103288 July cover 17/8/05 2:04 PM Page 2
The Practice Journal of Child, Youth and Family
Te Hautaka ako te Tari
Awhina i te Tamaiti, te
–
Rangatahi, tae atu ki te Whanau
31
AUGUST 2005
Contents
Editor Bronwyn Bannister
Editorial Advisory Panel
Paula Attrill
Regional Director, Southern
Darryl Benge
Manager, Learning and Professional
Development, North
02 Editorial
04 Peter O’Connor and Marlane Welsh-Morris
present a theatre in education project
08 Rob Laking discusses reducing and managing
risk in social work practice
Noel Cocurullo
Counsel for Child
Buster Curson
Clinical Social Worker and Social
Services Consultant, Palmerston North
Tayelva Petley
Practice Manager, Whangarei
Eileen Preston
Advisor, Adoptions
12 Lael Sharland, Nadine Kilmister and Fiona
Coy outline the production of personal kits for
children and young people in care
19 Tony Palairet offers recommendations from practice when working with child Jan Spanhake
Advisor to Regional Manager
All correspondence to:
The Editor
Social Work Now
PO Box 2620
Wellington
sexual abusers
24 Peter Shaw, Jessie Henderson and Kathy
Fielding outline the development of the On TRACC service
28 Book reviews
Email: bbannister@xtra.co.nz
Production
Techniche
32 Information for contributors
ISSN 1173-4906
©CHILD, YOUTH AND FAMILY
Social Work Now is published three times a year by the Department of Child, Youth and
Family Services.
AUGUST
Views expressed in the journal are not necessarily those of Child, Youth and Family. Material
2005
may be reprinted in other publications only with the prior written permission of the editor
31
and provided the material is used in context and credited to Social Work Now.
Editorial
Bernadine Mackenzie discusses quality assurance initiatives – are we doing the
right things and are we doing things right?
Traditionally, quality assurance systems in
ongoing improvements. The new approach will
child welfare agencies have focused on auditing
improve on traditional compliance monitoring in
case records to monitor and report the extent
three ways:
of compliance with requirements. This historic
1. Quality improvement programmes will be
broader in scope and will assess practice and
outcomes, as well as compliance.
auditing focus, and the small number of staff
carrying out the monitoring role, can mean
quality assurance reports often have minimal
2. The group will attempt to use data, information
and results to effect
positive changes in policy
and case practice.
impact on the services
delivered.
In order to have an effective
quality assurance process
that monitors and supports
performance, Child, Youth
and Family needs to involve
a wide range of staff and
Child, Youth and Family
needs to involve a
wide range of staff and
organisations in quality
assurance initiatives
organisations in quality
assurance initiatives. This
begins with senior management commitment to
3. These programmes will
engage a broad range
of internal and external
partners in the quality
improvement process,
including senior managers,
staff at all levels, children
and families, and other
stakeholders.
A shift in attitude is required. It isn’t enough
ongoing work that not only makes this a priority
to think that what worked in the past is good
but moves the organisation from a compliance
enough or that we have seen this all before
monitoring focus to one of quality improvement.
and ‘this too shall pass’. This dynamic is
The recent establishment of the Quality
changing as we realise that long-term success
Assurance Group sends a strong signal and
hinges on creating a culture that continually
demonstrates Child, Youth and Family’s
evaluates and learns about practice in order
commitment to developing systems that
to improve outcomes. A quality assurance
move beyond compliance monitoring. These
framework is required for monitoring,
systems will attempt to gather and assess a
assessment and reflective learning to occur
range of information on quality and implement
on a continuous basis.
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
0
How do you make sure the cultural soil is made
It is said that it takes a village to raise a child.
ready before planting the seeds of change? In
In developing our quality assurance framework
a receptive environment, staff have to
it will take everyone, from the Chief Executive,
understand why change is necessary and be
the Executive Management Team and other
emotionally committed to making it happen to
managers, all staff, caregivers and volunteers,
faithfully execute the required steps in all areas
along with all providers and other stakeholder
of our work.
groups, to assist in its construction, maintenance
and ongoing development. Indeed it will take
The story about the three little pigs is a useful
our heads, hearts and hands to undercut the
analogy when comparing different quality
myths, allay fears and succeed in promoting
assurance approaches, especially looking at
understanding, acceptance and action.
the various outcomes with the three types
of houses that are used to repel the wolf
REFERENCES
(Goodman, Leblanc and Lumsden, 2004). Child
Goodman, D, Leblanc T and Lumsden A. (2004)
‘Quality Assurance Framework: The house of bricks.’
In OACAS Journal, 48.
welfare agencies have commonly relied on a
process-orientated, activity-based approach
that uses summary service and activity statistics
(the house of straw) and/or compliance audits
on required processes and procedures (the
house of sticks) to argue positive agency
impact or effectiveness. A more evolved
Bernadine Mackenzie is the
General Manager, Quality
Assurance, Child, Youth and
Family.
quality assurance framework shifts from an
activity-based approach to a client outcomesbased measurement (the solid house of bricks)
to measure the relationship between agency
services and positive client change.
0
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
Making the everyday
extraordinary
Peter O’Connor and Marlane Welsh-Morris present a theatre in education project
to prevent child abuse and neglect, and family violence
Everyday Theatre is part of the Child, Youth
programme that would present an interactive
and Family social change and community
process drama in middle schools in the same
engagement programme called Everyday
areas as the Everyday Communities programme.
Communities. This was developed by Child,
It is led and facilitated by professional educators
Youth and Family’s public education team to
and actors whose role includes training teachers
assist in the prevention of child abuse and
in applied theatre techniques that can be
neglect, and family violence. The programme
used within the school curriculum. Proposal
draws on assets-based community development
documents by Applied Theatre Consultants,
principles and targets adult behaviour, with the
who were to eventually develop and manage
primary message that we all have a part to play
the delivery of Everyday Theatre, made the
in preventing abuse and caring for our children.
purpose of the programme and its underlying
When the 12-month pilot was completed in
philosophy clear: to provide safe and structured
September 2003, discussions the Department
environments for teachers and students to
held with communities revealed that although
discuss issues and find answers that are relevant
the focus on adult behaviour was necessary,
to them. The programme encourages students
there also needed to be a stream of work on the
to think and talk about their own issues by
needs of children and young people.
examining the story of someone else.
Everyday Theatre was developed in recognition
Everyday Theatre was presented in more than 55
of this and of the principle that children and
schools across Whakatane, Wairarapa and South
young people have a right to an environment
Auckland between July and December 2004. Over
free from abuse. An integral part has always
5,000 Year 7 and 8 students participated in the
been the acknowledgement that children and
workshops.
young people are capable of contributing to
such an environment if they are given a voice
Programme structure
and the appropriate tools and support. Everyday
Everyday Theatre’s intervention in each school
Theatre was conceived as a theatre in education
begins with a cluster meeting in the region
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
0
several weeks before the tour begins. This is
with the teacher/actors through four levels
hosted by the local Child, Youth and Family site
of the game and use dramatic conventions to
office and teachers from the region’s middle
explore the story and discover what might help
schools must attend a training session as part
the family. Each level lasts an hour and has a
of their contract for receiving the show free
different teacher/actor. After completion of a
into their school. Members of the Everyday
level, the students get the password to enter
Theatre and Child, Youth and Family’s public
the next one. At the end of the day they have
education teams lead the teachers, showing
the full password – ‘every child has hopes
them a snapshot of the heart of the work,
and dreams’ – and can become games masters
and the processes they and the children will
themselves.
work through. Teachers also meet members of
care and support agencies
After the workshop activities,
who will provide advice
the teachers and the
and professional support if
necessary. Representatives
from many of these agencies
work alongside the teacher/
actors during the day’s
Each Everyday Theatre
presentation works with up
to four classes, comprising
around 120 students
Everyday Theatre teacher/
actors met to discuss the
experience, write followup activities related to
curriculum outcomes and
workshops to develop links
complete evaluation forms.
with the local schools and
Another cluster meeting
six weeks later provided an
students. Teachers must
remain with their students through the day and
opportunity for the teachers to discuss any
participate as fully as possible in all the process
issues that arose as a result of the work.
drama activities.
