h i n , f u l l
*\J. W. P o w e ll, R e p o rt on th e M ethods o f S u rv e y in g
th e P u b lic Dom ain, t o th e S e c r e t a r y o f th e i n t e r i o r , a t th e
R e q u e st o f th e N a tio n a l Academy o f S c ie n c e s (W ashxngton,
B.C.” 1 8 7 5 )7 1 ,; T 5 7 ----------- -------------------^ G a r ric k M a lle r y , "The Form er and P r e s e n t Number
o f Our I n d i a n s , " P ro c e e d in g s o f th e A m erican A s s o c ia ti o n
f o r th e Advancemen t o f ’S c ie n c e , OTT '(1378 ). 365.-----------
158
m o u s ta c h e , and p in c e - n e z he had a lo o k o f d e t e r m in a tio n n o t
u n lik e T heodore R o o s e v e l t 's .
D o u b tle s s b o th men w o u ld h av e
found t h i s c o m p a riso n f l a t t e r i n g .
8
The y e a r 1879 h ad s p e c i a l m eaning f o r O tis T u fto n
M ason.
T h at d a te w as i n s c r i b e d on h i s P h .D . d e g re e fro m
C olum bian U n i v e r s i t y i n W a sh in g to n , w here he was d i r e c t o r o f
th e C olum bian P r e p a r a to r y S c h o o l.
A t th e tim e he a l s o w orked
a s a c o l l a b o r a t o r i n e th n o lo g y a t th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n .
I n f a c t , th e S m ith s o n ia n a p p e a r s w ith su c h f r e q u e n c y i n th e
l i f e o f Mason t h a t i t i s im p o s s ib le t o d is c o n n e c t h i s
a c h ie v e m e n ts from t h e f o r m e r 's l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y b u r ­
g e o n in g a c t i v i t y .
E v e r s in c e boyhood Mason had fo u n d th e S m ith s o n ia n
irre s is tib le .
H is e a r l i e s t r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f th e p la c e r a n
b a c k t o a d ay i n th e f i f t i e s w hen, s e e k in g d i v e r s i o n from
h i s f a t h e r ' s fa rm i n n e a rb y V i r g i n i a , he had s t r o l l e d t o
W a sh in g to n f o r a lo o k a ro u n d .
As soon a s he e n t e r e d th e c i t y
he f e l t draw n to w a rd th e S m ith s o n ia n .
N e a rin g th e M a ll he
saw a l a r g e g a t h e r in g o f men and women i n f r o n t o f th e
re d d is h -b ro w n s a n d s to n e b u i l d i n g .
C u r i o s i t y im p e lle d him t o
j o i n them a n d , b e f o r e he knew i t , he was sw ep t u p s t a i r s w ith
th e r e s t o f th e crow d w here J o s e p h H enry was g iv in g a
le c tu re .
O ver th e y e a r s , a s Mason p o n d e re d t h i s e x p e r i e n c e ,
he came t o r e g a r d i t a s a n e v e n t o f e p o c h a l p r o p o r t i o n s —
8Jo h n 6 . B ourke t o F ra n k H. C u sh in g , Decem ber 5 ,
1 8 9 ^ , C u sh in g P a p e r s , S o u th w e st Museum L i b r a r y .
159
and w ith good r e a s o n .
g
never r e a lly l e f t .
F o r once i n s i d e th e S m ith s o n ia n he
T h is i n s t i t u t i o n a l s o had a f o r m a tiv e in f lu e n c e upon
h is s c h o la r ly l i f e .
I t was none o t h e r th a n P r o f e s s o r H enry
who c o n v in c e d him t h a t b i b l i c a l a r c h e o lo g y , t o w h ich Mason
h ad i n i t i a l l y b e e n a t t r a c t e d , was l e s s im p o r ta n t th a n s tu d y ­
in g N o rth A m erican I n d ia n t r i b e s .
Thus th e S m ith s o n ia n
s e t th e c o u rs e o f M aso n 's c a r e e r , and i t was th r o u g h th e
S m ith s o n ia n t h a t Mason r o s e t o em inence a s th e f i r s t r e a l
museum e t h n o l o g i s t i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
B ein g a p r o f e s s i o n ­
a l p la c e d him i n v e r y s e l e c t company; hen ce h i s e x p e r t i s e
was c o n s t a n t l y i n dem and.
I n 187 5 , when th e U .S . N a tio n a l
Museum was b u lg in g w ith e t h n o l o g i c a l s p e c im e n s, Mason was
p r e v a i l e d upon t o c a ta l o g and a r r a n g e th e c o l l e c t i o n .
He
a l s o e d i t e d a n t h r o p o lo g i c a l p a p e rs f o r th e I n s t i t u t i o n .
In
1884 , a f t e r he h ad a l r e a d y made a p r o v i s i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
o f th e c o l l e c t i o n s , Mason w as a p p o in te d c u r a t o r o f th e
D ep artm en t o f E th n o lo g y .
By t h i s c h a in o f e v e n ts th e S m ith ­
s o n ia n a c q u ir e d a n o th e r o u ts t a n d in g a n t h r o p o l o g i s t a n d , i n th e
p r o c e s s , added t o i t s s t a t u r e a s a g r e a t lo c u s o f I n d ia n
s t u d y . 10
^ O tis T. Mason t o W illia m J . R h e e s , J a n u a r y 1 1 , 1904,
R hees C o l l e c t i o n , RH 3 5 6 6 , Box 5 5 , H enry E . H u n tin g to n L i b r a r y .
100 t i s T. N aso n , The P o p u la r S c ie n c e M o n th ly . LXXIV
( J a n u a r y , 1 9 0 9 ), 98; J o u r n a l o r J o s e p h H e n ry , J a n u a r y 1 0 ,
1875 , S I A rc h iv e s ; R e p o rt o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s N a tio n a l
Museum. 1884 (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 8 8 5 ), p p . 5 6 -5 7 .
160
Mason*s p o s i t i o n a t th e N a tio n a l Museum dem anded a l l
th e in g e n u ity and s k i l l he c o u ld m u s te r .
I n th e b e g in n in g
he was c u r a t o r o f a one man d e p a r tm e n t, w h ich m ean t t h a t he
m a in ta in e d s i n g l e h a n d e d ly th e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g c o l l e c t i o n s
made b y th e B ureau o f E th n o lo g y .
N ot o n ly d id he have c h a rg e
o f an enorm ous num ber o f m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s , b u t he h ad t o
assem b le them i n a m anner t h a t w ould b o th e n r i c h t h e Museum’s
p u b l i c d i s p l a y s and make th e c o l l e c t i o n s u s a b le f o r e t h n o l o ­
g i s t s d o in g r e s e a r c h .
I n s h o r t , he h ad t o k eep a n ey e on th e
Museum’s r o l e in p r o f e s s i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n w ith o u t l o s i n g
s i g h t o f i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p u b l i c e n t e r t a i n m e n t and e n 1 ig h te n m en t. ^
So m a s t e r f u l l y d i d t h i s g e n t l e man w ith th e n e a t l y
trim m ed b e a rd p e rfo rm h i s t a s k s t h a t he w as r e c o g n iz e d a s a
l e a d e r i n museum s c i e n c e .
T h is was th e p e r i o d when th e
" N a tio n a l C a b in e t o f C u r i o s i t i e s " w as b e in g tr a n s f o r m e d i n t o
a c o m p re h e n siv e , i n s t r u c t i v e museum, and M ason’ s a s s i s t a n c e
was v i t a l t o t h i s e n d e a v o r.
Mason w as a l s o one o f th e m ost
v e r s i t i l e a n th ro p o lo g is ts o f h is d a y .
A lth o u g h he d e f in e d
th e s c ie n c e b r o a d ly , and c o n s id e r e d e v e r y a s p e c t o f man’ s
11-E rnest I n g e r s o l l , "The M aking o f a M useum," The
C e n tu ry M ag azin e, XXIX ( J a n u a r y , 1 8 8 5 ), 3 5 6 -3 5 7 ; G. Brown
G oode. M useum -'tfistorv an d Museums o f H is to r y (New Y ork,
1 8 8 9 ) , p p . 2 6 3 -2 6 3 ; G oode, who a s A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y o f th e
S m ith s o n ia n was i n c h a rg e o f th e Museum, l a t e r s p e c i f i e d
t h r e e c l a s s e s o f p e o p le f o r whom th e c o l l e c t i o n s h ad t o be
made i n t e r e s t i n g : p r o f e s s i o n a l s d o in g r e s e a r c h , c o l le g e
s t u d e n t s , and c a s u a l v i s i t o r s , R e p o rt o f th e U .S . N a ti o n a l
Museum. 1891 (W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 8 9 2 ), p p . 5 - 6 .
161
n a t u r a l h i s t o r y g r i s t f o r th e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s m i l l , h i s
w r i t i n g n e v e r s u f f e r e d b e c a u s e o f i t . 1^
He p u b lis h e d w id e ly
i n th e f i e l d o f a b o r i g i n a l m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e , and a c c o r d in g
t o a c o l le a g u e , ”h ad th e r a r e g i f t o f p r e s e n t i n g th e s c i e n ­
t i f i c d a t a i n su c h a s t y l e an d m anner t h a t h i s w orks ca n be
r e a d w ith p r o f i t an d p le a s u r e by men an d women o f i n t e l l i g e n c e
i n a l l v o c a t i o n s .* 13
H ere was a t r u l y in d o m ita b le man whose v i t a l i t y and
c a p a c i t y f o r s u s t a i n e d e x e r t i o n b o r d e r e d on t h e p h en o m enal.
M a so n 's a d m ire rs l i k e d t o r e c o u n t how, when he was p a s t
s i x t y , he s u f f e r e d a s t r o k e t h a t p a r a ly z e d h i s r i g h t h a n d .
U n dau n ted by t h i s a f f l i c t i o n he p ro m p tly ta u g h t h im s e lf t o
w r i t e l e f t h an d ed a n d , i n a m a tte r o f w eek s, was a b le t o
resum e h i s n o rm al s c h e d u le o f c o n s t a n t w o rk .
T h is g lim p se
i n t o M aso n 's c h a r a c t e r makes p l a u s i b l e h i s p ro m o tio n t o th e
head C u r a to r s h ip o f A n th ro p o lo g y a t a n age when m ost men a r e
p r e p a r in g f o r r e t i r e m e n t .
A d v an cin g y e a r s h ad l i t t l e
e ffe c t
on h i s a c t i v i t i e s , and f o r o v e r a q u a r t e r c e n tu r y O tis T.
Mason was a b u lw a rk o f t h e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n , j u s t a s
he was o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n .
^ O t i s T. M ason, "What i s A n th ro p o lo g y ? " The
S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s . . . 1882 (W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 8 8 2 ), p p .
2 6 -2 7 ; J e s s e W a lte r F ew kes, " A n th ro p o lo g y ," The S m ith s o n ia n
I n s t i t u t i o n 1 8 4 6 -1 8 9 6 : The H is to r y o f I t s F i r s t H a lf C entur y ,
e d . 6 e o rg e Brown Goode (W a sh in g to n , B .C ., 1 8 0 7 ), p . 7 6 8 .
l^ A le s H r d lic k a , " O tis T u fto n M aso n ," S c ie n c e , n . s . ,
XXVIII (November 2 7 , 1 9 0 8 ), 7 4 7 .
162
U n lik e M a lle r y an d M ason, J o s e p h M e re d ith T o n er had
no d i r e c t c o n n e c tio n w i t h e th n o lo g y , b u t t h i s d i d n o t mean
t h a t h i s name was f o r e i g n t o W a s h in g to n 's i n t e l l e c t u a l s .
Of th e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l fo u n d e r s o f th e S o c i e t y D r. T o n er
u n d o u b te d ly was th e b e s t known.
H is f o r t e was e n c o u ra g in g
m e d ic a l r e s e a r c h , and f o r many y e a r s he h ad f i g u r e d p ro m i­
n e n t l y i n th e advancem ent o f A m erican m e d ic in e .
T h ere was
an e le m e n t o f ir o n y i n t h i s b e c a u s e , e v e n th o u g h he was a
r e s p e c t e d p h y s ic ia n , h i s own w ork was n o t n o ta b ly s i n g u l a r .
" P e rh a p s th e le a d in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h i s p u r s u i t o f
s c i e n t i f i c s u b j e c t s , " a d m itte d a f r i e n d , "w as a s s i d u i t y
r a t h e r th a n o r i g i n a l i t y . " ^ - ^
S uch men a r e alw ay s n e e d e d ;
a f t e r th e C i v i l War T o n e r w as in v a lu a b l e t o th e d ev elo p m en t
o f W a s h in g to n 's s c i e n t i f i c com m unity.
So f ir m was h i s
com mitm ent t o e s t a b l i s h i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s and in d u c e m e n ts f o r
r e s e a r c h t h a t he a llo w e d h i s p r a c t i c e t o d w in d le away t o a
h a n d f u l o f p e r s o n a l a c q u a in t a n c e s , th u s p e r m i t t i n g h im s e lf
t o l a v i s h a l l h i s a t t e n t i o n on t h e p ro m o tio n o f s c i e n t i f i c
and l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t i e s .
H is m ost fam ous e f f o r t a lo n g th e s e l i n e s was th e
T on er L e c tu r e s e r i e s w h ic h he endowed an d th e S m ith s o n ia n
a d m in is t e r e d .
B e g in n in g i n 1873 th e T o n er L e c tu r e s w ere
g iv e n a n n u a lly i n W a sh in g to n , a s o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o
■^Ainsworth R. Spofford, "Memorial of Dr. Joseph
M. Toner," Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian In stitu tio n for the Year Ending June 3b, 1896
(Washington;' 13.(3., I M S y ; " ? .' Z'JSZ------------ ------------ --------
163
m e d ic a l k n o w led g e.
S u b s e q u e n tly th e p a p e rs w ere p u b lis h e d
i n th e S m ith s o n ia n M is c e lla n e o u s C o l l e c t i o n s .
T o n er a l s o
gave a m ed al t o th e s c h o o l w here he e a rn e d an M .D ., th e
J e f f e r s o n M e d ic a l C o lle g e i n P h i l a d e l p h i a .
T h is was aw arded
e a c h y e a r t o th e s t u d e n t whose e x p e rim e n ts and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
showed th e g r e a t e s t o r i g i n a l i t y .
A n o th e r T oner M edal was
one he p r e s e n te d t o G eorgetow n U n i v e r s i t y , w h ich w ent t o th e
g r a d u a te who was m o st p r o f i c i e n t i n s c i e n c e .
T o n e r’s am ple p r e s e n c e c o u ld alw ay s be fo u n d i n th e
v a n g u a rd o f p ro g ram s aim ed a t im p ro v in g p u b l i c h e a l t h and
m e d ic a l l i b r a r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y tfte S u rg e o n G e n e r a l’ s L ib r a r y
and th e l i b r a r y o f th e A m erican M e d ic a l A s s o c i a t i o n .
H is
i n t e r e s t i n p u b l i c h e a l t h stemmed fro m h a v in g s e rv e d i n th e
P i t t s b u r g h c h o le r a e p id e m ic o f 1854 and th e f o llo w in g y e a r
i n N o r f o l k ’s y e llo w f e v e r e p id e m ic .
A f t e r th o s e e x p e r ie n c e s
p r e v e n tiv e m e d ic in e became h i s s p e c i a l t y and he w ro te
num erous a r t i c l e s on c o n ta g io u s d i s e a s e s .
H is c o n c e rn
a b o u t h y g ie n e and m u n ic ip a l s a n i t a t i o n a s m a jo r p ro b lem s
o f m odem i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r s was re m a rk a b ly p r e s c i e n t .
For
e x a m p le , he was a n e a r l y p ro p o n e n t o f summer f r e s h a i r camps
f o r c h i l d r e n o f th e u rb a n p o o r .
T o n e r 's o b s e s s io n w ith
l i b r a r i e s was p e r f e c t l y n a t u r a l c o n s id e r in g t h a t he was one
o f th e c o u n t r y 's g r e a t e s t b i b l i o p h i l e s .
The L i b r a r i a n o f C o n g ress r e c a l l e d t h a t T oner "was
f o r f o r t y y e a r s a f a m i l i a r f ig u r e i n n e a r l y a l l th e b o o k s to r e s ,
book a u c t i o n s , and ju n k sh o p s o f t h i s and o f some o t h e r
c i t i e s , and th o u g h r e p u te d a c lo s e b u y e r , he ex p en d ed l a r g e l y
i n am assin g m e d ic a l, h i s t o r i c a l , and b i o g r a p h i c a l l i t e r 15
a tu re ."
The r e s u l t was a huge p e r s o n a l l i b r a r y o f b o th
p r i n t e d and m a n u s c r ip t m a t e r i a l .
When he b eg a n th e
c o l l e c t i o n h i s m a jo r i n t e r e s t was m e d ic in e , and he a c q u ir e d
b o o k s, p a m p h le ts , and p e r i o d i c a l s d e a l i n g w ith th e m e d ic a l
p ro fe s s io n .
T h is l e d t o a more s p e c i a l i z e d i n t e r e s t i n
A m erican d o c t o r s , w h ich i n t u r n , l e d t o A m erican b io g ra p h y
up t o th e R e v o lu tio n .
The f i n a l s ta g e i n b u i l d i n g h i s l i b r a r y ,
and th e one w h ich consumed h i s l a t e r y e a r s , was g a t h e r in g
e v e r y th in g he c o u ld g e t h o ld o f t h a t h ad b e e n w r i t t e n by and
a b o u t G eorge W a sh in g to n .
Thus he p u t t o g e t h e r a t r e a s u r y o f
W a sh in g to n ia n s w h ich s t i l l h a s v a l u e .
R e g a r d le s s o f w h e th e r
h i s s h e lv e s c o n ta in e d a copy o f th e G o sp e l o f W e a lth he was
th o r o u g h ly im bued w ith th e s p i r i t o f p h il a n t h r o p y .
I n 1878
he o f f e r e d h i s l i b r a r y t o th e d o c t o r s o f C h icag o upon th e
c o n d i t i o n t h a t th e y p ro v id e a f i r e p r o o f s t r u c t u r e i n w h ich t o
house i t .
S i m i l a r p r o p o s i t i o n s h ad a l r e a d y b e e n made t o th e
m e d ic a l p r o f e s s i o n s i n P i t t s b u r g h an d S t . L o u is .
B ut i n
e a c h c a s e r a i s i n g th e money p ro v e d an im p o s s ib le t a s k , so
in 1882 he gave th e e n t i r e c o l l e c t i o n —b y t h i s tim e num ber­
in g tw e n ty -s e v e n th o u s a n d v o lu m es—t o th e L i b r a r y o f
C o n g r e s s .1**
■
L5I b i d . , p . 6 4 0 .
1-6T h o m a s N e v ille B o n n e r, M ed icin e i n C h ic a g o , 18501950; A C h a p te r i n th e S o c ia l a n d ~ S c ie n tl£ ic d ev e lo p m e n t o f
165
The D o c to r ’s te n d e n c y t o be s t o u t d id n o t d e r iv e
from in d o le n c e .
I n a d d i t i o n t o book c o l l e c t i n g he w ro te
c o n tin u o u s ly on a b ro a d ra n g e o f s u b j e c t s ( a l i f e l o n g
b a c h e l o r , h i s f i r s t book was M a te rn a l I n s t i n c t ) .
I t i s h a rd
t o f i n d a W a sh in g to n h o s p i t a l o r an o rp h an ag e d u r in g t h i s
p e r io d t h a t T o n er d id n o t e i t h e r fo u n d o r a s s i s t i n some w ay,
u s u a l l y a s th e p h y s ic ia n o r a member o f th e b o a rd o f
d ire c to rs .
H is a f f i l i a t i o n s w ith l o c a l and n a t i o n a l a s s o c i ­
a t i o n s w ere many, and he was e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t o f th e
M e d ic a l S o c ie ty o f th e D i s t r i c t o f C olum bia (1 8 7 0 ), th e
A m erican M e d ic a l A s s o c ia ti o n (1 8 7 3 ), and th e A m erican P u b lic
H e a lth A s s o c i a t i o n (1 8 7 4 ).
These h o n o rs w ere f i t t i n g re w a rd s
f o r one who was e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y g e n e ro u s w ith b o th h i s tim e
and h i s t a l e n t s .
These t h r e e men w ere a l r e a d y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n l o c a l
i n t e l l e c t u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a t th e tim e th e y c a l l e d f o r th e
e s ta b li s h m e n t o f a n a n t h r o p o lo g i c a l s o c i e t y .
M a lle r y was
a c t i v e i n b o th th e L i t e r a r y and P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t i e s ,
w h ile Mason was a P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty member and T o n er a
b e l l w e t h e r i n th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty .
O nly a few months
b e f o r e th e t h r e e had h e lp e d found th e Cosmos C lu b .
Now th e y
w ere s e e k in g t o expand th e n etw o rk o f s o c i e t i e s t o in c lu d e
th e g ro w in g num ber o f W a sh in g to n ia n s who w ere a n x io u s t o
a C i t y (M ad iso n , W is e ., 1 9 5 7 ), p p . 8 2 -8 3 ; Thomas A n t i s e l l ,
b i o g r a p h i c a l S k e tc h o f J o s e p h M. T o n e r, M .D ., o f W ash in g to n
'(T a n c as£e'r '7~~PaT," T H7~8 ) p'.' 1 5 .' ------------- 1--------- *----------------- 16----
166
d e lv e i n t o th e a b s o rb in g p ro b lem s c o n c e rn in g p r i m i t i v e l i f e
on t h e i r c o n t i n e n t .
Word o f t h i s v e n tu r e p ro v e d s u f f i c i e n t l y e x c i t i n g t o
a t t r a c t tw e n t y - f iv e men t o th e m e e tin g s c h e d u le d f o r F e b ru a ry
1 0 , 18 7 9 .
D r. T o n er w as summoned t o th e c h a i r a s te m p o ra ry
p r e s i d e n t , and u n d e r h i s a p p ro v in g ey e th e o r g a n i z a t i o n w as
f o r m a lly e s t a b l i s h e d .
T h ere was c o n s id e r a b le d i s c u s s i o n
c o n c e rn in g th e b r e a d th o f i n t e r e s t s t o be p u r s u e d .
S h o u ld
th e S o c ie ty em brace a l l t h a t was r e l e v a n t t o th e o r i g i n s ,
n a t u r e , and h i s t o r y o f man i n A m e ric a , o r w ould i t be b e t t e r
t o l i m i t i t s e l f t o A m erican a n t i q u i t i e s ?
The f o u n d e r s
b o ld ly ch o se th e f i r s t a l t e r n a t i v e , th e r e b y d e c id in g n o t t o
c o n f in e t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s t o a r c h e o lo g y a s h ad b e e n o r i g i n a l l y
s u g g e s te d .
W ith t h i s m a t t e r r e s o l v e d , and a f t e r a co m m ittee
o f f o u r had b e e n named t o d r a f t a c o n s t i t u t i o n , th e A n th ro ­
p o l o g i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n a d jo u rn e d u n t i l F e b ru a ry
s e v e n te e n th .^
I t w ould be m is le a d in g t o assume t h a t th e A n th ro p o ­
l o g i c a l S o c ie ty was c r e a t e d s o l e l y by p r a c t i c i n g a n th r o p o lo ­
g i s t s , o r t h a t i t was c o n c e iv e d a s a bona f i d e p r o f e s s i o n a l
g ro u p .
S e v e r a l f o u n d e r s , nam ely F ra n k H a m ilto n C u sh in g ,
W i l l i s D eH ass, P . W. N o r r i s , M a lle r y , an d Mason w ere a c t u a l l y
en gag ed i n c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f e t h n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h .
However,
17
■^'M inutes o f th e f i r s t p r e l i m i n a r y m e e tin g , F e b ru a ry
1 0 , 1 8 7 9 , A rc h iv e s o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W ashing­
to n ( h e n c e f o r th ASW A r c h iv e s ) , O ff ic e o f A n th ro p o lo g y , S I .
167
a l a r g e m a j o r i t y h ad no p r o f e s s i o n a l l i n k w ith t h a t s c i e n ­
t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e w h ich th e y p ro p o s e d , i n t h e i r own w o rd s,
t o “ p ro m o te , s tu d y , and d i f f u s e know ledge a b o u t . "
The
A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n s to o d somewhat a p a r t
from th e p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n o f s c ie n c e i n l a t e n i n e t e e n t h
c e n tu r y A m eric a.
R a th e r th a n b e in g a t i g h t - k n i t c i r c l e o f
t r a i n e d s p e c i a l i s t s i t was " a n o r g a n i z a t i o n o f q u i t e b ro a d
c h a r a c t e r w ith a l a r g e a m a te u r e le m e n t.
Y et th e S o c i e t y ’ s " b ro a d c h a r a c t e r " and " l a r g e a m a te u r
e le m e n t" c o n s t i t u t e d w hat th e f o u n d e r s f e l t was i t s g r e a t e s t
s tre n g th .
The f a c t o f th e m a t t e r w as t h a t t h e r e w ere few
p r o f e s s i o n a l s anyway— c e r t a i n l y n o t enough t o s u s t a i n an
a n t h r o p o lo g i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n an d s t a n d a r d s f o r j o i n i n g i n
th e s tu d y o f A m erican a b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e w ere so l a x t h a t
C u sh in g r a i l e d : " e v e r y b o o r who h a s c o r r e c t l y o r i n c o r r e c t l y
d e s c r ib e d an arro w h ead o r a sim p le mound, i s a t once c o n s i d e r ­
ed an a r c h a e o l o g i s t and s t y l e s h i m s e l f ,
’P r o f e s s o r . * ” ^
So
b y o p e n in g th e S o c ie ty t o a m a te u rs th e f o u n d e r s showed them ­
s e l v e s t o be r e a l i s t s .
B u t many w en t beyond t h i s an d u rg e d
in c lu s iv e n e s s a s a p o s itiv e v i r t u e .
E ven M ason, an a c c o m p lish e d
^■®A l i s t o f th o s e who a t t e n d e d th e F e b r u a r y 10 m e e t­
in g i s c o n ta in e d i n D a n ie l S . Lamb, "The S to r y o f th e A n th ro ­
p o l o g i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a s h in g to n ," A m erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t ,
n . s . , V I I I ( J u ly - S e p te m b e r, 1 9 0 6 ), 6 65; G eorge W. S to c k in g ,
J r . , " F ra n z Boas and th e F o u n d in g o f th e A m erican A n th ro p o ­
l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n ," i b i d . , I X I I ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 6 0 ), 8 .
•^ F ra n k H. C u sh in g t o O tis T . M ason, S ep te m b er 3 0 ,
1 8 7 6 , C ushing P a p e r s , S o u th w e st Museum L i b r a r y .
168
s t u d e n t o f e t h n o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l , c e l e b r a t e d th e l a c k o f
p ro fe s s io n a l d is t in c t io n .
I t s a b se n c e e n c o u ra g e d h e t e r o g e ­
n e i t y , w h ich was good n o t b e c a u se t h i s c o n d i tio n conform ed
t o e g a l i t a r i a n i d e a l s , b u t b e c a u s e i t m eant t h a t th e S o c ie ty
was m aking i t s p r e s e n c e f e l t th r o u g h o u t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f
th e g o v ern m en t and th e com m unity.
"Who may be an a n t h r o p o l o g i s t ? " Mason a sk e d
rh e to ric a lly .
"E v ery man, woman, and c h i l d t h a t h a s s e n se
and p a t ie n c e t o o b s e r v e , and t h a t can h o n e s tly r e c o r d th e
t h i n g o b s e r v e d ." 20
A t e a r l y m e e tin g s s o l d i e r s s a t n e x t t o
s c i e n t i s t s , e d u c a to r s b e s id e b u r e a u c r a t s , and t h i s i n e v i t a b l e
d i s p e r s i o n o f in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e S o c ie ty had a s a l u t a r y
e f f e c t on i t s n a s c e n t d e v e lo p m e n t.
Mason a s c r ib e d t h i s
i n i t i a l s u c c e s s t o g e t t i n g th e " d o c t o r s , la w y e rs , a r c h i t e c t s ,
e n g i n e e r s , c l e r g y , R a b b is , e v e ry b o d y i n t e r e s t e d .
T h a t i s th e
way I g r e a s e d th e w h e e ls o f o u r now f l o u r i s h i n g A n th ro p o lo g ­
i c a l S o c i e t y . " 2'1'
In a d d i t i o n , th e S o c i e t y ’s f a v o r among men
from d i v e r g e n t b a c k g ro u n d s and o c c u p a tio n s f u r t h e r e d th e
vogue o f a n th r o p o lo g y , a v a s t l y p o p u la r b ra n c h o f s c ie n c e i n
th e l a t e 1 8 7 0 ’s .
So much f o r th e S o c i e t y ’s i n c l u s i v e n e s s , b u t w hat
20M ason, S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s . . . 1882, p . 2 6 .
2^ O tis T . Mason t o F ra n z B o a s, December 3 , 188 7 , Boas
P a p e r s , A m erican P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty ; O tis T. M ason, "An­
th r o p o lo g y i n th e D i s t r i c t o f C olum bia: I t s P r e s e n t S t a t u s
and i t s H i s t o r y , " p . 3 1 , P a p e r r e a d b e f o r e th e A n th ro p o lo g ­
i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , A p r i l 1 0 , 1906, ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
169
a b o u t i t s p r o s p e c ts f o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a n th ro p o lo g y when
few o f i t s members h ad p ro v e n co m petence i n th e f i e l d ?
Once
a g a in a n a p p a r e n t l i a b i l i t y , upon c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n , tu r n e d
i n t o an a s s e t , an d t h e r e i s n o th in g t o i n d i c a t e t h a t th e
f o u n d e r s s u f f e r e d an y qualm s a b o u t p r o c e e d in g w ith t h e i r
v e n tu r e b e c a u se th e S o c i e t y was com posed m a in ly o f a m a te u rs .
T h is w as th e ” p re a c a d e m ic p e r io d ” when m ost A m erican a n t h r o ­
p o l o g i s t s w ere s e l f - t a u g h t .
U n t i l th e m id -1 8 9 0 , s th e y
d r i f t e d i n t o th e d i s c i p l i n e fro m many d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s o f
o r i g i n ; th e o n ly p r e r e q u i s i t e , a s Mason p o in te d o u £ , w as a
c u r i o s i t y a b o u t th e p h y s i c a l and m e n ta l l i f e
h a r d ly a r i g i d r e s t r i c t i o n . ^
o f mankind—
F u rth e rm o re , a m a te u rs h ad
shown t h a t th e y c o u ld make s i g n i f i c a n t a d d i t i o n s t o th e
s to r e h o u s e o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l k n o w led g e .
C a p ta in M e riw e th e r
L ew is and L ie u t e n a n t W illia m C la r k , f o r ex a m p le , w ere s c a n t i l y
p r e p a r e d t o com prehend t h e w o n d ers o f e th n o g ra p h y i n th e
tr a n s - M is s is s ip p i w ild e rn e s s .
Y et t h e y knew enough t o c o l l e c t
much v a lu a b le d a t a , p ro v e d th e m s e lv e s f i r s t r a t e f i e l d r e ­
s e a r c h e r s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y L e w is, who u n d e rto o k th e e x p e ­
d i t i o n e q u ip p e d w ith d e t a i l e d l i s t s o f q u e s tio n s t o a s k
22a . i r v i n g H a ll o w e ll, ”The B e g in n in g s o f A n th ro ­
p o lo g y i n A m e ric a ,” S e l e c t e d P a p e rs From th e A m erican
A n t h r o p o lo g is t, 1 8 8 8 -1 9 2 5 , e d . F r e d e r i c a be kaguna (E v a n s to n ,
i l l , , , 1 9 6 0 ; , 3 7 ; S'ranz B o a s, ”The H is to r y o f A n th ro p o lo g y ,”
S c ie n c e , n . s . , XX (O c to b e r 2 1 , 1 9 0 * 0 , 513, 5 2 2 .
170
I n d i a n s , a p p lie d a n th ro p o lo g y " i n i t s m ost modern s e n s e ."
23
T h is s t o r y o f i n t e r e s t e d laym en d o in g p io n e e r w ork in
l i n g u i s t i c s , e th n o lo g y , a r c h e o lo g y , and p h y s ic a l a n th ro p o lo g y
h ad b e e n r e p e a te d tim e a f t e r tim e .
D u rin g th e p e r io d when th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty
o f W ash in g to n was b e in g fo u n d ed Lew is H enry M organ was th e
doyen o f A m erican a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s .
H is acco m p lish m en ts
w ere l e g i o n : he had e s t a b l i s h e d th e A n th ro p o lo g y S e c tio n o f
th e A m erican A s s o c ia ti o n f o r th e A dvancem ent o f S c ie n c e ;
p u b lis h e d th e u n i v e r s a l l y a c c la im e d A n c ie n t S o c i e t y ; a t t a i n e d
m em bership i n th e N a tio n a l Academy o f S c ie n c e s ; i n s p i r e d
num erous y o u n g er men; and p ro d u c e d a " r e c o r d o f f a c t s p r e 24
v i o u s l y unknown t o s c i e n c e . "
M organ a l s o em bodied th e
t r a d i t i o n o f th e a m a te u r i n a n th ro p o lo g y .
He was n e i t h e r
s p e c i a l l y t r a i n e d n o r a f u l l - t i m e w o rk e r i n th e d i s c i p l i n e .
"The c irc u m s ta n c e s w h ich l e d t o h i s i n t e r e s t in
e t h n o lo g y ," w ro te an o ld c o l le a g u e , " a r e w o rth y o f r e c o r d
and s e rv e t o i l l u s t r a t e th e c h a r a c t e r and t a s t e s o f th e
m an ." 25
They a l s o s e rv e t o r e v e a l so m e th in g o f th e h a p h a z a rd
23ve r n e F . Ray and Nancy O e s tr e ic h L u r i e , "The Con­
t r i b u t i o n s o f L ew is and C la r k t o E th n o lo g y ," J o u r n a l o f th e
W ash in g to n Academy o f S c ie n c e s , XLIV (N ovem ber, 1 9 5 4 ), 338*
361.
