Strategies For Enhancing The Performance Of Students
With LD In Inclusive Science Classes
Munk, Dennis D., Bruckert, Jana, Call, Deborah T., Stoehrmann, Traci, Radandt, Erin,
Intervention in School & Clinic, 10534512, Nov98, Vol. 34, Issue 2
Many special educators have identified science instruction as a particularly useful
subject for students with disabilities. A recent increase in the discussion concerning
science instruction for such students may stem from general educators' receptivity
toward having students with disabilities in science classes, due in part to the
perception that science instruction involves more experiential learning and less
reliance on reading. Despite such favorable perceptions, both general and special
educators struggle to develop and deliver effective instruction in inclusive
classrooms. The purpose of this article is to present an overview of curricular and
instructional adaptations, modifications, and methods that have been used to
provide science instruction to students with disabilities. Strategies are described
within the context of a textbook-based unit on the solar system.
Some special educators have identified science instruction as a particularly useful subject
for students with disabilities (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1992). Further, general educators
have indicated greater receptivity toward students with disabilities in science classes than
in other subject area classes (Atwood & Oldham, 1985), and researchers have targeted
general educators in recent publications addressing science instruction for students with
disabilities (e.g., Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1993).
Unfortunately, lack of teacher preparation and allocated instructional time may impede
science instruction for students with learning disabilities (Patton, Polloway, & Cronin,
1986, as cited in Parmar & Cawley, 1993). The reported lack in this area of teacher
preparation and allocated time is of concern because a number of features of science
instruction classes raise particular challenges for students with learning disabilities (LD).
Effective science instruction for inclusive classes must include a number of strategies and
adaptations designed to maximize the performance of such students under typical general
education methods. For example, such strategies must address use of a science textbook,
which remains the foundation for science instruction in both general and special
education (Raizen, 1988, as cited in Parmar & Cawley, 1993). Expository texts (including
science texts) present many challenges to students with disabilities, including lack of
logical sequencing of content, dense and difficult vocabulary, and rapid pace of new
information. When science textbook publishers have recommended adaptations or
strategies for students with disabilities, they are often simplistic or ineffective (e.g., field
trips, opportunity to examine materials; Parmar & Cawley, 1993).
In addition to the specific concerns surrounding textbook use, potential challenges for the
inclusive science class include (a) poor performance on tasks requiring recall of
vocabulary or simple facts (e.g., failure to recall layers of earth) and (b) low rates of
active academic responding during extended reading assignments, whole-class lecture, or
group activity-based lessons (e.g., not asking questions, waiting for peers to respond to
questions or tasks).
The purpose of this article is to present empirically validated strategies for enhancing the
performance of students with LD in inclusive science classes. Strategies will be presented
for
1. Enhancing student performance on textbook-based instruction and
2. Increasing recall and active academic responding.
Examples of potential strategies will be based on a chapter from a textbook on earth
science.
Strategies For Enhancing Textbook Use
Prioritize Material. To reduce the amount and complexity of the text, the teacher can
prioritize material to be covered, thereby eliminating less important information
(Schumm, Vaughn, & Saumell, 1992). Specific sections of text can be designated for
mastery, with the remainder either skipped or presented in overview form. Most texts
include scope-and-sequence charts that can be used to prioritize content for individual
students. For example, during a unit on earth science the teacher may prioritize concepts
on land forms and the earth's layers while excluding names of less common rocks and
minerals.
Prioritizing content for mastery may involve demarcation of text by (a) photocopying
designated sections, (b) highlighting designated text, or (c) using a marker to black out
unnecessary text the student should not spend time reading. The latter two adaptations
can be implemented by the teacher or done in concert with the student. Prioritizing text or
content may be especially effective for science textbooks because it narrows the content
and performance criteria to be used later during evaluation (e.g., tests, demonstrations).
Preteach Vocabulary. Dense presentation of difficult vocabulary can be remedied by
preteaching new vocabulary prior to assigning reading or an activity (Kameenui &
Simmons, 1990). Preteaching vocabulary may facilitate improved decoding and, hence,
comprehension. Vocabulary words can be presented by the teacher or practiced in dyads,
as in a peer tutoring format, which could have the additional benefit of social interaction
between students with and without disabilities.