Evaluation
Each Everyday Theatre presentation works
A range of evaluation tools were designed and
with up to four classes, comprising around
used for the ongoing review of the programme,
120 students. The day begins with the students
as well as to provide quantitative and qualitative
gathering in the school hall to watch a 20-
data to Child, Youth and Family about its
minute Everyday Theatre performance, which
effectiveness. These included written teacher
tells the story of a fictitious family with easily
evaluation reports. In the 2004 presentations
recognisable characteristics. It is a complex
these were analysed by the team daily. Shifts
family and the students observe the various
to the programme were discussed in weekly
members through the eyes of teenage Ramesh
review sessions, and these meetings provided
Patel, a video games master who sees life as a
the structured opportunity to make changes to
video game. He enlists the students as trainee
the performance script and to clarify the use
games masters, whose first job is to help fix
and effectiveness of different conventions at
the broken family game. At different times, the
different times in the day.
students consider the perspectives of family
members who either witnessed or are victims
The teachers’ evaluation reports provided
and/or perpetrators of abuse. The students work
significant quantitative and qualitative data
0
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
about their responses to the show. In general,
to think about personal issues but it was never
they rated the day very highly, with over 74
directly about them”.
per cent rating it 10 out of 10. The lowest
Focus group interviews were undertaken in four
mark for overall performance was 7 out of
schools. Students spoke favourably about the
10, and this represented four per cent of the
day and noted that they found it hard work but
evaluations. Teachers noted that students from
fun. One student said “I enjoyed the day because
“good” family homes found the day enlightening
regarding the issues and problems some of their
it was about something important and I liked
classmates faced, and that the experience was
working hard and we don’t usually have to”.
a way for many students to consider issues they
All students interviewed said that they felt safe
recognised. Teachers appreciated the workshop’s
throughout the process. The interactive process
realistic situation and the process for students
was commented on here, too, and one student
to be part of finding a solution to the fictional
said, “Other things that come in to school, they
family’s problems. According
just tell you things by writing
to teachers, students
boring words on the board”.
recognised similarities to
themselves in the fictional
family’s background
and cultural context so
they brought their own
Students recognised
similarities to themselves
in the fictional family’s
background
The students were able to
clearly state where they
would go for help if they were
in similar situations to the
fictional family and also how
personal experiences to the
they would help any friends
workshops.
in these circumstances.
Teachers overwhelmingly
Future directions
supported the need for the programme to go
to other schools and noted that the interactive
Several teacher/actors kept detailed reflective
engagement would be successful in both high
journals that described their experiences of the
and low decile schools. Low decile schools in
tour and these were used as the basis of final
Auckland recommended the programme to
evaluation reports on Everyday Theatre. The
others, and one teacher from a high decile
anecdotes, stories and direct quotes included
school commented, “We are a very white middle-
here gave a depth to the descriptions that
class and supposedly affluent community and I
was lacking in the written evaluations and
think places like this really benefit from such a
the student focus groups. They were written
programme. No one is beyond violence.”
while on tour, often as a way of clarifying
Teachers described the day as non-threatening,
the experience and of challenging their
where the students’ ideas and contributions
own practice. It was this insight, through
were valued. The distancing and protective
the students’ comments and questions, that
device of the theatre process and the games
provided clear information on the experiences
structure allowed students to explore the
and attitudes of the young people. This
sensitive issues in a safe way. One teacher made
information will be brought into problems faced
the pertinent point that “it allowed my children
by the fictional family in the workshops.
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
0
In 2005 and 2006 Everyday Theatre will be a
key component of the Everyday Communities
programme in Northland, where it will be
offered to a wider range of audiences including
social services providers, service clubs and the
general public.
Dr Peter O’Connor is the
director of Applied Theatre
Consultants Ltd.
Marlane Welsh-Morris is the
former leader of the public
education team at Child, Youth
and Family, National Office.
0
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
Meeting the challenge
Rob Laking discusses elements in reducing and managing risk in social work practice
Introduction
• What was it about not only the decisionmakers but about the situation they were in
that might have contributed to the error?
In a number of high-profile cases involving
the death of a child, it has been revealed that
• Why did the usual safeguards against error
fail in this case?
social workers handling the case made decisions
that appeared to violate the organisation’s
established procedures or commonly-held ideas
Analysis of the systemic origins of human error
of good practice. When an accident is attributed
in air accidents was pioneered by James Reason
to failure to follow the rules,
(1990). A path-breaking
the common reaction is “how
inquiry based on a systemic
can they have been so stupid,
neglectful or disobedient?”1
The usual response from the
authorities is to conduct
an investigation, apologise
analysis was the Royal
The problem of apparently
inexplicable disastrous
operator decisions is not
confined to social work
Commission of Inquiry into
the Erebus crash, where
Justice Mahon concluded
that Air New Zealand as
for the error, possibly
a company contributed
discipline the offending
to the accident as well as
errors made by the pilots.
social workers and introduce
It is not only air accident investigations that
more rules.
take a systemic approach – the Reason analysis
The problem of apparently inexplicable
has also been applied to the Cave Creek
disastrous operator decisions is not confined to
disaster (Capper, Crook and Wilson, 1996)
social work. Experienced surgeons remove the
and similar modes of analysis are applied in
wrong limb from a patient. Pilots deliberately fly
cases of medical misadventure. The Health and
well below safe altitudes and into mountains in
Disability Commissioner’s 1996 investigation of
clear, still air. At Chernobyl, engineers disabled
the “Patients are Dying” cases at Christchurch
safety interlocks, leading to a catastrophic
Hospital is a textbook case history of how
explosion in the reactor. In the last two
organisational stress can affect communication
decades, accident investigations into these high-
and decision-making in a hospital (Stent, 1998).
risk activities have begun to take a systemic
Others make cases for rethinking how to achieve
approach. Questions to ask include:
a safety culture in New Zealand hospitals,
1. This article draws on work done in Child, Youth and Family as part of the baseline review and also on subsequent discussions with staff of the Department.
The Department did not, however, contribute to the preparation of the paper and is not responsible for any of the ideas or opinions expressed.
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
0
analytically founded on the Reason model
are known to Child, Youth and Family workers
(Roberts, 2003).
at the time of their death (Doolan, 2004). But
when it appears that the child or their family
Viewed through the lens of the Reason human
members were “on the Department’s books” at
error model, something seems to be missing from
the time of the child’s death, the tendency is to
the published investigations of child deaths.
look for failures in performance that might have
There is usually a careful analysis of the events
contributed to the tragedy. What then follows
that preceded the death and the role of public
in reports and recommendations is usually
employees in these events. There is often no
primarily focused on recommending changes to
convincing explanation of why the responsible
rules and systems designed to reduce the risk
staff made the decisions they did and it is not
of further similar occurrences. When the report
easy in these situations to find out why people
is published, the focus in the media is almost
make mistakes or break the rules. The risk to the
exclusively on errors in case management in
workers of being found out in error – whether
order to attribute responsibility and blame for
deliberate or not – can be considerable. In both
the failure.
child protection and health services, the analysis
is taking place in the context of investigation
Hindsight is a particularly deceptive basis for
of causes of serious injury or death, where
policy change in a profession as complex as
the personal stakes are high for the staff
social work. New Zealand children suffer injury
involved and defensive responses can inhibit
or death for a wide variety of reasons that have
open discussion. Incident reporting systems
little to do with social worker error and a lot
in hospitals may understate practice error
more to do with their family circumstances.
because of workers’ fear of the consequences.
The case manager faces multiple paths to an
In her investigation of the medical errors in
outcome – paths that interconnect and events
Christchurch Hospital, the Health and Disability
that influence each other – and many factors
Commissioner reported that for a whole year
that are outside the control of social workers.
under investigation, virtually no incidents were
Indeed the appropriate scope of analysis of the
reported by clinical staff – the commonest
“social work system” is not the boundary of
reason given was fear of punishment (Stent,
the organisation but a much broader perimeter
1998). Where fear of blame is present, these
encompassing the child or young person, their
reactions are perhaps predictable. Nevertheless,
family and other significant peers, and adults
understanding why people do what they do is
and the wider community, including other
surely critical in understanding how to reduce
organisations with which they have contact.
the risk that in similar future circumstances they
It follows that even best practice in social
will make similar mistakes.
work may on its own have limited impact on
client wellbeing. There is a wider issue of what
The relationship between social worker
performance and client outcomes
strategies can be employed that will help reduce
risk in the larger social system. To say that social
Analysis of child homicide statistics reveals
worker control over outcomes is uncertain is not
that only a minority of the children who are
to say that there is no accepted best practice
killed by a parent or caregiver in New Zealand
in a specific case management situation, only
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SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
1. The effects of the wider environment are
that decision-making in social work is a matter
of weighing up probabilities and risks. Putting
likely to be more significant in the case of
it this way raises significant issues – similar
social work organisations than in the case
to those in medicine – about the relationship
of airlines. Indeed, as discussed earlier, it
between best practice and clinical judgement.
seems useful to regard the social worker’s
“workplace” as encompassing both the
To the outside observer, it is not clear that social
organisation and the client community in
workers agree on what constitutes best practice.
which they operate.