Oh
J . W. P o w e ll, " S k e tc h o f L ew is H. M organ, P r e s i d e n t
o f th e A m erican A s s o c ia ti o n f o r th e A dvancem ent o f S c ie n c e ,"
The P o p u la r S c ie n c e M o n th ly , X V III (N ovem ber, 1 8 8 0 ), 1 2 1 .
25W. H. H olm es, " B io g r a p h ic a l Memoir o f Lew is H enry
M organ, 1 8 1 8 -1 8 8 1 ," N a tio n a l Academy o f S c ie n c e s B io g ra p h ic a l M em oirs, VI (1 9 0 9 ), 22 1 .
171
p r o g r e s s o f a n t h r o p o lo g i c a l s c ie n c e i n th e a n te - b e llu m
p e r io d .
As a young la w y e r M organ was one o f th e m ain
fo u n d e rs o f th e O rd e r o f th e G o rd ia n K n o t, a f r a t e r n a l body
b a se d on G reek m yths w ith c h a p te r s t h a t m et i n th e abandoned
M asonic lo d g e s o f a d o ze n tow ns a c r o s s r u r a l w e s te r n New Y ork.
I n 1843, a t th e a n n u a l summer c o n c la v e h e l d i n A u ro ra ,
M organ p e rs u a d e d th e f i v e h u n d re d members t h a t i t w ould be
a p p r o p r ia te t o r e p la c e c l a s s i c a l form s w ith I r o q u o is
c u s to m s.
A c c o rd in g ly th e a s s o c i a t i o n became th e G rand O rd er
o f th e I r o q u o is and th e A u ro ra Lodge tu r n e d i n t o th e Cayuga
T r i b e , w i t h Morgan a s i t s c h i e f .
H is f i r s t d u ty was t o
a c q u ir e in f o r m a tio n a b o u t I r o q u o is c e re m o n ie s and r i t u a l .
Soon he became i n t e r e s t e d i n i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e s t r u c t u r e o f
t r i b a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and b r o a d e r p a t t e r n s o f I n d ia n c u l t u r e .
I t was f i t t i n g t h a t t h i s h ap p en ed t o be th e t a k e - o f f p e r io d
i n th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f A m erican a n th r o p o lo g y , f o r s u d d e n ly
M organ’s p e r f u n c t o r y a tte m p t t o f i n d o u t so m e th in g a b o u t
I n d ia n l o r e had b lo sso m ed i n t o a f u l l f le d g e d s tu d y o f
e th n o lo g y .^
The t a l e o f M organ’s a c c i d e n t a l e n t r y i n t o a n t h r o ­
p o lo g y i s w e ll known, l e s s f a m i l i a r i s th e f a c t t h a t h i s
m onum ental s t u d i e s w ere san d w ich ed b e tw e e n l e g a l p r a c t i c e ,
b u s in e s s e n t e r p r i s e s , and h i s d a b b lin g i n p o l i t i c s .
Even
Ja c o b W. G ru b e r, " H o ra tio H ale and th e D evelopm ent
o f A m erican A n th ro p o lo g y ," P ro c e e d in g s o f th e A m erican
P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t y , CXI (F e b ru a ry 1 7 , 1 9 6 7 ), 6 .
172
h i s e a r l y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s among th e S en ec as w ere i n t e r t w i n e d
w ith lo b b y in g i n t h e i r b e h a l f i n W ash in g to n and A lb an y t o
*
•
*
• 27
f o r e s t a l l t h e i r rem o v al w e s t o f th e M i s s i s s i p p i . '
B u t ev en
th o u g h M organ was u n a b le t o d e v o te a l l h i s tim e t o s c i e n c e ,
" l i k e a c o lo s s u s he s tr o d e i n e v e ry f i e l d o f a n th r o p o lo g y ,
i n f l u e n c i n g h i s g e n e r a tio n w ith h i s b u rn in g e n th u s ia s m and
a g r e e a b le d is p o s itio n ." ^ ®
P resu m ab ly h i s in f lu e n c e p r e v a i l e d
o v e r th e fo u n d e rs o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c i e t y , f o r th e y
la u n c h e d t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n w ith th e same c o m b in a tio n o f
f e r v o r and c o n g e n i a l i t y .
The reco m m end atio n s o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o m m itte e ,
a d o p te d w ith s l i g h t amendments a t th e seco n d m e e tin g , b o th
c o n firm e d w h at h ad a l r e a d y ta k e n p la c e and p ro v id e d an i n ­
s tr u m e n t o f governm ent f o r f u tu r e o p e r a t i o n s .
The c o n s t i ­
t u t i o n s t a t e d t h a t th e m ain b u s in e s s o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty o f W ash in g to n was t o "en co u rag e th e s tu d y o f th e
N a tu r a l H is to r y o f Man, e s p e c i a l l y w ith r e f e r e n c e t o A m e ric a ,"
and t h a t th e members " s h a l l be p e rs o n s who a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n
A n th ro p o lo g y ."
Thus th e f o u n d e r s ’ p r e f e r e n c e f o r a r e l a t i v e l y
n o n - r e s t r i c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a s t o who c o u ld b e lo n g and w hat
th e y w ould do was w r i t t e n i n t o th e o f f i c i a l d o cu m en t.
How­
e v e r , c o n t r o l l i n g pow er w i t h i n th e S o c ie ty was n o t f r a c t i o n ­
a t e d , i t was th o r o u g h ly c e n t r a l i z e d .
T here w ould be a C o u n c il
27
C a rl R esek , L ew is Henry M organ: A m erican S c h o la r
(C h ic a g o , 1 9 6 0 ), p p . 2 7 -^ 0 ; B e rn h a rd J . S t e r n , L ew is H enry
M organ: S o c ia l E v o l u t i o n i s t (C h ic a g o , 1 9 3 1 ), p p . 1 6 -1 9 .
2®Panchanan M i t r a , A H is to r y o f A m erican A n th ro ­
p o lo g y ( C a l c u t t a , I n d i a , 1 9 3 3 ), p . 120.
173
o f f i f t e e n m em bers, l a t e r known a s th e B oard o f M an ag ers, i n
w hich was v e s te d a b s o lu te a u t h o r i t y o v e r a l l th e S o c i e t y ’s
a ffa irs .
E le c te d a n n u a lly by th e w hole m em bership, i t was
t o c o n s i s t o f th e p r e s i d e n t , v i c e - p r e s i d e n t s who a l s o w ere
ex o f f i c i o c h a irm e n o f th e S o c i e t y ’s f o u r s e c t i o n s (Soma­
to l o g y , S o c io lo g y , P h i lo lo g y , and P h ilo s o p h y and P s y c h o lo g y ),
c o rre s p o n d in g and r e c o r d in g s e c r e t a r i e s , th e t r e a s u r e r , th e
c u r a t o r , and s i x o t h e r members d e s ig n a te d a s c o u n c i l o r s .
T h is d i r e c t o r y p a s s e d on n o m in a tio n s f o r m em bership i n th e
S o c i e t y , h a n d le d i t s f i n a n c e s , r e c e iv e d co m m u n ic atio n s, had
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r pro g ram s and p u b l i c a t i o n s , and was em­
pow ered t o c a l l s p e c i a l m e e tin g s .
In s h o r t , th e members o f
th e C o u n c il ’’t r a n s a c t e d a l l b u s in e s s o f th e S o c ie ty , sav e
29
t h e i r own e l e c t i o n s . ”
A c tu a lly i t made l i t t l e
d i f f e r e n c e how members o f th e
C o u n c il w ere c h o sen b e c a u se th e same men te n d e d t o be p e r e n n i a l
o ffic e h o ld e rs .
The o f f i c e s t h a t th e y h e ld m ig h t change from
y e a r t o y e a r , b u t t h e i r e l e c t i o n s t o th e C o u n c il seems t o
have b e e n p ro fo rm a .
T h ro u g h o u t th e S o c i e t y 's e a r l y h i s t o r y ,
when th e a t t r i t i o n r a t e was low anyw ay, w hat few C o u n c il
re p la c e m e n ts w ere n e e d e d w ere draw n a lm o s t i n v a r i a b l y from
th e s l a t e o f in c u m b e n ts.
B etw een 1880, when th e te rm s o f th e
f i r s t o f f i c e r s e x p i r e d , and 1885 t h e r e w ere n i n e t y C o u n c il
p o s i t i o n s t h a t had t o be f i l l e d , y e t o n ly tw e n ty - th r e e men
2 % fin u te s o f th e se c o n d p r e lim in a r y m e e tin g , F e b ru a ry
17 , 187 9 , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
f i l l e d th em .
A f u r t h e r b reakdow n o f t h i s f i g u r e r e v e a l s
t h a t s e v e n te e n o f th e s e w en t o n to th e C o u n c il a t th e
c o u n c illo r le v e l.
I n o t h e r w o rd s , r o u g h ly 75 p e r c e n t o f
th e ch a n g es to o k p la c e a t th e b o tto m o f th e pow er s t r u c t u r e ,
w hich made f o r re m a rk a b le c o n t i n u i t y i n th e h i g h e r o f f i c e s .
P o w ell was e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t e v e r y y e a r b u t o n e , when M a lle r y
became p r e s i d e n t and P o w e ll s e rv e d a s a v i c e - p r e s i d e n t .
W a lte r J . H offm an, C o lo n e l F r a n k lin A .S e e ly , and L e s t e r
F ra n k Ward w ere on th e C o u n c il y e a r a f t e r y e a r ; M a lle r y , th e
a u th o r o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n and b y - la w s , M ason, and P o w e ll
w ere n e v e r o u t o f o f f i c e .
Thus th e fo u n d e rs h e ld sway and
p ro v id e d th e s t a b i l i t y t h a t was more h ig h l y p r i z e d th a n
d i s p e r s i o n o f a u t h o r i t y . 30
The s e t t l e d c h a r a c t e r o f th e S o c i e t y ’ s g o v e rn in g
body a c te d a s a c o u n te r w e ig h t a g a i n s t i t s l a c k o f a p erm an en t
home.
W ith o u t cham bers o f i t s own, o r a f i x e d l o c a t i o n f o r
m e e tin g s , th e S o c ie ty was o b lig e d t o w ander a b o u t th e c i t y
a c c e p tin g te m p o ra ry q u a r t e r s w h e re v e r th e y m ig h t be made
a v a ila b le .
U n f o r tu n a te ly th e e a r l y M in u tes f a i l t o r e c o r d
w here m e e tin g s w ere h e l d , b u t th e r e t r o s p e c t i o n s o f an o ld
member and fo rm e r p r e s i d e n t le a v e th e im p r e s s io n o f as
nom adic an e x i s te n c e a s t h a t o f some o f th e p e o p le s th e y
w ere s tu d y in g .
S o c ie ty g a t h e r i n g s f l u c t u a t e d from th e
30W J McGee t o O tis T. M ason, May 2 5 , 189 3 , C o r r e ­
sp o n d e n c e , i b i d . ; T r a n s a c tio n s o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , I - I I I (W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 8 8 2 -1 8 8 5 ),
p a s s im .
175
R e g e n ts ’ Room o f th e S m ith s o n ia n , t o th e N a tio n a l M e d ica l
C o l le g e , t o th e L ib r a r y o f th e Army M e d ic a l Museum, and
e v e n t u a l l y t o th e l e c t u r e h a l l o f C olum bian U n i v e r s i t y .
In
A p r i l 1 8 8 7 , a s so many s o c i e t i e s o f t h i s k in d u l t i m a t e l y
d i d , i t l i g h t e d a t th e Cosmos C lu b .
T here i t re m a in e d ,
e x c e p t f o r u n u s u a lly l a r g e s e s s i o n s w h ich h ad t o be t r a n s ­
f e r r e d t o p l a c e s w here more v i s i t o r s c o u ld be accom m odated.
The B u i l d e r s ' E xchange H a ll o f t e n was u se d f o r a n n u a l
m e e tin g s w here a tte n d a n c e m ig h t r u n as h ig h as two h u n d re d
and f i f t y . ^
An a v e ra g e o f b etw een f i f t y and s i x t y p e r s o n s w ere
on h and f o r r e g u l a r m e e tin g s o f th e S o c ie ty w hich o c c u rre d
tw ic e a m onth, on a l t e r n a t e T uesday e v e n in g s , O c to b e r th ro u g h
June.
The m ain o r d e r s o f b u s in e s s w ere th e l e c t u r e s and
d i s c u s s i o n s t h a t f o llo w e d .
In d e e d th e s e w ere th e o n ly ite m s
on th e ag en d a t h a t in v o lv e d th e S o c ie ty as a w h o le .
M in u tes
o f p r e c e d in g m e e tin g s w ere r e a d and a p p ro v e d , d o n a tio n s w ere
ack n o w led g e d , and new members w ere r e c e iv e d a l l i n a m ost
p e r f u n c t o r y m an n er.
The r o l e o f th e g e n e r a l m em bership i n
o p e r a t i n g th e S o c ie ty was c l e a r l y a p a s s iv e o n e.
A dm ini­
s t r a t i v e m a tte r s w ere d e l i b e r a t e d and d e c id e d upon b y th e
B oard o f M anagers w h ich alw ay s convened s e p a r a t e l y one h o u r
b e f o r e r e g u l a r m e e tin g s .
By th e tim e th e r e s t o f th e S o c ie ty
g a th e r e d e v e r y th in g had b ee n ta k e n c a re o f sav e th e l e c t u r e s
31
^Lamb, A m erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , n . s . , V I I I , 568569; F ra n k B a k e r, A nnual R e p o rt o f th e S e c r e t a r y f o r 1891,
J a n u a r y 1 9 , 18 9 2 , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
176
f o r t h a t e v e n in g — and th e s e had t o be ap p ro v e d by th e B oard
o f M anagers p r i o r t o t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n .
32
The m e tic u lo u s p la n n in g o f program s and th e s e r i o u s ­
n e s s w ith w h ic h l e c t u r e s w ere r e g a r d e d t e s t i f i e s t o th e
im p o rta n c e o f fo rm a l p a p e r s in th e l i f e o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty .
T hese w ere i t s m eat and d r i n k ; n o th in g was a llo w e d
t o i n h i b i t th e s p e a k e r o r d i s t r a c t th e a u d ie n c e from p a r ta k in g
o f th e S o c i e t y 's i n t e l l e c t u a l o f f e r i n g s .
A t l e a s t two
p a p e rs w ere g iv e n i n an e v e n in g , so by d is p o s in g o f r o u t i n e
a f f a i r s i n a B oard o f M a n a g e rs' m e e tin g h e l d i n advance more
tim e was p r o v id e d f o r l e c t u r e s and d i s c u s s i o n s .
S im ila rly ,
i t was n o t o n ly e x p e d ie n t t o r u n th e S o c ie ty t h i s w ay, b u t
by v e s t i n g a b s o lu te a u t h o r i t y i n th e B oard o f M anagers a l l
b u t a h a n d f u l o f members w ere s p a r e d th e o f t e n m ind-num bing
ta s k s of a d m in is tra tio n .
The r e s u l t was t h a t b o th th e q u a l i t y
o f l e c t u r e s and th e i n t e r e s t th e y commanded rem a in ed h ig h .
A n y th in g l e s s w ould have c o n s t i t u t e d a s e v e r e d is a p p o in tm e n t.
B ecause th e S o c ie ty e x i s t e d f o r th e tw o - f o ld o b j e c t i v e o f
d is s e m in a tin g know ledge and e n c o u ra g in g f u r t h e r s tu d y , and
s in c e t h i s aim c o u ld b e s t be a c c o m p lish e d th ro u g h o r a l
p r e s e n t a t i o n s w h ich m ig h t s u b s e q u e n tly be p u b lis h e d , i t was
v i t a l t h a t th e S o c ie ty have s u p e r i o r l e c t u r e s .
If its b i­
w ee k ly program s w ere f a i l u r e s th e n th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty w ould f a i l i n i t s p u rp o s e -—i t was a s sim p le a s t h a t .
^ % Iin u te s o f th e B oard o f M anagem ent, i b i d .
177
Form al p a p e rs an sw ered a d e f i n i t e n eed o f th e
o r g a n i z a t i o n and i n an im m ediate way th e y a l s o p r o v id e d
i n t e l l e c t u a l s t i m u l a t i o n f o r i n d i v i d u a l m em bers.
L e ss
d i r e c t l y th e y s e rv e d t o prom ote th e new s c ie n c e o f man.
T hrough co m m u n icatio n s t o th e S o c ie ty p e rs o n s d o in g r e s e a r c h
w ere g iv e n a ch an ce t o t e s t c e r t a i n c o n c e p ts and t h e o r i e s
r e l a t e d t o t h e i r w o rk .
D u rin g th e S o c i e t y ’s d i s c u s s i o n
s e s s i o n s t h e s e n o tio n s w ould be c r i t i c i z e d and d e b a te d by
o t h e r s t u d e n t s o f th e p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t .
F in a lly , a f te r
f u r t h e r r e f l e c t i o n and more s y s te m a tic d e v e lo p m e n t, o r i g i n a l
l e c t u r e s w ere p r e p a r e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n .
I n t h i s m anner
many n o te w o rth y m onographs o f th e 1 8 8 0 's d e a lin g w ith
a r c h e o lo g y , e th n o lo g y , s o c io lo g y , and p sy c h o lo g y w ere p u t
i n t o f i n i s h e d fo rm .
Edward M. G a ll a u d e t , fo u n d e r and
p r e s i d e n t o f th e N a tio n a l D eaf-M ute C o lle g e , r e a d h i s ”How
S h a l l th e D eaf be E d u c a te d ? ” b e f o r e i t a p p e a re d i n th e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Review (D ecem ber, 1 8 8 1 ).
Members o f th e
A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty w ere th e f i r s t t o h e a r C yrus
T hom as's id e a s a b o u t mound b u i l d e r s ; lik e w is e th e s tu d y
o f I n d ia n s u p e r s t i t i o n s by H enry C. Y arrow was p r e s e n te d
t o th e S o c ie ty p r i o r t o p u b l i c a t i o n i n th e A m erican A n ti­
q u a r ia n and O r i e n t a l J o u r n a l ( J a n u a r y , 1 8 8 2 ).
L e s t e r F ra n k
Ward f r e q u e n t l y spoke a t m e e tin g s w ith s e v e r a l o f h i s p a p e rs
c o n s t i t u t i n g c h a p te r s o f Dynamic S o c io lo g y . 33
^ S p e a k e r s w ere a lm o s t alw ay s a c t i v e m em bers, a l ­
th o u g h on o c c a s io n a s p e c i a l l e c t u r e r su c h as F ra n z B o a s,
A lf r e d R. W a lla c e , M rs. Z e li a N u t t a l l from B e r l i n , o r
178
Thus W a sh in g to n ’s A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty e n jo y e d
th e good f o r tu n e o f b e in g t r e a t e d t o an o u ts ta n d in g ru n o f
le c tu re s .
A ls o , i t was b l e s s e d w ith a la r g e num ber o f men
who w ere alw ay s e a g e r t o d e s c r ib e th e f r u i t s o f t h e i r l a b o r s .
B ecause l e c t u r i n g a f f o r d e d a means o f g a in in g i n d i v i d u a l
r e c o g n i t i o n , and s in c e s e r i a l s su c h a s C o n t r ib u t io n s t o N o rth
A m erican E th n o lo g y , th e A nnual R e p o rt o f th e B u reau o f
E th n o lo g y , and th e A nnual R e p o rt o f th e B oard o f R e g e n ts o f
th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n w ere w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t a r t i c l e s
by m em bers, i t i s no w onder t h a t th e Com m ittee on Communi­
c a t i o n s o f t e n r e c e iv e d f a r more p a p e rs th a n i t c o u ld p o s s i b l y
f i t i n t o a y e a r o f m e e tin g s .
In 1893 W J McGee c o n f e s s e d
t h a t th e S o c ie ty was " a lm o s t e m b a rra s s e d by th e w e a lth o f
m a t e r i a l f o r th e p r e s e n t s e a s o n , and w i l l p ro b a b ly have to
3h
p ro v id e s e v e r a l s p e c i a l m e e tin g s . . . . "
A more d i f f i c u l t p ro b lem was f in d in g th e b e s t way o f
d is s e m in a tin g in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e p u r s u i t o f t h i s i n c r e a s i n g ­
l y p o p u la r s c i e n c e .
Once a g a in th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty
was b r o u g h t f a c e t o f a c e w ith th e dilemma t h a t was i n h e r e n t
in i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n , nam ely how a t th e same tim e t o s e rv e a
s m a ll g ro u p o f i n c i p i e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l s and a l a r g e r body o f
i n t e r e s t e d a m a te u rs .
I n th e c a se o f th e S o c ie ty t h i s is s u e
had b e e n r e s o lv e d b y s t r u c t u r i n g th e a s s o c i a t i o n so t h a t
E . B. T y lo r , th e E n g lis h a n t h r o p o l o g i s t who was an h o n o ra ry
member o f th e S o c i e t y , w ould r e a d an a d d r e s s .
3**W J McGee t o H orace E . W a rn e r, J a n u a ry 7 , 1893,
C o rre sp o n d e n c e , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
179
anyone m ig h t b e lo n g w h ile a u t h o r i t y r e s t e d w ith a c o n t r o l l i n g
e lite .
The m a tte r o f d i f f u s i n g k n o w led g e, h o w ev er, c o u ld n o t
be d e a l t w ith so e a s i l y .
S c i e n t i f i c p e r i o d i c a l s h ad n o t o r i ­
o u s ly s m a ll c i r c u l a t i o n s , a f a c t w h ich m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t
s t a r t i n g a j o u r n a l o f a n th r o p o lo g y .
The fo u n d e rs knew t h a t
an i l l - s t a r r e d v e n tu re c o u ld t u r n i n t o an a l b a t r o s s le a d in g
th e S o c ie ty t o d e s t r u c t i o n .
Good s e n s e c a u tio n e d n o t t o be
h a s t y a b o u t t r y i n g th e sto rm y s e a s o f s c h o l a r l y p u b l i c a t i o n .
On th e o t h e r h a n d , i f th e S o c i e t y h a d no o f f i c i a l v o ic e i t s
d i f f u s i o n o f know ledge w ould be h o p e l e s s l y i n s u l a r , and i t s
e f f e c t upon a n th ro p o lo g y o u ts i d e o f W a sh in g to n p r a c t i c a l l y
n il.
I n d i v i d u a l members m ig h t p u b l i s h t h e i r l e c t u r e s , b u t
th e s e d id n o t c a r r y th e im p rim a tu r o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty .
P ru d en ce p r e v a i l e d , and d u r in g th e e a r l y y e a r s o f
i t s e x i s te n c e few h e a rd fro m th e S o c ie ty a s s u c h , e x c e p t
th o s e who a tte n d e d i t s m e etin g s.* * 5
C o n s id e rin g t h i s r e l u c t a n c e t o become w e ig h te d down
w ith th e o p e r a t io n o f a c o s t l y j o u r n a l , i t i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le
t h a t th e S o c i e t y ’s i n i t i a l p u b l i c a t i o n was so m e th in g l e s s
th a n a m b itio u s .
I n 1882 a p p e a re d Volume I o f T r a n s a c tio n s
o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , a one h u n d re d
and f o r ty - tw o page s y n o p s is o f th e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s o f
m e e tin g s .
I n c lu d e d w ere a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l s k e tc h , i t s co n ­
s t i t u t i o n , names o f members an d o f f i c e r s f o r 1882, P o w e ll's
oc
G. Brown G oode, The B e g in n in g s o f A m erican S c ie n c e ,
th e T h ir d C e n tu ry (W a sh in g to n , 1 8 8 8 ) , p p . 9 i - 9 2 .
180
p r e s i d e n t i a l a d d r e s s o f t h a t y e a r , and an in d e x .
O b v io u sly
t h i s d id n o t le a v e much sp a c e f o r co m m u n ic a tio n s, w h ich
w ere m e re ly l i s t e d o r , a t b e s t , a b s t r a c t e d .
The T r a n s a c tio n s
was made p o s s i b l e by th e s u p p o r t o f th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i ­
t u t i o n , w h ic h a l s o p u b lis h e d i t s c o n t e n t s , p lu s a b s t r a c t s
o f p a p e rs r e a d b e tw e e n M arch, 1879 and J a n u a r y , 1881 i n th e
S m ith s o n ia n M is c e lla n e o u s C o l l e c t i o n s f o r 1 8 8 3 .
The same
f o r m a t— an d t h e same means o f a s s i s t a n c e —w ere r e p e a t e d f o r two
more v o lu m e s, e n a b lin g p u b l i c a t i o n t o c o n tin u e th ro u g h 1 8 8 5 .
H ow ever, t h i s was h a r d l y s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r an n o u n c in g th e
a c t i v i t i e s o f th e S o c ie ty an d h e r a l d in g th e new t r u t h s
d is c o v e r e d b y i t s m em bers.
F a r more s u i t a b l e w as th e A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t
w h ich p ro d u c e d i t s f i r s t num ber i n J a n u a r y , 1 8 8 8 .
T h e re ­
a f t e r th e j o u r n a l was p u b lis h e d on a r e g u l a r q u a r t e r l y
s c h e d u le , a d i s t i n c t im provem ent o v e r th e b i e n n i a l a p p e a r ­
a n c e s o f th e T r a n s a c t i o n s .
As S e c r e t a r y F r a n k lin A u s tin
S e e ly p o in te d o u t , t h i s m eant t h a t th e members w ere r e c e i v i n g
a b o u t e i g h t tim e s th e q u a n t i t y o f m a t t e r a s b e fo r e . 36
in
te rm s o f q u a l i t y th e c o n t r a s t was p ro fo u n d .
O s te n s ib ly t h e A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t form ed a
c o n t i n u a t i o n o f th e T r a n s a c t i o n s , b u t a g la n c e a t t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e c o n t e n t s r e v e a l s a w o rld o f d i f f e r e n c e .
I n th e
^ ^ F r a n k lin A. S e e l y , L e t t e r t o th e members o f th e
A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , November 8 , 1 8 8 8 ,
R e p o rts o f th e C u r a to r , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
181
T r a n s a c tio n s resu m es o f p a p e rs w ere u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o a
few p a r a g r a p h s , f o llo w e d b y t r a n s c r i p t s o f th e d i s c u s s i o n s .
The A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t c o n ta in e d f u l l l e n g t h a r t i c l e s
o f s i x t o e i g h t th o u s a n d w o rd s .
These w ere o f t e n p r i n t e d
v e r s i o n s o f l e c t u r e s d e l i v e r e d a t m e e tin g s , and t o t h i s
e x t e n t th e new p u b l i c a t i o n w as j u s t a s much an o rg a n o f th e
A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty a s th e T r a n s a c tio n s h ad b e e n .
A ls o ,
th e e d i t o r i a l b o a rd c o n s i s t e d o f S o c ie ty members and th e
S o c i e t y 's s e a l d o m in a te d th e c o v e r o f e v e r y i s s u e , le a v in g
no d o u b t a b o u t who s p o n s o re d th e A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t.
B ut a t th e same tim e i t s o r i e n t a t i o n seem ed l e s s p r o v i n c i a l .
W hereas th e T r a n s a c tio n s p ro v id e d n o th in g more th a n
tr u n c a t e d sum m aries o f W a sh in g to n m e e tin g s , th e se co n d
p u b l i s h i n g v e n tu r e gave a n im p r e s s io n o f n a t i o n a l s c o p e .
seem ed t o be w h at i t s t i t l e
It
p ro m is e d : an A m erican j o u r n a l
o f a n th ro p o lo g y i n th e b r o a d e s t s e n s e .
B e g in n in g w ith
Volume I I , i n 1 8 8 9 , i t s s e l f - a d v e r t i s e m e n t b elo w th e t a b l e
o f c o n t e n t s e m p h asiz ed t h a t "THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST
. . .
i n c l u d e s , b u t i s n o t c o n f in e d t o , th e T r a n s a c tio n s o f
th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n . . . . ”
a s good a s i t s w o rd .
I t was
T h ere w ere n o t i c e s o f a n th ro p o lo g y
m e e tin g s th r o u g h o u t th e U n ite d S t a t e s and E u ro p e , an n o u n ce­
m ents o f p r o f e s s i o n a l im p o rt s u c h a s th e a w a rd in g o f P h .D .'s
i n a n th ro p o lo g y and th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a n th ro p o lo g y c o u r s e s
a t A m erican u n i v e r s i t i e s , b o o k r e v ie w s , q u a r t e r l y b i b l i o g r a ­
p h i e s , an d m is c e lla n e o u s ite m s o f i n t e r e s t t o p r o f e s s i o n a l s
182
and laym en b o th w i t h i n and o u ts i d e o f W ashington*
In
s u b s t a n c e , t h e n , th e A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t b o re l i t t l e
re se m b la n c e t o i t s p r e d e c e s s o r*
A n o th e r d i f f e r e n c e h ad t o do w ith e c o n o m ic s.
The
S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n h ad u n d e r w r i tte n th e T r a n s a c t i o n s ,
b u t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t was
e n t i r e l y i n th e h an d s o f th e S o c ie ty —a b u rd e n w h ich p ro v e d
h e a v i e r th a n h ad b e e n o r i g i n a l l y b a r g a in e d f o r .
A t th e
o u t s e t i t was f e l t t h a t th e new j o u r n a l c o u ld be f in a n c e d
s o l e l y b y s u b s c r i p t i o n s , s e l l i n g f o r t h r e e d o l l a r s , a llo w in g
th o s e who p a id th e a n n u a l m em bership fe e t o r e c e i v e th e
A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t f o r no a d d i t i o n a l c h a r g e .
w is h f u l t h i n k i n g .
T h is was
E a r ly s u b s c r i b e r s w ere few , and i t
im m e d ia te ly became c l e a r t h a t i f a se c o n d volume was e v e r
t o se e th e l i g h t o f d ay i t w ould be n e c e s s a r y t o r a i s e th e
c o s t f o r m em bers.
a y e a r.
37
A c c o rd in g ly d u es w en t up t o f i v e d o l l a r s
T h is e n a b le d th e A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t t o c a r r y
on a n d , u n d e r th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s , w as j u s t i f i a b l e a s a
te m p o ra ry m e a su re .
B ut w h at b eg a n a s a m a k e s h if t a rra n g e m e n t
came t o be a c c e p te d a s th e modus o p e r a n d i, and i n s t e a d o f
f o r t h r i g h t l y a d d r e s s in g i t s e l f t o th e p ro b lem o f i n s u f f i c i e n t
s u b s c r i p t i o n s th e S o c ie ty c o n tin u e d t o o p e r a te a t a l o s s by
p r i n t i n g j o u r n a l s t h a t i t d id n o t s e l l .
In t h i s r e s p e c t th e
members s u p p lie d e v id e n c e f o r Jo h n D ew ey's a s s e r t i o n t h a t
37I b i d .
183
we do n o t s o lv e d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n s , we g e t o v e r th em .
38
E x c e p t t h a t b e f o r e th e p ro b le m o f p a y in g f o r th e A m erican
A n th r o p o lo g is t c o u ld be g o t t e n o v e r m a tte r s s u d d e n ly to o k
a t u r n f o r th e w o rse m aking i t im p e r a tiv e t h a t some means
f o r e n l a r g i n g s u b s c r i p t i o n s be d e v is e d .
The m id d le 1 8 9 0 's w ere m arked b y p a n ic and d e p r e s s io n
th r o u g h o u t th e U n ite d S t a t e s , and w h ile th e n a t i o n a l economy
stu m b le d th e S o c i e t y f e l l on h a rd t i m e s .
The A m erican
A n th r o p o lo g is t h ad b e e n su c h a f i n a n c i a l d r a i n t h a t th e
S o c ie ty now fo u n d i t s e l f f a c e d w ith in s o lv e n c y .
A fu rth e r
in c r e a s e o f m em bership d u e s was o u t o f th e q u e s tio n ; t h i s
l e f t o n ly th e a l t e r n a t i v e o f b o o s tin g s u b s c r i p t i o n s .
L a te
4
i n 1 8 9 5 , a s P r e s i d e n t C le v e la n d d e s p e r a t e l y s o u g h t t o
r e s c u e th e go v ern m en t fro m b a n k r u p tc y , th e B oard o f M anagers
h i t upon a p la n t h a t w ould s ta v e o f f econom ic d i s a s t e r .
D u rin g i t s b r i e f e x i s te n c e th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n h ad a c c u m u la te d a l a r g e s t o c k p i l e o f
u n s o ld p u b l i c a t i o n s .
u p se t about t h i s .
T h ere i s no r e c o r d o f members becom ing
I n s t e a d th e y d u p l i c a t e d th e s a r d o n ic
r e s i g n a t i o n o f a f e llo w n a t u r a l i s t who had s u f f e r e d s i m i l a r l y
a t th e h an d s o f p u b l i c i n d i f f e r e n c e : " I now h av e a l i b r a r y
o f n e a r l y n in e h u n d re d v o lu m e s ," n o te d H enry D avid T h o reau
38J o h n Dewey, "The I n f lu e n c e o f D arw inism on
P h ilo s o p h y ,” A m erican T h o u g h t: C i v i l War t o W orld War I , e d .
P e r r y M x lle r (New 'York, 1 9 5 4 , R in e h a r t e d n . , New Vortc,
1 9 6 2 ), 2 2 k .
184
i n 1851, ’’o v e r se v e n h u n d red o f w h ich I w ro te m y s e lf .
Is
i t n o t w e ll t h a t th e a u th o r s h o u ld b e h o ld th e f r u i t s o f h i s
la b o r ? ”
oq
D u rin g th e le a n y e a r s o f t h e n i n e t i e s c o ld
c o m fo rt c o u ld be ta k e n from su c h l u x u r i e s — e s p e c i a l l y s in c e
th e S o c ie ty had o v e r tw o th o u s a n d d o l l a r s w o rth o f b a c k
num bers g a t h e r in g d u s t .
