PERSPECTIVES
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
Teaching resources for genetics
Susanne B. Haga
Abstract | Genetics education is essential for preparing the public to engage in an
informed debate about the future of genetics research and how its applications
affect human health and the environment. This article provides an overview of
genetics education resources that are available online, and is relevant to students
in secondary education, health professionals, geneticists and the public. It also
describes an integrated approach to teaching genetics, emphasizes the need for
continuing teacher education, and encourages the involvement of geneticists and
health professionals in providing a teaching resource.
Over the past several decades, the field of
genetics has grown enormously, both in terms
of the breadth of knowledge accumulated and
the technologies developed. An enhanced
understanding of genetics by the public and
by teachers and health professionals will not
only improve the dialogue about these new
tools and technologies, but will also help to
prepare the next generation of scientists
and ensure the appropriate use of genetic
applications in medicine.
Given the importance of genetics to
society, it is unsettling that knowledge about
this subject is lacking. Several surveys,
focus groups and formal assessments have
documented low levels of understanding of
genetics vocabulary and concepts among
the public, despite the generally high
support for genetics research and
testing. For example, although those
surveyed might be unable to distinguish
between genes, chromosomes and DNA1–3,
most respondents were very interested or
supportive of genetic testing and its effect
on future health4–7. Similarly, a recent
report also found low levels of knowledge
about gene therapy but positive attitudes
towards the application of gene therapy
to treating serious diseases and towards
progress in gene-therapy research8.
Genetics knowledge in school-aged
children is also low. In 2000, the National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
administered the science assessment to
approximately 49,000 US students at
grades 4 (aged 9 to 10), 8 (aged 13 to 14)
and 12 (aged 17 to 18). On average, ~30% of
twelfth graders could completely or partially
answer genetics-related questions correctly,
whereas almost 70% could provide
completely or partially correct answers
about the transmission of AIDS9. The
scores of the next NAEP science assessment will be released in 2006 and it will
be interesting to compare them with the
results from 2000, given the growth in
genetics research and its applications that
has occurred in the intervening period.
A wealth of online resources
is available and is continually
expanding to meet the needs
for genetic information for
education, personal knowledge
or medical practice.
Primary-care practitioners will be an
important resource for genetics information as it relates to health and medicine.
Despite the fact that almost all physicians
are exposed to genetics coursework early
in their training, several studies that
assessed the genetics knowledge of physicians have found mixed results10–13. In
general, physicians in disciplines where
genetics has long been a part of regular
practice, such as obstetrics and paediatrics,
and those who were trained more recently,
NATURE REVIEWS | GENETICS
had a higher level of knowledge about
genetics.
The genetics content that teachers, health
professionals and the public learned in the
classroom is likely to be outdated given
the rapidly changing knowledge base in
genetics. A wealth of online resources is
available and is continually expanding to
meet the needs for genetic information for
education, personal knowledge or medical
practice. It is timely to identify sites that
offer accurate and useful tools and information that are regularly updated to reflect
current knowledge.
The first half of this article describes
some useful resources that have been developed primarily for teachers and classroom
education. The second half of the article discusses other factors that are crucial to genetics education. These include a continuing
education for teachers and the recommendation to adopt an interdisciplinary approach
to teaching a subject, such as genetics, that
cuts across many areas.
Genetics resources
Several private and public laboratories and
institutes, and government and university
web sites provide a range of information,
lesson plans and activities for students and
teachers, the general public, and health professionals. The following sections describe
several of these resources, which are organized by topic and target audience. The web
addresses of these sites can be found in the
Further information; further resources are
provided in TABLE 1. The examples described
below and listed in TABLE 1 are not an
exhaustive list but aim to be representative
of groups that are dedicated to advancing
genetics education.
The resources were selected on the basis
of several criteria: the inclusion of education
as the mission or goal of the organization
or group concerned; the presentation of
original content or activities; the presence
of periodically updated or revised information; use of the English language; and
accessibility of resources, which should be
provided online free of charge. The sites
were identified through reviews of listings
of educational resources provided by groups
such as the American Society of Human
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Table 1 | Further online genetics education resources
Resource
Target audience
Content
URL
GeneChip Microarrays:
teaching curriculum
(Affymetrix)
Educators
Slide presentations and graphics; curricula
are linked to high-school standards
http://www.affymetrix.com/
corporate/outreach/lesson_plan/
index.affx
Genetic Alliance
General public, patients
and their families
General genetics resources, disease-specific
information, advocacy organizations
http://www.geneticalliance.org
Genetics Information and
Education (Genetic Interest
Group)
General public, patients,
teachers, students
General overviews, disease-specific
information, cross-curricular activities
http://www.gig.org.uk/education.
htm
Public Information Centre
(London IDEAS)
General public, health
professionals, patients,
children
Leaflets on general genetic concepts and
genetic conditions, case studies, interactive
games
http://www.londonideas.org/
internet/public/index.html
Genome: The Secret of How
Life Works (Pfizer Inc.)