Paraphrase Passages. Reading comprehension can be facilitated by having students
summarize or retell what they have read after each paragraph or page (Kameenui &
Simmons, 1990). Because the length and dense detail of passages in science texts can
make summarization more difficult, paraphrasing passages in familiar terms may
facilitate comprehension and recall. If given ample time, educators can paraphrase key
passages and provide them to the student, or the student can orally paraphrase, then write
the simplified passage. The boxed sidebar presents an example of a paraphrased
statement from a science text.
Provide Study Guides, Graphics, And organizers. Comprehension of science texts
may be facilitated by providing a structured method for students to record information.
Examples include study guides, graphics, and advanced organizers (Bergerud, Lovitt, &
Horton, 1988). Study guides include questions the student answers while reading. The
questions prompt the student to check understanding of the material and allow the teacher
to prioritize specific content by selecting specific questions for the guide. Graphics are
particularly useful when the student is required to learn the names of parts of a larger
system, organ, process, or organism. The student labels the parts or steps by writing on
the drawing. For example, a reading assignment on earth science may be supplemented
with a drawing depicting the earth's layers. Students would label the individual layers and
write a brief description of the type of material found in each one.
Advanced organizers provide a framework for recording, organizing, and classifying
information provided in the text. An organizer prompts the student to search for
commonalities among different concepts and to organize large amounts of material in a
manner that makes recall and application easier. (An example of an advanced organizer
for a science text is presented in Table 1.) The number of headings appearing on the
organizer can be varied depending on the abilities of the student; in addition, the amount
of information the student must provide can be varied. Thus, these organizers can be
individualized for students in an inclusive class.
Supplement With Audiotaped Texts. Although simply providing an audiotaped text to
supplement reading may not offer much benefit, comprehension of science texts may be
enhanced by having the student listen to a recording that includes adaptations (Ellis,
1996). To make comprehension easier, the audiotape should include cues for students to
perform specific strategies (e.g., stop and summarize, review a table) as they listen and
read. Effective supplemental audiotapes require considerable thought and preparation by
the teacher prior to use by the student.
Strategies To improve Student Performance During Instruction
Perhaps the greatest challenges in teaching science to an inclusive class are (a) providing
opportunity and motivation for students with LD to be actively involved during
instruction and (b) incorporating strategies to recall information presented in textbooks,
lectures, and activity-based lessons. Active student responding and information recall are
related in that more frequent opportunities for academic responding may facilitate
mastery of frequently encountered vocabulary and facts.
Mnemonics. Whether science instruction is based on a text, activity-based lessons, or a
combination of the two, recall of simple facts and vocabulary is essential. Mnemonic
devices, provided by the teacher or generated by the student, can be used to do this. For
example, King-Sears, Mercer, and Sindelar (1992) used a keyword mnemonic in which
students were taught a keyword that was related to the definition of the targeted
vocabulary word (e.g., keyword for artery was tree, keyword for biomes was homes). The
keywords facilitate recall of both the vocabulary word and its meaning. Mnemonics can
also be used to facilitate recall of a list of names, such as using the name "ROY G BIV"
to recall the colors in the spectrum (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet).
Guided Notes. Active student responding during content-area instruction can be
increased through the use of guided notes (Heward, 1994). Guided notes are prepared by
the teacher to guide the student through a lecture or reading assignment by providing
spaces in which to write terms or concepts. Guided notes follow the outline of the lecture
(or reading), with spaces for the student to record missing key words. An advantage of
guided notes is that they can be designed by the teacher to prioritize material; they can
also be used during teacher-directed instruction (i.e., lecture), when many students with
disabilities experience difficulty with effective note taking.
Response Cards. Response cards have been used to increase active student responding
and acquisition of science vocabulary (Cavanaugh, Heward, & Donelson, 1996; Gardner,
Heward, & Grossi, 1994). Each student gets the opportunity to respond to teacher or peer
questions by holding up preprinted cards or by writing their response on a blank board.