I t was d e c id e d t o s o r t th e s e i n t o
e i g h t volume s e t s and o f f e r them t o l i k e l y i n s t i t u t i o n s a t
th e r e g u l a r p r i c e o f t h r e e d o l l a r s p e r v o lu m e.
I n t h i s way
s c h o o ls and l i b r a r i e s p u r c h a s in g new s u b s c r i p t i o n s c o u ld
r e c e iv e co m p lete s e r i e s o f A m erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , and
th e S o c ie ty w ould t u r n an o th e rw is e u s e l e s s c o l l e c t i o n o f
o ld i s s u e s i n t o a so u rc e o f b a d ly n e e d e d r e v e n u e . ^
B e g in n in g i n autum n 1895 a lm o s t f o u r h u n d re d l e t t e r s
w ere m a ile d t o p o t e n t i a l s u b s c r i b e r s th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n t r y ,
i n v i t i n g them t o p u rc h a se "one o f th e few r e m a in in g co m p lete
s e t s " o f th e A m erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t .
was g r a t i f y i n g .
The i n i t i a l r e s p o n s e
W ith in a few w eeks e i g h t s e t s w ere d is p o s e d
o f b r in g in g th e S o c ie ty a lm o s t two h u n d re d d o l l a r s .
By th e
end o f 1896 f iv e more had b e e n s o l d an d th e s i t u a t i o n
seem ed no lo n g e r c r i t i c a l .
C o in c id e n t w ith t h i s s a l e s
cam paign w ere a l t e r a t i o n s made i n th e p r i c e and p u b l i c a t i o n
s c h e d u le .
S t a r t i n g w ith Volume IX a n n u a l s u b s c r i p t i o n s w ere
■^Henry D avid T h o re a u , A Week On th e C oncord and
M errim ack R iv e r s (B o sto n , 1849, S e n tr y e d n . , C am bridge,
Has s ; -;' i w r r ' p ; x i .
^ F r e d e r i c k W. H odge, R e p o rt o f th e C u r a to r f o r 18 9 5 ,
J a n u a r y 2 1 , 1 8 9 6 , R e p o rts o f th e C u r a t o r , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
185
re d u c e d t o tw o d o l l a r s and th e num ber o f i s s u e s in c r e a s e d
t o tw e l v e .
Thus th e A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t w as c o n v e rte d
from a q u a r t e r l y i n t o a m o n th ly m a g a z in e , a change d e s ig n e d
t o g iv e i t w id e r p o p u la r a p p e a l . ^
The d r i v e t o add b u y e rs r e s u l t e d i n a p e r io d o f
fle e tin g su ccess.
I n m e d ia te ly s u b s c r i p t i o n s s h o t up by
25 p e r c e n t , b u t a t th e lo w e r p r i c e t h i s was n o t enough t o
p la c e th e S o c i e t y on a f ir m f o o t i n g .
In d e e d o p e r a t in g th e
m o n th ly tu r n e d o u t t o be more e x p e n s iv e th a n th e q u a r t e r l y .
W ith in a m a t t e r o f m onths th e t r e a s u r y showed a c r e d i t o f
o n ly $ 7 .2 8 , and f u t u r e p r o s p e c ts w ere so g rim t h a t c o n s i d e r ­
a t i o n w as g iv e n t o s e l l i n g th e S o c i e t y 's l i b r a r y .
A b e tte r
c o u rs e o f a c t i o n was t o lo o k o u ts i d e th e S o c ie ty f o r
fin a n c ia l a i d . ^
F o r t u n a t e l y th e A m erican A s s o c ia ti o n f o r th e A dvance­
m ent o f S c ie n c e had b e e n a d e q u a te ly im p re s s e d w ith th e j o u r n a l
t o assum e a l a r g e s h a r e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r k e e p in g i t
a liv e .
On Ju n e 1 4 , 1 8 9 8 , a t th e Cosmos C lu b , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
o f th e A s s o c i a t i o n m et w ith th e S o c i e t y 's o f f i c e r s and a g re e d
t o a s s i s t w i t h th e managem ent o f t h e A n th r o p o lo g is t a s w e ll
a s h e l p p ay th e b i l l s .
B e fo re t h i s b a c k in g was s e c u r e d ,
^ F r e d e r i c k W. Hodge t o th e L i b r a r i a n , Keokuk [Iow a]
L i b r a r y A s s o c i a t i o n , J a n u a r y 1 6 , 1896, C o rre s p o n d e n c e , i b i d . ;
F r e d e r ic k W. Hodge, R e p o rt . . . 1895, i b i d . ; M in u te s o f th e
B oard o f M a n ag ers, Decem ber 1 5 , 18 9 6 , i b i d .
F r e d e r i c k W. H odge, R e p o rt . . .
18 9 5 , i b i d . ;
C y r u s A d le r t o W J McGee, November 2 0 , 189 7 , and t e r r y B.
P i e r c e t o W J McGee, November 3 0 , 18 9 7 , McGee P a p e r s , G e n e ra l
C o rre s p o n d e n c e , Box 1 , LC.
186
h o w ev er, th e B oard o f M anagers o u t l i n e d c e r t a i n ch a n g es t h a t
p ro m ise d t o make th e j o u r n a l more u s e f u l and more a t t r a c t i v e .
F i r s t o f a l l th e J a n u a r y , 1899 num ber w o u ld b e g in a new
s e r ie s o f q u a rte rly is s u e s .
O b v io u sly th e m agazine fo rm a t
h ad b e e n a m is ta k e and e v e ry o n e was a n x io u s t o r e t u r n t o
th e s t a t u s o f a s c h o l a r l y j o u r n a l .
I t was ev e n s u g g e s te d
t h a t th e p u b l i c a t i o n be c a l l e d th e J o u r n a l o f A n th ro p o lo g y ,
b u t t h i s w as d is c a r d e d i n f a v o r o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l t i t l e .
A ls o , b o th th e s i z e an d th e p r i c e o f volum es w ould be
d o u b le d , t o e i g h t h u n d re d p a g e s and f o u r d o l l a r s r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Of g r e a t e s t im p o rta n c e w as th e f a c t t h a t th e s p o n s o r in g
ag e n cy was now th e A n th ro p o lo g y S e c t io n o f th e A s s o c ia ti o n .
The A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t w ould c o n tin u e t o s p e a k f o r th e
W ash in g to n o r g a n i z a t i o n — t h a t was made e m p h a tic a lly c l e a r —
b u t a s th e o rg a n f o r and n o t o f th e S o c i e t y .
£tO
New Y ork
r a t h e r th a n W a sh in g to n s e r v e d a s th e s e a t o f p u b l i c a t i o n ,
w ith o v e r s e a s e d i t i o n s p u b lis h e d i n London and L e i p z i g .
F o r th e f i r s t tim e t h e e d i t o r i a l b o a rd in c lu d e d men who w ere
n o t S o c ie ty m em bers, and no more was th e S o c i e t y ’s name and
c r e s t em b lazo n ed on th e j o u r n a l ’s c o v e r .
T h u s, i n e v e r y
p e r c e p t i b l e w ay, th e g u id in g hand o f th e S o c ie ty h ad b ee n
rem oved fro m th e A m erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t .
A t th e same tim e , h o w ev er, th e new s e r i e s s ig n a le d
a b r i l l i a n t s u c c e s s f o r th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f
^ ^M in u tes o f th e B o ard o f M an ag ers, M arch 1 5 , 1898
and November 1 , 1 8 9 8 , M in u te s , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
187
W a sh in g to n .
I t s o r i g i n a l p u rp o se was t o prom ote a n th ro p o lo g y
and d i f f u s e know ledge a b o u t th e s u b j e c t ; now t h e r e e x i s t e d
a means t o a c h ie v e t h a t o b j e c t i v e , and t o t h e S o c ie ty w en t
th e c r e d i t f o r i t s c r e a tio n .
w ould have b e e n no j o u r n a l .
in d u lg e d a l i t t l e
A n th ro p o lo g is t.
W ith o u t th e S o c ie ty t h e r e
T h e r e f o re th e members c o u ld be
s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t i o n o v e r th e new A m erican
I t w as f a r and away th e p r e - e m in e n t v e h i c l e
o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l in f o r m a tio n i n th e w e s te r n h e m is p h e re , and
a l s o h ad a r e g u l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n E n g lan d an d E u ro p e .
Its
a r t i c l e s c o v e re d a l l b ra n c h e s o f a n th ro p o lo g y and i t s i n ­
f lu e n c e tr a n s c e n d e d l o c a l and ev en n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r ie s .
I t s e d i t o r s w ere le a d in g l i g h t s i n th e s c ie n c e o f man a s
w e l l a s h a v in g im p o r ta n t i n s t i t u t i o n a l t i e s : D a n ie l G.
B r i n t o n , th e U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia ; F ra n z Boas o f th e
A m erican Museum o f N a tu r a l H is to r y ; G eorge A . D o rs e y , th e
F i e l d C olum bian Museum; F r e d e r ic k Ward P utnam , P r e s i d e n t o f
th e A m erican A s s o c ia ti o n f o r th e A dvancem ent o f S c ie n c e , and
C u r a to r o f th e P eabody Museum o f A m erican A rc h a e o lo g y and
E th n o lo g y o f H a rv a rd U n i v e r s i t y ; p lu s H odge, H olm es, and
P o w e ll fro m t h e S m ith s o n ia n and B ureau o f E th n o lo g y .
An
im m ed iate r e s u l t o f th e new s e r i e s , t h e n , was th e s t r e n g t h ­
e n in g o f a n e tw o rk o f i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s b etw e en P h i l a d e l p h i a ,
New Y o rk , C h ic a g o , C am bridge, and W a sh in g to n , th e c o u n t r y ’ s
v i t a l c e n t e r s o f a n t h r o p o lo g i c a l r e s e a r c h .
I n summary i t was
w h at th e W a sh in g to n g ro u p h ad d e s i r e d a l l a lo n g , an a c h ie v e ­
m ent w h ich r e f l e c t e d th e S o c i e t y ’ s m a t u r i t y a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n
188
d e d i c a t e d t o t h e p ro m o tio n o f a n th ro p o lo g y .
By an y r e c k o n in g th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f
W a sh in g to n was no l o n g e r a f l e d g l i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n .
J u s t as
e a r l y t r e p i d a t i o n i n th e m a tte r o f p u b lis h in g a j o u r n a l
b e sp o k e w e a k n e ss , s o fo u n d in g th e A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t
w as an i n d i c a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h .
As e a r l y a s 1888 a l l d o u b ts
had b e e n e r a s e d a s t o w h e th e r th e S o c ie ty w ould s u r v i v e .
W ith i t s p e rm a n e n t home a t th e Cosmos C lu b , and a f t e r i t s
i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n 1887 f o r a te rm o f one th o u s a n d y e a r s , th e
S o c ie ty ex u d ed r o b u s t s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e .
I n l e s s th a n a d ecad e w h at b e g a n a s a n e x p e rim e n t
in v o lv in g fe w e r th a n t h i r t y W a s h in g to n ia n s had s u r p a s s e d th e
g r e a t e s t e x p e c ta tio n s of i t s fo u n d e rs.
F ra n k H am ilto n
C u sh in g was p l e a s a n t l y s u r p r i s e d , i n 1 8 7 9 , when th e S o c ie ty
showed s u f f i c i e n t p r o g r e s s t o w a r r a n t a n o th e r y e a r * 3
a c tiv ity .^
I t s g ro w th c o n tin u e d , h o w ev er, and a t th e tim e
o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n t h e r e w ere tw o h u n d red and s i x t y - f i v e m em bers.
P a r a l l e l i n g t h i s s te a d y r i s e i n m em bership was an e x p a n s io n
o f th e S o c i e t y 's o r b i t s o t h a t i t became i n c r e a s i n g l y n a t i o n a l
and e v e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s c o p e .
S c ie n c e m agazine c a r r i e d
r e p o r t s o f i t s p r o c e e d in g s , th e r e b y b r in g in g th e S o c ie ty t o
th e a t t e n t i o n o f men o u ts id e W ash in g to n and h e lp in g t o a t t r a c t
members th e w o rld o v e r .
I n 1888 th e r e w ere one h u n d red
f i f t e e n members from p la c e s o t h e r th a n W ash in g to n in c lu d in g
^ F r a n k H. C u sh in g t o [?] T u rn e r, Hay 1 5 , 1879,
C u sh in g P a p e r s , S o u th w e st Museum L i b r a r y .
189
t h i r t y - s e v e n from a b r o a d .
A few y e a r s l a t e r W J McGee,
p ro m o te r an d b o o s t e r o f W a sh in g to n ’s s c i e n t i f i c com m unity,
e p ito m iz e d th e s p i r i t o f th e S o c ie ty :
The A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W ash in g to n
was i n s t i t u t e d i n 1879 and f o r some y e a r s d r i f t e d
e a s i l y w ith th e t i d e ; b u t o f l a t e i t h a s aw akened
i n t o a c t i v i t y , i t s m em bership h a s re a c h e d a b o u t
3 5 0 , and i t s m e e tin g s have come t o be l a r g e l y #
a t t e n d e d , t o th e e x t e n t t h a t many a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s
h o ld th e s e m e e tin g s t o a f f o r d th e b e s t means in ^
th e c o u n t r y .o f m aking p u b l i c th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r
w o rk . . . . ^ 5
McGee’s a r d o r was w e ll fo u n d e d , f o r th r o u g h i t s d e e d s th e
S o c ie ty had p ro c la im e d i t s im p o rta n c e t o th e ad v an cem en t o f
a n th r o p o lo g y .
M ost o b v io u s w ere i t s u n s t i n t i n g e f f o r t s t o drum up
p o p u la r e n th u s ia s m f o r t h i s b ra n c h o f s c i e n c e .
N e it h e r
e n e rg y n o r ex p e n se w ere s p a re d i n c a r r y i n g o u t t h i s aim , and
no o p p o r tu n ity was n e g l e c t e d f o r s w e l lin g th e r a n k s o f a n t h r o ­
p o lo g y ’s d e v o te e s .
T h u s, i n 18 8 5 , when fem in ism m a n if e s te d
i t s e l f i n a n t h r o p o lo g i c a l c i r c l e s , l i t t l e
tim e w as l o s t
h e lp in g t o o rg a n iz e th e Women’s A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f
A m eric a.
One o f th e m ost i l l u s t r i o u s members o f th e new
g ro u p was M iss A lic e Cunningham F l e t c h e r , an a s s i s t a n t t o
Putnam a t th e P eab o d y , a c o l l a b o r a t o r o f th e B u reau o f
E th n o lo g y , and an e d i t o r o f th e A m erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t ; one
o f i t s m ost i n i m i t a b l e was T i l l y S te v e n s o n , whose o v e r b e a r in g
**^W J McGee t o F r a n c is A. M arch, O c to b e r 3 1 , 1 8 9 2 ,
C o rre sp o n d e n c e , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
190
p e r s o n a l i t y w ould have q u a l i f i e d h e r t o s i t f o r Thomas B e e r 's
p o r t r a i t o f th e G ild e d Age " T i t a n e s s . ”^
Y et th e A n th ro p o ­
l o g i c a l S o c ie ty was n o t g oaded i n t o o f f e r i n g a s s i s t a n c e .
It
d i d so o f i t s own v o l i t i o n , on th e g ro u n d s t h a t a n o th e r
o r g a n i z a t i o n was bound t o i n c r e a s e p o p u la r i n t e r e s t i n t h e
d is c ip lin e .
D raw ing women i n t o a n th ro p o lo g y was t h e d i s t a f f
g r o u p 's p r im a r y o b j e c t i v e , s o b y a b e t t i n g th e l a d i e s i n
a c h ie v in g t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s th e S o c ie ty was s e r v in g i t s own
p u rp o se o f g e n e r a t i n g s u p p o r t f o r a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . **7
The Women's A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f A m erica c o v e te d
in d e p en d en c e and h en ce was n o t i n th e h a b i t o f ac k n o w le d g in g
i t s d e b t t o th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n .
Y et
t h e r e w ere enough s i m i l a r i t i e s b etw een them t o i n d i c a t e t h a t
th e fo rm e r was p a t t e r n e d on th e o l d e r o r g a n i z a t i o n .
p u rp o se th e y w ere i d e n t i c a l and i n p o l i t y a lm o s t s o .
In
L ik e
th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty th e Women's S o c i e t y was d iv id e d
^^M rs. S te v e n s o n was th e t e r r o r o f th e B u reau o f
E th n o lo g y : "She i s d e s c r ib e d a s a s t r o n g - w i l l e d and dom i­
n a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l ; sh e commanded o t h e r s t o do h e r b i d d i n g .
What she w a n te d she to o k —-ev en a c h a i r someone e l s e m ig h t be
u s i n g . " N e il M. J u d d , The B u reau o f A m erican E th n o lo g y : A
P a r t i a l H i s t o r y (Norm an, 6 k l a . , 1 9 6 /0 , p . 5 ? ; f o r a n e x c e l i e n t a c c o u n t o f h e r , A lic e F l e t c h e r , and th e Women's
A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty se e Nancy O e s t r e ic h L u r i e , "Women i n
E a r l y A n th r o p o lo g y ," P io n e e r s o f A m erican A n th ro p o lo g y : The
U ses o f B io g ra p h y , e d . Ju n e ttelm ( S e a t t l e , W a sh ., 196b ) ,
31-61.
^ T h e O r g a n iz a tio n an d th e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e
Women's A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty (W a sh in g to n , t? .G ., 1 6 8 5 ),
p. i l .
191
i n t o s p e c i a l i z e d s e c t i o n s ( a r c h e o lo g y , c h i l d - l i f e , e th n o lo g y ,
f o l k l o r e , p s y c h o lo g y , and s o c i o l o g y ) ; m e e tin g s w ere h e ld
b iw e e k ly , November th r o u g h A p r i l , and c o n s i s t e d o f l e c t u r e s
and d i s c u s s i o n s ; r e c o r d s o f p r o c e e d in g s w ere p u b lis h e d
a n n u a lly ; m em bership r e q u ir e m e n ts w ere n e g l i g i b l e ; and
g o v e rn in g pow er was c e n t r a l i z e d i n a B o ard o f D i r e c t o r s .
The Women’ s A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f A m erica a l s o fo llo w e d
th e S o c i e t y ’ s exam ple o f f o r g in g ah ead w i t h i t s o p e r a t io n
ev en th o u g h few o f i t s members w ere t r a i n e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s ,
and o f b e in g c a u t i o u s a b o u t s t a r t i n g p u b l i c a t i o n s d u r in g
i t s e a rly l i f e .
T h e r e f o r e , a lth o u g h th e l a d i e s r e s o l v e d t o
re m a in autonom ous u n t i l ’’th e tim e when s c ie n c e s h a l l r e g a r d
o n ly th e w o rk , n o t th e w o r k e r ," i t was c r y s t a l c l e a r from
whence th e y d e r iv e d i n s p i r a t i o n . 24-8
I n w aging t h e i r cam p aig n f o r fe m in in e r i g h t s i n
s c ie n c e th e women r e c e i v e d o t h e r fo rm s o f a s s i s t a n c e from
th e S o c i e t y .
I n 1889 th e c r e a t i o n o f a l i b r a r y was h e lp e d
by M ajo r P o w e ll, who o f f e r e d them s h e l f sp a c e w h ich he had
r e s e r v e d f o r t h e i r u se a t th e B ureau o f E th n o lo g y .
On
s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s i n th e n i n e t i e s th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty a r r a n g e d f o r th e S o c i e t i e s t o m eet j o i n t l y .
U s u a lly
t h i s was f o r th e p u rp o se o f h e a r in g a v i s i t i n g l e c t u r e r ,
|iQ
^ ° A n ita Newcomb McGee, " H i s t o r i c a l S k e tc h o f th e
Women’ s A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c i e t y o f A m e ric a ," O r g a n iz a tio n
and H i s t o r i c a l S k e tc h o f th e Women’s A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty
o f A m erica {.W ashington, P .O ., 1 8 8 9 ), lfe -1 7 .
192
and when th e g u e s t h ap p en ed t o be a fe m a le , th e Women's
A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f A m erica h ad th e h o n o r o f b e in g
th e h o s t o r g a n i z a t i o n .
C o o p e ra tio n o f t h i s s o r t was
f a c i l i t a t e d b y th e f a c t t h a t c e r t a i n l e a d e r s i n b o th
S o c i e t i e s w ere h u sb a n d and w if e , n o ta b ly th e W eston F l i n t s ,
th e M asons, and th e McGees.
Thus th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n h ad so m e th in g o f a v e s te d i n t e r e s t i n
th e Women's A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f A m eric a.
By c o n ­
t r i b u t i n g t o i t s s u c c e s s th e S o c ie ty was s im u lta n e o u s ly
a i d i n g th e c a u se o f a n th ro p o lo g y i n g e n e r a l .^
The S o c ie ty a l s o p rom oted th e s tu d y o f man th r o u g h
p u b l i c l e c t u r e s h e ld a t th e N a tio n a l Museum.
I n a u g u r a te d
i n M arch, 1 8 8 2 , th e S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s w ere in te n d e d t o
in tr o d u c e a u d ie n c e s o f n o n - s p e c i a l i s t s t o r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s
and a d v a n c e s .
O tis T. M a so n 's "What i s A n th ro p o lo g y ? " m ig h t
be ta k e n a s an a r c h e t y p i c a l a tte m p t t o g iv e th e i n t e l l i g e n t
laym an a b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r b r a n c h o f
s c ie n c e .
Mason a l s o e x e m p lif ie d th e q u a l i t y o f l e c t u r e r s ,
who i n v a r i a b l y w ere men o f r e c o g n iz e d co m p e te n c e .
W illia m
H enry H olm es, M a lle r y , McGee, P o w e ll, and o t h e r f a m i l i a r
f i g u r e s p e r e n n i a l l y d o n a te d t h e i r s e r v i c e s , th e r e b y r e ­
a f f i r m i n g t h e i r com m itm ents t o th e p o p u l a r i z a t i o n o f s c i e n ­
t i f i c k n o w led g e .
I t was th r o u g h t h e i r e f f o r t s t h a t th e
J McGee t o S u san A. M e n d e n h a ll, November 2 4 ,
1 8 9 3 , W J McGee t o W eston F l i n t , M arch 8 , 1894, and W J
McGee t o W a sh in g to n M atth ew s, M arch 2 3 , 1 8 9 5 , C o rre sp o n d ­
e n c e , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
193
S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s came t o be a p erm an en t f i x t u r e o f W a s h in g to n 's
in te lle c tu a l l i f e .
E x c e p t f o r a te m p o ra ry la p s e i n th e e a r l y
1 8 9 0 Ts e v e r y y e a r saw a s e r i e s o f a t l e a s t tw e lv e l e c t u r e s
w hich w ere s t r u c t u r e d i n t o t h r e e o r f o u r w e e k ly c o u r s e s ,
e a c h h a v in g a d e f i n i t e th e m e .
By t h i s a p p ro a c h r e s i d e n t s
o f th e F e d e r a l C i t y w ere a b le t o e x p e r ie n c e a l i t t l e
o f th e
e x c ite m e n t t h a t c o lo r e d l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y s c ie n c e i n
A m e r ic a .^
A l l th r o u g h th e 1880*s th e S o c ie ty p e r s i s t e n t l y
so u g h t t o a ro u s e i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n t i f i c p u r s u i t s , b u t n o th in g
m atch ed i t s b id f o r p o p u la r a t t e n t i o n i n 18 9 3 .
A t th e a n n u a l
m e e tin g t h a t y e a r an amendment t o th e b y -la w s was p a s s e d
w h ich p e r m it te d th e B oard o f M anagers t o ’’o f f e r p r i z e s f o r
n o ta b le o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o a n th r o p o lo g y .”
T h is was
th e w ork o f W J McGee whose a m b itio u s schem es f o r h im s e lf
and th e S o c ie ty so m etim es r a i s e d th e h a c k le s o f f e llo w B oard
m e m b e r s . I n 1892 he h ad t r i e d t o change th e b y -la w s so
t h a t income from l i f e m em berships w ould be ea rm ark ed f o r
m o n e ta ry p r i z e s .
The g a t h e r i n g c lo u d s o f d e p r e s s io n , p lu s
th e S o c i e t y ’s sh a k y econom ic s t a t u s , made t h i s seem u n w ise ,
and M cG ee's p r o p o s a l was n o t a c c e p te d b y th e B o a rd .
But
s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r th e S o c ie ty v o te d u n an im o u sly i n f a v o r
^ S a t u r d a y L e c tu r e s . . .
L e c tu r e s a r e c o n ta in e d i n i b i d .
1 8 8 2 ; A nnual S c h e d u le s o f
~*^0tis T. Mason t o F r e d e r ic k W. H odge, J a n u a r y 1 1 ,
1 8 9 3 , C o rre sp o n d e n c e an d P a p e r s , 1 8 9 1 -1 8 9 7 , i b i d .
194
o f b e s to w in g aw ard s p ro v id e d th e fu n d s came fro m a n o th e r
so u rce .
Now McGee had a l l th e leew ay he n e e d e d , f o r h i s
pow ers o f s o l i c i t a t i o n w ere g r e a t .
I n no tim e he s e c u r e d
a b e n e f a c t o r from th e r a n k s o f th e S o c i e t y , D r. R o b e rt H.
Lam born, o f New Y o rk , and a t th e end o f M arch came th e
announcem ent t h a t th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W ash in g to n
was o f f e r i n g aw ards o f one h u n d red tw e n t y - f iv e d o l l a r s and
s e v e n t y - f i v e d o l l a r s f o r th e tw o " c l e a r e s t s ta te m e n ts o f
th e e le m e n ts t h a t go t o make up th e m o st u s e f u l c i t i z e n
r e g a r d l e s s o f o c c u p a tio n ." O th e r th a n a maximum l i m i t o f
tw o th o u s a n d w ords and a s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t e s s a y s b e a r
pseudonym s, t h e r e w ere no r u l e s f o r c o n t e s t a n t s t o f o llo w .
52
The c i t i z e n s h i p e s s a y c o m p e titio n was underw ay.
From many p a r t s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , a s w e ll a s
from Denmark, E n g la n d , S p a in , S y r i a , and J a v a c o m p o s itio n s
p o u re d i n t o McGee who was C hairm an o f th e P r iz e C om m ittee.
On M arch 1 , 18 9 4 , a f t e r f o r ty - tw o m a n u s c r ip ts had b e e n
r e c e i v e d , th e c o m p e titio n was c lo s e d and th e b u s in e s s o f
e v a l u a t i o n commenced.
F i r s t a p r e lim in a r y s c r e e n in g o f a l l
p a p e rs was p e rfo rm e d b y McGee’s co m m ittee w h ich in c lu d e d
C u sh in g , F l i n t , and M ason.
P a p e rs e n t i r e l y d e v o id o f m e r it
w ere e l i m i n a t e d , w h ile th e tw e n ty - f iv e o r t h i r t y t h a t
s u r v iv e d w ere g iv e n p r o v i s i o n a l g r a d e s .
Then th e e s s a y s
w en t t o a p a n e l o f f i n a l ju d g e s c o n s i s t i n g o f D a n ie l B r in to n ,
^^M in u tes o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W ashing­
t o n , December 2 0 , 1892 and J a n u a r y 1 7 , 1 8 9 3 , i b i d .
195
th e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , M e lv ill e W. F u l l e r , C h ie f J u s t i c e o f
th e U n ite d S t a t e s , D a n ie l C o it G ilm an, V ic e - P r e s id e n t A d la i
E . S te v e n s o n , and D r. L am bom .
These C om m issioners o f
Award h a d b e e n p a i n s t a k i n g l y s e l e c t e d b y McGee who o p e r a te d
on th e p re m is e t h a t a d m ir a b le , w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d A m ericans
w ere b e s t a b le t o ju d g e q u a l i t i e s o f i d e a l c i t i z e n s h i p . 53
T h e ir v e r d i c t c o n s id e r e d s t r e n g t h o f i n d i v i d u a l
c h a r a c t e r and l o y a l t y t o r e p u b l i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s t o be th e
re q u is ite v irtu e s .
T h is w as p r e d i c t a b l e c o n s id e r in g th e
p a t r i o t i c im p u lse w h ich A m erican c u l t u r e p ro d u c e d in th e
1890Ts a s an a n t i d o t e t o r a d i c a l i s m . 5Z* T o t a l l y u n e x p e c te d ,
h o w ev er, was th e a w a rd in g o f se co n d p r i z e t o th e C hairm an
o f th e P r i z e C o m m ittee, h i s e s s a y b e in g deemed s u p e r i o r t o
a l l o t h e r s e x c e p t t h a t w r i t t e n b y h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w , Simon
Newcomb.
McGee c o n f e s s e d p r i v a t e l y t h a t he had s u b m itte d
th e p a p e r h o p in g t h a t t h i s w o u ld p ro m p t o t h e r members o f
th e S o c ie ty t o e n t e r m a n u s c r ip ts .
I r o n i c a l l y , h i s a tte m p t
t o g e n e r a te e n th u s ia s m tu r n e d i n t o a s o u rc e o f e m b arra ssm e n t
and r e g r e t when th e aw ards w ere a n n o u n c e d .55
T hen, a f t e r
55W J McGee t o D a n ie l G. B r in to n , M arch 5 , 1894,
and W J McGee t o R o b e rt H. L am bom , M arch 2 6 , 1894,
C o rre s p o n d e n c e , i b i d .
54"None a re a n a r c h i s t i c , ” r e p o r t e d McGee w ith an
a i r o f r e l i e f a f t e r he h ad exam ined th e e s s a y s . W J McGee
t o R o b e rt H. L am bom , May 8 , 1 8 9 4 , i b i d .
55W J McGee t o R o b e rt H. L am bom , Ju n e 9 , 18 9 4 ,
ib id .
196
th e w in n in g e s s a y s a p p e a re d in th e O c to b e r, 1894 A m erican
A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , came e x p r e s s io n s o f d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n fro m
u n su c c e ssfu l a u th o rs .
B o th th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e
c o n t e s t and th e s ta n d a r d s o f judgm ent w ere ta k e n t o t a s k ,
as i n a l e t t e r from P arkm an, Ohio w h ich c o n c lu d e d : "Now i f
y o u r S o c ie ty t o g e t h e r w ith M r. Newcomb and th e com m ission
o f e m in e n t men w i l l come t o t h i s town [and] a t t e n d th e
p u b l i c s c h o o l you may l e a r n t h a t w hich you o u g h t t o have
le a r n e d b e f o r e by s tu d y in g some r e a d in g le s s o n s i n
A p p le to n ’s F i f t h R e a d e r. . . . ” 56
A c tu a lly th e e s s a y c o m p e titio n c o u ld n o t have b e e n
more i n k e e p in g w ith th e aim s and c h a r a c t e r o f th e A n th ro ­
p o l o g i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n .
"The e le m e n ts t h a t go t o
make up th e m o st u s e f u l c i t i z e n " was a s u b j e c t a s b ro a d as
M ason’s d e f i n i t i o n o f a n th r o p o lo g y , and conform ed t o th e
A m erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t ’s p r i n c i p l e o f e n c o u ra g in g a r t i c l e s
" n o t b u rd e n e d w i t h t e c h n i c a l i t i e s . " 5^
N o tic e s o f th e
c o m p e titio n h ad b e e n p r i n t e d i n le a r n e d j o u r n a l s a s w e l l a s
n ew sp ap ers w i t h g e n e r a l r e a d e r s h i p s .
Thus th e S o c ie ty was
t r u e t o i t s p o l i c y o f s e r v in g a t once s p e c i a l i s t s and laym en.
Y et w h ile th e e s s a y c o n t e s t was open t o a l l — j u s t a s th e
i n v i t a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e S o c ie ty was f r e e l y e x te n d e d —
55W. J . B e s to r t o W J McGee, J a n u a r y 2 1 , 1 8 9 5 , McGee
P a p e r s , G e n e ra l C o rre s p o n d e n c e , Box 1 , LC.
5^M in u tes o f th e B oard o f M an ag ers, M arch 1 5 , 1898,
ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
197
i t was s u b t l y d o m in a te d b y a h a n d f u l o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s .
In
o t h e r w o rd s, th e s u b s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n o f e l i t i s t d i r e c t i o n
w h ich p r e v a i l e d i n th e S o c ie ty was p e r p e t u a te d i n th e
c o m p e titio n .
F i n a l l y , th e c i t i z e n s h i p e s s a y c o n t e s t was
d e s ig n e d t o p r o v id e n a t i o n a l p u b l i c i t y and t o e n c o u ra g e th e
s tu d y o f a n th r o p o lo g y i n i t s w id e s t s e n s e .
T hese f a c t o r s w ere v e r y much on th e mind o f W J
McGee, who n e v e r p e r m it te d h i s th o u g h ts t o w an d er f a r from
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e p r e s t i g e and p ro m o tio n o f W a s h in g to n 's
i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity.
H is f e r t i l e b r a i n c o n c e iv e d o f a
g a la x y o f le a r n e d b o d ie s a t th e C a p i t a l , a i d in g th e a d v a n c e ­
m ent o f s c ie n c e and c u l t u r e w h ile d e v e lo p in g c o n c u r r e n t ly
w ith th e d i s c i p l i n e s th e y s u s t a i n e d .
T h is m e n ta l image
e n c a p s u la te d th e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty
o f W a sh in g to n .
I t was e s p e c i a l l y im p o r ta n t a s a s e m in a l
in f lu e n c e i n th e c r e a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s
d u r in g th e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
I t w as, i n f a c t , w hat
h i s w ife h ad hoped h e r S o c ie ty m ig h t becom e: " th e m in u te
s e e d from w h ich a g r e a t f o r e s t w i l l s p r i n g . " 88
58A n ita Newcomb McGee, H i s t o r i c a l S k e tc h , p . 2 2 .