But senior Child, Youth and Family management
2. Much of the argument in the baseline review
argue that the definition of best practice is not
an intractable problem. There is a swing back
of Child, Youth and Family in 2003 implicitly
to the idea of evidence-based practice in social
treated social workers as bureaucrats, in
work and there is firm evidence that some
the sense that they were primarily working
practices significantly reduce the risk to clients.
within clear organisational rules. It may be
misleading to think of social workers in this
Best practices in social work can or should be
way. Much of what social workers do takes
recognised and error, a departure from best
place in an environment where tightly defined
practice, can be defined.
performance measures are not effective and
outcomes are uncertain and complex. There
Causes and consequences of error
in social work
is no doubt that rules do constrain social
worker behaviour – child protection and
So why don’t social workers follow the rules?
youth justice work are law-driven processes
Here the appropriate empirical questions are:
– but there are certainly tensions between
what personal or workplace factors might
rules and discretion in social work that are
contribute to social worker error and what can
analogous to those between management
be done to reduce this source of risk to children?
authority and clinical governance in
hospitals.
James Reason’s human error model asserts
in brief that mistakes and intentional rule
3. Social workers in the wider workplace
breaches that lead to accidents can be analysed
are attempting to manage, in the sense of
in terms of both the personal situation of the
influence, a much wider range of resources
workers involved and the workplace in which
than is available to them from their budgets
they operate. An implication of Reason’s
and legal powers. Conversely, significant
analysis is that the most effective response
constraints on, and incentives for, social
to organisational risk is often not to impose
worker behaviour may originate from this
more operating rules at the “sharp end” but
wider workplace. These environmental factors
to consider strategic responses at the level of
need to be folded into the analysis. With
organisational systems and culture.
these provisos in mind, the Reason analysis
might be a useful starting point for a similar
There are a number of general points relating to
analysis in Child, Youth and Family.
the specific characteristics of social work that
probably need to be considered:
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
10
Where to from here?
collective understanding of the risk to children
and how to manage it. To do this, reporting
How can Child, Youth and Family move towards
and analysis of risk factors has to be separated
a more strategic approach to managing risk?
from blame. Of course social workers must carry
First, managers and staff could develop a
responsibility for their personal actions in the
common understanding of best practice and
workplace, but the quality of the information
how it might be at risk from systemic factors
on risk will be itself at risk if open reporting
in the organisation and the worksite. One
and analysis can threaten personal reputations
approach might be for groups of task managers
and careers. The challenge facing Child, Youth
and experienced social workers to see if a
and Family management is to assure the public
classification of possible system factors helps
that it is accountable for the safety of children
them analyse sources of risk. Caseworkers could
and that it is competent at an organisational
be asked to consider situations in which they
level to understand and manage that risk. A
believed that a mistake or violation occurred
more collective and strategic approach to
that could have led to an accident but didn’t,
understanding risk may help.
and to identify factors that they thought were
important in contributing to the accident risk.
Staff could be surveyed on their assessment of
REFERENCES
risk-making factors in the organisational and
Capper, C, Crook, C and Wilson K. (1996) ‘Systems
Safety Issues in the Wake of the Cave Creek Disaster’.
Conference paper, Australasian Evaluation Society.
Wellington.
community workplaces. Task managers and
caseworkers could workshop the development of
system models.
Doolan, M. (2004) ‘Child death by homicide: An
examination of incidence in New Zealand 1991-2000’.
In Te Awatea Review 2(1). Pp 7–10.
Secondly, information needs to be collected
in a way that identifies the systemic factors
Reason, J. (1990) Human Error. Cambridge University
Press. Cambridge.
in performance risk. Within existing quality
assurance practices, audits could be enlarged to
Roberts, P. (2003) Snakes and Ladders: The Pursuit
of a Safety Culture in New Zealand Public Hospitals.
Institute of Policy Studies and Health Services
Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington.
Wellington.
systematically consider environmental factors
that might be present, and risk-inducing factors
could be included in reporting on performance
and conditions at worksites. A further and
Stent, R. (1998) Canterbury Health Ltd: A Report by
the Health and Disability Commissioner. Health and
Disability Commissioner. Wellington.
more ambitious step is to develop an incident
reporting system based on near misses rather
than disasters. A first step towards such a
reporting system is to reach a consensus among
experienced task managers and caseworkers on
“sentinel events” – deviations from approved
practice that may increase risk for the
Rob Laking is a senior lecturer
at the School of Government at
Victoria University, Wellington.
organisation – as a basis for error reporting.
Possibly the most important element is to
consider all information collection and analysis
from the viewpoint of how it will enhance
11
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
A kit of their own
Lael Sharland, Nadine Kilmister and Fiona Coy outline the development and
production of personal kits for children and young people in care
Introduction
Methodology
Personal resource kits were developed for
children and young people in the custody and/or
guardianship of the Chief Executive of Child,
Youth and Family as a result of recommendations
made in the ministerial review undertaken by
former Principal Youth Court Judge Mick Brown
in 2000. Judge Brown emphasised the need to
ensure that children and young people are
the central focus of care placement and that
care management is carried out in accordance
with the objectives of the Children, Young
Persons, and Their Families Act 1989. He further
recommended that ‘children and young people
in care be provided with kits containing ageappropriate information about being in care and
their rights, a scrap book and personal record of
being in care, and a suitable bag or backpack for
their belongings, inscribed with their name’.
The methodology focused on the impact of the
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child (UNCROC) on the extent and nature of
participation by children and young people in
the decision-making process. The complementary
interface between UNCROC and the Children,
Young Persons, and Their Families Act supports
the view that children’s ‘expressed needs are
relevant to the construction and implementation
of social policies and practices’ (Mayall, 2000).
We explored the literature as widely as possible
for examples of participation and analysis of
what works. For a full list of references please
see the Child, Youth and Family intranet, under
‘links’ on the home page.
For this project, information was gathered from
a number of groups.
1. A group of children and young people from
each Child, Youth and Family residence aged
from 11 to 16 years. All participants were
subject to Family or Youth Court orders.
In 2002 an intra-agency project team comprising
members from the Child, Youth and Family
national office teams of communications and
service policy and development was established
to implement this recommendation by producing
a backpack containing the kits recommended
by Judge Brown. The project team adopted a
participatory approach in content and design
and so engaged with children and young people
in care or who had a previous involvement with
Child, Youth and Family.
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
2. Two focus groups – one in Wellington, made
up of young people aged between 11 and
16, and one in New Plymouth, made up of
children aged 8 to 11.
3. An ad hoc group of young women who were
in care.
4. A support group for young people and adults
who had previously been in care.
12
We adopted a group interviewing technique,
the literature that described what was important
which is a qualitative methodological approach
to children and young people in care, and their
to gathering information that is both inductive
views on being consulted.
and naturalistic. The process allows participants
to express their thoughts, ideas and experiences,
The participants
and, in this respect, their information is not
A project team member consulted with each
able to be easily measured or statistically tested.
residential manager who arranged for the young
Semi-structured interviews and discussion
people to select a representative group from
sessions in the groups allow participants
among them to present their issues. The four
to ‘describe their experiences of the world’
residences (Northern Residential Centre, Lower
(Jayaratne and Stewart, 1991). The use of both
Northern Residence, Kingslea
open and closed questions
and Puketai) were then
is an opportunity to gain
greater insight. Foddy (1993)
discusses the advantages and
Group forums provide
credibility and validation
involved in the project.