General public, educators
Genetics timeline, teachers’ activity guide
and lesson plans
http://genome.pfizer.com
The Human Genome (The
Wellcome Trust)
General public
General genetics, disease overviews,
interactive presentations
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/
genome/index.html
Genetics Through a Primary
Care Lens (University of
Washington, Seattle)
Health professional
educators
Basic genetics information and case studies
to facilitate teaching about genetics in
primary-care settings
http://www.genetictools.org
US Department of Energy
General public, educators
Information about the Human Genome
Project, graphics and information about
medical applications, microbial genetics,
and ethical, legal and social implications
http://doegenomes.org
US National Human Genome
Research Institute
General public, educators
Genetics modules, fact sheets,
multimedia glossary
http://www.genome.gov/Education
Genetics, the US National Human Genome
Research Institute (NHGRI) and the UK
Medical Research Council, search engine
queries, and resources previously known to
the author. No formal evaluation assessment
was carried out to measure accuracy or
effectiveness of these online resources.
Basic genetics. Founded in 1988, the Dolan
DNA Learning Center (DNALC) is a pioneer
in the development of classroom DNA
experiments and is the largest provider of
student laboratory instruction in molecular
genetics. DNALC is an operating unit of the
Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory (CSHL)
— a large research institute that is focused
on the genetic basis of cancer and brain
function. The DNALC was created to extend
the education mission of the CSHL to university, pre-university and public audiences.
In addition to hosting more than 145,000
pre-university students through class fieldtrips to DNALC to carry out hands-on
experiments, the centre also holds week-long
genetics summer camps for students from
middle school to high school.
The Biomedia Group was formed in 1997
to take advantage of the resident expertise of
the DNALC in genetics education and has
become one of the largest providers of multimedia learning materials for biology education. The Internet portal of the DNALC,
Gene Almanac, and its eight related sites
provide a wealth of information that ranges
from basic genetics to human evolution to
cancer genetics to bioinformatics (FIG. 1). In
addition, the interactive design of the site
allows teachers to create lesson plans and
personal web pages from online activities,
videos, animations and text.
The Genetic Science Learning Center at
the University of Utah is dedicated to developing teacher resources and lesson plans in
genetics. Several interactive, ‘print-and-go’
and laboratory activities are available,
including ‘Basics and Beyond’, ‘Introduction
to Heredity’, ‘Pharmacogenomics’ and
‘Genetic Disorder Corner’. Keywords, target
grade levels and corresponding US state and
national standards are listed for each activity.
The Biological Sciences Curriculum
Study (BSCS) has developed modules on
genetics such as The Puzzle of Inheritance:
Genetics and the Methods of Science. This
module includes an overview for teachers,
a glossary and six classroom activities
that are appropriate for high-school or
introductory university courses. The Office
of Science Education at the US National
Institutes of Health, in collaboration with
BSCS, the NHGRI and Videodiscovery,
developed a curriculum supplement,
Human Genetic Variation, that is targeted at
US grades 9 to 12.
Outside the United States, the Genetics
Education and Health Research Unit of
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the Murdoch Children’s Research Institute
(MCRI) has developed several resources for
different groups, including school-based
activities that explore a range of topics on
the science and application of human genetics. In particular, a series of activities called
‘Harry Potter — The Magic of Genetics’
introduces students to basic genetic concepts. The GeneCRC has also developed
several resources, including a kids-only page
with ‘gene games’ and illustrated story-like
descriptions of basic genetics concepts.
(Note that the GeneCRC is no longer active;
however, many of the activities continue to
be carried out by collaborating organizations
at the MCRI and elsewhere.)