CHAPTER VI
"WITHIN ONE ORGANIZATION"
The n e x t two d e c a d e s w itn e s s e d th e c r e a t i o n o f a
s e r i e s o f hom ologous o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h ich e v o lv e d i n t o th e
W ash in g to n Academy o f S c ie n c e s .
F i r s t came th e B i o l o g i c a l
S o c ie ty in 1 8 8 0 , fo llo w e d f o u r y e a r s l a t e r b y th e C h em ical
and E n to m o lo g ic a l S o c i e t i e s , t h e n th e N a ti o n a l G e o g ra p h ic
i n 1 8 8 8 , a n d , i n 1893, th e G e o lo g ic a l S o c i e t y o f W a sh in g to n .
T h is p r o c e s s ro u n d e d -o u t th e f o r m a tiv e p h a se o f th e C a p i t a l 's
i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity.
By th e e n d o f th e c e n tu r y t h e r e
w ere s e p a r a te com ponents f o r h a l f a d o ze n d i f f e r e n t
s p e c i a l t i e s , a l l fu s e d i n a l o c a l academ y.
Many new
s o c i e t i e s s h a re d th e same fo u n d e rs and o f f i c e r s , and
f r e q u e n t l y th e s e men w ere a l s o f e llo w members o f th e Cosmos
C lu b .
Thus th e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f in d e p e n d e n t b o d ie s was
accom panied b y th e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f p e r s o n a l and i n s t i ­
tu tio n a l t i e s .
F u rth e rm o re , th e g ro u p s w h ic h em erged i n
th e e i g h t i e s and n i n e t i e s te n d e d t o h o ld m u tu a l o b j e c t i v e s
and d i s p l a y s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
E ach s to o d f o r th e
in c r e a s e and d i f f u s i o n o f k n o w led g e, a common aim w h ich
i n v a r i a b l y l e d them t o prom ote b o th p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s e a r c h
and p o p u la r i n t e r e s t .
S trik in g ly , b u t n o t s u rp ris in g ly —
198
199
f o r th e y w ere r o o te d i n th e same s o i l a s th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty — th e y a p p e a re d t o be b r a n c h e s o f a s i n g l e t r e e .
These s o c i e t i e s b e g a n a s o u t l e t s f o r men i n t e r e s t e d
in p a r t i c u l a r b r a n c h e s o f s c i e n c e .
U s u a lly f o u n d e rs w ere
em ployed b y f e d e r a l a g e n c ie s and th e e s ta b li s h m e n t o f
s o c i e t i e s r e f l e c t e d th e m a t u r i t y o f t h e i r s p e c i a l t i e s i n
th e g o v e rn m e n t.
The G e o lo g ic a l was form ed i n th e o f f i c e
o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y d i r e c t o r , C h a rle s
W a lc o tt; C h a rle s R i le y o f th e D ep artm en t o f A g r i c u l t u r e ,
i s s u e s th e c a l l f o r th e B i o l o g i c a l ’s f i r s t m e e tin g ; and th e
C hem ical was b o r n a t th e Army M e d ic a l Museum.
New o r g a n i­
z a t i o n s d id n o t r e s u l t from i n f l u e n c e s t h a t w ere e n t i r e l y
p o s i t i v e , h o w ev er.
To a n e x t e n t t h e i r a p p e a ra n c e s w ere
c a u se d b y th e r e l u c t a n c e o f th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c ie ty t o
e n c o u ra g e s p e c i a l s e c t i o n s .
When p r o s p e c ts f o r a G e o lo g ic a l
body w ere u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n G eorge Brown Goode a rg u e d i n
f a v o r o f re m a in in g w i t h i n th e o l d e r a s s o c i a t i o n , b u t t o no
a v a il.
As th e B i o l o g i s t s and A n th r o p o lo g is ts had a l r e a d y
d is c o v e r e d , s e p a r a t i o n was th e b e s t way t o a c h ie v e th e
d e s i r e d c o m b in a tio n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l and a m a te u r p a r t i c i ­
p a tio n . 1
^M in u tes o f th e C o u n c il, F e b ru a ry 2 1 , 1 8 9 3 , A rc h iv e s
o f th e G e o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , U n ite d S t a t e s Geo­
l o g i c a l S u rv e y L i b r a r y ( h e n c e f o r th GSW A r c h iv e s , USGS);
W hitman C ro ss an d G. K. G i l b e r t s R e p o rt o f a Com m ittee from
th e G e o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty on th e H is to r y o f th e J o in t f to m m is s io n o f th e S c i e n t i f i c S o c i e t i e s o f W ash in g to n ( h a s h in g t o n , D .C ., 1 8 9 7 ), p . 2 .
200
I n o r d e r t o s e rv e b o th e x p e r t s and d e v o te e s member­
s h ip i n th e s o c i e t i e s was made e a s i l y a t t a i n a b l e .
F o r th e
m ost p a r t o n ly a m a j o r i t y v o te was n e e d ed f o r a d m is s io n
and t h e r e w ere no s p e c i a l r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r c a n d i d a t e s .
In d e e d , c o n s t i t u t i o n s w ere w r i t t e n s o a s t o a t t r a c t lay m en .
The E n to m o lo g ic a l, f o r e x a m p le , w elcom ed th o s e " i n any way
i n t e r e s t e d " i n th e s tu d y o f e n to m o lo g y .^
on th e o t h e r hand
in s tr u m e n ts o f g o v ern m en t g u a r a n te e d t i g h t c o n t r o l b y th e
e x e c u tiv e c o u n c i l s .
I n v a r i a b l y so m e th in g re s e m b lin g th e
s k e l e t a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty was
a d o p te d , and w ith o u t e x c e p tio n t h i s made f o r s t u r d y o r g a n i­
z a tio n .
W hile e l e c t i o n s w ere h e l d a n n u a lly c e r t a i n men
te n d e d t o be p e r e n n i a l o f f i c e h o l d e r s — and o f t e n i n more
th a n one g ro u p .
The e x p e d ie n c y o f t h i s p r a c t i c e i s c l e a r ,
th o u g h i t i s h a r d t o im ag in e how some i n d i v i d u a l s w ere a b le
t o a t t e n d a l l th e b o a rd m e e tin g s r e q u i r e d o f th e m .
A n o th e r
f e a t u r e b o rro w ed fro m th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l was th e d i v i s i o n
o f members i n t o s p e c i a l i z e d s e c t i o n s .
The B i o l o g i c a l
S o c ie ty made t h i s one o f i t s f i r s t ite m s o f b u s in e s s so t h a t
th e p r e s e n t a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n o f t e c h n i c a l p a p e r s c o u ld
b e g in a t o n c e .^
C o n s e q u e n tly th e a t t e n t i o n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s
was a r o u s e d , and once th e y v i s i t e d th e S o c ie ty th e y w ere
^ p ro c e e d in g s o f th e E n to m o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W ashi n g to n , I (1&84-), 5 .
^M in u tes o f th e C o u n c il, F e b ru a ry 1 1 , 1881, A rc h iv e s
o f th e B i o l o g i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n ( h e n c e f o r th BSW
A r c h iv e s ) , I , S I .
201
f u r t h e r im p re s se d b y th e m odest i n i t i a t i o n and m em bership
fees.
M ost o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o l l e c t e d d u es o f o n ly one o r two
d o l l a r s a y e a r , th e n o ta b le e x c e p tio n b e in g th e N a tio n a l
G e o g ra p h ic S o c ie ty w h ich c h a rg e d f i v e d o l l a r s .
Y et th e
N a tio n a l G e o g ra p h ic showed th e g r e a t e s t r i s e i n m em b ership,
from 167 i n 1888 t o a lm o s t 2500 by th e end o f th e c e n t u r y . **
D o u b tle s s t h i s was due t o th e q u a l i t y o f i t s j o u r n a l ,
f o r w h ile a lm o s t a l l s o c i e t i e s h ad p u b l i c a t i o n s none was
co m p arab le t o th e N a tio n a l G eo g rap h ic M ag azin e.
O nly th e
G e o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty f a i l e d t o g e t o u t some s o r t o f p ro c e e d ­
in g s o r b u l l e t i n o f t r a n s a c t i o n s p r i o r t o 1898.
A t th e
o u t s e t , a s had b e e n t r u e o f th e A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t, th e s e
c o n ta in e d j u s t re su m e s and a b s t r a c t s su m m arizin g m e e tin g s ,
and d e s p i t e th e i n e v i t a b l e p ro b lem s e n c o u n te r e d i n m a in ta in in g
s e r i a l s , th e y im proved w ith a g e .
I t a l s o became c u sto m a ry
f o r j o u r n a l s t o be d i s t r i b u t e d t o l i b r a r i e s and r e s e a r c h
i n s t i t u t i o n s on ex ch an g e b a s e s .
T h u s, n in e te e n y e a r s a f t e r
i t f i r s t a p p e a r e d , L e s t e r Ward c o u ld l e g i t i m a t e l y s t a t e t h a t
th e P ro c e e d in g s o f th e B i o l o g i c a l S o c ie ty o f W ash in g to n was
a s s u i t a b l e a medium f o r o r i g i n a l d e s c r i p t i o n s a s any n a t u r a l
s c ie n c e j o u r n a l i n th e c o u n try .* 5 N e v e r th e le s s , i t h a r d ly
^Edwin C. Buxbaum, C o l l e c t o r ’s G uide t o th e N a tio n a l
G e o g ra p h ic M agazine (W ilm in g to n , £> el., 1 9 6 2 ), p p . 2 0 -2 1 .
^ L e s te r F . Ward t o O th n ie l G. M arsh, May 4 , 1898,
M arsh L e tt e r b o o k s , Peabody Museum L i b r a r y , Y ale U n i v e r s i t y .
202
s u r p a s s e d th e M agazine i n e i t h e r form o r c o n t e n t .
The
f a m i l i a r N a ti o n a l G e o g ra p h ic o f to d a y i s fu n d a m e n ta lly
d i f f e r e n t fro m th e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y v e r s i o n .
In s te a d
o f p i c t o r i a l g lim p s e s th e o r i g i n a l p r e s e n te d s c h o l a r l y
p a p e r s , and r a t h e r th a n b e in g a g e n e r a l p e r i o d i c a l i t s e rv e d
a s a means o f co m m u n icatio n b etw e en g e o g r a p h e r s .
" I t s aim
i s t o convey new in f o r m a t i o n ," w ro te W J McGee i n 18 9 6 ,
"an d a t th e same tim e t o r e f l e c t c u r r e n t o p in io n on g e o £
lo g ic a l m a tte r s .”
By p r i n t i n g f u l l le n g th a r t i c l e s , th e
p r o c e e d in g s o f th e S o c i e t y , c o rre s p o n d e n c e and book r e v ie w s ,
and th r o u g h th e e x c e l l e n t maps w h ich w ere alw ay s a h a l l ­
m ark, th e M agazine e n jo y e d im m ediate s u c c e s s .
Much o f i t s
p o p u l a r i t y c o u ld be c r e d i t e d t o th e b r i l l i a n c e o f i t s
e d ito r ia l b o ard .
I n th e m i d - n i n e t i e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , th e
M agazine b e g a n r e p o r t i n g th e a r c t i c a d v e n tu r e s o f L ie u te n a n t
R o b e rt E . P e a r y , a member o f th e S o c i e t y .
O th e r tim e ly
c o n t r i b u t i o n s d e a l t w ith th e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and g e o ­
g r a p h i c a l im p o rta n c e o f th e C a rib b e a n I s l a n d s and th e
P h ilip p in e s .
a l.
The N a tio n a l G eo g rap h ic M agazine was e x c e p ti o n ­
Y et th e p u b l i c a t i o n w ith th e re d d is h -b ro w n c o v e r
( s y m b o lic a l ly m a tc h in g th e c o l o r o f th e S m ith s o n ia n b u i l d ­
in g s ) seem ed t o s ta n d f o r th e v i t a l i t y o f W a sh in g to n ’s
i n t e l l e c t u a l e s ta b lis h m e n t.
®W J McGee, "The Work o f th e N a tio n a l G eo g rap h ic
S o c i e t y , " N a tio n a l G e o g ra p h ic M ag azin e, V II (A u g u st, 1 8 9 6 ),
258.
203
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r p u b l i c a t i o n s th e s o c i e t i e s u se d
r e g u l a r m e e tin g s f o r th e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c k n o w led g e.
W ith a l l g ro u p s h a v in g th e same O c to b e r th r o u g h May s c h e d u le
i t was n e c e s s a r y t o a rra n g e d a te s so a s t o a v o id c o n f l i c t s
f o r th e many men b e lo n g in g t o more th a n one g r o u p .
A ls o ,
th e o r g a n iz a tio n s s h a re d common m e e tin g s i t e s : th e S m ith ­
s o n ia n b e f o r e 1 8 8 7 , th e Cosmos C lub a f t e r w a r d , and th e
B u ild e rs * Exchange H a ll w h ic h was u se d f o r a n n u a l m e e tin g s .
J a n u a r y was when a n n u a l m e e tin g s c u s to m a r il y to o k p la c e
and on th e s e o c c a s io n s o f f i c e r s w ere e l e c t e d and p r e s i d e n t i a l
a d d resses d e liv e re d .
D u rin g th e o t h e r m onths members and
t h e i r g u e s ts h e a rd and c r i t i c i z e d t e c h n i c a l p a p e r s .
The
G e o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty d iv id e d i t s tim e b e tw e e n " I n fo r m a l
C om m unications” and " R e g u la r P ro g ra m s ,” th e r e b y p r o v id in g
f o r b o th ex tem p o ran eo u s re m a rk s and l e c t u r e s p r e p a r e d i n
advance.
Among a l l s o c i e t i e s an a v e ra g e o f r o u g h ly 30 t o
40 p e r c e n t o f th e members came t o m e e tin g s , w ith p r o ­
f e s s i o n a l s c o m p ris in g th e c o re o f e v e r y r e g u l a r a t te n d a n c e .
These w ere th e men who gave and r e c e i v e d th e m ost from
m o n th ly s e s s i o n s .
c o n trib u te s . . .
As McGee s a i d o f t h e G e o g ra p h e rs , ”e a c h
t o th e common s to c k o f know ledge . . .
and t h e i r r e s e a r c h e s a re s t i m u l a t e d b y th e e n c o u ra g em e n t
and a s s o c i a t i o n s fo u n d i n th e S o c i e t y . ” 7
7I b i d . , 257
204
P ro m o tin g d i f f e r e n t b ra n c h e s o f s c ie n c e a l s o r e q u i r e d
w h e ttin g th e p u b l i c ’s a p p e t i t e , and t h i s th e s o c i e t i e s made
one o f t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e t a s k s .
" I p o s s e s s o n ly th e same
g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t i n th e s u b j e c t o f g eo g rap h y t h a t s h o u ld be
f e l t b y e v e ry e d u c a te d m a n ,” p ro c la im e d G a r d in e r G reene
Q
H ubb ard .
B ut w h at i f th e o t h e r men w ere n e i t h e r a s w e ll
e d u c a te d n o r a s i n s t i n c t i v e l y c u r io u s ?
become s t i m u l a t e d ?
How c o u ld th e y
The N a tio n a l G eo g rap h ic M agazine m ig h t
engage th e a t t e n t i o n o f lay m en , b u t f o r th e m ost p a r t o t h e r
j o u r n a l s w ould be r e a d o n ly by w o rk e rs i n th e p a r t i c u l a r
fie ld s .
L e s t e r Ward was rem in d ed o f t h i s when he w as t o l d
t h a t ’’s u c h w r i t i n g s a s y o u rs a re th e le a v e n , a v e r y l i t t l e
o f w h ich u l t i m a t e l y a f f e c t s th e w hole m ass, b u t f o r my
p r e s e n t p u rp o s e s I c a n n o t w a it f o r th e b re a d t o
’r i s e . ’ ”
Q
F o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e was a te c h n iq u e t h a t o f f e r e d im m ediate
r e s u l t s : p ro g ram s g e a re d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l
a u d ie n c e s .
D u rin g th e e i g h t i e s and n i n e t i e s m o st g ro u p s
a tte m p te d p o p u la r l e c t u r e s and d e m o n s tr a tio n s .
The
A n th r o p o lo g ic a l and B i o l o g i c a l S o c i e t i e s o f f e r e d i n t r o ­
d u c to r y c o u r s e s a t th e S m ith s o n ia n ; th e N a tio n a l G e o g ra p h ic
gave s e v e r a l l e c t u r e s i l l u s t r a t e d b y m aps, l a n t e r n s l i d e s ,
and s t e r e o p t i c v ie w s ; and th e C hem ical h e ld a p u b l i c
^Q uoted i n Buxbaum, C o l l e c t o r ’s G u id e , p p . 1 8 -1 9 .
^Sam uel P . L a n g le y t o L e s t e r F . W ard, December 1 9 ,
1 8 9 0 , Ward P a p e r s , A u to g ra p h s , I I I , 56 , Brown U n i v e r s i t y
L ib ra ry .
205
e x h i b i t i o n o f " l i q u i d a i r " A t C olum bian U niversity.*"**
Thus th e new s o c i e t i e s te n d e d t o u t i l i z e th e same m ethods
f o r k i n d l i n g p o p u la r a p p r e c i a t i o n j u s t a s th e y h ad f o r
a d v a n c in g t h e i r own s p e c i a l i t i e s .
B e s id e s g e n e r a t i n g e n th u s ia s m t h e s e p a r a l l e l e f f o r t s
and common u n d e r ta k in g s , a c c e l e r a t e d a movement t o u n i f y a l l
th e s o c i e t i e s .
Two y e a r s a f t e r le a v in g th e p r e s id e n c y o f
th e Cosmos C lu b , C h a rle s W a lc o tt n o te d a h e ig h te n e d a w a re n e ss
t h a t "a c e n t r a l , we1 1 - o r g a n iz e d and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e body ca n
be o f g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e t o i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s o f w o rk e rs
in d i f f e r e n t w ay s, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h e l p in g t o a ro u s e p u b l i c
i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and i n d i r e c t i n g i t
t o th e b e s t e n d s ."
Though i t s t a r t e d g r a d u a l l y , by th e end
o f th e c e n tu r y W a s h in g to n ’s i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity e x p e r i ­
enced a c o n c e r te d d r iv e t o " b r in g w i t h i n one o r g a n i z a t i o n
th e le a d in g p e r s o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t i e s a t
th e N a tio n a l C a p i t a l . "*'*'
D u rin g th e e a r l y e i g h t i e s t h e r e b eg an t o be h i n t s
t h a t W a s h in g to n ’ s s c i e n t i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s w ere in c h in g
to w ard some s o r t o f f e d e r a t e d s t a t u s .
E ach y e a r m arked a
p e r c e p t i b l e s t e p c l o s e r t o u n io n , b u t p r o g r e s s was p a i n f u l l y
^ A n n u a l R e p o rt o f th e S e c r e t a r y , J a n u a r y 1 2 , 1899,
A rc h iv e s o f th e C hem ical S o c ie ty o f W ash in g to n ( h e n c e f o r th
CSW A r c h iv e s ) .
^ C h a r l e s D. W a lc o tt t o Edward W. M o rle y , J a n u a r y
9 , 1900, M o rley P a p e r s , Box 3 , LC.
206
s lo w .
I n th e s p r in g o f 1882 th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty
s u g g e s te d t h a t i t sen d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o c o n f e r w ith
d e l e g a t e s fro m th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l and B i o l o g i c a l S o c i e t i e s
t o d i s c u s s c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f th e t h r e e i n t o a ’‘c e n t r a l academ y
o f s c i e n c e s , w ith s e c t i o n s d e v o te d t o th e s e v e r a l d e p a rtm e n ts
of s c i e n c e . T w o
le n g th y m e e tin g s r e s u l t e d i n a p r o s p e c tu s
o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n t o be known a s th e W ash in g to n Academy o f
S c ie n c e s .
W hile th e a f f i l i a t e s r e t a i n e d t h e i r s e p a r a te
i d e n t i t i e s , th e Academy w ould be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a common
p u b l i c a t i o n o f t r a n s a c t i o n s , a r r a n g in g s e s s i o n s o f th e
u n i t e d s o c i e t i e s , th e e l e c t i o n o f i t s own o f f i c e r s and
h o n o r a r y f e l l o w s , c o l l e c t i n g m em bership f e e s , and c o n d u c tin g
c o u r s e s o f p o p u la r l e c t u r e s . 13 P o p u la r l e c t u r e s w ere
re p u g n a n t t o th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty , h o w ev er, and th e
o r g a n i z a t i o n w h ich i n i t i a t e d th e c o n fe re n c e w ound-up
v e to in g i t s re c o m m e n d a tio n s.
Y et t h i s d id n o t mean t h a t
th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l was a v e rs e t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o o p e r a tio n ,
and th e n e x t y e a r i t i n v i t e d members o f th e o t h e r s o c i e t i e s
t o a t t e n d i t s a n n u a l m e e tin g , th u s e s t a b l i s h i n g a p r e c e d e n t
o f j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r t o h e a r e a c h o t h e r 's p r e s i d e n t i a l
a d d re sse s.
A ls o , i n 1 8 8 4 , th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l p a r t i c i p a t e d
■^M inutes o f th e C o u n c il, A p r i l 14 , 1882, BSW
A r c h iv e s , I , S I .
■j O
R e p o rt o f J o i n t Com m ittee o f C o n fe re n c e , May 3 ,
1882 , i n G. K. G i l b e r t , ’’F i r s t A nnual R e p o rt o f th e S e c r e ­
t a r y , ” P ro c e e d in g s o f th e W ash in g to n Academy o f S c ie n c e s ,
I (1 8 9 9 7 ," '2 -T .
*---------------------
207
i n a j o i n t r e c e p t i o n f o r th e S o c ie ty o f E a s t e r n N a t u r a l i s t s
d u r in g t h a t g r o u p ’ s C h ristm a s c o n v e n tio n i n W a sh in g to n .
Such p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n n e c tio n s c o n t r i b u t e d t o th e advancem ent
o f s c ie n c e and w ere p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e P h ilo ­
s o p h ic a l* s c h a r a c t e r and p u r p o s e .
B ut s t a g i n g s i m p l i f i e d
p ro g ram s f o r th e u n i n i t i a t e d f e l l o u ts id e t h i s c a te g o r y ,
a n d , i n 1 8 8 6 , when th e B i o l o g i c a l and A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c i e t i e s a s k e d th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l i f i t w ould a s s i s t ” i n
th e m anagem ent and c o n t r o l o f th e S a tu r d a y L e c t u r e s , ” th e
l a t t e r r e s p e c t f u l l y d e c l i n e d . 1** Though r e l a t i o n s b etw een
th e s o c i e t i e s w ere c o r d i a l and j o i n t f u n c tio n s more common,
a f u l l - s c a l e a l l i a n c e re m a in e d o u t o f th e q u e s t i o n .
Grove K a r l G i l b e r t a t t r i b u t e d t h i s t o ’’th e con­
s e r v a tis m o f th e g o v e rn in g body o f . . .
Society.Since
[th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l ]
he was a member o f t h a t g o v e rn in g body
th r o u g h o u t th e 1 8 8 0 *s h i s s ta te m e n t b e a r s th e s e a l o f a u th e n ­
tic ity .
T aken a t f a c e v a l u e , h o w ev er, i t im p lie s an o b d u ra te
r e f u s a l t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n any m u tu a l v e n tu r e ; t h i s , o f
c o u r s e , w o u ld be u n t r u e .
On th e c o n t r a r y , th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l
l e d th e way i n s tr e n g t h e n in g t i e s b etw een th e s o c i e t i e s .
R e p e a te d o b j e c t i o n s t o th e S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s d id n o t i n d i c a t e
■^M inutes o f th e C o u n c il, J a n u a r y 9 and F e b ru a ry 2 0 ,
1 8 8 6 , BSW A r c h iv e s , I , S I ; M in u tes o f th e G e n e ra l C om m ittee,
J a n u a r y 1 6 , 3 0 , and F e b ru a ry 1 3 , 1 8 8 6 , PSW A r c h iv e s , U n ite d
S t a t e s N av al R e s e a rc h L a b o r a to r y .
1 C
C ro ss and G i l b e r t , R e p o rt o f a C om m ittee, p . 3 .
208
a h o s t i l i t y to w ard u n io n ; r a t h e r t h e y i l l u m i n a t e d th e
i r r e d u c i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een an e l i t i s t c o n c e p tio n o f
p ro m o tin g s c ie n c e and th e view s h a r e d b y th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
and B i o l o g i c a l S o c i e t i e s t h a t th e same en d c o u ld be a c h ie v e d
th r o u g h th e en co u rag em en t o f a m a te u r s .
d i s t i n c t i o n s w ere s t a r t i n g t o b l u r .
By 1887 th e s e
T h at was when th e
Cosmos C lub became a h e a d q u a r te r s f o r a l l th e s o c i e t i e s ,
and th e gem ut1i c h k e i t i t a f f o r d e d h e lp e d make th e P h i l o ­
s o p h i c a l ’s l e a d e r s more am enable t o c h a n g e .
I n F e b ru a ry
th e o t h e r members o f th e s c i e n t i f i c e s ta b li s h m e n t w ere
h e a r te n e d t o l e a r n t h a t " th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty w ould
p r o b a b ly be w i l l i n g t o c o o p e ra te i n th e S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s
d u r in g th e p r e s e n t s e a s o n . . .
When t h i s o c c u rr e d
i t opened th e way f o r p erm an en t f e d e r a t i o n .
Once a g a in ,
th e g ro u p w h ich G i l b e r t l a b e l l e d c o n s e r v a tiv e was i n th e
v a n g u a rd .
In f a c t , th e im p u lse f o r c e m e n tin g a n a l l i a n c e
o r i g i n a t e d i n th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t y .
A t th e G e n e ra l
Com m ittee m e e tin g o f J a n u a ry 7 , 188 8 , M arcus B ak er o f f e r e d
a r e s o l u t i o n p ro p o s in g t h a t e a c h s o c i e t y d e s ig n a te t h r e e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , t o c o n f e r a s a b o d y , " r e s p e c t i n g th e
fo rm a tio n o f a p erm an en t o r g a n i z a t i o n t o d e a l w ith q u e s tio n s
■^^Minutes o f th e C o u n c il, F e b r u a r y 1 9 , 18 8 7 , BSW
A r c h iv e s , I I , S I ; M in u tes o f th e G e n e ra l C o m m ittee, F e b ru a ry
2 1 , 1887, PSW A r c h iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s N av al R e s e a rc h
L a b o r a to r y .
209
o f common i n t e r e s t t o a l l th e s e s c i e n t i f i c s o c i e t i e s . ” 17
D raw ing a t t e n t i o n t o th e r a p i d in c r e a s e o f s p e c i a l i z e d
g r o u p s , B ak er em p h asized t h a t d u r in g th e s i x y e a r s t h a t
h i s S o c ie ty h ad b e e n i n e x i s te n c e th e num ber o f i t s
s i b l i n g s h ad m u l t i p l i e d t o f o u r .
H is c o n c e rn was n o t so
much w ith f u t u r e g ro w th — th o u g h c e r t a i n l y t h i s m ust have
b e e n on h i s m ind—b u t r a t h e r w ith g iv in g th e f i v e s o c i e t i e s
a s e n s e o f m u tu a l d e s t i n y .
O th e rs s h a re d h i s s e n tim e n ts
and th e r e s o l u t i o n p a s s e d by a v o te o f e le v e n t o e i g h t .
P r e s i d e n t G a r r ic k M a lle r y a p p o in te d R o b e rt F l e t c h e r , W. H.
D a li ( s u b s e q u e n tly r e p la c e d by P o w e ll) , and B a k er t o s e rv e
a s spokesm en f o r th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t y .
■I O
S i m i l a r a c t i o n s w ere ta k e n by th e e x e c u tiv e c o u n c ils
o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l, B i o l o g i c a l , C h e m ic a l, and G e o g ra p h ic
S o c i e t i e s , and a t e i g h t o 'c l o c k on F e b ru a ry 1 9 , 188 8 ,
b e n e a th th e r o o f o f th e Cosmos C lu b , t h e i r d e l e g a t i o n s
a sse m b le d f o r th e f i r s t tim e .
E le v e n men a tte n d e d t h i s
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e e tin g o f w h at was a t once c h r i s t e n e d th e
’’J o i n t C o m m itte e .”
F l e t c h e r and B a k er w ere e l e c t e d ch a irm a n
and s e c r e t a r y , a l l a f f ir m e d s u p p o r t f o r th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l
S o c i e t y 's r e s o l u t i o n , and i t was a g re e d t o convene a g a in a s
^ M in u t e s Qf th e G e n e ra l C om m ittee, J a n u a r y 7 ,
1888, i b i d .
*-®March 3 1 , 18 8 8 , i b i d .
210
so o n a s p o s s i b l e . ^
F e b ru a ry t w e n t y - f i f t h s i g n i f i e d a day
o f f u l f i l l m e n t f o r th o s e who d o g g e d ly had p u rs u e d th e
e l u s i v e g o a l o f u n io n ; f i n a l l y i t seemed w i t h i n t h e i r g r a s p .
T hrough an " o r g a n ic a c t " th e d e l e g a t e s c r e a t e d a p erm a n en t
J o i n t Commifckion o f th e S c i e n t i f i c S o c i e t i e s o f W a sh in g to n .
T h is was t o c o n s i s t o f t h r e e c o m m issio n e rs from e a c h o r g a n i­
z a t i o n who w ould p e rfo rm a tw o - f o ld f u n c t i o n .
As s t a t e d
i n th e o r i g i n a l r e s o l u t i o n th e J o i n t Com m ission s h o u ld g iv e
a d v ic e on " q u e s tio n s o f common i n t e r e s t . "
B ut now i t was
i n v e s t e d w ith th e a d d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y t o " e x e c u te i n ­
s t r u c t i o n s on g e n e r a l s u b j e c t s . . . . "
S uch i n s t r u c t i o n s
w ere n o t t o be b in d in g and member s o c i e t i e s c o u ld d i s r e g a r d
th e J o i n t C o m m issio n 's w i l l .
A t th e same tim e , h o w ev er,
t h i s am biguous c la u s e s u g g e s te d t h a t th e f a t h e r s o f th e
J o i n t C om m ission d id n o t c o n c e iv e o f i t a s b e in g p e r i p h e r a l
t o th e s c i e n t i f i c e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
W ith o u t t r y i n g t o p r e d i c t
how i t s i n f lu e n c e s h o u ld l a t e r be a p p l i e d , th e y e q u ip p e d
i t f o r any e v e n t u a l i t y .
D u rin g th e n e x t s i x weeks th e
o r g a n ic a c t was r a t i f i e d b y th e f i v e com ponent s o c i e t i e s
and th e J o i n t Com m ittee a d jo u rn e d s in e d i e , i t s p r e p a r a t o r y
l a b o r s h a v in g come t o an e n d .^ 0
^-^M inutes o f th e F i r s t M e etin g o f a J o i n t C o m m ittee,
F e b ru a ry 1 9 , 1888, M in u te s o f P ro c e e d in g s o f th e J o i n t
C om m ission, W ash in g to n Academy o f S c ie n c e s ( h e n c e f o r th WAS).
^ O r g a n i c A ct C r e a tin g J o i n t Com m ission o f th e
S c i e n t i f i c S o c i e t i e s o f W a sh in g to n , i b i d .
211
A lm o st im m e d ia te ly t h e J o i n t C om m ission swung i n t o
o p e ra tio n .
I n 1889 i t o f f e r e d t o i n v i t e th e A m erican
A s s o c ia ti o n f o r th e A dvancem ent o f S c ie n c e , on b e h a l f o f
th e l o c a l s o c i e t i e s , t o h o ld i t s
i n W ash in g to n two y e a r s h e n c e .
f o r t i e t h a n n u a l m e e tin g
When th e AAAS a c c e p te d th e
J o i n t C om m ission s u d d e n ly to o k on s t a t u r e a s th e h o s t
o rg a n iz a tio n .
U ndism ayed b y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f m anaging
a n a t i o n a l c o n v e n tio n i t s co m m ittees s e t t o w ork r a i s i n g
money, a r r a n g in g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and h o t e l r e s e r v a t i o n s ,
p la n n in g r e c e p t i o n s and e x c u r s io n s , and m aking s u r e t h a t
th e w hole a f f a i r r e c e iv e d th e p u b l i c i t y i t d e s e r v e d .
An
e ig h t-m a n e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e , " w ith f u l l pow er t o a c t f o r
th e C o m m issio n ,” was c r e a t e d a s a c o o r d in a tin g u n i t w h ich
a l s o d e a l t w ith F r e d e r ic k Ward Putnam , p e rm a n e n t s e c r e t a r y
o f th e AAAS.
The m e e tin g l a s t e d from A u g u st 17 t o S ep tem b er
2 , 1891, d u r in g w h ich tim e th e v i s i t o r s h e a rd s c h e d u le d
p a p e rs and a t te n d e d b u s in e s s s e s s io n s a t th e A r l in g to n
H o te l and C olum bian U n i v e r s i t y , ex ch an g ed in f o r m a tio n w ith
f o r e i g n s c i e n t i s t s ( t h i s m arked th e f i r s t tim e th e I n t e r ­
n a t i o n a l C o n g ress o f G e o lo g is ts came t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s ) ,
in s p e c te d th e p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s and h i s t o r i c la n d m a rk s , and
w ere e n t e r t a i n e d a t a p a r t y g iv e n by th e W a sh in g to n B oard
o f T ra d e .
N ot o n ly d id e v e r y th in g go o f f w ith o u t a h i t c h ,
b u t th e t r e a s u r y r e p o r t e d a s u r p lu s o f o v e r $ 1 ,1 0 0 .
Upon
th e reco m m en d atio n o f H enry G a n n e tt and G a r d in e r G reene
H ubbard t h e s e unexpended fu n d s w ere t o be u s e d f o r th e
212
s u p p o r t o f th e member s o c i e t i e s .