A meeting was held
problems when constructing
with social workers and
questions and surmises that
supervisors from three
a ‘judicious mix of open and
Wellington Service Delivery
closed questions is best’ as responses will then
Units (SDUs). Social workers then nominated
‘reflect the respondents’ worlds rather than the
children and young people aged between 11
researchers’ ’. Data produced in this manner is
and 16 years. The children’s caregivers were
rich in detail.
contacted and arrangements were made to
meet with the children and young people
Group forums provide credibility and validation
of the children and young people’s views and
wishes and, in turn, this provides a description
of their perception of being in care. Benefits
include obtaining large and rich amounts of
data in the respondents’ own words and the
opportunity to address gaps in service delivery.
This can lead to creating a product that is childfocused, and meaningful and relevant to the
children and young people.
in their homes. At these meetings voluntary
participation was again emphasised. Those who
chose to consider the project were left with an
invitation and consent form and a few days later
each child and young person was contacted. Six
young people agreed to participate.
In New Plymouth, a teleconference was arranged
with site supervisors and they were briefed about
the project. The supervisors then advised social
Focus group forums do present challenges.
workers who identified children they believed
The small number of participants limits
would be appropriate focus group members.
generalisation to a larger population. An
The social workers spoke with the children and
opinionated member can also bias results and
their caregivers about the project and, again,
the interaction between participants may not be
six children agreed to participate. In both
independent of one another. To relieve our own
Wellington and New Plymouth the participants
anxiety about appropriate participation, and its
were transported to and from the meeting
limitations, we were significantly reassured by
venues, where workshop materials and some
13
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
mock-up products were available to stimulate
clearly preferred something in a card size rather
discussion and enable feedback on preferences
than a pamphlet.
and views. A few months later the two groups
Group participants in New Plymouth and
were reconvened and participants shown the
Wellington were shown mock ups, which
results of their combined efforts – personal kits
included different bag types, books, posters and
with the key contents they had decided were most
rights information.
important, in the colours and designs they selected.
As a sign of appreciation, after each focus group
Production
session these participants were given a $30
DNA, the design agency, was briefed on the basis
voucher from either a stationery or music store.
of this feedback. Any design group contracted
There was a key facilitator for each focus group
session and in Wellington
the project team joined the
group for parts of the day.
A shared lunch and a tour
of the Beehive provided
much needed opportunities
for free communication and
engagement between the
young people and adult team
members.
by Child, Youth and Family must clearly
understand the importance
of the “no brand” look and,
in this instance, be able
to bring the participants’
thoughts and feelings into
the final product. When
working on a project such
as this, it is essential to
remember that the children in
care are already regarded as
“different” and singled out by
Product development
their peers. The products had
This engagement with the
to be functional and ordinary,
young people was essential,
not “way out” or identifiable,
and their possible distrust
and this was a key message
of authority figures made a
from the groups. The results
careful and thoughtful process equally essential.
of these efforts culminated in the production of
Through not only asking questions but involving
the first draft resource kits. These were checked
the young people in a range of activities
by all those who had been consulted originally
and watching their responses to each of the
(providing they were still available) and received
products, we learnt about their preferences and
their approval.
needs. Feedback on the content important to the
participants was recorded and their artwork was
Resource kits
gathered for favourite colours and styles.
The resource kits are available in two types:
Judge Brown’s recommendations provided a
one for children up to seven years old and
base from which to develop the resource kits.
the other for those aged eight and over. The
Residential participants, while ambivalent about
backpacks are blue, black and green, and these
the concept of the memory book, confirmed the
colours were unanimously chosen by the focus
need for a rights and information product and
groups. The design is trendy as well as sturdy
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
14
and functional. Cross-over bags were provided
children move frequently, taking pictures is a
as examples but the groups felt that these would
way to keep a record of special moments, friends,
date too quickly. The pack was a requirement of
schools and other important things. The cameras
the Brown Report and, because the design and
may also help caregivers and the children and
colours was chosen by the group participants,
young people participate in recording and
we were confident it would be used. To date,
making sense of changes in the child’s and young
this has proved correct. They can be replaced
person’s life. This item is a one-off.
annually.
Basic toiletry items were included because
The memory book was very popular and some
of specific feedback from the ad hoc focus
of the participants began writing and drawing
group. Having their own toiletries, such as a
in the books as soon as they received them. The
toothbrush, toothpaste, body wash, comb etc,
books include a few pages of prompts to help fill
when they arrived in care was a comfort. The
in information such as:
kit for the younger children has a child’s
• personal details and characteristics
toothbrush and toothpaste. These items are
• favourite people and things
provided only once.
• skills
A concertina fold card was cheap, simple to
• background – reasons for being in care
produce, small enough to be hidden in a wallet
and colourful enough to be easily found. The
• family – who they see, when and, if
applicable, who they don’t and why
slogan ‘life is choice – and it’s mine’ was printed
on the card. Often children in care feel they
• caregivers – who they are with and why
have no choices – they have been taken from
• people to talk to about what is happening
their homes and may be living with people they
• social worker’s name
do not know. The theme has a two-part message:
to reinforce that there are choices about what
• special memories
to do and the positive message that life is good.
• friends’ names and other contacts.
The choices of images, bombing and colours all
An important feature of these books is that they
come from the feedback and drawings done in
are private and belong to the child or young
the focus groups. The card contains information
person exclusively. They are a portable place
that was discussed by the older focus group
to write things about themselves and memories
participants and includes:
of their life. They are not a case recording
• general rights (UNCROC) and their rights if
picked up by the police
mechanism and, unless the kids choose to show
them, social workers cannot access them. They
• pocket money guidelines
can be replaced on request.
• minimum wage requirements
Disposable cameras were included as part of
• a space to write house rules, other important
information and phone numbers.
the packs because feedback from the groups
indicated they did not have many photographs
of themselves or others in their lives. As some
They are replaceable on request.
15
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
A $5 telephone card is included in the older
reflect this. Adults, the other professionals, who
age kit to allow the young person to contact
were informed about the project all had ideas
whoever they may need to, such as caregivers,
about items they thought should be included in
family or friends. This item is a one-off.
the kit, but the children and young people made
their preferences clear. They identified items and
Based on feedback from the groups, we
styles which were fashionable and meaningful
suggested that social workers include any
for them.
other material that could be useful in specific
situations, such as street maps for kids moving
In terms of care experiences, the literature
to unfamiliar neighbourhoods, bus timetables,
indicates that key issues such as contact with
other personal items, toys and school materials
original family and siblings, confidentiality,
from home. Information from SDUs suggests
the importance of the social worker as a
there is wide variation in this practice because
constant in their lives despite caregiver
different sites choose the items that they
changes, participation in planning and
identify as meeting local needs.
reviews, and the importance of an advocate
are what is important to
Current status
Over 6,000 complete kits have
been distributed – 45 per cent
to children aged seven and
under and the remainder to
those over eight years of age.
When given the opportunity
and appropriate
information, children and
young people can make
informed choices
Feedback to date is positive,
children and young people
(Munro, 2001). These themes
resonate with our experience
of the focus groups and are
reflected in the resource
kits’ contents.
Some staff were concerned
but there are some concerns
that bringing children
that not all children in care
together was an invasion of their privacy and
are getting the resource kits when they should.
they may not want others to know they are in
Further evaluation is required to determine
care. There was no evidence of this in either
whether the pack is still meeting the needs of
the Wellington or New Plymouth groups. It may
children and young people in care.
have drawn the children closer together because
they met others with similar life experiences.
Learning points
The younger children were forthcoming in their
Several key learning points and observations
reasons for being in care and explained without
have emerged through this exercise. One of the
prompting why they weren’t able to live with
most important points is that this experience
their parents. They provided assurance later
confirmed that children and young people
in written feedback that they felt good about
prioritise having their say, and being listened
getting together, and that they had gained a
to, over getting their own way. When given
better understanding of their rights from the
the opportunity and appropriate information,
experience.
children and young people can make informed
choices and decisions that are positive,
The kit provides social workers with a tool to
purposeful and practical. The completed kits
engage in a meaningful way with the children
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
16
and young people they are responsible for.
commitment and plan ongoing participation
The memory books are designed to assist in
(2001). The path from ratification of UNCROC
dealing with issues of particular importance
over 10 years ago to now has been marked by
to the children and young people, such as
significant improvements in awareness of the
information that is sometimes confusing, grief
importance of listening to children’s voices.
and loss associated with separation, a sense of
This exercise showed what we could achieve in
terms of participation on specific issues. Our
challenge now is to find ways to secure the
ongoing involvement of children and young
people in care in consultation processes relevant
to many areas of Child, Youth and Family.
belonging, and the development of new ties and
emotional bonds.