Several companies that conduct genetics
research provide educational resources to
promote greater knowledge about basic
genetics. GlaxoSmithKline provides an interactive, web-based resource that is targeted at
students aged 11 to 16 and is called People
and Medicine. The resource includes units
on DNA, genetics research and pharmacogenetics, and inheritance and genetic diseases. Kids Genetics offers games and short
educational videos about genes, chromosomes and diseases for children aged 8 to 12
years old, whereas Active Science provides
13 interactive modules, worksheets, downloadable files and databases for students
aged 5 to 16 and older. In particular, the
Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering
www.nature.com/reviews/genetics
© 2006 Nature Publishing Group
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Figure 1 | Online genetics education resources. The image shows
screen shots of web sites developed by the Dolan DNA Learning Center.
These include DNA interactive; Your Genes, Your Health; Genetic
module covers topics such as chromosomes,
genes, cell division, evolution and genetic
engineering. The modules were developed
to correlate specifically to the National
Curriculum of England and Wales.
Medical and health applications. Many
resources are specifically devoted to the
medical and health applications of genetic
testing, genetic diagnosis, genetic counselling, and genetic support groups. Many
of these sites are extremely informative
for teaching about genetic diseases and
genetic testing, and for updating health
professionals about the appropriate use
of genetic applications. For example, the
Centre for Genetics Education in Sydney,
Australia, provides timely information to
individuals and families who are affected by
a genetic condition. The National Genetics
Education and Development Centre, UK,
hosts seminars and conferences on genetics
education and provides information about
the genetic courses available throughout the
United Kingdom that are targeted at different
medical specialties .
The US National Coalition for Health
Professional Education in Genetics
(NCHPEG) has developed core competencies in genetics for health-care providers and
provides several resources that are related
to family history and the genetic basis of
disease. NCHPEG also maintains a search
engine called Genetic Resources on the Web
that provides health professionals and the
public with high-quality information that is
related to human genetics, with a particular
focus on genetic medicine and health. The US
National Library of Medicine has developed
Origins; and DNA From The Beginning. Reproduced with permission
from the Dolan DNA Learning Center web site © (2002) Cold Spring
Harbor Laboratory.
a Genetics Home Reference resource about
basic genetics and inheritance, genetic conditions, and the specific genes or chromosomes
that are linked to those conditions.
Several databases provide excellent
resources about specific genetic diseases
and genetic testing. The GeneTests web site
maintains a directory of laboratories that
offer clinical or research genetic testing
around the world, and more than 300
reviews that have been written by experts
about many of the genetic conditions for
which testing is available. The Online
Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM)
site provides both a scientific and clinical
overview of genetic diseases; is an excellent
resource that can be searched by gene or disease; and contains links to related resources,
such as MEDLINE, a searchable repository
of bibliographical information.
Teaching aids
Although many of the sites listed above
contain lesson plans, glossaries and online
activities to supplement textbooks and
teacher knowledge, further resources are
available to help teachers customize lesson
plans, answer questions and develop laboratory activities. Some of these teaching aids
are highlighted below.
Scientists and health professionals. In
addition to serving as a great knowledge
resource both for teachers and students, scientists and health professionals can provide
experience and guidance with laboratory
experiments, lead discussions about ethical,
legal and social implications in genetics
and genomics, and promote careers in
NATURE REVIEWS | GENETICS
genetics or provide insight about the life of
a scientist14. However, the use of scientists
and health professionals as an educational
resource is probably under-exploited by
the educational system, perhaps because
of the absence of a liaison between professional scientists and teachers, or because
of scientists’ lack of knowledge about how
to become involved. The US National
Academy of Sciences and the National
Research Council have recognized these
barriers and have established a programme
to help scientists learn how to become
involved in science education. Resources
for Involving Scientists in Education
provides information and resources for
scientists who are interested in contributing
to science education in their community
through workshops, publications and
outreach activities.
Partnerships between scientists and
health professionals and teachers and school
systems are probably the most effective
approach to advancing genomics education14. A model programme for partnerships
between scientists and teachers is the
Science & Health Education Partnership.
Founded in 1987, this partnership is a
collaboration between the University of
California, San Francisco, and the San
Francisco Unified School District, which
aims to support quality science education
for all levels. Scientists and teachers partner
one-on-one in 90–95% of schools in the
district15. Scientists can contribute to science
education on several levels — for example,
by giving classroom lectures, guiding
laboratory experiments and serving as an
information resource to teachers15.