Response cards can be used in whole class science instruction by signaling the entire
class to simultaneously present their cards. These cards can also be used to ease recall in
that they allow increased practice of important concepts and vocabulary. For example,
students in an earth science class might conduct scratch tests for several rocks and
sequence the rocks by hardness on a blank response board. All students would show their
boards in unison, thereby allowing the teacher to ascertain understanding of the concept
of hardness and the scratch test procedure.
Cooperative Learning Groups. Cooperative learning groups are widely recommended
for facilitating the success of students with disabilities in inclusive content-area classes.
Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, and Brigham (1993) found activity-based lessons to be as
or more effective than textbook-based lessons for teaching vocabulary and application
skills to students with LD. Scruggs et al. provided an example of an activity-based lesson
that involved exposing rocks to a mild acid (vinegar) to determine if they contained
calcite, which bubbles when contacting acids. When necessary, teachers should prepare
students for activity-based lessons by preteaching the necessary vocabulary and
background knowledge. As with cooperative learning groups, the teacher should also
provide adequate structure (e.g., assigned roles) to the activity to promote equal
responsibility of and participation by all group members.
Example of Strategies Applied to a Sample Text
An example of potential adaptations and methods to be used by a teacher of an inclusive
science class is provided in Table 2. The text Earth Science (Danielson & Denecke, 1989)
provides a context for adaptations and strategies; examples have been created for chapter
20, "An Orbit System: Sun, Earth, and Moon." This text was chosen because it is being
used by a local school district, not because it presents a significant number of challenges
for students with disabilities. In fact, the text contains many features (e.g., graphics,
boldfaced vocabulary) known to be helpful for students with disabilities, and the
examples of potential adaptations should not be construed as a critical review of the text.
Conclusion
Several strategies for instructing inclusive science classes have been described in the
professional literature. Educators reviewing Table 2 will quickly note that multiple
strategies or adaptations can be combined to best meet the unique needs of learners and
the demands of particular lessons. For example, educators electing to use hands-on
activities for a unit on gravitational pull may also intersperse teacher-directed questions
to which students respond by writing on response boards. Combining the two strategies
might maximize active responding by all students. Although future research may assess
the effectiveness of instructional "packages" for inclusive science, it probably will never
reduce the importance of teachers' judgments regarding the needs of students in their
science classes.
Passage Paraphrased By Student into Familiar Vocabulary
"The Sun's Family" (Danielson & Denecke, p. 452)
"Long before the first telescope, astronomers noticed that stars and other objects changed
position in the sky from night to night. Many early astronomers explained these changes
by using a geocentric model of the universe. Earth, in this model, was an unmoving
object at the center of the universe. The sun, other stars, and the moon revolved around
Earth in circular orbits.
However, this model did not completely explain the positions of planets in the sky. The
word planet comes from the ancient Greek word for "wanderer." The planets seemed to
wander across the sky when compared to the stars moving in their simple circles.
In time a heliocentric model was developed to account for the motion of the planets. In
this model, earth and the other planets are in orbit around the sun. The heliocentric model
has become our basis for understanding the solar system, the sun, and its family of
orbiting objects."
Student Paraphrase
Long before they had telescopes, astronomers noticed that the stars and other objects
changed position in the sky every night. At first they thought it was because the earth was
the center of the universe. Now, however, they know that the sun is the center of the
universe, and the earth and other planets orbit around the sun. This is called the
heliocentric model.