The intra-agency collaboration process was an
essential component that contributed to an
effective response. The members of the project
team brought different strengths and abilities.
Members from service policy and development
had skills in the area of interviewing, gathering
information and children’s issues around
participation and care, and the communications
representative was expert in product design and
development. Bringing these skills and abilities
together created a pack that children and young
people can call their own.
We have taken the first step on that path, and
have just achieved approval for a youth in
care reference group to be established under
the leadership of the Chief Social Worker’s
Office.
REFERENCES
Brown, M. (2000) Care and Protection is About Adult
Behaviour: The Ministerial review of the Department
of Child, Youth and Family Services. Ministry of
Social Development. Wellington.
Following this exercise, and with a taste of
participatory success, we continued to explore
Foddy, W. (1993) Constructing Questions for
Interviews and Questionnaires: Theory and Practice
in Social Research. Cambridge University Press.
Melbourne.
opportunities to engage young people in care
in further developmental processes, especially
in service policy and resource development. We
Jayaratne, T E and Stewart, A. (1991) ‘Quantitative
and qualitative methods in the social sciences:
Current feminist issues and practical strategies.’ In
M M. Fonow (ed) Beyond Methodology: Feminist
scholarship as lived research. Indiana University
Press. Indiana.
soon realised that an ongoing collective voice
in this would provide a more substantial and
meaningful interaction for children and young
people in care. Shier provides an assessment tool
to help understand individual and departmental
17
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
Mayall, B. (2000) ‘The sociology of childhood:
Children’s autonomy and participation rights.’ In
Smith, A B, Gollop, M and Mars, K. (eds) Advocating
for Children: International perspectives on children’s
rights. University of Otago Press. Dunedin. Pp 126–140.
Lael Sharland is currently the
Acting Manager of Learning
and Development North,
Child, Youth and Family. She
was previously a policy analyst
in the service policy and
development team at National
Office.
Munro, E. (2001) ‘Empowering looked-after children.’
In Child and Family Social Work, 6. Pp 129–137.
Shier, H. (2001) ‘Pathways to Participation: Openings,
opportunities and obligations – a new model for
enhancing children’s participation in decisionmaking, in line with article 12.1 of the United
Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.’ In
Children & Society, 15. Pp 107–117.
Nadine Kilmister is the team
leader of the editing and
production team at national
office, Child, Youth and Family.
She currently manages the
brand for the Department and
oversees the intranet, Internet
and all print production.
Fiona Coy worked as a
frontline social worker and she
is now a senior policy analyst
and Acting Manager of the
service policy and development
team in Child, Youth and
Family.
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
18
Child sexual abusers
Tony Palairet offers some recommendations from practice
Introduction
is supported by my clinical practice and related
case work experience. The notion that children
Working with boys who have behaved in a
really do seriously injure other children appears
sexually aggressive manner with other children
to be overlooked, and this particular overlooking
has offered me an opportunity to observe both
the children’s behaviour and the adult responses
is barely noticed.
to this behaviour. These pre-adolescent boys
It is generally recognised that children sexually
were typically victims of insecure attachments
traumatise other children. This makes the level
with neglect and multiple
of denial and minimisation
separations a feature of their
young lives. They had been
emotionally, physically and,
sometimes, sexually abused.
They were behaviourally and
around children sexually
Ignoring children’s sexualised
behaviour is neither a local
nor a new concern
emotionally deregulated,
abusing other children hard
to explain. Early warnings
that there is a problem are
contained in the long-running
struggle with finding the
and lacked social skills,
appropriate language to
development and education. These children
describe children who abuse. This is perhaps a
often moved from one placement to another,
consequence of the ambivalent beliefs about
where they could be placed with other
sex and sexuality in society and the confused
vulnerable children and cared for by untrained
practice around sexualised children’s behaviour.
caregivers. These boys are likely to continue to
Western society is slow in coming to terms with
sexually hurt other children (Farmer and Pollock,
the concept of children’s sexuality. We accept
1998; Hall, Matthews and Pearce, 1998; Pithers,
children are sexual beings but then appear
Gray, Busconi and Houchens, 1998).
to demonstrate a surprisingly poor level of
understanding around any problematic sexual
Denial and minimisation
behaviour.
Children do hurt other children through
sexually aggressive misbehaviour. According to
Ignoring children’s sexualised behaviour is
research, the age of the sexual aggressor makes
neither a local nor a new concern. Literature
no difference to the degree of hurt suffered by
over the past 20 years notes the concern as
the victim (Haugaard and Tilly, 1988). This idea
a recurring theme (Ryan, 2000). Children’s
19
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
sexualised behaviour is sometimes dismissed as
One size does not fit all children presenting with
boys being boys or just experimentation. Other
sexualised behaviour, and when we assess we
times, children end up labelled paedophiles, the
should question why this child is engaging in this
neighbourhood is advised by posters and the
sexual behaviour at this time. Two questions are
police appear ready to prosecute the dangerous
at the centre of the assessment process:
or evil young offender. Sometimes children’s
1. What processes, events or circumstances have
sexualised the child?
sexual behaviour is natural and enjoyable, but
at other times, the child’s behaviour is sexual
2. What trauma, related to access to intimacy,
might the child have suffered?
aggression. Someone must determine which
paradigm applies.
The answers to these questions provide the
A contribution to this dilemma, the minimising
framework for any subsequent intervention, if
and denying of the children’s sexualised
this action proves necessary.
behaviour, is related to the perceived difficulty
in identifying a clear difference between
Diagnostic data
children’s problematic sexual behaviour and
normal, healthy and expected sexual behaviour.
To make an evaluation of a child’s sexualised
Children’s sexualised behaviour is tricky to
behaviour, the assessor will require a
identify. Importantly, sexual behaviour is
comprehensive overview of the child and family
culturally defined and we must accept it will be
history. This will include details of the children’s
complex (Gil and Johnson, 1993).
physical, sexual and emotional development and
the relevant stories of the families’ formative
Assessment and evaluation
events. The children’s experience of these
events may be extraordinarily different from
Assessment requires a sound knowledge of
the parents’ history of their children. Data will
the culture of children’s sexuality. Further
and equally sound knowledge is required
also be required to understand the children’s
to know just how the prevailing culture of
behavioural and mood management ability, as
children’s sexual behaviour sits within the
well as their social behaviour with their peers.
child’s culture. In Western society, childhood
There are some characteristic features in the
sexuality is confused because society displays
clinical presentation of children who sexually
so much ambivalence about sex and sexuality.
molest other children. While there is no
These reasons should not excuse a clinician
empirically validated model that explains the
or practitioner from making a competent
origin and maintenance of children’s sexual
evaluation of a child’s sexualised behaviour.
aggression, the picture is a useful guide to
A comprehensive evaluation should be carried
decision making (Pearce, 2001).
out for any child who is known to be engaging
in sexual behaviours with other children. This is
Both girls and boys behave sexually towards
best done at the earliest opportunity and should
other children. About half of the boys who
ideally explore all the variables and processes
sexually molest other children have been
that have contributed to the development of the
sexually abused. Sexual victimisation is a
sexual misbehaviour problem (Pearce, 2001).
risk factor but not an explanation for their
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
20
behaviour. However, the literature suggests that
high-risk families for the child’s sexual behaviour
girls who molest other children are invariably
assessment.
sexual abuse victims themselves (Gray, Busconi,
Other authors have detailed parental and
Houchens and Pithers, 1997).
family features implicated in children’s sexual
The role of insecure attachment is significant.
misbehaviour (Hall et al, 1998). Parents might
A difficulty with early attachment is related to
have suffered from childhood physical abuse,
poor sociability, a lack of peer relations, low
neglect and family violence themselves. The
self-esteem and less effective behavioural and
family may have a history of separations
emotional self-regulation (Greenberg, 1999;
where the chid has endured the loss of primary
Thompson, 1999). An impaired attachment
caregivers. Poverty and low levels of social
results in a disruption to the children’s
support, including a poor use of community
identification with their parents and a break
resources, are over-represented in the sample of
to the whole family’s connection with societal
parents of children who sexually molest other
values. Such children will have difficulty
children (Hall et al, 1998).