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In the United Kingdom, the promotion of teaching by young scientists is the
main purpose of the INSPIRE programme
(Innovative Scheme for Post-Docs in
Research and Education), a programme
that is supported through a partnership of
government, industry and higher education
institutions16. This programme provides
support for postdoctoral scientists for a
3-year period, half of which is devoted to
scientific research and the other half is
devoted to teacher training. Not only will
postdoctorates obtain a formal teaching
qualification, but students and teachers
will benefit from having these scientists in
the classroom to share their expertise and
experiences, career paths and passion for a
scientific discipline. Although the ultimate
goal of the programme is to increase
the number of mathematics and science
applications to colleges and universities, an
obvious and perhaps more significant outcome is the greater public understanding of
science and scientists. Similarly, Researchers
in Residence is a programme that is supported by the Wellcome Trust and the
research councils of the United Kingdom
to encourage science and mathematics
professionals to serve as role models in
the classroom and promote science and
mathematics to students.
Professional scientific organizations
can also facilitate the connection between
teachers and scientists. For example, The
Mentor Network, which is sponsored by
the American Society of Human Genetics,
NHGRI, the Genetic Alliance, the National
Society of Genetic Counselors and the
Genetics Society of America Mentorship
Program, provides a mechanism to actively
mobilize genetic scientists and health professionals. Similarly, MdBio, a private,
non-profit corporation that is based
in Maryland, coordinates the MdBio
SpeakerSearch programme that provides free
access to bioscience professionals who volunteer to speak at local schools. Professional
organizations can also develop membership
incentives as well as recognize the contributions of scientists as teachers of genetics to
help raise the importance of outreach
activities and education among scientists.
Laboratory activities. A recently released
report from the US National Research
Council on high-school science laboratories
concluded that laboratory experiences are
deemed poor for most students17. Lack of
Box 1 | Genetics education: a horizontal and vertical approach
Horizontal approach
Genetics in school curricula is almost exclusively taught in science classes and its multidisciplinary
nature is rarely fully explored. The horizontal integration of genetics across a curriculum is not a
new concept; it capitalizes on the cross-cutting disposition of genetics. This approach would not
require new classes or units, but take advantage of existing classes that are relevant to genetics.
For example, calculating the probability of obtaining a green pea offspring from a yellow pea that
is crossed to a green pea requires a basic understanding of fractions and percentages. Therefore,
in mathematics classes, using this example to teach fractions would highlight the importance of
mathematics in science and medicine, integrate lessons across subjects, and provide a cohesive
learning environment. Genetics can also be used as a common thread or link between multiple
subjects at the university level. As one example, Duke University offers a multicourse freshmen
seminar programme that explores the human genome revolution across several disciplines,
including biology and medicine, English, law and policy, and computer science.
Vertical approach
By vertically integrating genetics throughout their education, students can build on knowledge that
is gained from previous units, expand their understanding of genetics and apply their knowledge of
genetics to different areas of life. A multilayered approach that is tailored to a student’s grade and
learning level and is built on coursework would promote a more comprehensive learning approach
than a single exposure to introductory genetics or repeated exposure to the same material. One
example of a vertically integrated approach to education has been developed by the Genetics
Education Partnership in the state of Washington, which has developed a framework for genetics
instruction from kindergarten to twelfth grade.
The vertical expansion of genetics can be tailored to the grade, curricula, level of difficulty and
classes offered. In middle or high schools, following the introductory genetics unit, knowledge of
genetics can be expanded to include basic molecular genetics, landmark experiments that led to
the identification of DNA as the unit of inheritance and the structure of DNA, the concept of genetic
variation and tools to examine variation, the overlap between cell biology (for example, mitosis and
meiosis), and human genetic disease (for example, Down syndrome). As students progress to
advanced course material in other subjects, genetics can also be integrated across subjects, such as
learning about the social history of genetics and the implications of scientific beliefs in the early
twentieth century and their significance in the Second World War in social studies or history classes.
226 | MARCH 2006 | VOLUME 7
teacher preparation, inadequate supplies and
equipment, and a disconnection from other
science learning activities were identified
as contributors of unsatisfactory laboratory
experiences17. The report emphasized that
laboratory experiments should not be considered as isolated exercises. To this point,
‘integrated instructional units’ were recommended to link laboratory experiments with
classroom learning activities.
As molecular genetics technologies are
rapidly evolving towards high-throughput
automated applications, identifying effective
and affordable laboratory activities could be
challenging. Common molecular research
tools, such as GFP, are now being used in
genetics laboratory experiments18. Several
commercial vendors provide laboratory
kits and supplies for classroom molecular
genetics experiments. For example, Edvotek
offers more than 100 unique laboratory kits
for activities such as DNA electrophoresis
and bacterial transformations. In addition,
they also supply basic equipment such as
water baths and pipettes, which are used
in many biotechnology experiments. The
Biotechnology Explorer Programme at
Bio-Rad Laboratories offers molecular biology kits, which are developed by teachers
and scientists, that can be adapted for students from middle school to university. The
laboratory kits and accompanying curricula
are designed to meet current US educational
standards and also relate to current practices
in science.