Table 1. Advanced Organizer for Chapter on Solar System
Legend for Chart:
A - Description
B
C
D
E
F
-
G H I J -
Inner planets:
Inner planets:
Inner planets:
Inner planets:
Outer planets:
Jupiter
Outer planets:
Outer planets:
Outer planets:
Neptune
Outer planets:
Can see through atmospheres: Mercury
Can see through atmospheres: Venus
Can see through atmospheres: Earth
Can see through atmospheres: Mars
Cannot see through cloudy atmospheres:
Cannot see through cloudy atmospheres: Saturn
Cannot see through cloudy atmospheres: Uranus
Cannot see through cloudy atmospheres:
Cannot see through cloudy atmospheres: Pluto
A
B
D
F
H
J
C
E
G
I
Most important features
Very hot and cold
Very hot
* 70% water
* atmosphere supports life
* 1 moon
* Red color
* atmosphere most like
earth's
* no life
*
*
*
*
largest
great red spot is a storm
16 moons
rings
* rings of ice and rock
* 17 moons
*
*
*
*
rings
bluegreen color
15 moons
hard to study
* 2 moons
* hard to study
* smallest
* orbit is elongated, not a circle
* discovered in 1930
Atmosphere
none
thick
nitrogen and oxygen
carbon dioxide
very thick
very thick
very thick
very thick
none
Speed of rotation
slow
very slow
slow
slow
very fast
very fast
very fast
very fast
fast
Period of revolution (length of year)
88 days
225 days
365 days
687 days
12 years
30 years
84 years
165 years
249 years
Your drawing
Table 2. Potential Adaptations and Methods for Sample Textbook Chapter on the
Solar System
The following chart reads as follows:
Row 1: Potential challenge
Row 2: Recommended adaptation
Row 3: Sample text example
Expository text places emphasis on decoding and
comprehension skills.
Use audiotaped text.
Integrate hands-on activities with
text-based instruction.
Obtain or record specific portions of text.
Use colored balloons to represent color, size, and
position of planets. Students move to demonstrate
rotation.
Text is dense in concepts, terminology, and new vocabulary.
Preteach vocabulary.
Preteach words from vocabulary list in text. Sample words:
asteroid, comet, inertia, meteorite.
Text includes long, detailed passages.
Use paraphrased passages.
Use audiotaped text.
Teacher or student write paraphrased statement
(See sidebar).
Obtain or create audiotape of specific portions of the text.
Rapid pace of new information assuming background knowledge.
Prioritize material.
Provide graphics.
Provide an advanced organizer.
Provide a study guide.
Blackout or remove pages with biographies of four less
known astronomers. Retain biographies of Galileo and
Newton.
Photocopy and review chart presenting comparative
information for each planet (e.g., spacecraft missions).
Provide line drawing of solar system and have
students label planets and write descriptions
of atmospheres.
See Table 1.
Combine selected questions from the chapter review with
additional questions on a separate page to answer while
reading.
Emphasis on recall of factual information and vocabulary.
Teach keyword mnemonics.
Teach mnemonic for recall of planets.
Facilitate student generation of a keyword for definition
of a meteorite.
Example: Mnemonic in which first letter corresponds to
planet name. My very excellent mother just served us nine
pies.
Low rates of academic responding by students with disabilities.
Provide preprinted response cards.
Use response boards.
Use activity-based lesson to provide hands-on responding.
Set of cards with one card for each planet name. Student
presents card in response to statement about a planet.
Example: "What planet has an atmosphere containing the
Great Red Storm?"
Boards (12" x 12") on which students can write responses.
For example, students could write the names of gases in
earth's atmosphere when questioned by teacher.
Lesson on solar power in which students construct a small
solar oven that uses solar power to cook a hot dog.
Assigning roles allows the teacher to take advantage of
strengths and weaknesses of students with disabilities.
REFERENCES
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adaptations in life science for high school students with learning disabilities. Journal of
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during lesson closure on the academic performance of secondary students in an earth
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~~~~~~~~
By Dennis D. Munk; Jana Bruckert; Deborah T. Call; Traci Stoehrmann and Erin
Radandt
Dennis D. Munk, EdD, is an assistant professor of education at Carthage College. His
current interests include grading adaptations, adapted science instruction, and functional
assessment of problem behaviors. Jana Bruckert, BA, is a special educator in Gurnee,
Illinois, where she continues to pursue effective instruction for inclusive elementary
classrooms. Deborah T. Call, BS, is a special educator in inclusive junior high classrooms
in Kenosha, Wisconsin. Traci Stoehrmann, BS, is working in inclusive classrooms in the
Indian Prairie, Illinois, school district. Erin Radandt, BA, is a special educator in a multiage inclusive elementary school in Provo, Utah. Address: Dennis D. Munk, Education
Department, Carthage College, 2001 Alford Park Drive, Kenosha, WI 53140.
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