Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2007, 42(1), 48 –58
© Division on Developmental Disabilities
Comparison of Interactive Computer-based and Classroom
Training on Human Rights Awareness in Persons with
Intellectual Disabilities
Christine Y. Tardif-Williams, Frances Owen, Maurice Feldman, Donato Tarulli,
Dorothy Griffiths, Carol Sales, Glenys McQueen-Fuentes, and Karen Stoner
Brock University
Abstract: We tested the effectiveness of an interactive, video CD-ROM in teaching persons with intellectual
disabilities (ID) about their human rights. Thirty-nine participants with ID were trained using both a classroom
activity-based version of the training program and the interactive CD-ROM in a counterbalanced presentation.
All individuals were pre- and post-tested on their awareness of their rights and strategies to remediate perceived
rights restrictions. Exposure to both classroom activity-based and video-based scenarios resulted in significant
improvements in participants’ ability to identify human rights restrictions and strategies to address them. The
computer-based video testing scenarios played a critical role in assessing the impact of human rights awareness
training, and offered some preliminary support for the generalization of human rights awareness to nontrained
scenarios. We discuss the development of the CD-ROM and the results of this study in relation to the existing
literature on the use of computer-based instruction with individuals with ID.
A considerable body of research has documented the usefulness of conventional behavioral educational strategies, such as modeling, prompting, pictorial and audio
materials, positive reinforcement, role playing, and drama, to teach social, occupational, community and other independent
living skills to persons with intellectual disabilities (ID) (Bolton, 1979; Feldman, 2004;
Feldman & Case, 1997; Herman & Smith,
1988; McClintock, 1984). Recently, there
has been a notable expansion of research in
This research was supported by grants from the
Ontario Trillium Foundation, Human Resources
Skills Development Canada, Brock University, and
Community Living Welland ⬃ Pelham. The authors
wish to thank Research Assistants Stephen Agnew,
Andrea Moyer, Raymond Johns, Lauren Kennedy,
Nicolina Lanni, Krystine Donato and Julia Course;
Frances Chandler, Associate Director of Brock University’s Office of Research Services. Special thanks
to Barbara Vyrostko and Vickie Moreland. Correspondence concerning this article should be
directed to Christine Y. Tardif-Williams, Department of Child and Youth Studies, Brock University,
St. Catharines, ON, Canada L2S 3A1. Email:
ctardif@brocku.ca
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the educational and recreational uses
of computer-based technology (Holburn,
Nguyen, & Vietze, 2004; Weiss, Bialik, &
Kizony, 2003), with particular emphasis on
the use of multimedia technology for teaching important community living skills to individuals with ID (Davies & Hastings, 2003;
Standen, Brown, & Cromby, 2001).
Multimedia instruction continues to proliferate in part because community-based instruction with trained staff is not always feasible and/or remains costly (Davies &
Hastings, 2003). The appeal of multimedia
formats is further enhanced by the ubiquitous and (relatively) low-cost advances in
computer technology (e.g., computation
speed and power, graphics and image
rendering technology, voice recognition)
(Rizzo, 2002). These technologies impinge
directly on the quality of the computer-user
interface. Finally, current excitement over
multimedia instruction is fueled by research
findings that continue to demonstrate the
promise of this novel instructional approach
for students with special needs (for a review
see Davies & Hastings; Langone, Clees,
Rieber, & Matzko, 2003).
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2007
Multimedia Technology for Persons with ID
Computer-based assessment and interventions
have been developed to facilitate the acquisition of various functional and community independent living skills in persons with ID and
autistic spectrum disorders (ASD). For example, computer-based strategies have been used
to enhance verbal communication and expressive language skills (Lehman, 1999;
Heimann, Nelson, Tjus, & Gillberg, 1995; Holzberg, 1995; Parsons & Mitchell, 2002; see Wissick, 1996, for a review), social skills (Parsons
& Mitchell, 2002), independent functioning
and adaptive behavior (Davies & Hastings,
2003), and computer skills, such as navigating
the Internet (Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer,
2001). People described as having profound
physical and intellectual disabilities have also
been taught to manipulate switches independently to change visual images on a computer
screen (Holburn et al., 2004). Still other computer-based instructional strategies—some relying on interactive technology (i.e., simulation or virtual environments)— have been
used to teach individuals with ID some of the
more complex skills and knowledge that they
will need to live independently and inclusively
in the community. For instance, programs
have been designed to teach skills related to
grocery shopping (Cromby, Standen, &
Brown, 1996; Cromby, Standen, Newman, &
Tasker, 1996; Langone et al., 2003; Mechling,
Gast, & Langone, 2002), money management
(Davies & Stock, 1995; Nicol & Anderson,
1997), communicating career preferences
(Stock, Davies, Secor, & Wehmeyer, 2003),
virtual reality based independent recreational
activities (Weiss et al., 2003), personal safety
awareness (Lee, McGee, & Ungar, 1998;
2001), antivictimization awareness (Holzberg,
1994), basic social skills (Margalit, 1995a,
1995b), essential daily living tasks (e.g., using
public transport, setting the dinner table)
(Brown, Neale, Cobb, & Reynolds, 1999;
Mowafy & Pollack, 1995; Rehfeldt, Dahman,
Young, Cherry, & Davis, 2003; Rose, Brooks, &
Attree, 2002), and vocational tasks (e.g., object construction in an assembly line) (Brooks,
Rose, Attree, & Elliot-Square, 2002; Davies &
Stock, 1994, 1997, 1999; Furniss et al., 2001;
Lancioni, Van den Hof, Boelens, Rocha, &
Seedhouse, 1998; Lancioni, Van den Hof,
Furniss, O’Reilly, & Cunha, 1999; Mendozzi et
al., 2000; Morgan & Salzberg, 1992).