expressing their feelings and so be more prone
Cultural or religious values that support
to acting them out. These same features result
punitive or harsh responses to childhood
in poor empathy development. A lack of social
sexuality expressions add to the children’s
skills results in some children relating to their
sense of guilt, shame and anger. These are
peers in a sexual manner because they don’t
three of the expected features of the abusing
know how to relate in an alternative manner.
child’s presentation. Parental condemnation of
The explanation for sexualised and abusing
children’s sexuality may increase secretive sexual
behaviour can be as simple as that.
behaviour by building the appeal and mystery of
A strong correlation has been found between
sex, especially illicit sex.
sexual enacting and multiple abuses, such
as emotional and physical abuse, witnessing
Reporting strategies
domestic violence, and neglect (Gray et al,
Therapy notes, assessment data and detailed
1997; Lightfoot and Evans, 2000). Pornography
behaviour reports are rarely included in child
also appears to play a detrimental role in
protection files (Farmer and Pollock, 2001). When
some boys’ healthy sexual development,
child protection agencies receive notifications
with some published researchers correlating
for reasons other than sexual misconduct, the
early exposure to later sexual disturbances,
children’s sexual misbehaviour may be only
including adolescent stage sexual disturbance
a small part of the overall picture of need or
(Wieckowski, Hartsoe, Mayer and Shortz, 1998).
concern. Any missing data detailing sexual
misconduct places more children at risk of
There is considerable assessment data available
sexual molestation. Unsuspecting caregivers may
by examining the family that the child was born
not have a behaviour regime that will ensure the
into and raised. Family situations where there
sexual safety of other children in the proximity.
is low-quality parental supervision, boundaries
are either absent or inconsistent, or the rules
The clinical evaluation of the children and their
for child conduct are inconsistent are deemed
families needs to be clearly stated in writing
21
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
and the document placed in the child’s care
specialist therapeutic help to address sexually
and protection record. Related features of
abusing behaviour. Does this picture have a
the behaviour should be detailed, including
strong reverberation with local practice?
any coercion or aggression used, the age and
Interagency collaboration is perhaps a
gender of the victim, the number of incidents,
future vision more than a feature of present-
previous attempts to intervene and the outcome
day treatment services. Bringing agencies,
of these attempts. The degree of risk should
individuals and organisations together to work
be given as high, medium or low. Ideally, this
cooperatively will inevitably produce anxiety.
information will be accessible to those who need
The expected disturbed energy around children
to know about the risk to other children, such
who sexually molest other children will split
as caregivers, including respite caregivers, and
the helpers. This is insufficient reason to back
schools.
away from the required
Any further incidents of
collaboration. We do
sexualised behaviour must be
not yet have a culture of
reported and the information
added to the existing record.
Other children involved in
such incidents should be
Treatment must be planned
and coordinated across the
key agencies involved
authoritative interagency
case management in our
country and case managers
are not trained in the basket
seen as possible victims and
of skills necessary to work
given the appropriate support
across agencies.
and entitlements to safety.
Recent literature highlights the repeated failure
Conclusion
of this step and the consequences for vulnerable
One of the reasons for the high level of
children (Farmer and Pollock, 2001).
denial and minimisation of children’s sexual
misbehaviour is the notion that children’s
Collaborative treatment
sexuality, when it goes wrong, is too difficult to
Treatment must be planned and coordinated
engage with. The body of international literature
across the key agencies involved, using a
on the topic of children’s problematic sexual
collaborative interagency treatment model.
behaviour reasonably reflects New Zealand’s
This recommendation relates directly to the
clinical practice. From this literature, as well
complexity of the treatment task. Research from
as my own clinical experience, it is the most
the UK has noted that as few as half of notified
ignored and disadvantaged children – those who
children who abuse other children receive
have suffered separation, neglect and loss, have
therapeutic help (Farmer and Pollock, 2001). Of
been physically, mentally and sexually abused,
this half, a quarter ended therapy prematurely
or are in a cycle of multiple placements – who
because of inappropriate referral and other
sexually molest other children. Responses to this
difficulties. Less than a third of the children
group of children’s sexual behaviour too often
referred for therapy had the trauma of their own
fail to seize the early intervention opportunity.
abuse addressed and, worse still, only one child
The result of the failure is that more children
in their sample of 250 subjects was referred for
are sexually molested and the sexual abusing
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
22
of children cycle continues uninterrupted. The
Pithers, W, Gray, A, Busconi, A and Houchens, P.
(1998) ‘Caregivers of children with sexual behaviour
problems: Psychological and familial functioning.’ In
Child Abuse and Neglect, 22. Pp 129–141.
related literature is abundantly clear about
the advantages of early intervention and
managing the problem behaviour in younger
Ryan, G. (2000) ‘Childhood sexuality: A decade
of study. Part 1 – research and curriculum
development.’ In Child Abuse and Neglect, 24.
Pp 33–48.
rather than older subjects. Prompt and highquality assessment, good recording and
filing of information and collaborative inter-
Thompson, R A. (1999) ‘Early attachment and later
development.’ In J Cassidy and P Shaver (eds)
Handbook of Attachment: Theory, research and
clinical applications. Guilford Press. New York.
agency treatment services all offer possible
improvements.
REFERENCES
Wieckowski, E, Hartsoe, P, Mayer, A and Shortz,
J. (1998) ‘Deviant sexual behaviour in children and
young adolescents: Frequency and patterns.’ In
Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Reseach and Treatment,
10. Pp 293–303.
Farmer, E. and Pollock, S. (1998) Sexually Abused and
Abusing Children in Substitute Care. Wiley and Sons.
Chichester.
Farmer, E and Pollock, S. (2001) ‘Substitute care for
sexually abused and abusing children.’ In Adoption
and Fostering, 25, (2). Pp 56–59.
Gil, E and Johnson, T C. (1993) Sexualised Children:
Assessment and treatment of sexualised children and
children who molest. Launch Press. Rockville, MD.
Tony Palairet is a family
therapist in the Child, Youth
and Family Tauranga Specialist
Services Team.
Gray, A, Busconi, A, Houchens, P and Pithers, W.
(1997) ‘Children with sexual behaviour problems
and their caregivers: Demographic, functioning,
and clinical patterns.’ In Sexual Abuse: A journal of
research and treatment, 9. Pp 267–290.
Greenberg, M. (1999) ‘Attachment and
psychopathology in childhood.’ In J Cassidy and P
R Shaver (eds.) Handbook of Attachment: Theory,
research and clinical applications. Guildford Press.
New York.
Hall, D, Matthews, F and Pearce, J. (1998) ‘Factors
associated with sexual behaviour problems in
young sexually abused children.’ In Child Abuse and
Neglect, 22. Pp 1045–1063.
Haugaard, J and Tilly, C. (1988) ‘Characteristics
predicting children’s responses to sexual encounters
with other children.’ In Child Abuse and Neglect, 12.
Pp 209–218.
Lightfoot, S and Evans, I. (2000) ‘Risk factors for
New Zealand sample of sexually abusing children
and adolescents.’ In Child Abuse and Neglect, 24.
Pp 1158–1198.
Pearce, J. (2001) ‘Sexuality behaviour problems in
preadolescent children.’ In Journal of Child and
Youth Care, 14. Pp 65–82.
23
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
The story so far
Peter Shaw, Kathy Fielding and Jessie Henderson outline the development of the
On TRACC service
Introduction
initial resettlement. Additional assistance is
provided by community sponsors and referrals
The refugee population is a relatively new group
can be made to government departments and
in New Zealand immigration history. The United
social service agencies.
Nations High Commission for Refugees defines
a refugee as someone who ‘owing to a well-
Typical experiences for refugee children and
founded fear of being persecuted for reasons
their families in New Zealand may include
of race, religion, nationality, membership of a
trauma, separation from family members and
particular social group or political opinion, is
ongoing adjustment difficulties.
outside the country of his/her nationality and
is unable, or, owing to such a fear, is unwilling
The effects of trauma that may occur prior to
to avail him/herself of the protection of that
migration include anxiety, depression, grief, a
country’. New Zealand is one of 10 western
reduced sense of self worth, somatic complaints,
countries that accept an annual quota of United
difficulty maintaining fulfilling relationships.
Nations mandated refugees for permanent
In New Zealand there can be difficulties in
resettlement. This country’s quota is 750 and
accessing and linking into appropriate cultural
the refugees fall into three formally specified
and community support. Other significant
categories:
resettlement issues include:
1. Seventy-five refugees are women at risk.
• disruption
2. Another 75 are identified as disabled or
having medical needs.