F o r a w h ile th e J o i n t
Com m ission was a b le t o d is p e n s e l a r g e s s e com m ensurate w ith
91
•
i t s new fo u n d im p o rta n c e . ^
A f t e r t h i s i n i t i a l b u r s t o f a c t i v i t y , h o w ev er, th e
J o i n t Com m ission s e t t l e d i n t o a r o l e t h a t was l a r g e l y
s y m b o lic .
I t seldom a d v is e d o r i n s t r u c t e d , a s th e o r g a n ic
a c t p ro v id e d f q r , and i t was h a r d ly th e d e c i s i v e f o r c e i n
g o v e rn m e n t-s c ie n c e t h a t some o f i t s c r e a t o r s e x p e c te d i t
w ould becom e.
When th e s o c i e t i e s b eg an m e e tin g a t th e
Cosmos C lu b , i n 1887, th e J o i n t Com m ission d o n a te d a common
sp e cim e n c a b i n e t t o th e a ssem b ly h a l l , b u t i t c o u ld n o t
f o llo w th r o u g h on a p r o p o s a l t o e s t a b l i s h a j o i n t l i b r a r y
f o r th e u se o f i t s a f f i l i a t e s .
22
E x p a n sio n w as u n d e r ta k e n
w ith ex trem e c a u tio n and th e r e was no c o n c e r te d d r iv e t o
c o n s o lid a t e a l l s p e c i a l i z e d g ro u p s .
The M ic r o s c o p ic a l
S o c ie ty was b a r r e d e n t i r e l y , and th e E n to m o lo g ic a l S o c i e t y ,
fo u n d ed i n 1 8 8 4 , was n o t g r a n te d a s e a t on th e J o i n t
Com m ission u n t i l D ecem ber, 1892.
On th e o t h e r h a n d ,
no
tim e was w a s te d i n p u b lis h in g a D ir e c t o r y o f S c i e n t i f i c
S o c i e t i e s o f W a sh in g to n .
A p p e a rin g b i e n n i a l l y , from 1889
^ M in u t e s o f th e J o i n t Com m ission o f S c i e n t i f i c
S o c i e t i e s , J a n u a r y 1 7 , F e b ru a ry 5 and 14 , M arch 6 , and
O c to b e r 9 , 1 8 9 1 , M in u tes o f P ro c e e d in g s o f th e J o i n t
C om m ission, WAS; S c ie n c e , X V III (A u g u st 7 , 1 8 9 1 ), 7 1 -7 2 .
M in u tes o f th e J o i n t Com m ission o f S c i e n t i f i c
S o c i e t i e s , November 2 6 , 1894, i b i d .
213
t o 1895, t h i s c o n ta in e d s i n g l e l i s t s o f th e names and
a d d r e s s e s o f a l l s o c i e t y m em bers.
T h is o b v ia te d th e n eed
f o r s e p a r a te b r o c h u r e s a n d , b e c a u se many men b e lo n g e d t o
two o r more g ro u p s , s o lv e d th e p ro b le m o f d u p l i c a t i o n .
The D ir e c t o r y a l s o c o n s t i t u t e d a s i g n o f n o m in a l i n t e g r a t i o n
and th e J o i n t C om m ission’ s m e e tin g s , h e ld e v e r y m onth o r
tw o , k e p t open c h a n n e ls o f co m m u n icatio n b etw e en th e v a r io u s
o rg a n iz a tio n s .
Beyond t h i s i t c o u ld b o a s t o f few c o n c r e te
a c c o m p lis h m e n ts .
Y et th e J o i n t Com m ission h ad a c e r t a i n v a lu e
a c c ru e d fro m i n t a n g i b l e a s s e t s .
I t s mere b e in g a s s u r e d
th e a f f i l i a t e d members o f t h e m a t u r i t y o f W a s h in g to n 's
p ro fe s s io n a l e l i t e .
As w ith o t h e r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s g ro u p s
t h a t w ere em erg in g and a s s e r t i n g th e m s e lv e s a t t h i s tim e
an o v e r a r c h in g a s s o c i a t i o n seem ed p rim a f a c i e e v id e n c e o f
com ing o f a g e .
R e g a r d le s s o f t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l e f f e c t s ,
l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y s t r u c t u r e s co n v ey ed th e im p r e s s io n
o f r o b u s tn e s s ; t h e i r t r u e a u t h o r i t y m ig h t be l i m i t e d , o r
t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n c ir c u m s c r ib e d , o r t h e i r c a p i t a l w a te r e d ,
o r t h e i r l i t e r a l r e s o u r c e s e x a g g e r a te d — n o n t h e l e s s , t h e i r
i n s t i t u t i o n a l form s s u g g e s te d p o w er, e s p e c i a l l y t o th o s e
who i d e n t i f i e d w ith th em .
C e n t r a l a g g r e g a tio n s p e r f o r c e
m eant q u a n t i t y , and q u a n t i t y was ta k e n t o r e p r e s e n t g ro w th
and d e v e lo p m e n t.
Thus co m m issio n e rs w ere p r e d is p o s e d t o
e q u a te th e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f s p e c i a l i z e d b o d ie s w ith th e
g e n e r a l a s s o c i a t i o n ’s p r o g r e s s : ’’Only tw e n ty -tw o y e a r s
214
have p a s s e d , and W ash in g to n h a s become th e m o st I m p o rta n t
s c i e n t i f i c c e n t e r i n th e A m e ric a s— tw e n ty -tw o y e a r s , and
23
i n s t e a d o f one s o c i e t y we h av e s i x . . . . "
(P re su m a b ly
a d o u b lin g o f t h i s f i g u r e w ould b r i n g w o rld -w id e su p re m a c y .)
So th e n e t w o rth o f th e J o i n t C om m ission was th e c o n fid e n c e
and s e l f - e s t e e m i t i n s p i r e d , n o t th r o u g h i t s a c t i o n s b u t
s im p ly b y i t s e x i s t e n c e .
S i m i l a r l y th e J o i n t Com m ission h e lp e d im prove th e
q u a l i t y o f l o c a l c u l t u r e and b e sto w e d s t a t u s and p r e s t i g e
on i t s m em bers.
N e it h e r was e a s i l y v e r i f i e d , th o u g h many
s c i e n t i s t s i n t u i t i v e l y f e l t t h a t t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s is s u e d
from i t s p r e s e n c e .
S e n s in g v a g u e ly t h a t th e J o i n t Com­
m is s io n h ad a p o s i t i v e a f f e c t on th e m s e lv e s and t h e i r
com m unity t h e y r e s o r t e d t o form s o f e x p r e s s io n t h a t seem ed
c u rio u s ly u n s c ie n tif ic .
G a r r ic k M a lle r y , i n a b i t o f
t o p i c a l v e r s e , plum bed th e d e p th o f i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n and
c o n c lu d e d t h a t b e f o r e th e C i v i l War " e v e ry co n g ressm an
th o u g h t he c o u ld b o ss o v e r a f e llo w who was m e re ly a
p h i l o s o p h e r ," w h ile a f te r w a r d "a J o i n t C om m ission o f
s o c i e t i e s s a v e d s c ie n c e and r e s t o r e d th e l o s t p r o p r i e t i e s . "
I n a d d i t i o n , men o f r a r e f i e d t a s t e , t o whom G ild e d Age
c u l t u r e was g e n e r a l l y u n a p p e tiz in g , c o u ld d e r iv e s u s te n a n c e
from th e o r g a n i z a t i o n :
9^
G. Brown G oode, " P ro c e e d in g s o f th e F o u r
H u n d re d th M e etin g o f th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty o f Wash­
i n g t o n , " B u l l e t i n o f th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty o f
W a sh in g ton .'T i r ( I W - T B 'T O " CT9.---------------------------
215
What th o u g h o u r fo rm a l d i n n e r may be h o r r i d ,
The so u p be f r i g i d and th e s a l a d t o r r i d ,
Though th e n y o u r p a l a t e g e t s n o t f u l l f r u i t i o n ,
You h av e some pabulum i n y o u r Com m ission;
We*re f i t t o e a t , . — i f d o u b tin g , o n ly t r y i t —
Our b o d y ’ s i n a d o u b le s e n s e y o u r D ie t.'24
I n th e m ain M a lle r y was c o r r e c t , and c e r t a i n l y h i s m e ta p h o r
evoked th e e t h o s o f th e J o i n t C om m ission.
A f t e r s a v o r in g
t h i s m o r s e l, h o w ev er, one s u s p e c ts t h a t b e f o r e th e
’'pabulum 11 c o u ld become a s a t i s f a c t o r y " D ie t” i t w ould have
t o be s e a s o n e d l i b e r a l l y .
Some o f th e J o i n t C o m m issio n 's l e a d e r s m u st have
b e e n l e f t w i t h th e same im p r e s s io n f o r i n 1895 th e y u n d e r­
to o k t o make i t more e f f e c t i v e .
A t i t s f i r s t m e e tin g o f
th e y e a r P r e s i d e n t G a r d in e r H ubbard c a l l e d f o r an open
d i s c u s s i o n o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n ’ s c o n d i t i o n .
N e a rly a l l
th e c o m m issio n e rs v o ic e d o p in io n s a b o u t how i t m ig h t be
im proved an d t h e r e seem ed t o be a c o n s e n s u s i n f a v o r o f
"c o m b in in g th e s c i e n t i f i c s o c i e t i e s more c l o s e l y a lo n g
l i n e s o f common i n t e r e s t . "
D is tr ib u tin g jo in t n o tic e s o f
s e s s i o n s an d c o l l a b o r a t i n g on a m o n th ly p u b l i c a t i o n w ere
m o tio n s w h ic h r e c e i v e d w ide s u p p o r t.
B e fo re g o in g ah ead
w ith an y p l a n , h o w ev e r, i t was d e c id e d t o a c c e p t O tis
M ason’ s p r o p o s a l t h a t th e p r e s i d e n t s o f th e s o c i e t i e s
co m p rise a co m m ittee "on th e S t a t e o f th e U n io n ."
The
c o m m itte e ’ s r e p o r t , s u b m itte d J a n u a r y t w e n t y - f i f t h , b eg a n
7.U
^ " G a r r ic k M a lle r y , " P h ilo s o p h i c a l P h a n ta s y ,"
i b i d . , 5 5 8 -5 6 1 .
216
w ith th e p re m ise t h a t f u r t h e r c o o p e r a tio n d ep en d ed on
" e n la r g in g th e pow er o f th e J o i n t C o m m issio n ."
T h is m eant
p r o v id in g i t w ith enough a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a c h in e ry t o become
a g o v e rn in g b o d y , g iv in g i t th e same s o r t o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l
fram ew ork a s th e p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s o f w h ich i t w as
com posed, i n s h o r t , m aking i t more th a n a f ig u r e h e a d .
A c c o rd in g ly , th e n e x t s i x w eeks w itn e s s e d th e a d o p tio n
o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n and a s e t o f b y - la w s .
O C
T hese d ocum ents in c r e a s e d th e s i z e o f th e J o i n t
C om m ission and b ro a d e n e d th e m a rg in s o f i t s a c t i v i t y .
I n s te a d o f h a v in g j u s t t h r e e d e l e g a t e s fro m e a c h o f th e
s o c i e t i e s ( e x c e p tin g th e E n to m o lo g ic a l and G e o lo g ic a l
w h ich h ad few er s e a t s due t o t h e i r s m a ll m em b ersh ip s) i t
w ould h e n c e f o r th be made up o f a l l t h e i r o f f i c e r s and
b o a rd m em bers.
C o n s e q u e n tly th e o r g a n i z a t i o n w h ich p r e ­
v i o u s l y num bered e i g h t e e n now h ad a g ra n d t o t a l o f
n in e ty -th re e p a r tic ip a n ts .
S in c e t h i s was to o u n w ie ld y
t o c o n d u c t b u s in e s s th e c o n s t i t u t i o n p r o v id e d f o r an
e le v e n man e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e .
H ere l a y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r a l l p o l i c i e s and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e t a i l s , and th o u g h
i t s d e c is io n s w ere s u b j e c t t o r e v ie w a t th e J o i n t Com­
m i s s i o n 's a n n u a l m e e tin g s , i t s r u l e was v i r t u a l l y
a b s o lu te .
The com m itteem en w ere th e p r e s i d e n t and
^^M in u tes o f th e J o i n t Com m ission o f S c i e n t i f i c
S o c i e t i e s j J a n u a r y 2 and 2 5 , 18 9 5 , M in u te s o f P ro c e e d in g s
o f th e J o i n t C om m ission, WAS.
s e c r e t a r y o f th e J o i n t C om m ission, a s w e ll a s th o s e h o ld in g
th e n ew ly c r e a t e d o f f i c e s o f v i c e - p r e s i d e n t and t r e a s u r e r ,
and one member a t l a r g e fro m e a c h com ponent s o c i e t y .
T h e ir
te rm s w ere f o r tw e lv e m onths w ith o u t p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t
re -e le c tio n .
O b v io u sly th e J o i n t C om m ission’s governm ent
w eig h e d more h e a v i l y th a n b e f o r e , th e r e s u l t o f i t s
o p e r a t i o n s h a v in g become m ore am p le.
I n p la c e o f i t s
a lm o s t n o n - e x i s t e n t a d v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s th e revam ped body
was empowered t o o r g a n iz e j o i n t m e e tin g s , c o n tin u e th e
$
D i r e c t o r y on an a n n u a l b a s i s , d i s t r i b u t e c o m p o site m e e tin g
n o t i c e s f o r th e s e v e r a l g r o u p s , h o ld l e c t u r e s , and ”t o a c t
i n th e i n t e r e s t o f th e com ponent s o c i e t i e s a t th e i n s t a n c e
o f an y o f th e m .”
T hese l a s t p r o v i s i o n s w ere im plem ented
when th e J o i n t C om m ission, a t th e r e q u e s t o f th e G e o lo g ic a l
S o c i e t y , s p o n s o re d S i r A r c h ib a ld G e i k i e 1s a d d r e s s d u r in g
th e fam ed B r i t i s h s c i e n t i s t ’ s v i s i t t o W ash in g to n i n
1896.^®
The J o i n t Com m ission a l s o m ig h t c a u se i t s e l f t o
m eet s p e c i a l l y upon r e q u e s t o f th e p r e s i d e n t o r any t e n
c o m m is s io n e rs .
I f th e c o n to u r s o f t h i s d e s ig n seemed
f a m i l i a r i t was b e c a u s e m ost o f them w ere th e w ork o f
M ajo r P o w e ll, whose b o ld s t r o k e s w ere e a s i l y r e c o g n iz e d .
2 ®Minutes o f th e C o u n c il, May 1 3 , 1896, GSW
A rc h iv e s , USGS•
2 ^The c o n s t i t u t i o n and b y -la w s f i r s t a p p e a re d in
D i r e c t o r y o f S c i e n t i f i c S o c i e t i e s o f W ash in g to n . . . ,
V ( 1 8 9 6 ), 1 0 -1 2 ; f o r P o w e ll’s r o l e i n d r a f t i n g th e b y -la w s
s e e , M in u te s o f th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m ittee, F e b ru a ry 27 and
M arch 1 2 , 1 8 9 5 , M in u te s o f P ro c e e d in g s o f th e J o i n t Com­
m is s io n , WAS.
218
I n d u b ita b l y th e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f 1895 made th e
J o i n t Com m ission more c o m p re h e n siv e , b u t n o t ev e ry o n e
c o n s id e r e d t h i s an u n q u a l i f i e d g o o d .
B ro a d e r pow ers f o r
th e c e n t r a l b o d y , s a i d i t s o p p o n e n ts , m ig h t r e s u l t i n
a c t i o n s w h ich w ould be c o u n te r p r o d u c tiv e f o r th e s e p a r a t e
s o c ie tie s .
R esp o n d in g t o t h i s a p p r e h e n s io n , se v e n o f th e
e i g h te e n o f f i c e r s o f th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y v o te d t o
m a in ta in th e s t a t u s q u o .28
F o r one t h i n g th e y f e l t t h a t
th e e x i s t i n g m a c h in e ry was good en o u g h ; t h a t th e p sy c h o ­
l o g i c a l e f f e c t s i t p ro d u c e d w ere s a t i s f a c t o r y and t h a t
th e s o - c a l l e d "common i n t e r e s t s " o f th e s e v e r a l s o c i e t i e s
w ere i n s u f f i c i e n t t o w a r r a n t a m a jo r o v e r h a u l.
S e c o n d ly ,
th e y r e i t e r a t e d th e S o c i e t y 's f e a r o f j e o p a r d i z i n g i t s
e l i t i s t c h a r a c t e r by becom ing more o c c u p ie d w ith p o p u l a r i ­
z a tio n .
T here were a l s o e x p r e s s io n s o f a la rm a b o u t w h at
a more e n e r g e t i c a s s o c i a t i o n m ig h t d o .
W ith o u t im p ly in g
t h a t th e J o i n t Com m ission w ould f a l l i n t o th e h an d s o f
r e c k l e s s men, th e y p la c e d enough c re d e n o e i n L ord A c to n 's
fam ous d ic tu m t o be somewhat c h a r y .
One o f t h e i r c o n c e rn s
had t o do w ith th e l i k e l i h o o d o f u n f o r e s e e n e x p e n s e s , a
c o n c e rn w h ich p ro v e d w e ll-f o u n d e d i n 1897 when th e J o i n t
Com m ission a lm o st w en t b r o k e .2 ^
H ow ever, i t was n o t th e
^^M inutes o f th e G e n e ra l C o m m ittee, F e b ru a ry 1 6 ,
1895, PSW A rc h iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s N av a l R e s e a rc h L a b o r a to r y .
OQ
^C ross an d G i l b e r t , R e p o rt o f a C o m m ittee, p p .
7 -8 ; M in u tes o f th e E x e c u tiv e C om m ittee, D ecem ber 14 , 1897,
M in u te s o f P ro c e e d in g s o f th e J o i n t C om m ission, WAS.
219
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty , a la r g e and s o l i d l y e s t a b l i s h e d
g ro u p , w hich r e g i s t e r e d th e f i r s t c o m p la in ts a g a i n s t f i s c a l
p o l i c i e s , b u t r a t h e r th e C hem ical S o c ie ty whose w e a k n e sse s
l e f t i t v u ln e r a b le t o any added s t r a i n .
U nder i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n , J o i n t C om m ission e x p e n d i­
t u r e s w ere t o be b o rn e b y th e com ponent g ro u p s i n p r o ­
p o r t i o n t o t h e i r m em bership.
W ith o n ly 116 members i n
1896 th e C hem ical S o c ie ty was th e se co n d s m a l l e s t o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n , and th e am ount i t p a id i n t o th e common t r e a s u r y
c o r r e s p o n d in g ly lo w .
B ut view ed fro m th e s t a n d p o i n t o f
i t s own r e s o u r c e s t h i s r e p r e s e n te d o v e r 35 p e r c e n t o f i t s
incom e.
M o reo v er, th e C hem ical S o c ie ty was n o t g e t t i n g
much f o r i t s money.
S in c e i t s a n n u a l m e e tin g s w ere
s p a r s e l y a t te n d e d th e r e was no n eed o f h o ld in g them u n d e r
th e a u s p ic e s o f th e J o i n t C om m ission, and th e m a s te r
s c h e d u le s o f m e e tin g s w h ich th e J o i n t C om m ission is s u e d
w ere deemed t o be o f l i m i t e d v a lu e .
T h e re fo re , i t s
E x e c u tiv e Com m ittee s u b m itte d a s e r i e s o f r e s o l u t i o n s
t o th e s e v e r a l s o c i e t i e s p ro p o s in g t h a t th e J o i n t Com­
m is s io n ’s pow er t o p r e p a r e and d i s t r i b u t e p ro g ram s be
re d u ce d .
E ach o r g a n i z a t i o n sh o u ld se n d o u t w h a te v e r
n o t i c e s i t ch o se t o p u b l i c i z e r a t h e r th a n h a v in g them a l l
co m p iled i n b la n k e t an n o u n cem en ts.
A ls o , i n s t e a d o f
e v e ry member o f e v e ry s o c i e t y a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e c e i v i n g
n o t i c e s , th o s e who w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n a t t e n d i n g a n o t h e r ’s
m e e tin g s m ust a s k f o r i n v i t a t i o n s and in c lu d e r e t u r n
220
p o s ta g e w ith t h e i r r e q u e s ts .^ ®
The axe b e in g gro u n d h ad
an econom ic a p p e a r a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y b e c a u se th e C hem ical
S o c ie ty o f W ash in g to n r e c e i v e d f i n a n c i a l a i d from th e
A m erican C hem ical S o c ie ty w h ich a l s o was t r y i n g t o h o ld
down e x p e n s e s .
Y et th e r o o t o f th e p ro b le m l a y d e e p e r
th a n t h a t , f o r men w i t h i n d i v i d u a l g r ie v a n c e s w ere a l s o
h a v in g se c o n d th o u g h ts a b o u t th e way th e y h ad b e e n yoked
to g e th e r .
Due t o th e f a c t t h a t i n a c t i v i t i e s i t s u r p a s s e d
th e o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n , th e new J o i n t C om m ission s to o d con­
demned f o r h a v in g a tte m p te d to o much; a t th e same tim e
i t was c r i t i c i z e d f o r n o t d o in g enough f o r W a sh in g to n ’s
men o f s c i e n t i f i c d i s t i n c t i o n .
I r o n i c a l l y th e f i r s t
J o i n t Com m ission— th o s e h o n o re d by t h e i r s o c i e t i e s t o
s e rv e a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s —h ad b ee n more n o ta b le f o r th e
p r e s t i g e i t c o n f e r r e d th a n th e p o l i c i e s i t e n a c te d .
A fte r
1895 , h o w ev er, i t c o n s i s t e d o f th e o f f i c e r s o f th e
s o c i e t i e s , m eaning t h a t c o m m issio n e rs w ere d e te rm in e d
i n th e same p e r f u n c to r y way t h a t men w ere e l e c t e d i n
fc h e ir co m p o n en ts.
d e v o id o f g r a n d e u r .
W hile t h i s p r o c e s s r a n sm o o th ly i t was
When A rn o ld Hague o b se rv e d t h a t th e
J o i n t Com m ission r e p r e s e n t e d s o c i e t i e s i n s t e a d o f s c i e n t i s t s
he to u c h e d th e nub o f th e i s s u e : t o th e c i t y ' s m ost b r i l l i a n t
m inds i t was u t t e r l y b o r in g .
The v e r y d e s i g n a t i o n o f
C h a rle s E . Munroe and W. P . C u t t e r t o J . H.
M cCormick, December 19, 1 8 9 6 , M in u tes o f th e B oard o f
M an ag ers, J a n u a r y 1 2 , 1 8 9 7 , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I ; M in u te s o f th e
C o u n c il, December 2 3 , 1 8 9 6 , GSW A r c h iv e s , USGS.
221
’’com m ission*1 c o n n o te d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d u l l n e s s , w ith i t s
ra n k s h a v in g a c a s te o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r a t h e r th a n t e c h n i c a l
a c c o m p lish m e n t.
F o r th e m ost p a r t c o m m issio n e rs w ere
b u s in e s s m anagers a n d , ”As i t i s f r e q u e n t l y th e c a se t h a t
th e men who a re m ost p ro m in e n t i n s c i e n t i f i c w ork a r e f o r
one r e a s o n o r a n o th e r r e l u c t a n t t o g iv e tim e t o th e
a f f a i r s o f s o c i e t i e s , " many o f th e b e s t g o v e r n m e n t - s c i e n t i s t s
w ere l e f t o u t s i d e .
N ot t h a t th e y r e a l l y w an te d t o g e t i n ,
s in c e a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e J o i n t Com m ission c a r r i e d l i t t l e
p ro fe s s io n a l s ig n if ic a n c e .
T h is i n a b i l i t y t o s a t i s f y
l e g i t i m a t e d e s i r e s f o r r e c o g n i t i o n p ro m p ted e f f o r t s t o
make th e c e n t r a l body l e s s p o w e rfu l and more h o n o r i f i c . 31
D u rin g th e f i r s t t h i r d o f 1897 th e G e o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty c o n d u c te d an in q u i r y i n t o th e b a c k g ro u n d an d c u r r e n t
o p e r a tio n s o f th e f e d e r a t i o n , an d i n c o n c lu s io n e x p r e s s e d
" i t s d is a p p r o v a l o f th e p r e s e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e J o i n t
Com m ission a s b e in g n e i t h e r w e l l a d a p te d f o r p e rfo rm in g
th e b u s in e s s o f th e s o c i e t i e s n o r r e p r e s e n t i n g them i n
s c ie n tific m a t t e r s . B u t
how d e v is e a u n io n w h ich c o u ld
b a la n c e b etw e en g e n e r a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s and a c c e p t a b i l i t y t o
^ A r n o l d Hague and C. W. H ayes t o J . H. M cCormick,
S ep tem b er 1 5 , 18 9 7 , M in u tes o f th e B oard o f M an ag ers,
November 2 , 1897, ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
•^ M in u tes o f th e C o u n c il, May 2 6 , 18 9 7 , GSW
A r c h iv e s , USGS; th e te d io u s c o u rs e o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n
may be fo llo w e d i n th e M in u te s o f J a n u a r y 2 7 , F e b ru a ry 2 h ,
and M arch 2*+, 1897, i b i d .
222
a l l co m p o n en ts; w h ic h m ig h t c o n d u c t b u s i n e s s and b e sto w
h o n o r; w h ic h w ould p o s s e s s th e a d v a n ta g e s o f b o th fo rm
an d s u b s ta n c e ?
presum e t o know.
T h is th e G e o lo g ic a l S o c i e t y d id n o t
I n s t e a d , on S ep tem b er f i f t e e n t h , i t
s u g g e s te d i n a c i r c u l a r l e t t e r t h a t e a c h s o c i e t y a p p o in t
t h r e e men t o a n o th e r c o n fe re n c e co m m ittee t o s e e k th e
b e s t p o s s ib le s o lu tio n .
F o r th e t h i r d tim e i n n in e y e a r s
t h e r e w o u ld be a n a tte m p te d m e rg e r o f W a s h in g to n 's men o f
s c ie n c e .
A t i t s s e c o n d m e e tin g i n D ecem ber th e c o n f e r e e s
u n a n im o u sly r e s o l v e d t h a t some form o f " f e d e r a l h e a d ,
c o m p e te n t t o i n i t i a t e a c t i o n , " was d e s i r a b l e , b u t t h a t
th e "autonom y o f th e s e v e r a l s c i e n t i f i c s o c i e t i e s sh o u ld
be m a i n t a i n e d ."
I t w as im p e ra tiv e t h a t th e c e n t r a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n have a s c i e n t i f i c c h a r a c t e r and be r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i v e i n s c i e n t i f i c a s w e l l a s i n b u s in e s s m a t t e r s .
To t h i s en d th e co m m ittee recom mended t h a t th e J o i n t
C om m ission "assum e in d e p e n d e n t s c i e n t i f i c f u n c t i o n s , have
pow er t o ad d t o i t s m em bers, " and t h a t i t be g iv e n a more
im p o sin g t i t l e
The move t o make th e J o i n t Com m ission
l e s s o b j e c t i o n a b l e th u s c u lm in a te d w ith a c a l l f o r an
e n t i r e l y new i n s t i t u t i o n , a W ash in g to n Academy o f S c ie n c e s .
N o th in g c o u ld h ave b e e n more g r a t i f y i n g t o th o s e
who b e n t e v e ry e f f o r t t o ad v an ce s c ie n c e and c u l t u r e a t
33w hitm an C r o s s , R e p o rt t o th e C hairm en o f th e
S e v e r a l C om m ittees [c o m p risin g th e J o i n t C o m m issio n 's
C om m ittee o f C o n f e r e n c e ] , Decem ber 1 3 , 1 8 9 7 , S c ra p b o o k ,
WAS.
223
th e n a t i o n a l C a p i t a l .
H aving la u n c h e d h a l f a d o zen
o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r th e p ro m o tio n o f d i f f e r e n t s p e c i a l t i e s
th e y now lo o k e d fo rw a rd t o c o m p le tin g th e f u s io n o f th e s e
b o d ie s i n t o a more v i t a l u n io n .
S m all w onder t h a t d i s ­
c u s s io n s a b o u t th e p ro p o se d Academy en g a g ed th e s o a r in g
im a g in a tio n s o f i t s p r i n c i p a l f o u n d e r s .
P o w e ll t a l k e d o f
an a s s o c i a t i o n w h ic h w ould com bine e x c lu s iv e n e s s and
f i n a n c i a l s t a b i l i t y b y im p o sin g a minimum f e e on th e
members o f com ponent s o c i e t i e s , and h a v in g a s e l e c t g ro up
f o r whom th e d u es w ould be h i g h e r .
G i l b e r t e n v is io n e d
th e Academy becom ing th e a g e n c y o f p o p u l a r i z a t i o n —g iv in g
l e c t u r e s and a t t r a c t i n g p a t r o n s — so t h a t th e s o c i e t i e s
c o u ld g r a p p le w ith th e f r o n t i e r s o f know ledge i n t h e i r
p a rtic u la r d is c ip lin e s .
McGee saw i t a s a n in s tr u m e n t o f
harm ony, r e s p e c t i n g th e s p e c i a l i z e d j u r i s d i c t i o n s o f th e
s o c i e t i e s w h ile w o rk in g f o r th e a c co m p lish m e n t o f m u tu a l
o b j e c t i v e s ; s p e c i f i c a l l y t h i s m eant th e f u r t h e r d e v e lo p ­
m ent o f W ash in g to n * s i n t e l l e c t u a l c o m m u n ity .^
P o w e ll, G i l b e r t , and McGee w ere among th e f i f t e e n
mien a p p o in te d b y th e J o i n t C om m ission t o d r a f t a c o n s t i ­
tu tio n .
O th e rs in c lu d e d C. H a r t M erriam , a n o f f i c e r i n
th e B i o l o g i c a l and N a tio n a l G e o g ra p h ic ; L . O. Howard
r e p r e s e n t i n g th e B i o l o g i c a l and E n to m o lo g ic a l S o c i e t i e s ;
A rn o ld Hague from th e G e o lo g ic a l; H. N. S to k e s th e C h em ical;
3**Minutes o f th e J o i n t Com m ission o f S c i e n t i f i c
S o c i e t i e s , J a n u a r y 1 1 , 1 8 9 8 , M in u te s o f P ro c e e d in g s o f th e
J o i n t C om m ission, WAS.
224
Jo h n R obie E astm an , F . W. C la ric e , B e rn a rd G re e n , and M arcus
B ak er th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l ; and F ra n k B a k e r, G eorge M.
S t e r n b e r g , and L e s t e r F ra n k Ward from th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l.
Ward and S te r n b e r g w ere a l s o v i c e - p r e s i d e n t s i n th e
P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c ie ty whose n u m e ric a l s u p e r i o r i t y t o t a l l e d
a lm o s t h a l f th e c o m m itte e .
I n o r d e r t o e x p e d ite i t s
m is s io n tw o su b c o m m ittee s w ere a s s ig n e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r d r a f t i n g w o rk in g d o cu m en ts.
E astm an , M e rriam , and
C la rk e s e t t o w ork o u t l i n i n g f u n c tio n s o f th e Academy,
and G re e n , F ra n k B a k e r, and P o w e ll c r i t e r i a f o r i t s
35
m em b ersh ip .
The u rg e n c y o f th e s e m a t t e r s was a t t e s t e d
t o b y th e prom pt c o n s i d e r a t i o n th e y r e c e i v e d .
On
J a n u a r y 1 5 , 1 8 9 8 , j u s t f o u r d ay s a f t e r b e in g fo rm e d , th e
su b c o m m itte e s f i l e d t h e i r r e p o r t s .
C o n c e n tr a tin g on th e tw in o b j e c t i v e s o f e l i t i s t
c o n t r o l and b ro a d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n P o w e ll’s g ro u p p r e s c r i b e d
a fo rm u la f o r a c h ie v in g b o th .
T h is e n t a i l e d f o u r member­
s h ip c a t e g o r i e s : r e g u l a r m em bers, f e l l o w s , h o n o r a r y m em bers,
and p a t r o n s .
The f i r s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was open t o anyone
i n a com ponent who p a id d u es t o th e W ash in g to n Academy,
th e r e b y i n t e g r a t i n g th e a f f i l i a t e d s o c i e t i e s and g u a r a n ­
t e e i n g th e c e n t r a l body econom ic s u p p o r t .
M o reo v er i t
s e rv e d a s a m echanism f o r g r a d u a l e x p a n s io n and gave e a c h
member a p e r s o n a l s ta k e i n th e Academy’s f u t u r e .
B ut
^^M in u tes o f th e Com m ittee on C o n s t i t u t i o n ,
J a n u a r y 1 1 , 18 9 8 , i b i d .
225
d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n was r e s t r i c t e d t o th o s e i n th e se c o n d
c a te g o r y , th e f e l l o w s , who ’’s h a l l h av e pow er t o add t o
t h e i r members an d i n t h e i r h an d s s h a l l r e s t th e g overnm ent
o f th e A cadem y.”
R e f e r r e d t o a s th e " n u c l e u s , ” t h i s g ro u p
w ould i n i t i a l l y be e l e c t e d b y th e com ponents b a l l o t i n g " f o r
th e f i f t y p e r s o n s whom t h e y c o n s id e r b e s t q u a l i f i e d . "
The
r e p o r t d id n o t d e f in e " b e s t q u a l i f i e d , " an o m is s io n m aking
i t p o s s i b l e t o v o te f o r e i t h e r t o p - f l i g h t s c i e n t i s t s o r
a d m in is tra to rs .
By s p l i t t i n g th e d i f f e r e n c e b etw een t h e
P h i l o s o p h i c a l an d th e s p e c i a l i z e d s o c i e t i e s P o w e ll’s
d r a f t became a c c e p ta b le t o a l l p a r t i e s .
A ls o , once i t
was fo rm ed th e n u c le u s w ould f i l l i t s own v a c a n c ie s .
Thus th e way w as c l e a r e d f o r th e same s o r t o f c e n t r a l ­
i z a t i o n o f pow er and c o n t i n u i t y o f p e r s o n n e l t h a t had
g iv e n s t a b i l i t y t o th e co m p o n en ts.