Because equipment, reagents and kits
for genetics laboratory experiments can be
costly and therefore not feasible owing to
limited school budgets, several groups have
developed programmes to meet this need.
The Fralin Biotechnology Center at Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University
operates the Biotech-in-a-Box programme.
This programme supplies biotechnology
equipment and materials to high schools
and community colleges in Virginia for biotechnology laboratory activities. Teachers can
apply to borrow these kits for 2 to 3 weeks
at no charge. Similarly, the Genetic Science
Learning Center and the Gene Connection
group provide laboratory kits and reagents
for DNA experiments to teachers in Utah and
San Mateo County, California, respectively.
Downloadable, CD-ROM or DVD presentations and activities. Roche has developed
an interactive CD-ROM to promote learning of the basic principles of genetics. The
CD-ROM is targeted at a broad audience
and is available in several languages at no
cost. In addition, a presentation tool is
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© 2006 Nature Publishing Group
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easily downloadable to allow presentations
to be customized by pre-selecting various
screens from the CD-ROM. A teacher’s
manual is also available online that provides several student activities that are
matched to each of the five units contained
on the CD-ROM.
The BioInteractive site hosted by the
Howard Hughes Medical Institute allows
users to download lectures that are given by
leading researchers in the field. Lecture topics
include the genetics of obesity, RNA and
evolution, with new topics added annually.
The lectures are often indexed to allow
sections of lectures to be viewed along with
the speaker’s slide presentation and can be
either downloaded or ordered as a CD-ROM
or DVD. In addition, lesson plans and
activities have been developed to accompany
many of the lectures.
To commemorate the completion of the
Human Genome Project, NHGRI released a
multimedia educational kit, Exploring Our
Molecular Selves, for high-school students
and the general public. The kit has been
converted to easily downloadable modules
that cover topics such as how to sequence a
genome, genetic variation, and the ethical,
social and legal implications of genetics and
genomics research.
An interdisciplinary approach
Genetics is a multidisciplinary area of
study that incorporates biology, chemistry,
law, ethics, philosophy, computer science
and mathematics. As a field of study that
cuts across many disciplines, the question
about whether it should be taught as a subject on its own or integrated among other
disciplines, or both, has been debated. In
the United States, genetics is generally
taught in science and biology classes as a
unit on heredity, providing an introduction to Mendel’s experiments and theories,
carrying out class exercises using Punnett
squares, and covering simple human
traits such as eye colour and well-known
diseases such as cystic fibrosis. Students
might also have the opportunity to learn
basic molecular genetics (eukaryotic and
prokaryotic), how to draw pedigrees
and calculate risk probabilities, and
general laboratory techniques. In England
and Wales, the national curriculum
includes basic genetics, but it is not until
A Level that students begin to learn about
the current applications of genetics such
as genetic engineering. Further factors that
might influence the quantity and quality
of genetics instruction include state and
national standards, content of examinations,
Box 2 | Undergraduate genetics education
The selection of topics to include within a genetics course syllabus will be influenced by several
factors, including the expertise of the course instructor, the target audience (for example, science
majors, non-science majors or a combination of the two, and advanced or introductory level), the
research interests within the department, whether a laboratory course is offered or required, and
the available textbooks. Given that there is no shortage of lecture topics to choose from, the
challenge is in deciding which topics are a necessity and which are expendable or interchangeable.
In contrast to secondary education, undergraduate education is not constrained by national and
local standards or requirements. This might be both an advantage and a disadvantage, allowing
faculty members the flexibility to incorporate new topics, but resulting in inconsistency between
genetics programmes and courses.
The structure and content of a general genetics course could be developed using a three-tiered
approach: to provide a basic foundation of genetics concepts, vocabulary and mechanisms; to
describe the scope of the field and the different areas of study (for example, human genetics,
bacterial or viral genetics, model organism genetics, genomics, population genetics, evolutionary
genetics and policy); and to demonstrate the applications of genetics knowledge (for example,
diagnostic tests, genetically modified organisms and forensics). For a genetics course for science
majors, the introductory section can be more in-depth as these students are likely to have already
acquired an introductory level of genetics knowledge.