• separation
• adaptation to a new culture and country
3. The remaining 600 come under the broad
category of those needing protection.
• isolation
• limited schooling
All refugees have a six-week orientation at the
• language issues
Mangere Reception Centre, but any further
assistance comes from a variety of sources.
• learning difficulties.
The Refugee and Migrant Service has branches
throughout the country and the Refugees as
Given these experiences, families from a refugee
Survivors Centre offers services focusing on
background have increased vulnerabilities
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
24
and are at greater risk of developing needs
After considering various service options to
requiring specialist health, education, and care
best meet the needs of this client group, an
and protection intervention. The challenge for
intersectoral model was chosen with the practice
workers in the various sectors is that the refugee
imperatives and protocols from each agency
population typically does not fit neatly into one
shaping the service delivery model. During the
focus and their needs spread across a number
developmental phase, we ensured the needs of
of services. This can be both challenging for the
each sector were represented and addressed.
workers and confusing for the refugees, who
Since November 2003 the Transcultural Care
have often come from cultures where there is no
Centre and Intersectoral Service for Children
“service” offering a selective focus of help.
and Young People from Refugee Backgrounds
In 2001 the Auckland City Strengthening Families
and Their Families, better known as On TRACC,
Management Group recognised that the complex
has been operating with a mix of full- and part-
needs of children and families from refugee
time staff. The team includes a clinical services
backgrounds were not being adequately met by
manager, educational and clinical psychologists,
the core agencies. It was clear that the process
social workers, a behaviour support worker
traditionally used with high needs clients was
and cultural advisors working together to
not the most effective and a different response
provide assessments and interventions that meet
was required.
the high and complex needs of children and
young people and their families from refugee
backgrounds. The ADHB hosts On TRACC and
Designing On TRACC
provides day-to-day clinical and administrative
Earlier, in December 2000, the Ministers of Health,
management. On TRACC is governed by a joint
Education, Social Services and Employment
overview group made up of representatives from
agreed to the Intersectoral Strategy for Children
the Auckland participating agencies.
and Young People with High and Complex Needs
to address serious service gaps and shortfalls,
On TRACC clients
and enhance collaboration across sectors. In
By October 2004, On TRACC had received 30
2002 Auckland agency representatives from
referrals, with just over half through schools.
the Auckland District Health Board (ADHB), the
Child, Youth and Family and the wider health
Ministry of Education, the Grey Lynn office
sector referred five cases each and three came
of Child, Youth and Family and the Auckland
from the Ministry of Education. In addition,
Regional Health Service worked together with
two children were identified in other cases as
refugee communities to develop a new service.
requiring the On TRACC service.
Funding and support were provided by the high
and complex needs (HCN) unit in Wellington.
Almost half of these referrals came from two
This unit is funded by Child, Youth and Family
countries: seven children from Afghanistan and
and the Ministries of Health and Education. A
six from Ethiopia. There were four from Burmese
change of use for the HCN development funds
families, and the remaining children came from
was agreed to implement a demonstration
Congolese, Somali, Sudanese, Chilean, Eritrean,
service for a two-year period.
Iranian and Iraqi families. The majority of those
25
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
referred were male, and there was a large range
trusting relationship with the families through
of ages. Most of the children were aged between
identifying issues and the appropriate measures
six and 10 years at the time of referral, but the
to take.
youngest client was only three years old and the
Cultural principles employed by On TRACC
oldest was aged 20.
include:
The multi-element plan as an intersectoral
framework
• providing a service in the language or by
people from the culture requested by the
client
A multi-element ecological plan was adopted
• a positive and open communication style
as the model that best incorporated the
intersectoral approach for the service. Within
• key workers using culturally appropriate
words, tones, visual cues and facial
expressions, as identified by the cultural
advisors.
the different scopes of practice and areas of
expertise, On TRACC workers could draw on
multiple theories to target individual, family and
group needs, as well as the system needs in a
Typically, the first contact with any social
family, school and community context.
sector service is during a time of crisis and
personal distress. It is vital to establish cultural
The plans had to be relevant to the culture and
and effective practice safety during this time.
life experience of the refugee children and their
Appropriate cultural processes utilised at the
families. The guidance of appropriate cultural
very first contact and through follow-up times
advisors was crucial, and any assessment
assist in reducing distress for refugee families.
followed their advice. Issues considered were
A key learning point is that this engagement
linguistic and cultural difference and the need
to obtain a full history of the pre-immigration
process can take much longer than assumed,
experiences and resettlement of the client. This
creating a challenge for the agencies involved.
meant that we needed to allow more time for
On TRACC is designed to meet the ongoing
the assessment process compared with the time
complex needs of refugee children and their
spent on this for mainstream clients.
families – it is not a crisis response service. It
One of the major issues with most of the families
is important to plan the approach for each
was their lack of familiarity with service delivery
client and their family, and from the point of
concepts in mental health, education, or care
first contact, all work is coordinated with key
and protection. In their engagement process, key
workers from every agency. The assessment,
workers needed to determine the kind of help
although lengthy, is a single process designed to
that the refugee family expected and wanted
gather all the information required and ensure
before clarifying these needs in terms of what
the family is dealing with only one agency.
we could provide.
In the past, assessment procedures were often
Cultural safety is underpinned by delivery
fragmented, each agency working in its own
and the advice and support from cultural
service delivery parameters, which often led
advisors is critical to the success of On TRACC.
to duplication of assessment information. In
They have been instrumental in developing a
contrast, the On TRACC approach is to work
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
26
towards seamless boundaries between the entire
the child and their family to learn English,
service delivery and draw on the full range of
develop a sense of belonging, find work and
professional expertise in the team to meet the
settle well in New Zealand. The service has
children’s and their families’ needs.
faced many challenges, including integrating
the different practice approaches to the health,
During the assessment process, it takes time
education and welfare needs of clients so that
to develop the trust of the family involved.
they are consistent with the clients’ refugee,
Assessment information gathering will often
social and cultural experience and background.
proceed while associated interventions are
The costs associated with On TRACC services are
delivered, and the full assessment and complete
higher than single sector service delivery, but
intervention plan is an ongoing developmental
the learning achieved is invaluable for future
process. This has created shifts in approach
intersectoral development and improving clinical
from working under service process models
and social work practice with this population.
where there are timeline criteria and a need to
complete assessment/diagnosis processes before
intervening formally.
REFERENCES
In recognising and understanding the complex
United Nations. (1951) Convention relating to the status
of refugees. United Nations Publications. New York.
needs of this client group, we now appreciate
that sustained change and positive outcomes
take longer to achieve. Often intervention needs
Peter Shaw is the On TRACC
team leader.
to take place over a long period of time in order
to cement the desired changes.
The positive outcomes of this service include:
• working with the family within an ecological
model so that the benefits of intervention
flow through to the family and contribute
to healthy relationships at school and in the
wider communities
Kathy Fielding is a Sector
Advisor with the High and
Complex Needs Unit at national
office, Child, Youth and Family.
• developing good practice guidelines for
collaboration with high-needs clients from
refugee backgrounds, which are made
available to other agencies
• building trust between the client families and
their cultural communities with government
agencies.
Jessie Henderson is a manager
at Child, Youth and Family,
Grey Lynn, and represents
the Department on the Joint
Overview Group governing
On TRACC.
Conclusion
Although team members come from a range of
different professions and agency settings, our
key priority is to improve settlement outcomes
– successful intervention is more likely to enable
27
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
Book reviews
Child Welfare Services for Minority
and children in contact with social services.
She critically quotes studies that use only
Ethnic Families: The research
quantitative rather than qualitative measures.
reviewed.