I n a d d i t i o n , th e
f e llo w s ch o se h o n o r a r y m em bers, " p e rs o n s d i s t i n g u i s h e d
i n s c i e n c e , l i t e r a t u r e o r a r t , " and p re su m a b ly i t was
th r o u g h t h e i r p o l i c i e s t h a t p a tr o n s w o u ld be a c q u ir e d .
E x c e p t f o r ch a n g es o f d e t a i l —e n l a r g i n g th e n u c le u s t o
s e v e n ty - f i v e and h a v in g e l e c t o r s v o te f o r one h u n d red
men, th e tw e n t y - f iv e lo w e s t v o t e - g e t t e r s b e in g e l im in a te d ;
d ro p p in g " l i t e r a t u r e o r a r t ” from th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r
h o n o ra ry m em bership; an d r e d u c in g th e c l a s s e s o f members
t o t h r e e —th e r e p o r t won a f a v o r a b le r e c e p t i o n . ^
^ J a n u a r y 15 and 1 7 , 1 8 9 8 , i b i d . ; M in u te s o f th e
J o i n t Com m ission o f th e S c i e n t i f i c S o c i e t i e s , J a n u a r y 19
and 2 5 , 18 9 8 , i b i d .
226
The a d o p tio n o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b l u e p r i n t s p u r r e d
f u r t h e r a c t i o n , and w i t h i n th e n e x t s i x t y d ay s th e W ashing­
to n Academy was c r e a t e d and th e J o i n t Com m ission p e rm a n e n tly
d is s o lv e d .
On J a n u a r y n i n e t e e n t h C. H a r t M e rriara, sp e a k in g
f o r th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o m m itte e , p ro p o s e d t h a t s t e p s be
ta k e n t o in c o r p o r a te th e new b o d y u n d e r t h e law s o f th e
D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia.
W hile t h i s was b e in g a c c o m p lish e d
th e s e v e n ty - f i v e members o f t h e n u c le u s w ere e l e c t e d ,
t h e i r names t o be k e p t s e c r e t u n t i l th e f i r s t m e e tin g was
an n o u n ced .
One o f th e J o i n t C o m m is s io n s l a s t a c t s w as
a c c e p tin g a s an a f f i l i a t e th e M e d ic a l S o c ie ty o f t h e
D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia, th u s p e r m i t t i n g th e e i g h t y y e a r o ld
a s s o c i a t i o n t o become a f o u n d e r o f th e Academy e v e n th o u g h
i t h ad n o t p a r t i c i p a t e d i n in f o rm in g th e i n t e l l e c t u a l
com m unity.
F i n a l l y a n i n c o r p o r a t i o n d r a f t and a s e t o f
b y -la w s w ere s u b m itte d t o th e e i g h t co m p o n en ts . ^ 7
T hese
r a t i f i c a t i o n m e e tin g s w ere w i t n e s s t o more q u ib b lin g o v e r
m in o r p o i n t s i n th e in s tr u m e n ts o f g o v ern m en t (o n ce a g a in
th e C hem ical S o c ie ty h ad r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t th e le v y in g
o f a s s e s s m e n ts ) , b u t a l l a g r e e d t h a t su c h a g o v ern m en t
w as b o th d e s i r a b l e and n e c e s s a r y .
Some members o f th e
A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty w ould h ave p r e f e r r e d a l o c a l
v e r s io n o f th e AAAS, a s i n g l e o r g a n i z a t i o n w ith th e member­
s h ip d iv id e d i n t o s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n s , b u t t h i s d id n o t ca u se
^ 7J a n u a r y 1 9 , 3 1 , and F e b ru a ry 2 , 1898, i b i d .
227
th em t o oppose th e p la n u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
The C hem ical
S o c ie ty p u sh e d D r. H arv ey W ile y ’s r e s o l u t i o n t h a t th e
g o v e r n in g b o a r d b e made up o f th e a f f i l i a t e s ’ e x e c u tiv e
c o m m itte e s .
Though t h i s was r e j e c t e d o u t o f hand b y th e
J o i n t C om m ission th e C h em ical S o c ie ty c o n tin u e d t o b a c k
th e u n i o n i s t s .
I l l u s t r a t i v e o f th e c o n s e n su s f a v o r in g
th e Academy w as th e r a t i f i c a t i o n v o te ta k e n i n th e
P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c ie ty .
W hereas i n 1888 a lm o s t h a l f o f
i t s G e n e ra l Com m ittee o p posed e s t a b l i s h i n g th e J o i n t
C om m ission, and i n 1895 o v e r o n e - t h i r d w as a g a i n s t
s t r e n g t h e n i n g i t , now o n ly a s i n g l e n e g a tiv e b a l l o t was
c a s t.
38
T h u s, when th e m e m b e rs -e le c t h e l d t h e i r i n i t i a l
m e e tin g , on F e b r u a r y s i x t e e n t h , th e y d i d so w ith n e a r
unanim ous s u p p o r t fro m th e s c i e n t i f i c e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
Jo h n R obie E astm an , G. K. G i l b e r t , and B e rn a rd R . G reen
w ere c h o s e n p r e s i d e n t , s e c r e t a r y , and t r e a s u r e r , t o be
jo in e d s u b s e q u e n tly b y e i g h t v i c e - p r e s i d e n t s , e a c h r e p r e ­
s e n t i n g h i s own com ponent.
On M arch tw e n ty -s e c o n d th e
J o i n t C om m ission p a s s e d o u t o f e x i s t e n c e and th e s e men
becam e th e o f f i c i a l l e a d e r s o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity,
i n th e name o f th e W a sh in g to n Academy o f S c i e n c e s . ^
38M in u tes o f th e B o ard o f M a n ag ers, F e b ru a ry 1 5 ,
1 8 9 8 , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I ; M in u te s o f th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m ittee,
J a n u a r y 2 2 , 1 8 9 8 , CSW A r c h iv e s ; M in u te s o f th e G e n e ra l
C o m m ittee, F e b ru a ry 5 , 1 8 9 8 , PSW A r c h iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s
N av a l R e s e a rc h L a b o r a to r y .
3 M i n u t e s o f th e J o i n t C om m ission o f S c i e n t i f i c
S o c i e t i e s , M arch 2 2 , 18 9 8 , M in u te s o f P ro c e e d in g s o f th e
J o i n t C om m ission, WAS.
228
T h a t th e b y -la w s and a c t o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n w ould
be a c c e p te d was a lm o s t a fo re g o n e c o n c lu s io n , s in c e th e
m em bership su b c o m m ittee b o rro w ed p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e r n a l
s t r u c t u r e fro m th e s p e c i a l i z e d s o c i e t i e s ; much l e s s
c e r t a i n was th e f a t e i n s t o r e f o r th e d r a f t o f f u n c tio n s
w h ich h a rk e n e d b a c k t o a p la n t h a t had a l r e a d y b ee n
re je c te d .
The se c o n d s u b c o m m itte e 's r e p o r t seem ed a
r e p l i c a o f th e a b o r t i v e 1882 p la n o f u n io n , and th o u g h
t h e r e was o n ly one member o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l co m m ittee
(P o w e ll) who had a han d i n com posing th e o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n ,
th e c u r r e n t p r o p o s a ls r e s o u n d in g ly e c h o ed th o s e o f
s ix te e n y e a rs b e fo re .
P ro c la im in g " th e p ro m o tio n o f
s c ie n c e " a s th e A cadem y's p u r p o s e , th e su b co m m ittee on
f u n c tio n s s a i d t h a t t h i s c o u ld be e f f e c t e d b y c o u r s e s o f
l e c t u r e s , h o ld in g j o i n t s e s s i o n s , p u b lis h in g and d i s t r i b u t i n g
a j o i n t d i r e c t o r y and j o i n t n o t i c e s o f m e e tin g s , a b e t t i n g
r e s e a r c h and i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n an y w ay, s e c u r in g a p erm anent
b u i l d i n g , and b y c o o p e r a tin g " w ith e x i s t i n g s c i e n t i f i c
and o t h e r s o c i e t i e s i n m a tte r s o f common c o n c e r n ." 1*®
C o n s id e r in g t h a t t h i s c o n c e p t h ad once d ie d a b o rn in g w hat
hope w as t h e r e f o r s u r v i v a l now?
I n th e f i r s t p la c e th e
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty no lo n g e r d is c o u n te n a n c e d p o p u la r
p ro g ra m s.
A f t e r h a v in g th ro w n i t s w e ig h t b e h in d th e
S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s i n 1887 th e S o c ie ty h ad gone a lo n g w ith
^ °M in u tes o f th e Com m ittee on C o n s t i t u t i o n ,
Ja n u ary 15, 1898, i b i d .
229
e f f o r t s f o r g r e a t e r c o o p e r a tio n .
U n lik e th e o th e r o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n s i t s G e n e ra l Com m ittee d i d n o t u n a n im o u sly e n d o rs e
th e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f 18 9 5 , b u t n e i t h e r d id i t t h r e a t e n
t o b o y c o tt th e J o i n t C om m ission’s ex panded a c t i v i t i e s .
S e c o n d ly , th e p r o s p e c t o f a W ash in g to n Academy h e l d o u t
e n t i c i n g a d v a n ta g e s t o a l l c o n c e rn e d .
N ot o n ly w o u ld i t
s e rv e a s a k in d o f i n t e r l o c k i n g d i r e c t o r s h i p f o r th e
v a r io u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s b u t i t a l s o p ro m ise d t o ta k e o v e r
th e t a s k o f p o p u l a r i z a t i o n , a llo w in g th e s o c i e t i e s t o
make t h e i r m e e tin g s more t e c h n i c a l and t o d e v o te t h e i r
a t t e n t i o n t o more c h a lle n g in g t o p i c s .
In c o lla b o ra tio n
w ith th e s e g ro u p s i t w ould h e lp advance n a t i o n a l s c i e n c e ,
and i t s own a c t i v i t i e s w ould c a r r y fo rw a rd th e im provem ent
o f lo c a l c u ltu re .
L e c tu r e s f o r laym en h ad t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n th e
s h o r te s t ro u te to in s p ir in g a g e n e ra l a p p re c ia tio n f o r
s c i e n c e — e s p e c i a l l y d u r in g p e r io d s o f r a p i d s o c i a l and
econom ic change when ’’c u l t i v a t i o n ” was i n v o g u e .
From
th e v a n ta g e p o i n t o f th e G ild e d A ge, t h e r e f o r e , W a s h in g to n ’s
s a v a n ts c o u ld f u l l y com prehend t h e a p p e a l o f e a r l i e r
p o p u la riz e rs •
B e fo re th e C i v i l War B enjam in S i lli m a n
w as among t h e m ost s k i l l f u l i f n o t th e f i r s t p r a c t i t i o n e r
o f th e a r t o f p r e s e n t i n g s c ie n c e t o t h e p u b l i c .
H is
te c h n iq u e in v o lv e d p a i n s t a k i n g r e h e a r s a l s o f l e c t u r e s so
t h a t a t th e podium he w ould n o t be bound t o h i s n o t e s ,
m aking c e r t a i n b e fo re h a n d t h a t e x p e rim e n ts and i l l u s t r a t i v e
230
d e m o n s tr a tio n s w ere s u r e t o w o rk , and th e n e l u c i d a t i n g
h i s s u b j e c t w ith d i g n i t y and a n im a tio n .
As h i s fame
s p r e a d th e crow ds i n c r e a s e d , b o th i n s i z e and z e a l , s o
t h a t i t became c u s to m a ry f o r p e o p le t o a r r i v e h o u rs
ah ead o f tim e in o r d e r t o g e t good s e a t s .
For over
tw e n ty y e a r s , from B u f f a lo t o M obile and b etw een
N a n tu c k e t an d P i t t s b u r g h , th e Y ale p r o f e s s o r d e c ip h e r e d
th e m y s te r ie s o f g e o lo g y and c h e m is tr y f o r l a r g e g a t h e r ­
in g s .
S i l l i m a n c o n s id e r e d t h e s e p e rfo rm a n c e s h i s
h i g h e s t s e r v i c e t o s c i e n c e ; th e y a l s o n e t t e d him a
handsome in co m e, r a i s e d fu n d s f o r e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b l i s h ­
m en ts su c h a s th e L o w e ll I n s t i t u t e , a n d , i n th e w ords
o f a d i s c i p l e , " a t t r a c t e d t o h i s l e c t u r e s th e r e f i n e d
and c u l t i v a t e d . " ^
W hat S illi m a n d i d f o r p h y s ic a l
s c ie n c e was m atched b y L o u is A g a s s iz i n b io lo g y .
D roves o f men and women l i s t e n e d a p p r o v in g ly a s he
d e s c r ib e d th e com plex m a g n ific a n c e o f c r e a t i o n , w ith
b o th A g a s s iz and h i s a u d ie n c e s f e e l i n g e n n o b le d by th e
e x p e rie n c e .
The le s s o n was n o t l o s t on h i s f r i e n d
J o s e p h H enry who was s e e k in g ways o f a d v a n c in g and
d i f f u s i n g know ledge th r o u g h th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n .
H enry c o u ld n o t hope t o d u p l i c a t e A g a s s i z 's "ch arm in g
**Ge o rge P . F i s h e r , L if e o f B en jam in S i lli m a n
. . . (New Y o rk , 1 8 6 6 ), I , 3 46; Jo h n I^. F u lto n and
E l i z a b e t h H. Thomson, B enjam in S i l l i m a n . 1 7 7 9 -1 8 6 4 : P a th ­
f i n d e r i n A m erican S c ie n c e (.Mew Y ork, 1 9 4 7 ) . p p . l 7 3 - l « j .
231
C o n t in e n t a l a c c e n t ,
b u t i t w as p o s s i b l e t o copy h i s
m ethod f o r w h e ttin g th e p u b l i c 's a p p e t i t e .
T h u s, i n th e
1 8 5 0 's f,th e b e s t f e a t u r e o f W a sh in g to n was th e c o u r s e s
o f l e c t u r e s g iv e n a t th e S m ith s o n ia n , n o t l i m i t e d t o
s c i e n c e , w h ich e n a b le d u s t o h e a r e m in e n t e d u c a to r s from
v a r io u s p a r t s o f th e c o u n t r y .
I n 1882 th e S m ith s o n ia n
a g a in became th e s c e n e o f p o p u la r l e c t u r e s , o n ly t h i s
tim e th e y w ere s p o n s o re d by W a s h in g to n 's new s c i e n t i f i c
s o c ie tie s .
The h i s t o r y o f th e S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s p r o v id e s a
gauge f o r m e a su rin g th e i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity’s d e v e lo m ent i n th e e i g h t i e s and n i n e t i e s .
A t f i r s t t h e r e w ere
s h a rp d i f f e r e n c e s o v e r w h e th e r W a sh in g to n s o c i e t i e s
w ere c u t o u t f o r t h i s s o r t o f a c t i v i t y .
In c o n tra s t to
th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l an d B i o l o g i c a l S o c i e t i e s , th e P h i l o ­
s o p h ic a l m a in ta in e d t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r l e c t u r e s
r e s i d e d w ith th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n . ^
Once t h i s
argum ent h ad b ee n i r r e f u t a b l e , b u t th e r i s e o f new
s o c i e t i e s d e f l e c t e d i t s t h r u s t s in c e th e y w ere so s t r o n g l y
com m itted t o p o p u l a r i z a t i o n .
A ls o , p o p u l a r i z e r s w ere
^^Edward L u r i e , L o u is A g a s s iz : A L if e i n S c ie n c e
(C h ic a g o , 1 9 6 0 ), p . 1 2 7 .------------ -----------------------------------------^ A u to b io g ra phy M em ories an d E x p e r ie n c e s o f M oncure
D a n ie l Conway ( b o s to n . I9b*»). I . z l O - z l l .
^ ^ i n u t e s o f th e G e n e ra l C o m m ittee, F e b r u a r y 1 3 ,
1886 , PSW A r c h iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s N av a l R e s e a rc h L a b o r a to r y .
232
s u s t a i n e d b y th e S m ith s o n ia n 's a s s i s t a n t s e c r e t a r y who
p r o c la im e d i t " th e d u ty o f e v e r y s c i e n t i f i c s c h o l a r ,
how ever m in u te h i s s p e c i a l t y , " t o h e lp k in d le e n th u s ia s m .
In d e e d s c i e n t i s t s h ad a solem n o b l i g a t i o n t o f u r t h e r th e
h e
b r o a d e s t p o s s i b l e e d u c a tio n o f n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l s . J
B ut
h e r e , a s i n o t h e r m a t t e r s , th e J o i n t C om m ission w as o n ly
m o d e r a te ly s u c c e s s f u l , and n o t f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s d i d th e
S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s a c q u ir e a d e f i n i t e p la c e i n th e i n ­
t e l l e c t u a l l i f e o f th e c i t y .
When th e y d i d , h o w ev e r, i t
s i g n a l l e d th e r e v i t a l i z a t i o n an d p u b lic s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
lo c a l b o d ie s .
I n 1897 C le v e la n d Abbe w ish e d some p ro g ram s
c o u ld be d e l i v e r e d " i n th e S e n a te Cham ber, t o C o n g re s s—
i t w o u ld be an a d m ira b le im provem ent on th e o r d i n a r y
m ethods o f l o b b y i n g . " ^
Though th e p r o p o s a l i t s e l f may
hav e b e e n o n ly h a l f - s e r i o u s , Abbe was c o r r e c t i n im p ly in g
t h a t d i s t i l l a t i o n and t r a n s m i s s i o n o f g e n e r a l know ledge
r e f l e c t e d th e p o te n c y o f W a s h in g to n 's s c i e n t i f i c e s t a b l i s h ­
m e n t.
U s u a lly l e c t u r e s w ere c o n s id e r e d fro m th e s t a n d ­
p o i n t o f p u b l i c e n lig h te n m e n t r a t h e r th a n i n te rm s o f how
th e y s tr e n g th e n e d th e i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ich s p o n s o re d th em .
On th e o c c a s io n o f th e f i r s t S a tu r d a y m e e tin g , h e ld M arch
^ 5G. Brown G oode, The B e g in n in g s o f A m erican
S c ie n c e , th e T h ird C e n tu ry (W a sh in g to n ! ft. C ., 188& ), p. 9 3 .
^ C l e v e l a n d Abbe t o Thomas C. M e n d e n h a ll, A p r i l 2 4 ,
18 9 7 , M en d en h all P a p e r s , Box 6 , A m erican I n s t i t u t e o f
P h y s ic s .
233
1 1 , 1 8 8 2 , P o w e ll an n o u n ced t h a t th e e n s u in g s e r i e s was
d e s ig n e d t o o f f e r " b i r d s - e y e v iew s t o i n q u i r i n g s t u d e n t s , "
and t h a t a u d ie n c e s c o u ld a n t i c i p a t e l e a r n i n g " th e s im p le r
le s s o n s ta u g h t b y th e w orks o f n a t u r e . *,£f^
I n 1893,
f o llo w in g a t h r e e y e a r l a p s e , th e a n n u a l c o u r s e s w ere
ren ew ed on th e g ro u n d s t h a t th e y s e rv e d t o in tr o d u c e
laym en t o s c i e n c e .
L a t e r th e W a sh in g to n Academy*s
Com m ittee on F u n c tio n s n o t o n ly assum ed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r a r r a n g in g l e c t u r e s , i t a l s o s tr o v e t o ex p an d them
b y s e n d in g s p e c i a l n o t i c e s t o p u b l i c s c h o o l t e a c h e r s .
P ro g ram s w ould th u s become "more s e r v i c e a b l e " j u s t i f y i n g
h o n o ra riu m s f o r s p e a k e r s .
J.O
#
B ecau se o f t h e i r p u b l i c
c h a r a c t e r an d e d u c a t i o n a l p u rp o se W J McGee lik e n e d th e
S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s t o a " u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s i o n , ” t o th e
k in d o f i n s t i t u t i o n "w h ich h a s a t t r a c t e d s o much i n t e r e s t
i n o t h e r p o r t i o n s o f th e c o u n try w i t h i n th e l a s t f iv e
years.Looked
a t i n t h i s way th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e
c o u r s e s o f f e r e d b y W a s h in g to n 's Academy tr a n s c e n d e d t h e i r
own tim e and p l a c e , and to o k on a f a r d e e p e r h i s t o r i c a l
m e an in g .
^ J . W. P o w e ll, " I n t r o d u c t o r y A d d r e s s ," The
S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s . . . 1882 (W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 18'82),
p.2.
W. C l a r k e , C h a rle s E . M unroe, and O. H.
T ittm a n n ," R e p o r t o f C om m ittee on F u n c tio n s o f th e W ashing­
to n Academy o f S c i e n c e s ," December 5 , 1 8 9 8 , WAS.
49w
J McGee t o th e e d i t o r o f th e W ash in g to n News,
A p r i l 2 7 , 1 8 9 4 , C o rre s p o n d e n c e , ASW A r c h iv e s , S I .
234
McGee’s a l l u s i o n was t o th e many p r o p o s a ls f o r
fo u n d in g a n a t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y a t th e s e a t o f g o v e rn m e n t.
T h is i d e a , fro m G eorge W ash in g to n onw ard, h ad im p r e s s iv e
p r o p o n e n ts , b u t i t n e v e r was c o m p e llin g enough t o be
tr a n s la te d in to r e a l i t y .
By th e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
h o w ev er, i t s tim e seem ed t o have come, and t h e r e was a
r e i g n i n g c o n fid e n c e among W ash in g to n i n t e l l e c t u a l s t h a t
i t c o u ld be r e s i s t e d no l o n g e r .
I n l a r g e m easu re t h i s
stemmed from t h e i r own e x u b e ra n c e .
Those c o n c e rn e d w ith
tr a n s f o r m in g th e p o l i t i c a l C a p i t a l i n t o a c e n t e r f o r
c u l t u r a l advancem ent showed l i t t l e h e s i t a n c y a b o u t e n ­
l i s t i n g i n th e c r u s a d e .
H o r a tio K ing was on a co m m ittee
w hich e x h o r te d C o n g ress t o in c o r p o r a te an i n s t i t u t i o n
u n d e r th e g o v ern m e n t, Jo s e p h H enry became in v o lv e d w ith
th e N a tio n a l U n i v e r s i t y Com m ittee o f s c i e n t i s t s and
e d u c a t o r s , a n d , i n 1884, The L i t e r a r y ’ s p r e s i d e n t u s e d
h i s in a u g u r a l t o s t r e s s th e " t a s t e and c u l t u r e m a n if e s te d
i n th e s o c i e t y o f W ash in g to n an d th e s u i t a b i l i t y o f t h a t
c i t y a s a s i t e f o r a g r e a t N a tio n a l U n iv e r s ity ." ^ ®
M eanw hile t h e r e was a movement a f o o t t o u p g rad e C olum bian
U n i v e r s i t y , a n e f f o r t f u r t h e r d e m o n s tr a tin g th e e n th u s ia s m
f o r m aking W ash in g to n a n e d u c a ti o n a l b a s e .
W ith o u t
*i®M inutes o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n ,
December 2 7 , 1884, L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty P a p e r s , I , LC; P . J .
Keene t o H o r a tio K in g , December 2 4 , 18 7 0 , K ing P a p e r s , V ,
LC; J o s e p h H enry t o J . W. H o y t, J u l y 3 0 , 1 8 7 4 , S I A r c h iv e s .
235
endow m ents, b u t h a v in g th e s u p p o r t o f su c h l o c a l t a l e n t
a s L e s t e r F ra n k W ard, who h e l d th e c h a i r o f b o ta n y , Jam es
W e llin g la u n c h e d th e C o rc o ra n S c i e n t i f i c S c h o o l.
T h is
was a n o b le v e n tu re th o u g h no s u b s t i t u t e f o r a g e n u in e
n a tio n a l u n iv e rs ity .
T h e r e f o r e , i n 1 8 9 1 , when th e
A m erican A s s o c ia ti o n f o r th e A dvancem ent o f S c ie n c e m et
i n W a sh in g to n , Ward ad d ed h i e v o ic e t o th e c h o ru s demand­
in g a c e n t e r o f h i g h e r l e a r n i n g .
H is d e s ig n was l a i d o u t
so t h a t th e en d r e s u l t w ould be ’’e x c l u s i v e l y th e p r o d u c t
o f th e f e d e r a l g o v e rn m e n t,” th u s r e l y i n g upon C o n g ress
fo r i t s e n a c tm e n t.^
O th e r s , m in d fu l o f o f f i c i a l l e t h a r g y
and u n d a u n te d b y th e p i t f a l l s o f a n in d e p e n d e n t c o u r s e ,
a sk e d i f i t was ’’n o t a d v is a b le t o t h i n k o f o r g a n iz in g
th e i n s t r u c t i o n . . .
u n d e r th e J o i n t Com m ission o f th e
S c i e n t i f i c S o c i e t i e s o f W a sh in g to n ?”^
I n r e p l y a f a i r q u e s tio n m ig h t have b e e n : w hat
g ro u n d s w ere t h e r e f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t th e J o i n t Com m ission
c o u ld make a s u c c e s s o f su c h a p r o j e c t ?
I t was u n d e r­
s ta n d a b le t h a t men im m ersed i n n a t i o n a l s c ie n c e s h o u ld
s e e k t o h a s te n th e d ay when W ash in g to n w ould h o u se a
u n i v e r s i t y o p e r a t i n g i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith t e c h n i c a l
5J-l . F . W ard, ”A N a tio n a l U n i v e r s i t y . . .
S c ie n c e , X V III (1 8 9 1 ), 2 81; Jam es C. W e llin g t o L e s t e r F .
W ard, S ep tem b er 1 3 , 1 8 8 6 , Ward P a p e r s , A u to g ra p h s , I I ,
1 1 , Brown U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y .
^ E d w a rd S . H olden t o D a n ie l C. G ilm an , November
9 and 2 3 , 1 8 9 7 , G ilm an P a p e r s , The Jo h n s H opkins U n i v e r s i t y
L ib ra ry .
236
a g e n c ie s o f th e g o v e rn m e n t.
F u rth e rm o re , i t was n a t u r a l
f o r th o s e co m m itted t o th e d i f f u s i o n o f know ledge a s
w e ll a s i t s c r e a t i o n t o w ork u n s p a r in g l y f o r th e m a rria g e
o f s p e c i a l i z e d r e s e a r c h and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n .
B u t ev e n
a f t e r m aking th e s e a llo w a n c e s was i t n o t p resu m p tu o u s t o
t i e su c h a g ra n d o b j e c t i v e t o a l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ?
It
w ould have b e e n , e x c e p t f o r th e i n t e l l e c t u a l e s t a b l i s h ­
m e n t's te m p e r in g o f o p tim ism w i t h a k e e n a w a re n e ss o f
i t s own r e s o u r c e s .
The e n d u r in g hope w as t h a t C o n g ress
w ould r e c o g n iz e th e wisdom o f t h e i r v i s i o n , b u t f a i l i n g
t h i s g o v e r n m e n t - s c i e n t i s t s w ere p r e p a r e d t o u t i l i z e
th e e x i s t i n g m a c h in e ry f o r d is s e m in a tin g l e a r n i n g .
"We
c o u ld r e o r g a n iz e th e o ld S a tu r d a y L e c tu r e s on a h ig h e r
p la n e i n th e l e c t u r e room o f th e N a ti o n a l M useum,"
s u g g e s te d O tis M ason, th e r e b y im p ro v in g th e q u a l i t y o f
i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e a d y b e in g o f f e r e d . 5^
O p e r a tin g on su c h
a s c a le th e J o i n t C om m ission— and e v e n more s o th e
W ash in g to n Academy a f t e r 1898— c o u ld m eet an i n t e r i m
n eed u n t i l th e n a t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y was e s t a b l i s h e d .
Its
e d u c a ti o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n w as t h e r e f o r e r e g a r d e d n o t a s
an u l t i m a t e s o l u t i o n , b u t r a t h e r a s a b e g in n in g .
To th e h i s t o r i a n , h o w e v e r, t h i s s i g n i f i e s a k in d
of fin a lity .
By i t s v i g o r an d s e l f - a s s u r a n c e th e
S ^ o tis T. Mason t o th e Members o f th e A n th ro p o ­
l o g i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , F e b ru a ry 9 , 1893, McGee
P a p e r s , Box 8 , LC.
237
W ash in g to n Academy announced t h a t th e i n t e l l e c t u a l
co m m u n ity 's f o rm a tiv e p e r io d was e n d e d .
The p r o c e s s t h a t
b eg a n w ith a s e r i e s o f g ro p in g a tte m p ts t o im pose o r d e r
on G ild e d Age s o c i e t y , and w h ich q u ic k ly m eshed w i t h th e
movement t o prom ote g o v e r a m e n t- s c ie n c e , had c u lm in a te d
i n an i n s t i t u t i o n d e d i c a t e d t o im p ro v in g n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e .
On one l e v e l i t c o u ld be c e l e b r a t e d a s th e u l t i m a t e
e x p r e s s io n o f c u l t i v a t i o n and e le g a n c e , w ith th e s e
a t t r i b u t e s b e in g s h a re d by th e C a p i t a l C i t y .
I n a n o th e r
s e n s e i t was a p p r e c i a t e d a s th e f r u i t i o n o f W a s h in g to n 's
s c i e n t i f i c e s ta b lis h m e n t.
The s t a t u r e o f i t s member­
s h ip to w e re d above th o s e o f th e g e n t e e l c i r c l e s , and a s
an a g e n c y f o r th e advancem ent o f s c ie n c e i t s u r p a s s e d
e v e n H e n r y 's P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t y .
The W ash in g to n
Academy o f S c ie n c e s accom m odated b o th a m a te u rs an d p r o ­
f e s s i o n a l s ; i t s com ponents r e p r e s e n t e d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n
and th e y d i f f u s e d t e c h n i c a l k n o w led g e, w h ile th e Academy
i t s e l f , th r o u g h p u b lic l e c t u r e s , s e r v e d th e c a u se o f
p o p u l a r i z a t i o n ; i t s s t r u c t u r a l form e n a b le d i t t o
b e sto w p r e s t i g e on members an d a l s o f u n c t i o n a s an
a d m in is tra tiv e body.
I n s h o r t , th e Academy gave con­
c l u s i v e e v id e n c e o f a f l o u r i s h i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity
a t th e s e a t o f g o v e rn m e n t.
The f o rm a tio n o f t h i s com m unity was o n ly one o f
c o u n t l e s s a c co m p lish m e n ts o f th e p o s t - C i v i l War p e r io d ;
b u t b e c a u s e i t s l e a d e r s f i g u r e d i n s o many o f th e s e
238
c r e a t i v e in f l u e n c e s i t o c c u p ie d a s p e c i a l p la c e i n l a t e
n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y c u l t u r e .
The H e n ry s, th e P o w e lls ,
th e McGees, th e B a ir d s , th e Newcombs, th e W ard s, and
s c o r e s l i k e th em w ere r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a h o s t o f b u r e a u s ,
r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s , and go v ern m en t e n t e r p r i s e s w h ich
l e f t l a s t i n g im p r in t s on A m erican l i f e .
I n g o in g a b o u t
t h e i r w ork t h e s e men r e v e a l e d p r e v io u s l y n e g l e c t e d
s o u r c e s o f n a t i o n a l s t r e n g t h , and b y o p en in g new a r e a s
o f i n q u i r y th e y e n la r g e d th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r f u tu r e
p ro g re ss.
P e rh a p s t h e i r m ost momentous a c h ie v e m e n t came
when th e y t h r u s t th e m s e lv e s i n t o p u b l i c s e r v i c e , f o r
t h i s gave th e s c i e n t i s t s and s c h o l a r s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n
th e r e a lm o f p r a c t i c a l a f f a i r s .
H ere was an i n t e l l e c t u a l
e l i t e w h ich s o u g h t n o t d e ta c h m e n t, b u t i n f l u e n c e , and
t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g re e i t s q u e s t w as f u l f i l l e d .
R ev iew in g th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f t h i s com munity
re m in d s one a g a in o f H enry A lle n Moe’s Cosmos Club
a d d re s s in 1965.
H is w ords come b a c k l i k e a w h is p e re d
r e f r a i n : n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e c a n b e s t be a d v a n ce d by
in t e l l e c t u a l o rg a n iz a tio n s .
Those who h ad c r e a t e d
W a sh in g to n ’s e s ta b li s h m e n t t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a c e n tu r y
e a r l i e r w ould have a p p r e c i a t e d h i s m e ssag e , j u s t a s he
w as i n s p i r e d b y t h e i r e x a m p le .
P h y s i c a l l y th e s e
b e w h is k e re d , h i g h - c o l l a r e d g e n tle m e n b e lo n g e d t o
a n o th e r a g e , b u t t h e i r s p i r i t was t i m e l e s s .
A c c o rd in g ly ,
239
"a n a r i s t o c r a c y o f b r a i n s and c h a r a c t e r , an a r i s t o c r a c y
w ith a c o n s c ie n c e and a s e n s e o f h i s t o r y " s e r v e s b o th a s
an e p i t a p h and a s a t r i b u t e t o t h e i r e n d u r in g v i s i o n .
APPENDIX
MEMBERSHIP OF THE WASHINGTON INTELLECTUAL COMMUNITY,
1871-1899*
*The d a ta u se d i n c o m p ilin g t h i s r o s t e r was ta k e n
fro m l i s t s o f fo u n d e rs and o f f i c e r s o f th e s e v e r a l co m p o n en ts,
th e Cosmos C lu b , and th e W ash in g to n Academy o f S c ie n c e s , a s
c o n ta in e d i n b u l l e t i n s , u n p u b lis h e d m in u te s , and th e D i r e c t o r y
o f S c i e n t i f i c S o c i e t i e s (1 8 8 9 -1 8 9 9 ). The sym bols i n th e f o llo w ­
in g l i s t f o r th e v a r io u s s o c i e t i e s a r e : A—A n th r o p o lo g ic a l;
B—B i o l o g i c a l ; C— C h em ical; CC—Cosmos C lu b ; E—E n to m o lo g ic a l;
G—G e o lo g ic a l; L—L i t e r a r y ; N—N a tio n a l G e o g ra p h ic ; P —P h i l o ­
s o p h i c a l ; and W—W ash in g to n Academy o f S c ie n c e s .