As many of the lectures will be ‘outside’ the area of expertise of the course instructor, either the
course must be team-taught or the course instructor must be actively and broadly trained.
Furthermore, undergraduate education needs to reflect the interdisciplinary nature of genetics and
genomics research22. Breaking down departmental walls will be crucial in ensuring that students are
adequately trained across multiple disciplines. The suggested model for a unified introductory
biology curriculum that integrates mathematics and quantitative coursework23 might be considered
for genetics and genomics courses as well.
teacher expertise, competing subjects and
available time.
Given the varied skills that are needed to
comprehend genetics concepts and applications, it would seem logical that genetics
be taught across a curriculum as well as
throughout a student’s education (a horizontal and vertical integration; BOX 1). By
capitalizing on the multidisciplinary nature
of genetics, genetics can be horizontally
integrated across several subjects for a given
grade and level of difficulty. Genetics can
also be integrated vertically throughout a
student’s educational career. By vertically
integrating genetics and now genomics,
students can build on the knowledge they
have gained from previous units and link it
to real-time applications (BOX 1).
A primary example of this interdisciplinary approach is the integration of
material about the ethical, legal and social
implications of genetics research and
applications. For example, several BSCS
curricula such as Mapping and Sequencing
the Human Genome — Science, Ethics,
and Public Policy, The Human Genome
Project — Biology, Computers, and
Privacy and Bioinformatics and the
Human Genome Project raise issues such
as discrimination, informed consent and
privacy of genetic information. However,
one of the greatest challenges to both science teachers and non-science teachers
is their lack of training in subjects that
are outside their discipline. In particular,
NATURE REVIEWS | GENETICS
science teachers might not be adequately
trained to discuss the bioethics or legal
implications of genetic applications and
non-science teachers might be unprepared
to address the technical aspects of genetics. To address this challenge, BSCS curricula provide a framework for teaching
aspects of genetic applications that might
be unfamiliar to teachers through the use
of case studies.
Teaching the teachers
Science teachers. Similar to the continuing
educational needs of physicians, teachers
should be continuously trained to equip
them with the most up-to-date information
and laboratory skills. To avoid a substantial
gap in knowledge, it is crucial that genetics
instruction reflect current genetic research
and knowledge19. Whereas Mendelian
genetics can be extremely helpful in teaching the foundations of genetics, the oversimplification of genetics might confound
current knowledge about the complexities
of genes, environment and health.
The DNALC conducts teacher-training
workshops for secondary and university
faculty members at the DNALC and at sites
throughout the United States. Likewise,
the Genetic Science Learning Center
at the University of Utah offers several
summer workshops for teachers. The
week-long workshops cover topics such as
heredity, genomic sciences and genetics of
addiction. Stipends, travel expenses and
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credit are available. The Department of
Genetics and the School of Botany at the
University of Melbourne offer a three-day
course for teachers of Victorian Certificate
of Education (VCE) biology units 3 and
4. The course covers a range of topics
including genetically modified organisms,
bioinformatics, comparative genomics, and
genetics and disease.
Museums also offer professional development classes for teachers. The American
Museum of Natural History offers a wide
selection of online courses for graduate and
continuing education credits. Its course on
genetics explores the basics of genetics, new
applications and ethical issues.
Scientists and health professionals. Not
all scientists and health professionals are
adequately trained to communicate effectively
to students or develop an age-appropriate
lecture or laboratory activity. To that end, the
North West Genetics Knowledge Park in
the United Kingdom has hosted workshops
for geneticists to improve communication
to the public and to link geneticists to
interested groups and classes.
What to teach
The question of what to teach about genetics
is legitimate, as it is not possible to teach
everything given the limited time, resources
and competing interests. However, the
answer will probably vary according to
the goals of the specific course (for example, introductory or advanced), local and
national standards, available resources,
and teacher knowledge (see BOX 2 for some
recommendations for guidance on undergraduate teaching). Overall, raising the
understanding of genetic concepts, applications, and social and ethical issues should
remain a common goal of all courses
regardless of specific course goals.
Similar to the lack of connection between
laboratory activities and lectures, there also
seems to be a lack of connection between
classroom science and real-world applications. Part of the excitement of learning
about genetics is the ability to relate information that is learned in the classroom to everyday life and advancing understanding of our
health, family, environment and workplace
— something that scientific laws, theories
and history do not necessarily provide.