Subsequent chapters describe research on
By June Thorburn, Ashok Chand and Joan Procter
phases of contact and intervention with families
Published 2005 by Jessica Kingsley Publishers,
in the UK child welfare system. Each phase is
London.
comparable with that of New Zealand state
ISBN 1 84310 269 2
involvement – from voluntary preventative or
supportive (community) services to increasing
RRP $60.00
measures of statutory action. Findings show
Reviewed by Ruth Newton.
that community services tend to be developed
Child Welfare Services for Minority Ethnic
Families: The research reviewed is a stimulating
and useful book. Clearly presented and packed
with relevant details, it describes current
research, policy and practice interests in the
UK. This does not reduce its value to a wider
audience because the issues raised are common
to all of us working in situations where culture
and, by definition, ethnicity must be properly
considered so the services provided are
appropriate for all children and families.
in proportion to the size of particular minority
The book summarises studies dating from
The closing chapter looks to future work. There
1970 until the present time and is a valuable
is acknowledgement of the lack of research into
resource document for this reason alone.
discrimination and racism in welfare services and
The full bibliography offers a wider world
that in this area welfare ‘lags behind research in
perspective with work from the US, Australia
the fields of employment, health, education and
and New Zealand, and the subject index makes
housing and criminal justice’.
populations, often responding to the initiative
of the communities. Families usually have no
understanding of the state system that confronts
them, and stereotypes abound. To date, research
has been markedly non-specific in defining the
term ‘minority ethnic’ – most frequently using
it as a synonym for ‘black’, with consequent
confusions of nationality, culture and mixed
heritage, and an overlooking of the white
minority communities in the studies done.
the book easy to use. It begins with Beverley
Prevatt Goldstein’s cogent opening address to
I recommend this book as a helpful and thought-
practitioners, researchers and policy makers. She
provoking reference tool.
highlights the paucity of appropriate research
Ruth Newton is a supervisor in care and protection at Child,
Youth and Family, Nelson.
on outcomes for minority ethnic families
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
28
Foster Placements: Why they
This book highlights that caregivers are seen
as the “salt of the earth” but they are neither
succeed and why they fail
acknowledged as ‘responsible parents’ nor
treated as ‘responsible professionals’. This
By Ian Sinclair, Kate Wilson and Ian Gibbs
research identified three major areas that may
Published 2005 by Jessica Kingsley Publishers,
assist in changing these views:
London.
ISBN 1 84310 173 4
1. Permanence.
RRP NZ$63.00
Reviewed by Deirdre Salmond.
2. Provision of durable and successful
placements.
Anyone who has worked in Child, Youth and
3. Acknowledging difficulties for change to occur
Family for any length of time understands that
In the summary and conclusions, these topics are
placing children out of their parents’ care is a
referred to in depth and some sensible pointers
constant dilemma. A major concern is whether
are given on how to improve the caregivers’
we are going to increase their wellbeing or add to
situations.
any distress, dysfunction and abusive lifestyles.
Another issue highlighted is the need for care to
This book assists in the understanding of
go beyond 18 years of age, which is the cut-off
placement success by the use of research and
age in England. In New Zealand, the Children,
examining the factors that influence the success
Young Persons, and Their Families Act 1989 takes
of placements. It is the second in a series of
guardianship though to 20 years of age, but the
three books by the same authors drawing on
new Care of Children Bill identifies 18 as the age
research and conclusions from a six-year study
at which guardianship ceases.
on the foster care system in England.
I found this book very easy to read, and it had
The authors concluded that the foster care
some interesting feedback from the children on
system rarely provides permanence, citing
how they saw their placements in care. There
situations where children placed in short-term
was also good input from other parties involved
placements often just drifted into long-term
in the foster care process. I would recommend
placements. The most common need the children
this to anyone who is involved in placing
identified was “for a normal family life”. One
children in care.
clear example of differences in consistency
Deirdre Salmond is a supervisor in long-term care at Child,
Youth and Family, Dunedin.
was that children sometimes kept their own
surnames but at other times used that of their
caregivers’.
An interesting theme throughout the book was
the view around what was deemed a successful
outcome. Placement outcomes may be judged as
successful, yet other outcomes for the same case
may have been categorised unsuccessful.
29
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
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CONFERENCES
SOCIAL WORK NOW
Aims
New Zealand Child & Family Support
& Community Services Inc Annual
Conference
..
. To provide discussion of social work
practice in Child, Youth and Family.
When and where: 15 and 16 Sept 2005,
Mangere, Auckland.
..
. To encourage reflective and innovative
The conference theme is ‘Navigating an
Uncertain Future’. Keynote speakers include
Cindy Kiro and Paula Tyler.
..
. To extend practice knowledge in any aspect
social work practice.
of adoption, care and protection,
residential care and youth justice practice.
For further information:
Email: barbara.burt@xtra.co.nz
Phone: (09) 434-7867
Website: www.theorganisation.org.nz
..
. To extend knowledge in any child, family
or related service, on any aspect of
administration, supervision, casework,
group work, community organisation,
teaching, research, interpretation, interdisciplinary work, or social policy theory,
as it relates to professional practice
relevant to Child, Youth and Family
and the wider social work sector.
2005 National Symposium
When and where: 10, 11 and 12 October,
Melbourne, Australia.
Hosted by: Child and Family Welfare
Association of Australia and the Centre for
Excellence in Child and Family Welfare Inc.
The symposium theme is ‘Their Lives, Our
Work: Critical questions for practice in child,
youth and family service’. The symposium aims
to improve policy, practice and management,
as well as family and therapeutic services.
SOCIAL WORK NOW 2005
Deadline for contributions
December 2005: 7 October 2005
For further information:
Email: 2005symposium@dbconferences.com.au
Phone: (0061 03) 9347 0062
Web: www.dbconferences.com.au
10th Australasian Conference on Child
Abuse and Neglect (ACCAN)
When and where: 14-16 February 2006,
Wellington.
Sponsored by: Child, Youth and Family, the
Ministry of Social Development and the
Children’s Commissioner.
The conference theme is ‘Kia Puawai Nga
Tamariki, Blossoming of Our Children
– Resilience, Rights, Responsibilities’. ACCAN
aims to provide a forum for the exchange
and discussion of ideas and strategies
concerning the prevention, and interventions
for the treatment, of child abuse and neglect.
The registration brochure and programme
will be available in early September.
For further information:
Email: accan@avenues.co.nz
Phone: (04) 473 8044.
Web: www.nzfvc.org.nz/accan
31
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
Social Work Now
i nform a t i on for contr i b u tors
..
. In most instances, copyright rests with
Social Work Now welcomes articles on topics
relevant to social work practitioners and social
work and which aim to promote professionalism
and practice excellence.
Social Work Now/Child, Youth and Family.
..
. Social Work Now does not hold itself
responsible for statements made by
contributors.
We appreciate authors may be at varying levels of
familiarity with professional journal writing and
for those less used to this style, we hope it won't
be a barrier to approaching Social Work Now. We
are always available to talk through ideas and to
discuss how best to present your information.
..
. Please send one hard copy of each article,
double spaced on A4 paper and on one side
of the page only. On a separate sheet of
paper give details of your name, work email
address, position and other work experience
which is relevant to the article. Email
submissions and queries to the editor at
bbannister@xtra.co.nz. Please note the
maximum word length is 2000 words (unless
otherwise negotiated).
Contributions are welcomed from social workers,
other Child, Youth and Family staff and professionals
working within the wider field. Articles can include
accounts of innovative workplace practice, case
reports, research, education, review articles, conference
and workshop reports. We also welcome articles
written specifically for one of the regular columns
such as recent research, legal note or book reviews.
..
. Please keep notes to a minimum and for
referencing format, please contact the
editor or check out the style in this issue.
References should be pertinent to the text
and not a complete review of the literature
(unless that is the purpose of the article).
Photographs and illustrations are always
welcome (black and white or colour).
All articles will be considered by two members of
the journal's editorial advisory panel and the editor.
(Exceptions may occasionally arise if a specialist
authority, with knowledge outside the panel's
expertise, is called upon to supplement the advisors.)
Research guidelines
General guidelines
..
. All work must be the original work of the
Social Work Now particularly welcomes articles
drawing on research undertaken by Child, Youth
and Family staff, but requests that any original
research has received clearance and approval
through official departmental channels. All
research by Child, Youth and Family staff must
be approved by the Research Access Committee.
author/s, have altered names and other
details to protect client confidentiality.
Please show (where relevant) that any case
study has been followed up over a specified
period and that the outcome remains the
same as that described in the article.
..
. Material that has been published elsewhere will
For further information on this or on any of the
guidelines, please contact the editor, Bronwyn
Bannister, at bbannister@xtra.co.nz.
be considered but this must be acknowledged.
Preference will be given to original submissions.
SOCIAL WORK NOW: AUGUST 2005
32
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initiatives in quality assurance
Everyday Theatre – a theatre in education project
reducing and managing risk in social work practice
personal kits for children and young people in care
practice recommendations when working with child sexual abusers
the development of the On TRACC service