241
WASHINGTON INTELLECTUAL COMMUNITY, 1871-1899
~— - ? ,r.:-------------------CC
Adams, H.
A d le r , C .
A
P
A lv o rd , B.
A n t i s e l l , T-
CC
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Ashmead, W. H.
E
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B abb, C . C .
N
B a ile y , M. B.
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B a ir d , S . F .
CC
B a k e r, F .
A
L
P
B
B a k e r, M.
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B a r i l i , A.
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B a tc h e ld e r , R . N.
N
A
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B a te s , N. L .
Be H , G ■ J »
w
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B a r t l e t t , J . R.
B e l l , A. G.
P
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B a rn e s , J . K,
B e c k e r, G. F .
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B a rn a rd , W. S .
B ean, T . H.
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B an k s, N.
B a te s , H. H.
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N_______ W
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B e n to n , F .
E
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B e s s e ls , E.
B
B e y e r, H. G.
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B ig e lo w , F . H.
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B ig elo w , W. D.
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B illin g s , J . S.
P
N
B i m i e , R.
B l o d g e tt , J . H.
C
w
CC
A
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B ow les, F . T.
B o y le f E,
L
B o y le , R. C.
L
B rew er, D. J .
L
B ro o k e, R, N.
L
G
B ro o k s, A. H.
CC
B rou g h , W.
C
Brown, W. G,
Brow ne, E .
CC
B ry a n , J . H.
CC
A
CC
L
B u sey . S . C.
C am p b ell, M. R.
W
N
B o lto n , H. C.
B u r n e t t , &. M.
P
A
B lo u n t, H. F ,
B o u rk e, J . G.
W
w
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G
C a p ro n , H.
P
C a sey , T . L .
P
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C h a ta r d , T . M.
C
C h e s n u t, V. K.
C
B
C h ic k e rin se , J . W.
CC_______ G
CC
E
C h itte n d e n , F . H.
C
C la r k e , F . W.
C la rk e , I . E .
L
P
CC
P
C o f f in , J . H. C.
L
C olem an, A. M.
C om stock, J . H.
B
Cook, 0 . F .
B
E
C o q u i l l e t t , D. W.
C o u es, E .
A
C o v i l l e , F . V.
L
B
N
C r a ig , B. F .
C
C ra n e , C. H.
P
C r o s s , C. W.
w
G
L
Cummins, E . H.
C u rtis , J .
CC
A
D abney, C. W.
N
D a h lg re n , M. V.
D a l i , W. H.
L
B
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w
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D a lto n , N. H.
D a v is , C. H.
Day, D. T.
w
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C ram pton, C. A.
C u s h in g , F . H.
W
CC
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D eH ass, W.
A
Dewey, F . P .
C
D ille r, J . S.
C
D o o l i t t l e , W. H,
A
D o rse y , J . 0
A
G
P
L
D ra k e , C. D.
D u tto n , G, E ,
CC
D w ight, T . F .
CC
N
L
N
D yer, G, L .
E astm an , J . R.
GC
E im beck, W.
GG
P
E l l i o t , G. H.
P
E l l i o t t , E. B.
CC
P
G
Emmons, S . F .
E n d lic h , F . M.
w
CC
E verm ann, B. W.
B
E w e ll, E . E .
w
C
F a rq u h a r, H.
P
A
L
F e llo w s , G. S ,
G
F em o w , B. E .
F ire m a n , P .
F l e t c h e r , A. G.
W
G
E l d r i d g e , G. H.
Few kes, J . W.
P
E
D y a r, H. G.
F a y , E , A.
W
B
E
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A
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C
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-U O - V .
W
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F l i n t , W.
A
F o o te , K.
L
F o s t e r , J , W.
L
E
F ox, W. H.
G
F ris to e , E T
G a ll a u d e t , E . M.
GG
A
CC
G a n n e tt, H.
L
G a ts c h e t, A. S .
A
G i l b e r t , G. K,
A
CG
B
G i l l , T. N*
CC
G
E
L
G odding, W, W.
B
G o o d fe llo w , E.
CC
w
P
w
N
P
N
P
CC
A
G r e e ly , A. W.
L
G re en , B. R.
CC
G re e n e , E . L .
N
w
w
P
B
G u n n e ll, F . M.
w
w
CC
H ague, A.
G
H a l l , A.
H a r r in g to n , M. W.
P
L
G oode, G. B.
H a rk n e ss , W.
N
CC
G ilm an, D. G.
Hampson
W
N
G a r f i e l d , J . A.
G o re , J . H.
W
L
w
P
A
CC
P
P
w
246
H a r r i s , W.
T , ______________________________________ L_____________
H aw ley, J .
R.______________________________________L_____________
H ayden, S .________________________________________________ N________
H ay es, G. W.____________________________________G_________________W
H e a to n , A.___ G.______________________________________ L_____________
H eidem ann, 0_______________________________ E_______________________
H e n d ric k , B. S .______________________ CC
H en ry , J . _________________________________________________ N
P
Henshaw, H. W._________ A____________ CC___________________________
H ilg a r d , J . E._______________________________________________ P
H i l l , E . A,_______________________________________________N________
H i l l , G. W.___________________________________________________ P
H i l l , R. T._____________________________________ G____________ P
W
H i l l e b r a n d , W. F ._______________ C________________________________W
H itc h c o c k , R . ______________ B
C____________ ____________________
H odge, F . W.___________ A__________________________________________
H offm an, W. J . _________ A___________________________ L_____________
H o ld en , E . S ._________________________ CC_____________________P
H olm es, W. H.__________ A____________ CC________G___ L____________ W
Howard, J . Q._______________________________________ L_____________
How ard, L . 0 . _______________B
CC
E_____________________ W
H ow gate, H. W._______________________ CC___________________________
H ubb ard , G. G.___________________________________________N_________
H ubb ard , H. G._____________________________ E_______________________
H um phreys, A. A.
jP
H u n tin g to n , D.
P
2WI
H u tc h e so n , D.__________ A
N
Hyde, J .
P
J e n k in s , T. A.
N
Jo h n so n
J o h n s to n , E. B.
L
K auffm ann, S . H.
L
N
K e n a s to n , C. A.
L
K ennan, G
B
K id d e r , J . H.
K in g , A. F . A.
A
C
CC
K n o rr, A. E .
C
B
K now lton, F . H.
W
Knox, J . J .
CC
C
A
L
A
L a n g le y , S . P .
P
L e e , W.
w
CC
L eup p , F . E .
L
L in c o ln , N. S .
CC
P
L i t t l e h a l e s , G. W.
P
L ong, R. C.
L u c a s , F . A.
P
w
L a n d e r, J . D,
Lang
L
A
K rug, W. H.
Lamb, D. S .
P
B
K in g , C.
K o b er, G. M.
N
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L
B
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B
L u g g e r, 0 _
CC
M a lle r y , G.
Mann, B. P .
W
E
B
M a r l a t t , C. L .
M a r s h a ll, R. B.
CC
M a r tin , H. N«
CC
M a rv in , C. F .
M arx, G.
M ason, 0 . T.
A
M atth ew s, W.
A
B
W
CC
w
L
M c B la ir, J . T. E .
McCammon, J . K.
M cCormick, J . H.
CC
A
M cE lro y , K. T . P .
C
McGee, W J
A
M cG uire, J . D.
A
N
M e ig s, M. C.
P
M e l v i l l e , G. W.
N
M e n d e n h a ll, T. C.
M erriam , C. H.
CC
N
G
M e sse r, E . C.
M i t c h e l l , H.
N
B
M e r r i l l , G. P .
Mew, W. M.
w
P
w
w
L
CC
N
M o r r is , J . G.
M unroe, C. E .
W
249
M
i i wurdoch,
i . u v u u j
uJ », ____________ A
P
Newcomb, S .
N e w e ll, P . H.
N
w
N
w
L
N ic h o la y , J . G.
CC
N o r r i s , B.
Ogden, H. G.
A
O t i s , G. A.
P a c k a rd , R. L .
CC
L
P a ig e , R.
P a lm e r, T.
W
B
S .
CC
P a r k e , J . G.
P a rk e r, P.
P
P a u l, H. M.
P
P e a le , A. C.
C
P eck , G.
CC
E
P e rg a n d e , T
P i e r c e , P . B,
A
P o e , 0 . M.
P
P o l l a r d , C, L .
P o w e ll, J . W.
w
B
A
CC
P o w e ll, W. B.
P r e n t i s s , D. W.
L
P
N
B
P r e s t o n , E . D.
P
P r i t c h e t t , H. S .
CC
N
P r o c t e r , J . R*
CC
N
P r o u d f i t , S . V,________ A
w
P
w
250
R e is in g e r
A
Re ms o n . I ,
R e y n o ld s , E . R .
CC
A
C
R ic h a r d s , E ,
R idgw ay, R.
B
R i l e y , C. V.
B
CC
E
L
R i s l e y , H. A.
R o b in so n , T .
R o c k .M .
P
C
A
CC
R o c k h i l l , W. W.
N
R ow land, H. A.
R oyce, C, G,
CC
A
R y d e r, J . A.
B
S alm o n , D. G.
W
E
S c h a f h i r t , A. J .
S c h o t t , C . A.
P
E
S ch w arz, E , A.
S c h w e in itz , E . A. D.
W
w
G
S c id m o re , E . R .
N
Seam an, W. H.
S e e ly , F . A.
G
A
S ew ard, 0 , R,
L
S herm an, W. T .
S m ith , E .
S m ith , J . A.
P
-
-
CC
CC
251
S m ith , J . B.
B_____________ E
S m ith , T
B
CC
S p e a r , J . C.
S p o f f o r d , A. R.
L
S ta n le y -B ro w n , J .
L
P
W
G
S t a n t o n , T . W.
B
S t e a r n s , R. E . G.
W
S te jn e g e r, L.
S t e r n b e r g , G. M,
A
S t e t s o n , G. R.
A
S t i l e s , C. W.
B
P
E
B
S to k e s , H. N.
C
T a s s in , W.
C
T a y lo r , F . W,
w
w
CC
T a y lo r , W. B.
Thomas, H. L .
P
A
Thompson, A, H,
N
Thompson, G.
N
T illm a n , S . E .
CC
T ittm a n n , 0 . H.
CC
T o n e r, J . M.
A
T u r n e r , T. J .
N
L
CC
Tow nsend, C, H. T.
T ru e , F . W.
P
w
P
E
P
B
CC
T y l e r , S„
U h le r , P . R.
w
L
E
w
252
L
U p to n , S • C.
V aeey , G
B
W a ite , M. B.
B
W a lc o t t, C . D.
B
CG
B
CC
W ard, L . F .
A
G
W
P
W
N
W a rd e r, B. H,
C
W a rd e r, R . B.
P
W a tk in s , J . E .
G
Waed, C . K.
B
W ebber, H. J ,
G
Weed, W. H.
W e llin g , J . C.
A
W h ite , C. A.
A
CC
L
N
P
B
w
G
W h ite , G. D.
W
G
W h ite h e a d , C.
N
W ig h t, J . B.
W ile y , H. W.
C
w
W i l l i s , B.
G
W illits , E.
w
N
W ils o n , J . 0 ,
A
W ils o n , T .
A
W in lo e k , W. C.
P
CC
P
W in s to n , I .
P
Woodward, J . J
P
253
B
W ortm an, J .
W
W rig h t, C, D,
Y arrow , H. C,
A
CC
ESSAY ON SOURCES
ESSAY ON SOURCES
The p u rp o se o f th e e s s a y t h a t f o llo w s i s t o draw
a t t e n t i o n t o th e m a jo r s o u rc e m a t e r i a l u se d in t h i s s tu d y .
As r e g a r d s m a n u s c r ip t and a r c h i v a l c o l l e c t i o n s th e b i b ­
lio g r a p h y i s c o m p le te .
I n th e i n t e r e s t o f b r e v i t y , h o w ev er,
o n ly th e m ost r e l e v a n t p u b lis h e d w orks have b e e n l i s t e d and
e v a lu a te d .
A ls o , t h e r e h a s b e e n an a tte m p t n o t t o d u p l i c a t e
f o o tn o te c i t a t i o n s e x c e p t w here a d d i t i o n a l comments w ould
be h e l p f u l t o th e r e a d e r .
A r c h iv a l an d M a n u s c rip t S o u rc e s
The m ost im p o r ta n t c o l l e c t i o n s o f u n p u b lis h e d
m a t e r i a l s p e r t a i n i n g t o th e W ash in g to n i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity
a r e i n th e a r c h i v e s o f th e s e v e r a l c lu b s and s o c i e t i e s .
E x c e p t i n th e c a s e s o f th e E n to m o lo g ic a l and th e N a tio n a l
G e o g ra p h ic S o c i e t i e s , m em bership l i s t s , m in u te s , r e p o r t s ,
and c o rre s p o n d e n c e f i l e s have b e e n m a in ta in e d and a r e open
f o r i n s p e c t i o n , th o u g h th e y a r e som etim es d i f f i c u l t f o r th e
re se a rc h e r to lo c a te .
H o p e f u lly th e s e s c a t t e r e d c o l l e c t i o n s
w i l l so o n be t r a n s f e r r e d t o th e A rc h iv e s o f th e S m ith s o n ia n
I n s t i t u t i o n , th e r e b y i n s u r i n g t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n and m aking
them more a c c e s s i b l e t o s c h o l a r s .
255
256
The A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c i e t y 's a r c h i v e s a r e h o u sed
i n th e D iv is io n o f C u l t u r a l A n th ro p o lo g y o f th e S m ith s o n ia n
In s titu tio n .
T here a r e n in e te e n f i l e b o x es p lu s a s s o r t e d
p ac k ag e s and e n v e lo p e s c o n t a in i n g M in u tes o f th e B o ard o f
M anagers (1 8 9 5 -1 9 0 5 ); M in u te s o f th e R e g u la r M e e tin g s
(1 8 7 9 -1 8 9 6 ); R e p o rts o f th e C u r a t o r , w h ic h in c lu d e some
l e t t e r s ; and s i x volum es o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e c o v e r in g th e
y e a r s b e tw e e n 1880 and 1900.
The volume l a b e l l e d ” 18 9 2 -95"
h a s many W J McGee l e t t e r s and i s p a r t i c u l a r l y in f o r m a ti v e .
T here i s a l s o a H is to r y F i l e , b u t t h i s i s d i s a p p o i n t i n g l y
th in .
S u p p le m e n ta ry t o th e S o c i e t y 's c o l l e c t i o n o f docum ents
a r e two o t h e r b o d ie s o f m a t e r i a l i n th e S m ith s o n ia n : th e
B ureau o f E th n o lo g y L e tte r b o o k s (2 v o lu m e s ), and th e B ureau
o f A m erican E th n o lo g y A rc h iv e s i n th e O f f ic e o f A n th ro p o l­
ogy.
The c o rre s p o n d e n c e f i l e s o f th e BAE a r e la c e d w ith
com m u n icatio n s from men p ro m in e n t i n th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
S o c ie ty .
The D iv is io n o f Mammals o f th e S m ith s o n ia n c o n ta in s
th e a r c h iv e s o f th e B i o l o g i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n .
Of
u tm o s t s i g n i f i c a n c e a r e th e t h r e e volum es o f c o u n c il m e e tin g
m in u te s f o r th e y e a r s b etw een 1880 and 1 9 0 6 .
The BSW
r e c o r d s a l s o in c lu d e a copy o f th e o r i g i n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n
and M in u tes o f th e R e g u la r M e e tin g s (1 8 9 4 -1 9 0 7 ).
I n l i e u o f an o f f i c i a l d e p o s i t o r y th e a r c h i v e s o f
th e C hem ical S o c ie ty a re i n th e s e c r e t a r y 's p e r s o n a l c u s to d y .
257
R e g r e t t a b l y t h e r e a re no e x t a n t e x e c u tiv e co m m ittee m in u te s
p r i o r t o 18 9 8 .
T h ere i s , h o w ev er, a volume o f A nnual
R e p o rts o f S e c r e t a r i e s (1 8 8 7 -1 9 1 3 ).
The r i c h e s t s o u rc e o f u n p u b lis h e d in f o r m a tio n a b o u t
t h e Cosmos C lub i s i t s H is to r y F i l e , r e p l e t e w ith t y p e s c r i p t
a d d r e s s e s t o t h e m em bers, n ew sp ap er c l i p p i n g s , r e m in i s c e n c e s ,
and th e R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f Sam uel E scue T illm a n , a f o u n d e r who
w orked w ith th e W h eeler r e c o n n a is s a n c e s o f th e 1 8 7 0 's .
The U n ite d S t a t e s G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y L i b r a r y c o n t a in s
a r c h i v a l m a t e r i a l o f th e G e o lo g ic a l S o c i e t y .
T h is in c lu d e s
s i n g l e volum es o f C o u n c il M in u te s (1 8 9 3 -1 9 0 0 ); th e M in u te s
o f M e e tin g s (1 8 9 3 -1 9 0 4 ); and tw o t r e a s u r e r s ' R eco rd Books
(1 8 9 3 -1 9 1 3 and 1 8 9 6 -1 9 1 1 ).
Among th e many im p o r ta n t c o l l e c t i o n s i n th e Manu­
s c r i p t s D iv is i o n o f th e L i b r a r y o f C o n g re ss i s th e L i t e r a r y
S o c i e t y '8 P a p e r s .
E s p e c i a l l y re w a rd in g f o r th e p e r io d b e f o r e
1900 a r e Boxes 4 and 5 , and th o s e l a b e l l e d " V a rio u s P u b l i ­
c a t i o n s , " "D ocum ents R e la t in g t o th e H is to r y o f th e S o c i e t y , "
and "Some P a p e rs P r e s e n te d a t M e e tin g s ."
In a d d itio n th e re
a r e two volum es o f m in u te s , tw o volum es o f th e p r o c e e d in g s
o f th e e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e , an d a volume o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e
p r i o r t o 19 2 5 .
A t th e tim e th e y w ere c o n s u lte d th e e a r l y r e c o r d s o f
th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty w ere i n th e D iv is io n o f M a th e m a tic s
and I n f o r m a tio n S c ie n c e s , U n ite d S t a t e s N av al R e s e a rc h
258
L a b o r a to r y , W a sh in g to n , D .C .
th e S m ith s o n ia n A r c h iv e s .
They have s in c e b e e n moved t o
O r i g i n a l l y th e y w ere a r r a n g e d
i n t o f o u r b o x es o f m in u te s and t h r e e b o x es o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ,
th e fo rm e r c o n ta in in g t h r e e r e d - l e a t h e r volum es o f G e n e ra l
Com m ittee M in u te s (1 8 8 3 -1 9 1 1 ).
U nder th e c o rre s p o n d e n c e
c a te g o r y i s an u n d a te d box l a b e l l e d " M a te r ia l o f H i s t o r i c a l
I n t e r e s t , " w h ich h a s m em bership n o m in a tio n s and a c c e p ta n c e s
b e tw e e n 1871 and 1 8 7 5 .
H a n d w ritte n d r a f t s o f J o s e p h H e n ry ’s
com m u n icatio n s t o th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty a r e i n a f o l d e r
m arked "A d d re sse s and R e p o r ts " i n th e H enryana F i l e o f th e
S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n A r c h iv e s .
The J o i n t C om m ission o f S c i e n t i f i c S o c i e t i e s and
th e W ash in g to n Academy o f S c ie n c e s a r c h i v e s a r e l o c a t e d i n
th e o f f i c e o f th e Academy, w h ic h , i n t u r n , i s i n th e C a rn e g ie
I n s t i t u t i o n B u ild in g i n W a sh in g to n .
Of p rim a ry i n t e r e s t a re
th e M in u tes o f P ro c e e d in g s o f t h e J o i n t Com m ission o f
S c i e n t i f i c S o c i e t i e s o f W a sh in g to n (2 v o lu m e s ).
T h ere i s
a l s o a s c ra p b o o k o f M is c e lla n e o u s P r i n t e d M a tte r (1 8 9 8 -1 9 2 2 ),
and a f o l d e r l a b e l l e d " F o rm a tio n and E a r l y H is to r y o f th e
A cadem y," c o n t a in i n g n o t i c e s o f m e e tin g s , n o m in a tio n s f o r
m em bership, and r e p o r t s o f v a r io u s c o m m itte e s .
Much d a t a c o n c e r n in g W a sh in g to n ’s i n t e l l e c t u a l
com munity can be g le a n e d fro m th e p a p e r s o f g o v em m en ts c i e n t i s t s , l o c a l s a v a n t s , p e r s o n s o f c u l t i v a t i o n , and men
a s s o c i a t e d w ith e l e g a n t c i r c l e s and l e a r n e d s o c i e t i e s ; th e
259
m ost f e r t i l e
f i e l d s f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h a r e th e M a n u s c rip ts
D iv is io n o f th e L ib r a r y o f C o n g ress an d th e S m ith s o n ia n
I n s t i t u t i o n A r c h iv e s .
The f o llo w in g c o l l e c t i o n s i n th e L i b r a r y o f C o n g ress
a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r r e le v a n c e : th e G eorge F . B e c k e r P a p e r s ,
e s p e c i a l l y th e tw o b o x es o f G e n e ra l C o rre sp o n d e n c e c o n t a i n ­
in g l e t t e r s from Sam uel F . Emmons.
The D i a r i e s o f Edward
M .G a lla u d e t y i e l d i n s i g h t s i n t o th e d a y - to - d a y a c t i v i t i e s
o f th e W ash in g to n e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
S i m i l a r l y , th e D i a r i e s o f
Jam es and L u c r e t i a G a r f i e l d i n th e G a r f i e l d P a p e r s (B oxes
2 - 5 ) , w h ich a l s o sh ed l i g h t on th e L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y .
The
l e t t e r s i n V o ls . V -V II (1 8 7 0 -1 8 8 3 ) o f th e H o r a tio K ing
P a p e rs p ro v id e th e b e s t h i s t o r y o f K in g 's l i t e r a r y r e u n io n s .
The W J McGee P a p e rs a r e i n d i s p e n s i b l e t o an y s tu d y o f
s c i e n t i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d ; i t s 31 c o n ­
t a i n e r s house incom ing and o u tg o in g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , s c r a p ­
b o o k s , m is c e lla n e o u s m a t e r i a l , and a r t i c l e s and n o t e s , w ith
s c a r c e l y a d u l l ite m i n th e e n t i r e c o l l e c t i o n .
The p a p e rs
o f M cG ee's f a t h e r - i n - l a w , Simon Newcomb, c o n t a i n r e v e a l i n g
comments a b o u t th e Cosmos C lu b .
I n c lu d e d i n th e J o s e p h M.
T o n er P a p e rs a r e 14 b o x es o f l e t t e r s , 1 8 6 4 -1 8 9 6 .
The A rc h iv e s o f th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n co m p rise
a v i t a l so u rc e o f in f o r m a tio n r e g a r d i n g A m erican c u l t u r e i n
th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y .
I t s v a s t h o ld in g s o f th e l e t t e r s o f
S e c r e t a r i e s J o s e p h H en ry , S p e n c e r F . B a ir d , an d Sam uel P .
260
L a n g le y a r e o r g a n iz e d a c c o r d in g t o o f f i c i a l c o rre sp o n d e n c e
and p r i v a t e p a p e r s .
Those i n th e f i r s t c a te g o r y r e l a t e
t o th e d i v e r s i f i e d a c t i v i t i e s o f th e I n s t i t u t i o n , i t s
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and h i s t o r y .
The p r i v a t e p a p e rs in c lu d e
c a r e f u l l y in d e x e d a u t o b io g r a p h ic a l d a t a , p e r s o n a l l e t t e r s ,
and d a i l y j o u r n a l s .
H ere may be fo u n d th e d i a r y k e p t by
H e n r y 's d a u g h te r , M ary, c h r o n i c l i n g many k ey d e v e lo p m e n ts
in n a tio n a l s c ie n c e .
The o f f i c i a l c o rre s p o n d e n c e o f th e
I n s t i t u t i o n a l s p c o n t a in s a volume o f r e q u e s t s from
W ash in g to n c lu b s and s o c i e t i e s f o r u se o f th e l e c t u r e h a l l
(1 8 8 2 -1 8 9 0 ), and tw o f o l d e r s w ith m a t e r i a l p e r t a i n i n g t o
th e n a t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y movement (1 8 7 0 -1 9 0 0 ).
S e p a r a te from th e A r c h iv e s , b u t u n d e r th e S m ith ­
s o n i a n 's j u r i s d i c t i o n , i s th e N a tio n a l C o l l e c t i o n o f F in e
A r ts L i b r a r y , w h ich h a s W illia m H enry H o lm e s', "Random
R eco rd s o f a L i f e t i m e , 1 8 4 6 -1 9 3 1 : C u l l i n g s , L a r g e ly P e r s o n a l,
fro m th e S c ra p Heap o f T hree S co re Y ears and T en, D evoted
t o S c ie n c e , L i t e r a t u r e and A r t . "
O rig in a lly c o n s is tin g o f
tw e n ty v o lu m e s, th e " p e r s o n a l" volum es (XVII-XX) have d i s ­
ap p e ared .
What re m a in s i s a f a s c i n a t i n g a r r a y o f d i a r y
e n t r i e s , f i e l d n o t e s , t y p e s c r i p t e s s a y s , l e t t e r s , w a te r
c o l o r s , p h o to g r a p h s , and o t h e r m e m o ra b ilia c o l l e c t e d b y a
man whose f i f t y y e a r s o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e k e p t him to o b u sy
t o w r i t e h i s a u to b io g ra p h y .
O th e r c o l l e c t i o n s o f p rim a ry s o u rc e m a t e r i a l b e a r i n g
upon th e W ash in g to n i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity a r e : th e F ra n z
261
Boas and th e L eC onte F a m ily P a p e rs a t th e A m erican P h i l o ­
s o p h ic a l S o c ie ty ; th e Brown U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ’s h o ld in g o f
L e s t e r F ra n k Ward P a p e r s ; Thomas C orw in M e n d e n h a ll’s a u t o ­
b i o g r a p h i c a l n o t e s , d i a r y , an d c o rre s p o n d e n c e a t th e
A m erican I n s t i t u t e o f P h y s ic s , New Y ork C ity ; th e e x te n s iv e
W illia m J . R hees C o l l e c t i o n , a s w e ll a s th e l e t t e r s o f
C la re n c e K ing and H o r a tio K in g , i n th e H enry E , H u n tin g to n
L ib r a r y ; th e D a n ie l C. G ilm an P a p e r s , th e I r a Remsen P a p e r s ,
and H enry A. R ow land’s c o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith M e n d e n h a ll, i n
The J o h n s H opkins U n i v e r s i t y L ib r a r y ; i n t e r m i t t e n t G ilm an
l e t t e r s i n th e p a p e r s o f Jam es B. A n g e ll, Thomas M c In ty re
C o o le y , and Andrew C. M cL au g h lin , t h e M ic h ig an H i s t o r i c a l
C o l l e c t i o n s ; th e Knox C i r c u l a r L e t t e r , V o ls . V and V I,
c o n t a in i n g comments b y Jo h n J a y Knox on W ash in g to n i n th e
s e v e n t i e s and e i g h t i e s , a t th e New Y ork H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty ;
th e s m a ll c o l l e c t i o n o f M a d e le in e V in to n D a h lg re n P a p e rs
a t th e New Y ork P u b lic L i b r a r y ; th e c o rre s p o n d e n c e o f M ary
C l a f l i n , S ta n le y M a tth ew s, W illia m K ing R o g e rs , R u th e r f o r d
B. H ay e s, and x e ro x e d c o p ie s o f "W ash in g to n G o s s ip ," th e
C i n c i n n a t i C om m ercial ( O c to b e r 2 3 , 1 8 7 6 -O c to b e r 7 , 1 8 7 7 ),
in th e R u th e r f o r d B. Hayes L i b r a r y , F re m o n t, O hio; th e
F ra n k H a m ilto n C u sh in g and th e F r e d e r ic k W. Hodge P a p e r s ,
i n th e S o u th w e st Museum L i b r a r y , L os A n g e le s ; W illia m H enry
H olm es’ c o rre s p o n d e n c e i n th e J o s e p h B. S te e r e P a p e r s , and
200 l e t t e r s t o Sam uel P . L a n g le y , i n th e U n i v e r s i t y o f
262
M ic h ig an L i b r a r y ; an d th e tw e n ty -o d d v olum es o f O th n ie l
C. M arsh L e tte r b o o k s a t th e P eabody Museum L i b r a r y , Y ale
U n iv e rs ity ,
P u b lis h e d D i a r i e s , L e t t e r s . M em oirs, an d A u to b io g r a p h ie s
T housands o f H enry Adams l e t t e r s have b e e n p u t i n t o
p u b lis h e d fo rm , some o f th e more u s e f u l c o m p ila tio n s b e in g :
Newton A rv in ( e d . ) , The S e l e c t e d L e t t e r s o f H enry Adams
(New Y o rk , 1 9 5 1 ); H a ro ld Dean C a te r ( c o m p .) , H enry Adams
and H is F r ie n d s : A C o l l e c t i o n o f H is U n p u b lis h e d L e t t e r s
(B o s to n , 1 9 4 7 ); W o rth in g to n C hauncey F o rd ( e d . ) , L e t t e r s o f
H enry Adams (2 v o l s . ; B o s to n , 1 9 3 0 -1 9 3 8 ); a n d , f o r M a ria n
H ooper Adams, Ward T horon ( e d . ) , The L e t t e r s o f M rs. H enry
Adams, 1865-1883 (B o s to n , 1 9 3 6 ); o t h e r comments on p o s t C i v i l War c u l t u r e a p p e a r i n , H a rry Jam es Brown an d F r e d e r ic k
D. W illia m s ( e d s . ) , The D ia r y o f Jam es A. G a r f i e l d (2 v o l s . ;
E a s t L a n s in g , M ic h ., 1 9 6 7 ); J a c k s o n I . C ope, "W illia m
Ja m e s Ts C o rresp o n d e n ce W ith D a n ie l C o it G ilm a n , 1 8 7 7 -1 8 8 1 ,"
J o u r n a l o f th e H is to r y o f I d e a s , X I I (O c to b e r , 1 9 5 1 ),
60 9 -6 2 7 ; C h a rle s R ic h a rd W illia m s ( e d . ) , D ia r y and L e t t e r s
o f R u th e r f o r d B ir c h a r d H ay e s, N in e te e n th P r e s i d e n t o f th e
U n ite d S t a t e s (5 v o l s . ; C olum bus, O h io , 1 9 2 2 -1 9 2 6 ),
Volumes I I I and IV; T . H a rry W illia m s ( e d . ) , H ay es: The
D ia ry o f a P r e s i d e n t , 1875-1881 (New Y ork, 1 9 6 4 ); A lla n
N ev in s and M ilto n H a ls e y Thomas ( e d s . ) , The D ia r y o f G eorge
T em p leto n S tro n g (4 v o l s . ; New Y o rk , 1 9 5 2 ), e s p e c i a l l y
i
263
Volume IV f o r th e 1865-1875 p e r io d ; and B e rn h a rd J* S t e r n
( e d . ) , Young W ard*8 D ia ry (New Y o rk , 1 9 3 5 ), c o v e rin g W ard’s
f i r s t y e a r s i n W a sh in g to n ; p u b lis h e d l e t t e r s r e l a t i n g t o
th e h i s t o r y o f s c ie n c e may be fo u n d i n , E lm er C h a rle s H e rb e r
( c o m p .) , C o rre sp o n d e n c e B etw een S p e n c e r F u l l e r t o n B a ir d and
L o u is A g a s s iz —Two P io n e e r A m erican N a t u r a l i s t s (W a sh in g to n ,
D .C ., 1 9 6 3 ); LeRoy R. H afen ( e d . ) , The D i a r i e s o f W illia m
H enry J a c k s o n , F r o n t i e r P h o to g ra p h e r ( G le n d a le , C a l i f . ,
1 9 5 9 ), a p a r t i c u l a r l y v a lu a b le s o u rc e o f in f o r m a tio n a b o u t
P . V. H ayden; a n d , C a ro ly n E i s e l e , ’’The C h a r le s S . P e i r c e Simon Newcomb C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ,” P ro c e e d in g s o f th e A m erican
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y . C l (O c to b e r , 1 9 5 7 ), 4 0 9 -4 3 3 , c o n t a i n ­
in g l e t t e r s w r i t t e n b etw e en 1 8 8 9 -1 8 9 4 .