By building on basic science courses, the
general knowledge base can be extended to
current and future applications of genetics
research. For example, patients’ understanding of genetic applications is often
disconnected from scientific concepts and
principles20. To address this issue, a publishing company, Industry Supports Education,
developed the Schoolscience web site to
provide high-quality science education support materials that are specifically designed
to convey how science relates to society and
current events in science. Topics such as drug
development, the Human Genome Project,
bioethics, the genetic basis of cystic fibrosis
and other topics in biology, chemistry and
physics are targeted at specific grade levels.
In addition to studying the structures
and make-up of genes and proteins,
students can also examine actual genes
and proteins through many of the public
genome databases21. A wealth of information is available in numerous databases that
are maintained by the National Center for
Biotechnology Information or the Sanger
Institute and EMBL-EBI, including raw
and annotated gene sequences, protein
structures, and descriptions of gene function and their relationship to disease. A
series of bioinformatics activities that were
developed by the Gene Technology Access
Centre uses gene sequences and protein
structures that were obtained from public
databases to teach human disease, evolution
and comparative genomics.
Conclusion
The overall goal of enhancing basic genetics
education is not to create mini-geneticists.
Rather, the goal is to provide a foundation of knowledge that will adequately
allow individuals to understand general
genetic concepts, applications, and social
and ethical issues, and become informed
users of genetics technology and resulting
applications. Owing to the rapidly changing
knowledge base, educational resources in
genetics need to be continuously updated
and revised to reflect current scientific findings to provide the most accurate information. To help users systematically identify
appropriate genetic educational resources
to meet their goals and needs, the development of a navigational tool would be useful.
Although many programmes and initiatives
are already underway to enhance genetics
education, new proposals could help to
enhance the teaching of genetics and usher
in the emerging field of genomics.
Susanne Haga is at the Institute for Genome Sciences
and Policy, Duke University, 101 Science Drive,
Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA.
e-mail: susanne.haga@duke.edu
doi:10.1038/nrg1803
Published online 7 February 2006
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Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank J. McInerney and D. Micklos
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Competing interests statement
The author declares no competing financial interests.
www.nature.com/reviews/genetics
© 2006 Nature Publishing Group
PERSPECTIVES
FURTHER INFORMATION
Active Science: http://www.activescience-gsk.com/home.cfm
BioInteractive: http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive
Biotech-in-a-Box:
http://www.biotech.vt.edu/outreach/biotech_box.html
Bioinformatics and the Human Genome Project:
http://www.bscs.org/page.asp?pageid=0|31|53|308|77
Centre for Genetics Education: http://www.genetics.com.au
DNA From The Beginning: http://www.dnaftb.org
DNA Interactive: http://www.dnai.org
Dolan DNA Learning Center:
http://www.dnalc.org/ddnalc/about
Edvotek: http://www.edvotek.com
EMBL-EBI: http://www.ensembl.org/index.html
Exploring Our Molecular Selves:
http://www.genome.gov/Pages/EducationKit
Gene Almanac: http://www.genealmanac.org
Gene Connection: http://www.geneconnection.org/index.html
GeneCRC: http://www.genecrc.org/site/lc/index_lc.htm
Gene Technology Access Centre: http://www.gtac.edu.au/site/
bioinformatics/bioinformatics_index.html
Gene Tests: http://www.genetests.org
Genetic Origins: http://www.geneticorigins.org
Genetic Resources on the Web:
http://www.geneticsresources.org
Genetic Science Learning Center:
http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu
Genetics Education and Community Interactions:
http://www.genetics.unimelb.edu.au/GenEd
Genetics Education and Health Research Unit of the Murdoch
Children’s Research Institute:
http://www.mcri.edu.au/pages/education/index.asp
Genetics Education Partnership at the University of Washington:
http://genetics-education-partnership.mbt.washington.edu
Genetics Home Reference: http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov
Genome Programs of the US Department of Energy Office of
Science: http://doegenomes.org
Human Genetic Variation curriculum supplement:
http://science-education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/genetic/
default.htm
Innovative Scheme for Post-Docs in Research and Education:
http://www.imperial.ac.uk/inspire
Kids Genetics:
http://www.genetics.gsk.com/kids/index_kids.htm
Mapping and Sequencing the Human Genome — Science,
Ethics, and Public Policy:
http://www.bscs.org/page.asp?pageid=0|31|53|308|86
MdBio SpeakerSearch: http://speakers.mdbio.org
MEDLINE: http://medline.cos.com
National Center for Biotechnology Information:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
National Coalition for Health Professional Education in
Genetics: http://www.nchpeg.org
National Genetics Education and Development Centre: http://
www.geneticseducation.nhs.uk
National Human Genome Research Institute:
http://www.genome.gov
National Library of Medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov
OPINION
Functional mapping — how to map
and study the genetic architecture of
dynamic complex traits
Rongling Wu and Min Lin
Abstract | The development of any organism is a complex dynamic process that
is controlled by a network of genes as well as by environmental factors. Traditional
mapping approaches for analysing phenotypic data measured at a single time
point are too simple to reveal the genetic control of developmental processes.