Prom th e f o llo w in g r e m in is c e n c e s and s e l f - p o r t r a i t s
one c a n l e a r n much a b o u t l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y l i f e
in
W a sh in g to n an d th e n a t i o n : C h a r le s F r a n c is Adams, 1 8 3 5 -1 9 1 5 :
An A u to b io g ra p h y (B o s to n , 1 9 1 6 ); D avid S . B a rr y , F o r ty Y ears
i n W ash in g to n (B o s to n , 1 9 2 4 ); Jo h n B ig e lo w , R e tr o s p e c tio n s
o f an A c tiv e L if e (5 v o l s . ; New Y o rk , 1 9 0 9 -1 9 1 3 ), Volumes IV
and V b e in g m ost r e l e v a n t ; W. H. C ro o k , M em ories o f th e W hite
H ouse: The Home L if e o f Our P r e s i d e n t s from L in c o ln t o
R o o s e v e lt (B o s to n , 1 9 1 1 ); J u l i a B. F o r a k e r , I Would L iv e i t
A g a in : M em ories o f a V iv id L if e (New Y ork, 1 9 3 2 ); D a n ie l C o it
G ilm a n , The L au n c h in g o f a U n i v e r s i t y , and O th e r P a p e r s : A
S h e a f o f Rem em berances (New Y ork, 1 9 0 6 ); L . A. G o b r ig h t,
264
R e c o l l e c t i o n o f Me n and T h in g s a t W a sh in g to n D u rin g th e
T h ir d o f a C e n tu ry ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1 8 6 9 ); G eorge F . H o ar,
A u to b io g ra p h y o f S e v e n ty Y ears (2 v o l s . ; New Y ork, 1 9 0 3 );
H en ry H o lt, G a r r u l i t i e s o f a n O c to g e n a ria n E d i t o r ; W ith O th e r
E s s a y s Somewhat B io g r a p h ic a l and A u to b io g r a p h ic a l (B o s to n ,
1 9 2 3 ); E . D. K ey e s, F i f t y Y e a r s 1 O b s e rv a tio n o f Men and E v e n ts ,
C i v i l and M i l i t a r y (New Y ork, 1 8 8 4 ); M rs. Jo h n A. L ogan ( e d . ) ,
T h i r t y Y ears i n W a sh in g to n . Or L if e and S cen e s i n Our N a tio n a l
C a p i t a l ( H a r t f o r d , C o n n ., 1 9 0 1 ); Ward M c A l lis te r , S o c ie ty As
I Have Found I t (New Y ork, 1 8 9 0 ); M rs. R oger A. P r y o r ,
R e m in isc e n c e s o f P eace and War (New Y ork, 1 9 0 4 ); R a p h ae l
P u m p e lly , My R e m in isc e n c e s (2 v o l s . ; New Y ork, 1 9 1 8 ); a n d ,
The A u to b io g ra p h y o f N a th a n ie l S o u th g a te S h a l e r . W ith a
S u p p le m e n ta ry M emoir b y H is W ife ( B o s to n , 1 9 0 9 ).
Many o f H enry Adams* t r e n c h a n t N o rth A m erican Review
a t t i c l e s o f th e l a t e s i x t i e s and e a r l y s e v e n t i e s have b ee n
c o l l e c t e d i n , C h a r le s F r a n c is Adams, J r . and H enry Adams,
C h a p te r s o f E r i e (B o s to n , 18 7 1 , C o r n e ll p a p e rb a c k e d n . ,
I t h a c a , N .Y ., 1966) a n d , G eorge H o c h f ie ld ( e d . ) , The G re a t
S e c e s s io n W in te r o f 1 8 6 0 -6 1 , and O th e r E s sa y s b y H enry Adams
(New Y o rk , 1 9 5 8 ); o t h e r im p o r ta n t c o n te m p o ra ry w r i t i n g s a r e ,
E l i z a b e t h N. C h a p in , A m erican C o u rt G o s sip (M a rs h a llto w n , l a . ,
1 8 8 7 ); F . W. C la r k e , " S c ie n c e i n P o l i t i c s , " P o p u la r S c ie n c e
M o n th ly . XXVI (M arch , 1 8 8 5 ), 5 7 7 -5 8 6 ; Jo h n W. D ra p e r, " S c ie n c e
i n A m e ric a ," P ro c e e d in g s o f th e A m erican C hem ical S o c i e t y . I
265
(1 8 7 6 -1 8 7 8 ), 1 3 5 -1 5 4 ; G. Brown G oode, The Museums o f th e
F u tu re (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 8 9 1 ); J . Howard G o re , " A n th ro ­
p o lo g y a t W a s h in g to n ," P o p u la r S c ie n c e M o n th ly , XXXV (O c to b e r ,
1 8 8 9 ), 7 8 6 -7 9 5 ; H enry Jam es, P an d o ra ( 1 8 8 4 ), V o l. X V III o f
The N ovels and T a le s o f H enry Jam es (26 v o l s . ; New Y ork,
1 9 0 7 -1 9 1 7 ), w h ile l e s s b i t t e r th a n D em ocracy and The G ild e d
- A ge, i s a m a rv e lo u s s a t i r e o f p o s t- w a r W a sh in g to n ; W illia m
Van R e n s s e la e r M i l l e r ( e d . ) , S e l e c t O r g a n iz a tio n s i n th e
U n ite d S t a t e s (New Y o rk , 1 8 9 4 ), in c lu d e s Ward M c A l l i s t e r ’s ,
"C lub and S o c ie ty L i f e i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , " 8 -1 3 ; Simon
Newcomb, " S c ie n c e an d th e G o v ern m en t," N o rth A m erican R eview ,
CLXX (May, 1 9 0 0 ), 6 6 6 -6 7 8 ; C , S . P e i r c e , "The P la c e o f Our
Age i n th e H is to r y o f C i v i l i z a t i o n , " C h a r le s S . P e i r c e :
S e le c te d W r i t i n g s , e d . P h i l i p P . W ien er (New Y o rk , 1 9 6 6 ),
3 -1 4 ; H enry S . P r i t c h e t t , "The R e l a t i o n o f E d u c a te d Men t o
th e S t a t e , ” S c ie n c e , n . s . , X II (November 2 , 1 9 0 0 ), 6 5 7 -6 6 6 ;
G eorge S a n ta y a n a , C h a r a c te r and O p in io n i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s
(New Y ork, 1 9 2 0 , A nchor e d n . , G arden C i t y , N .Y ., n . d . ) .
M a g azin es, N ew sp ap ers, and S e r i a l P u b l i c a t i o n s
The j o u r n a l s o f th e v a r io u s s o c i e t i e s a r e v a lu a b le
su p p le m e n ts t o th e p r e v io u s l y d e s c r ib e d a r c h i v e s and manu­
s c rip ts .
In d e e d , t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s m ig h t a lm o s t be c o n s id e r e d
p rim a ry s o u r c e s b e c a u s e o f th e in f o r m a tio n th e y y i e l d co n ­
c e r n in g th e i n t e r n a l d ev elo p m en t o f W a s h in g to n 's i n t e l l e c t u a l
com m unity.
F i r s t , th e T r a n s a c tio n s o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l
266
S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , I - I I I (1 8 7 9 -1 8 8 5 ), w h ic h became th e
A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t i n 1888; i t s c o u n t e r p a r t s a r e th e
P ro c e e d in g s o f th e B i o l o g i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a s h in g to n , I - X I I I
(1 8 8 0 -1 9 0 0 ); th e B u l l e t i n o f th e C h em ical S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n ,
I-3X (1 8 8 4 -1 8 9 5 ); th e P ro c e e d in g s o f th e E n to m o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty
o f W a sh in g to n , I - I V (1 8 8 4 -1 9 0 1 ); F i e l d and F o r e s t , I - I I I
(1 8 7 5 -1 8 7 8 ), th e b u l l e t i n o f th e P o to m a c -S id e N a t u r a l i s t s
C lu b ; th e N a tio n a l G e o g ra p h ic M a g azin e, I-X I (1 8 8 8 -1 9 0 0 );
th e B u l l e t i n o f th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , I - X I I
(1 8 7 1 -1 8 9 9 ); a n d , th e P ro c e e d in g s o f th e W a sh in g to n Academy
o f S c i e n c e s , I (1 8 9 9 -1 9 0 0 ).
The p u b l i c a t i o n s o f th e A n th ro ­
p o l o g i c a l and P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c i e t i e s , i n i t i a l l y p r i n t e d b y
th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n , a l s o a p p e a r i n volum es o f th e
S m ith s o n ia n M is c e lla n e o u s C o l l e c t i o n s .
O th e r s p e c i a l i z e d and g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t p e r i o d i c a l s
c a r r i e d ite m s p e r t a i n i n g t o s c ie n c e and c u l t u r e a t th e C a p i t a l
C ity .
F o r th e em ergence o f th e s c i e n t i f i c com m unity s e e : th e
A m erican J o u r n a l o f S c ie n c e and A r t s ( a f t e r 1 8 8 0 , th e A m erican
J o u r n a l o f S c ie n c e ) ; th e P o p u la r S c ie n c e M o n th ly ; th e P ro c e e d ­
in g s o f th e A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n f o r th e A dvancem ent o f
S c ie n c e ; S c ie n c e , w hich m a in ta in e d a w e e k ly news colum n a b o u t
W a sh in g to n o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; a n d , th e A nnual R e p o rt o f th e
S e c r e t a r y t o th e B oard o f R e g e n ts o f th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i ­
tu tio n .
From tim e t o tim e c u l t i v a t e d m a g a z in e s p r i n t e d a r t i c l e s
a b o u t W ash in g to n i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e .
The A t l a n t i c M o n th ly ;
267
H a r p e r *8 New M o n th ly M a g a z in e ; H a r p e r ^ W eek ly ; L ip p in c o tt* s
M o n th ly M a g a z in e ; th e N a ti o n ; th e N o rth A m erican R eview ; and
S c r i b n e r fs a r e r e l e v a n t i n t h i s r e g a r d .
A ls o , i n t e r e s t i n g
b i t s o f in f o r m a tio n can be g a th e r e d fro m Jo h n G la g e tt P r o c t o r fs
s k e tc h e s o f W ash in g to n c lu b s i n th e 1880*s , w h ich o r i g i n a l l y
a p p e a re d i n t h e W ash in g to n Sunday S t a r and a r e now i n a com­
p i l e d fo rm a t th e C olum bia H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , W a sh in g to n ,
D .C.
H i s t o r i c a l S t u d i e s o f S c i e n t i f i c O r g a n iz a tio n s
The s e c o n d a ry l i t e r a t u r e on W ash in g to n s c i e n t i f i c
s o c i e t i e s d u r in g t h i s p e r io d i s v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t .
W atson H. M onroe, S c i e n t i f i c I n s t i t u t i o n s o f W ash in g to n
(W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 3 3 ), t r e a t s th e com m unity a s a w hole
b u t makes no a tte m p t t o a n a ly z e th e dynam ics o f th e s u b j e c t .
The few a r t i c l e s d e a l i n g w ith com ponents o f th e W ash in g to n
Academy have b e e n c i t e d w here a p p r o p r ia te i n th e f o o t n o t e s .
Among th e m ost u s e f u l s t u d i e s a r e : D a n ie l S . Lamb, "The S to r y
o f th e A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f W a s h in g to n ," A m erican
A n t h r o p o l o g i s t . n . s , V I I I ( J u ly - S e p te m b e r, 1 9 0 6 ), 5 6 4 -5 7 9 ;
G eorge W. S to c k in g , J r . , " F ra n z Boas and th e F o u n d in g o f th e
A m erican A n th r o p o lo g ic a l A s s o c i a t i o n , " A m erican A n th r o p o lo g is t
L X II ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 6 0 ), 1 - 1 7 , w h ich i s e x c e l l e n t on th e ama­
t e u r i s h , n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l v ie w p o in t o f McGee; C. A. Browne,
"D r. Thomas A n t i s e l l an d H is A s s o c ia te s i n th e F o unding o f
th e C h em ical S o c ie ty o f W a s h in g to n ," J o u r n a l o f th e W ashington
Academy o f S c i e n c e s . XXVIII (May 1 5 , 1 9 3 8 ), 2 1 3 -2 4 6 ; a n d ,
o
268
F ra n k C. K ra c e k , “F iv e H undred M e e tin g s o f th e C hem ical
S o c ie ty o f W a s h in g to n ,” i b i d . . 2 0 9 -2 1 3 .
The e a r l y h i s t o r y
o f th e Cosmos C lub i s r e p o r t e d w ith d e v o tio n i n , G eorge
C r o s s e t t e , F o u n d ers o f th e Cosmos C lub o f W a sh in g to n , 1878:
A C o l l e c t i o n o f B io g r a p h ic a l S k e tc h e s and L ik e n e s s e s o f th e
S i x t y F o u n d ers (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 6 6 ); Thomas M. S p a u ld in g ,
The Cosmos C lub on L a f a y e tte S q u are (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 4 9 );
and i n th e s u p e rb Cosmos C lub B u l l e t i n a r t i c l e s b y th e C lu b 's
l a t e - h i s t o r i a n , M r. K ip R o s s.
R o lan d W. Brown, "The Geo­
l o g i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a s h in g to n ," J o u r n a l o f th e W ash in g to n
Academy o f S c ie n c e s , X L III (N ovem ber, 1 9 5 3 ), 3 4 1 -3 4 4 , p ro v id e s
a g lim p se o f t h a t g ro u p ; more e x t e n s iv e a r e th e p r e v io u s l y
c ite d ,
H ele n N ic o la y , S i x t y Y ears o f th e L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty
(W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 3 4 ), a n d , Thomas M. S p a u ld in g , The
L i t e r a r y S o c ie ty i n P eac e an d War (W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 4 7 );
th e N a tio n a l G e o g ra p h ic S o c ie ty i s d e s c r ib e d i n , G eorge
C r o s s e t t e 's u n p u b lis h e d w o rk , "F o u n d ers o f th e N a tio n a l Geo­
g r a p h ic S o c i e t y , W a sh in g to n , D .C ., J a n u a r y , 1 8 8 8 ," G i l b e r t
Hovey G ro s v e n o r, "The Romance o f th e G e o g r a p h ic ," N a tio n a l
G e o g ra p h ic M a g azin e. CXXIII ( O c to b e r , 1 9 6 3 ), 5 1 6 -5 8 5 , and
G i l b e r t G ro s v e n o r, The N a tio n a l G e o g ra p h ic S o c ie ty and I t s
M agazine (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 5 7 ); a g a in , th e b e s t w orks on
th e P h i l o s o p h i c a l a r e , W illia m H. D a l i , "The O rig in and E a r ly
Days o f th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l S o c ie ty o f W a s h in g to n ," J o u r n a l o f
th e W ash in g to n Academy o f S c i e n c e s . V I I I ( J a n u a r y 1 9 , 1 9 1 8 ),
2 9 -3 4 , F r a n c o is N. F r e n k i e l , " O r ig in and E a r l y Days o f th e
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a s h in g to n ,” B a l l e t i n o f t h e P h i l o ­
s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , XVI (1 9 6 2 ), 9 - 2 4 , an d W. J .
H um phreys, The P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n T h ro ugh a
T housand M e e tin g s (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 3 0 ).
A cco u n ts o f r e l a t e d i n s t i t u t i o n s i n p o s t- w a r A m erica
a r e : R a lp h S . B a te s , S c i e n t i f i c S o c i e t i e s i n th e U n ite d
S t a t e s ( 3 r d e d . ; C am bridge, M a s s ,, 1 9 6 5 ), w h ich p l a c e s h ea v y
em p h asis on th e t r e n d to w ard s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ; Herman L .
F a i r c h i l d , ”The H i s t o r y o f th e A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n f o r th e
A dvancem ent o f S c i e n c e ,” S c ie n c e , n . s . , LIX ( A p r i l 2 5 , 1924May 9 , 1 9 2 4 ), 3 6 6 -3 6 9 , 3 8 5 -3 9 0 , and 4 1 0 -4 1 5 ; t h i s may be
su p p le m e n te d b y , F . R . M o u lte n , ”The A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n
f o r th e A dvancem ent o f S c ie n c e : A B r i e f H i s t o r i c a l S k e t c h ,”
i b i d . , C V III (S e p tem b e r 3 , 1 9 4 8 ), 2 1 7 -2 1 8 ; A. H u n te r D u p re e,
”The F o u n d in g o f th e N a tio n a l Academy o f S c ie n c e s —A Re i n ­
t e r p r e t a t i o n , ” P ro c e e d in g s o f th e A m erican P h i l o s o p h i c a l
S o c i e t y , C l ( O c to b e r , 1 9 5 7 ), 4 3 4 -4 4 0 , a r g u e s t h a t th e C i v i l
War d i d n o t ca u se th e b i r t h o f t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n , th e r e b y
r e v i s i n g th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f , F r e d e r ic k W. T rue ( e d . ) , A
H i s t o r y o f th e F i r s t H a lf - C e n tu ry o f th e N a ti o n a l Academy o f
S c i e n c e s , 1863-1913 (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 1 3 ); a n o t h e r a c c o u n t
o f th e NAS i s , Raymund L . Zwemer, ”The N a ti o n a l Academy o f
S c ie n c e s and th e N a tio n a l R e se a rc h C o u n c il," S c ie n c e , C V III
(S e p tem b e r 3 , 1 9 4 8 ), 2 3 4 -2 3 8 ; th e im p o rta n c e o f th e S m ith ­
s o n ia n a s an ag en cy f o r th e d ev elo p m en t o f n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e
i s il l u m i n a t e d b y , G eorge Brown Goode ( e d . ) , The S m ith s o n ia n
270
I n s t i t u t i o n 1 8 4 6 -1 8 9 6 : The H is to r y o f i t s F i r s t H a lf C e n tu ry
(W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 8 9 7 ), P a u l H. O e h s e r, Sons o f S c ie n c e :
The S to r y o f th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n and i t s L e a d e rs
(New Y o rk , 1 9 4 9 ), W illia m J o n e s R hees ( e d . ) , The S m ith s o n ia n
I n s t i t u t i o n : Docum ents R e l a t i v e t o i t s O rig in and H is to r y
(2 v o l s . ; W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 0 1 ), a n d , W illia m J . R hees
( e d . ) , The S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n : J o u r n a ls o f th e B o ard
o f R e g e n ts , R e p o rts o f C o m m ittees, S t a t i s t i c s , E t c . (W ashing­
t o n , D .C ., 1 8 7 9 ), Wilcomb E . W ashburn, ’’The I n f lu e n c e o f th e
S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n on I n t e l l e c t u a l L if e i n M id -N in e te e n th
C e n tu ry W a s h in g to n ,” R e c o rd s o f th e C olum bia H i s t o r i c a l
S o c ie ty o f W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1963-1965 (W a sh in g to n , D .C .,
1 9 6 6 ), 9 6 -1 2 1 , and Wilcomb E . W ashburn, ’’The Museum and
Jo se p h H e n ry ,” C u r a t o r , V I I I (1 9 6 5 ), 3 5 -5 4 .
S e c o n d a ry S o u rc e s
P r e - C i v i l War s c ie n c e i n A m erica i s d is c u s s e d i n ,
G eorge H. D a n ie ls , A m erican S c ie n c e i n th e Age o f J a c k s o n
(New Y ork, 1 9 6 8 ), w h ich p l a c e s th e s e m in a l p e r io d o f i n s t i ­
t u t i o n a l d ev elo p m en t i n t h e y e a r s 1 8 1 5 -1 8 4 5 ; t h e em ergence
o f p r o f e s s io n a lis m i s to u c h e d upon b y A. H u n te r D upree and
R o b e rt V. B ru c e , i n , D avid T. G i l c h r i s t and W. D avid L ew is
( e d s . ) , Economic Change i n th e C i v i l War D ecade ( G r e e n v i l l e ,
D e l . , 1 9 6 5 ), 1 1 7 -1 3 6 ; p io n e e r a tte m p ts a t p u b l i c l y s p o n s o re d
r e s e a r c h a re d is c u s s e d b y , W a lte r B . H e n d e rso n , ’’N in e te e n th C e n tu ry S t a te G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y s : E a r l y G overnm ent S u p p o rt
271
o f S c i e n c e / ’ I s i s , L I I (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 1 ), 3 5 7 -3 7 1 ; f o r th e
g ro w th o f s c i e n t i f i c i n s t i t u t i o n s i n th e s o u th s e e , Thomas
C ary Jo h n so n , J r . , S c i e n t i f i c I n t e r e s t s i n th e O ld S o u th
(New Y ork, 1 9 3 6 ); Edward L u r i e , " N in e te e n th C e n tu ry A m erican
S c ie n c e : I n s i g h t s From F o u r M a n u s c r ip ts ," R o c k e f e l l e r I n s t i t u t e
R eview , I I ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1 9 6 4 ), 1 1 -1 9 .
D irk J . S t r u i k ,
Yankee S c ie n c e i n th e M aking ( B o s to n , 1 9 4 8 ), o f f e r s a g lim p se
o f s c ie n c e i n th e m i d - f o r t i e s ; C h a r le s S . S y d n o r, " S t a t e
G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y s i n th e O ld S o u th ," A m erican S tu d ie s in
H onor o f W illia m K e n n e th B oyd, D av id K e lly J a c k s o n , e d .
(Durham, N .C '., 1 9 4 0 ), 8 6 -1 0 9 .
The d i f f e r i n g a t t i t u d e s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s to w a rd
i n s t i t u t i o n s b e f o r e and a f t e r th e C i v i l War a r e a n a ly z e d i n ,
G eorge M. F r e d e r ic k s o n , The I n n e r C i v i l W ar: N o rth e r n I n ­
t e l l e c t u a l s and th e C r i s i s o f th e U n io n (New Y o rk , 1 9 6 5 );
Edward L u r i e , " S c ie n c e i n A m erican T h o u g h t," J o u r n a l o f
W orld H i s t o r y , V II (1 9 6 5 ), 6 3 8 -6 6 5 ; Jo h n L . Thomas, "R om antic
R eform i n A m erica, 1 8 1 5 -1 8 6 5 ," A m erican Q u a r t e r l y , XVII
(W in te r, 1 9 6 5 ), 6 5 6 -6 8 1 ; a n d , Jo h n W illia m W ard, "The P o l i t i c s
o f D e s ig n ," M a s s a c h u s e tts R ev iew , VI (Autum n, 1 9 6 5 ), 6 6 1 -6 8 8 .
The f o llo w in g bo o k s and e s s a y s p r e s e n t g e n e r a l b a c k ­
gro u n d in f o r m a tio n : I . B e rn a rd C ohen, S c ie n c e an d A m erican
S o c ie ty i n th e F i r s t C e n tu ry o f th e R e p u b lic (C olum bus, O h io ,
1 9 6 1 ), a n d , I . B. C ohen, "Some R e f l e c t i o n s on th e S t a t e o f
S c ie n c e i n A m erica D u rin g t h e N in e te e n th C e n tu r y ," P ro c e e d ­
in g s o f th e N a ti o n a l Academy o f S c i e n c e s , XLV (May, 1 9 5 9 ),
272
6 6 6 -6 7 7 ; A H u n te r D u p ree, S c ie n c e i n th e F e d e r a l G overnm ent:
A H i s t o r y o f P o l i c i e s and A c t i v i t i e s t o 1940 (C am b rid g e,
M a s s ., 1 9 5 7 ); R o b e rt F a lk , The V i c t o r i a n Mode i n A m erican
F i c t i o n , 1865-1885 ( E a s t L a n s in g , M ic h ., 1 9 6 5 ); C h a rle s
C o u ls to n G i l l i s p i e , The Edge o f O b j e c t i v i t y : An E ss a y i n th e
H i s t o r y o f S c i e n t i f i c I d e a s ( P r i n c e t o n , N . J . , 1 9 6 0 ); th e
e x c e l l e n t co m p re h en siv e h i s t o r y , C o n stan c e M cL aughlin G re en ,
W a sh in g to n : V i l l a g e and C a p i t a l , 1800-1878 ( P r i n c e t o n , N . J . ,
1 9 6 2 ), a n d , W a sh in g to n : C a p i t a l C i t y , 1879-1950 ( P r i n c e t o n ,
N . J . , 1 9 6 3 ); N e i l H a r r i s , ”The G ild e d Age R e v i s i t e d : B o sto n
and th e Museum M ovem ent,” A m erican Q u a r t e r l y , XIV (W in te r,
1 9 6 2 ), 5 4 5 -5 6 6 , shows th e c o n n e c tio n b etw een new i n s t i t u t i o n s
and th e d r iv e f o r c u l t u r a l im provem ent; B e rn a rd J a f f e , Men
o f S c ie n c e i n A m erica: The S to r y o f A m erican S c ie n c e T old
T hrough th e L iv e s and A ch iev em en ts o f Twenty O u ts ta n d in g Men
fro m E a r l i e s t C o lo n ia l Tiroes t o th e P r e s e n t Day ( r e v . e d . ;
New Y o rk , 1 9 5 8 ); B e s s ie Z aban J o n e s , L ig h th o u s e o f th e S k ie s :
The S m ith s o n ia n A s tr o p h y s ic a l O b s e rv a to ry :B a c k g ro u n d and
H i s t o r y 1846-1955 (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 6 5 ); D avid S t a r r J o r d a n
( e d . ) f L e a d in g A m erican Men o f S c ie n c e (New Y ork, 1 9 1 0 );
W illia m H. J o r d y , ”H enry Adams and W alt W hitm an,” S o u th
A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y , XL ( A p r i l , 1 9 4 1 ), 1 3 2 -1 4 5 ; th e a r t i c l e s
c o n ta in e d i n th e s p e c i a l num ber, ”S c ie n c e i n th e A m erican
C o n t e x t ,” J o u r n a l o f W orld H i s t o r y , V I I I (1 9 6 5 ); M a rg a re t
L e e c h , R e v e il le i n W a sh in g to n , 1860-1865 (New Y ork, 1 9 4 1 );
o
©
273
R o b e rt H. L e w ie , " R e m in isc e n c e s o f A n th r o p o lo g ic a l C u r r e n ts
i n A m erica H a lf a C e n tu ry A g o ,” A m erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t ,
L V III (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 6 ), 9 9 5 -1 0 1 6 , h a s good s k e tc h e s o f
W a sh in g to n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ; Edward L u r i e , "A m erican S c h o la r ­
s h i p : A S u b je c tiv e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f N in e te e n th - C e n tu r y
C u l t u r a l H i s t o r y , ” E s s a y s on H is to r y and L i t e r a t u r e , e d . ,
R o b e rt H. B rem ner (C o lu m b ia, O h io , 1 9 6 6 ), 3 1 -8 0 ; D avid
M adsen, The N a ti o n a l U n i v e r s i t y : E n d u rin g Dream o f th e USA
( D e t r o i t , 1 9 6 6 ); G eorge P . M e r r i l l ( e d . ) , C o n t r ib u t io n s t o
a H i s t o r y o f A m erican S t a t e G e o lo g ic a l and N a tu r a l H is to r y
S u rv e y s (W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 2 0 ); th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g i s
d e s c r ib e d i n , H. Wayne M organ ( e d . ) , The G ild e d A ge: A
R e a p p r a is a l ( S y r a c u s e , N .Y ., 1 9 6 3 ), a n d , L ew is Mumford,
The Brown D ec ad es: A S tu d y o f th e A r ts i n A m erica 1865-1895
(New Y o rk , 1 9 3 1 , D over e d n . , New Y ork, 1 9 5 5 ); Jo h n W illia m
O liv e r j " A m e ric a 's F i r s t A tte m p t t o U n ite th e F o rc e s o f
S c ie n c e and G o v e rn m e n t,” S c i e n t i f i c M o n th ly , L I I I (S e p te m b e r,
1 9 4 1 ), 2 5 3 -2 5 7 , i s an a c c o u n t o f th e C olum bian I n s t i t u t e ,
c o v e r in g much th e same tim e p e r io d a s , C h a rle s 0 . P a u l l i n ,
”E a r l y Movements f o r a N a ti o n a l O b s e r v a to ry , 1 8 0 2 -1 8 4 2 ,”
R e co rd s o f th e C olum bia H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , XXV ( 1 9 2 1 ),
3 6 -5 6 ; o t h e r w orks on th e h i s t o r y o f s c ie n c e a r e , Madge E .
P i c k a r d , "G overnm ent an d S c ie n c e i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s :
H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g ro u n d s ,” J o u r n a l o f th e H is to r y o f M e d icin e
and A l l i e d S c i e n c e s . I ( A p r i l , 1 9 4 6 ), 2 5 4 -2 8 9 ; Roy P o p k in ,
The E n v iro n m e n ta l S c ie n c e S e r v ic e s A d m in is tr a tio n . . .
(New Y ork, 1 9 6 7 ); A r th u r M. S c h l e s i n g e r , "An A m erican H i s t o r i a n
Looks a t S c ie n c e and T e c h n o lo g y ,” I s i s , XXXVI ( O c to b e r , 1 9 4 6 ),
1 6 2 -1 6 6 ; R ic h a rd H a r r is o n S h ry o c k , "A m erican I n d i f f e r e n c e
t o B a s ic S c ie n c e D u rin g th e N in e te e n th C e n tu r y ," A rc h iv e s
I n t e r n a t i o n a l e s d ’H i s t o i r e d e s S c i e n c e s . V (O c to b r e , 1 9 4 8 ),
5 0 -6 5 , and th e e s s a y s i n , D avid D. Van T a s s e l and M ic h a e l
G. H a ll ( e d s . ) , S c ie n c e and S o c ie ty i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s
(Homewood, 1 1 1 ,, 1 9 6 6 ).
M ost o f th e m a t e r i a l d e a lin g s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith
i n d i v i d u a l members o f th e W ash in g to n i n t e l l e c t u a l com m unity
h as a lre a d y been c i te d .
U n f o r tu n a te ly t h e r e a r e few f u l l -
s c a l e b io g r a p h ie s a n d , f o r th e m o st p a r t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o
r e l y on e n t r i e s i n th e D ic t io n a r y o f A m erican B io g ra p h y ,
e d s . , A lle n Jo h n so n and Dumas M alone (1 1 v o l s . ; New Y o rk ,
1 9 5 7 -1 9 6 4 ); th e B io g r a p h ic a l M emoirs o f th e N a tio n a l Academy
o f S c ie n c e s (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1877-
) | o b i t u a r i e s i n th e
p u b l i c a t i o n s o f th e v a r io u s s o c i e t i e s .
O th e r b i o g r a p h i c a l
a c c o u n ts a r e : J . C. L e v e n so n , The Mind and A r t o f H enry Adams
(B o s to n , 1 9 5 7 ); I r v i n g K a tz , " C o n fid a n t a t th e C a p i t a l :
W illia m W. C o rc o ra n ’s R ole i n N in e te e n th - C e n tu r y A m erican
P o l i t i c s , " H i s t o r i a n , XXIX (A u g u s t, 1 9 6 7 ), 5 4 6 -5 6 4 ; M axine
T u ll B o a tn e r , V oice o f th e D e a f: A B io g ra p h y o f Edward M iner
G a lla u d e t (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 5 9 ); S . N . D. N o rth , H enry
G a n n e tt, P r e s i d e n t o f th e N a tio n a l G e o g ra p h ic S o c i e t y , 19101914 (W ash in g to n , D .C ., 1 9 1 5 ); R o b e rt G r a n v i l l e C a ld w e ll,
275
Jam es A. G a r f i e l d : P a r t y C h i e f ta n (New Y o rk , 1 9 3 1 ); T heodore
C la rk e S m ith , The L if e and L e t t e r s o f Jam es Abram G a r f i e l d
<2 v o l s . ; New H aven, 1 9 2 5 ); Abraham F le x n e r , D a n ie l C o it
G ilm an , C r e a to r o f th e A m erican Type o f U n i v e r s i t y (New Y ork,
19*4-6); an i n t e r e s t i n g s k e tc h o f G odkin and H o rto n i s , R o b e rt
L . B e is n e r , "Gloom, Gloom, Gloom, and S c a rc e One Ray o f
L i g h t : R u m in a tio n s o f E . L . G odkin and C h a r le s E l i o t N o rto n ,"
A m erican H e r i t a g e , X V III (A u g u s t, 1 9 6 7 ), 6 5 -7 1 ; R o b e rt
B erk elm an , " C la re n c e K in g : S c i e n t i f i c P i o n e e r , ” A m erican
Q u a r t e r l y , V ( W in te r, 1 9 5 3 ), 3 0 1 -3 2 4 ; W h itn ey R. C r o s s ,
"W J McGee and th e I d e a o f C o n s e r v a tio n ," H i s t o r i a n , XV
( S p r in g , 1 9 5 3 ), 1 4 8 -1 6 2 ; d i s a p p o i n t i n g i s th e p o r t r a i t by
h i s s i s t e r , Emma R. McGee, L if e o f W J McGee . . .
(F a rle y ,
l a . , 1 9 1 5 ); Sam uel C hugerm an, L e s t e r F . Ward th e A m erican
A r i s t o t l e : A Summary and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f H is S o c io lo g y
(Durham , N .C ., 1 9 3 9 ); a n d , L a t e l y Thomas, Sam W ard: "K ing o f
th e L obby" (B o s to n , 1 9 6 5 ).
I n a d d i t i o n t o th o s e p r e v i o u s l y n o te d , th e f o llo w in g
d i s s e r t a t i o n s d e a l w ith r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s o f l a t e n i n e t e e n t h
c e n tu r y c u l t u r e : B u rto n J . B l e d s t e i n , " C u l t i v a t i o n and C ustom :
The Id e a o f L i b e r a l C u ltu r e i n P o s t - C i v i l War A m erica" (u n ­
p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , D ep artm en t o f H i s t o r y , P r i n c e t o n
U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 7 ); J o s e p h L a n c a s te r B r e n t, I I I , "A S tu d y o f
th e L if e o f C h a rle s S a n d e rs P e i r c e " ( u n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s ­
s e r t a t i o n , D ep a rtm en t o f H i s t o r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a ,
Los A n g e le s , 1 9 6 0 ); B e r t J . L oew enberg, "The Im p act o f th e
276
D o c trin e o f E v o lu tio n on A m erican T h o u g h t, 1 8 5 9 -1 9 0 0 ”
( u n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , D ep a rtm en t o f H i s t o r y ,
H a rv a rd U n i v e r s i t y , 193*0; D avid J a y P i v a r , ”The New
A b o litio n is m : The Q u e st f o r S o c i a l P u r i t y , 1 8 7 6 -1 9 0 0 ”
( u n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , D ep a rtm en t o f H i s t o r y ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , 1 9 6 5 ); a n d , Raymond J a c k s o n
W ils o n , ” I n Q u e st o f Community: The C r i t i q u e o f I n d i v i d u a l ­
ism i n A m e ric a , 1 8 6 0 -1 9 2 0 ” ( u n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
D ep a rtm en t o f H i s t o r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f W is c o n s in , 1 9 6 * 0 .
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL STATEMENT
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL STATEMENT
Name:
B irth :
Jam es K i r k p a t r i c k F la c k , J r .
F e b ru a ry I I t 1937; B ro o k ly n , New Y ork.
E d u c a tio n : P rim a ry and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o lin g i n C o n n e c tic u t,
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