A general statistical mapping framework, called functional mapping, has been
proposed to characterize, in a single step, the quantitative trait loci (QTLs) or
nucleotides (QTNs) that underlie a complex dynamic trait. Functional mapping
estimates mathematical parameters that describe the developmental
mechanisms of trait formation and expression for each QTL or QTN. The approach
provides a useful quantitative and testable framework for assessing the interplay
between gene actions or interactions and developmental changes.
Most traits of biological, biomedical and
agricultural importance are complex — they
are under the control of an interacting network of genes, each with a small effect, and of
environmental factors1. For this reason, the
genetic study of these so-called quantitative or
complex traits has long been one of the most
daunting tasks in biology. Several quantitative genetic models that combine Mendelian
inheritance and traditional statistical
approaches, such as analysis of (co)variance,
have been developed to separate the genetic
and environmental effects on quantitative
traits1. The experimental results from these
models have been instrumental in providing
guidance for plant and animal breeding2 as
well as evolutionary predictions for
developmental events3,4.
The rapid development of molecular
technologies has allowed the generation of
an almost unlimited number of markers that
specify the genome structure and organization of any organism5. Also, improved
statistical and computational techniques6 have
NATURE REVIEWS | GENETICS
North West Genetics Knowledge Park:
http://www.nowgen.org.uk
Online courses at the American Museum of Natural History:
http://learn.amnh.org/courses/genetics.php
Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=OMIM
People and Medicine: http://www.schoolscience.co.uk/
content/4/biology/glaxo/index.html
Researchers in Residence:
http://extra.shu.ac.uk/rinr/site/ourmsg/rinr
Resources for Involving Scientists in Education:
http://www.nas.edu/rise
Roche Genetics Education Program CD-ROM:
http://www.roche.com/sci_gengen_cdrom
Sanger Institute: http://www.sanger.ac.uk
Schoolscience:
http://www.schoolscience.co.uk/content/index.asp
Science & Health Education Partnership:
http://biochemistry.ucsf.edu/~sep
The Biotechnology Explorer Programme:
http://www.explorer.bio-rad.com
The Human Genome Project — Biology, Computers, and
Privacy: http://www.bscs.org/page.asp?pageid=0|31|53|308|85
The Mentor Network: http://www.ashg.org/genetics/ashg/
educ/003.shtml
The Puzzle of Inheritance: Genetics and the Methods
of Science: http://www.bscs.org/page.asp?pageid=0|31|53|308|90
Your Genes, Your Health: http://www.yourgenesyourhealth.org
Access to this interactive links box is free online.
made it possible to tackle highly complicated
genetic and genomic problems. The integration of molecular genetics and statistics has
culminated in a seminal mapping paper
in which Lander and Botstein7 proposed a
tractable statistical algorithm for dissecting
a quantitative trait into its individual genetic
locus components, referred to as quantitative
trait loci (QTLs). Since then, there has been
a wealth of literature concerning the development of statistical methods for mapping
complex traits8–12 and their applications in
plant, animal and human genetics13–17.
Analytical strategies for QTL mapping
have been expanded to whole-genome mapping of epistatic QTLs by making use of all
markers12. Such mapping strategies need
to be carried out in an experimental cross
(backcross, F2 or full-sib family), a structured
pedigree or a natural population, in which
putative QTLs and markers are co-segregating
owing to their physical linkage.
Although useful, traditional statistical
approaches to QTL mapping neglect the
developmental features of trait formation.
For example, body height and weight, milk
production, tumour size, HIV load, circadian
clock and drug response all change with time
or other independent variables and so genetic
control of the trait should be accordingly
represented as a function of an independent
variable. An approximate approach to detecting time-dependent genetic effects for these
dynamic traits has been to associate markers
with phenotypes for different times or stages
of development and to compare the differences across these stages18. More effectively,
single-trait interval mapping has been
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