Among the suggested and demonstrated
benefits of multimedia instruction for persons
with physical and intellectual disabilities are
increased motivation and a sense of empowerment in the learning process. The use of
interactive technology may also play a therapeutic role by promoting choice-making opportunities (Cooper & Browder, 2001; Kearney, Durand, & Mindell, 1995; Kearney &
McKnight, 1997; Knight & Kearney, 2001;
Standen et al., 2001). Indeed, several studies
have demonstrated that interactive multimedia training results in enhanced independence, self-direction, self-determination, and
self-esteem in individuals with ID (e.g., Davies
& Stock, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999; Davies et al.,
2001; Holzberg, 1994, 1995; Morgan & Salzberg, 1992; Stock et al., 2003). Finally, the
use of interactive technology has also been
shown to increase opportunities for leisure
time among young adults with physical and
intellectual disabilities, and this, in turn, is
associated with improved coping skills and decreased stress (Weiss et al., 2003).
Standen et al. (2001) highlighted several
characteristics of interactive instructional
technologies that make them particularly appropriate and very promising for use with persons with ID. First, individuals can learn
about, without suffering through, the sometimes
humiliating and dangerous consequences of
their mistakes. In this way, computer-based,
simulated instruction provides individuals
with safe access to interactive, functionally relevant and ecologically valid environments that
might otherwise not be available to them because of motor, cognitive, psychological
and/or practical limitations. Second, computer-based simulated worlds can be easily manipulated and task difficulty can be increased
gradually as competence is gained. Third,
rules and abstract concepts can be conveyed
without language or other symbol systems,
which can facilitate learning more complex
concepts and skills. Pedagogically interactive,
computer-based instructional activities facilitate the student’s active engagement in the
learning process (Hawkridge & Vincent, 1992;
Standen et al.) and encourage self-determination as individuals must make decisions about
Comparison of Interactive Computer-based and Classroom Training
/
49
the number of instructional trials to complete
and when to increase task difficulty.
Interactive Technology and Human Rights
Awareness
The success of interactive, computer-based instruction in teaching a variety of skills to individuals with ID underscores the need for research on the potential of this technology to
teach more complex conceptual social skills,
such as self-advocacy, self-protection, and human rights awareness (Darrow, 1995; Davies &
Hastings, 2003; Foxx, Faw, Taylor, Davis, &
Fulia, 1993; Griffiths, Feldman, & Tough,
1997; Holzberg, 1994; Miltenberger et al.,
1999; Scotti et al., 1997; Sievert, Cuvo, & Davis,
1988). Research that explores the use of interactive technology for teaching more complex
conceptual skills of this kind is especially germane as persons with ID represent a vulnerable population—a situation that is likely to
persist despite more inclusive community participation.
Presently, our 3Rs (Rights, Respect and Responsibility) research team is exploring the
use of interactive technology in teaching
adults with ID about their human rights in the
context of respect for and responsibility to
both oneself and others. Our focus on teaching human rights awareness was originally motivated by the goal of preventing or minimizing abuse to individuals with ID. This
population has suffered a long history of
abuses, such as unjustified incarceration, overmedication, denial of basic individual and
community rights, mass sterilization, euthanasia and the eugenics movement (Griffiths et
al., 2003; Radford & Park, 1999; Scheerenburger, 1983; Sobsey, 1994; Stratford, 1991;
Wolfensberger, 1972). Unfortunately, even today, the rate of abuse among individuals with
ID is at least twice as high as that reported
among individuals without such disabilities
(Davis, 2000; Mazzucchelli, 2001; Sobsey).
Besides our own work (Griffiths et al., 2003;
Owen et al., 2003), we know of only one published study that focused on human rights
training in adults with (mild) learning problems using traditional classroom-based methods (Sievert et al., 1988). Based on the description of participants provided by Sievert et
al., it would appear that none had intellectual
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disabilities. In our own work with adults with
mild to moderate ID, we began surveying people with ID (living in community group homes
and supported independent living) and their
caregivers about the rights restrictions they
experienced in their everyday lives (Griffiths
et al.). In a partnership between universitybased researchers and a local community support service, we developed and tested a systemic Rights, Respect and Responsibility
program that included classroom activitybased materials for both individuals with ID
(Stoner, Gosse, Vyrostko, Owen, et al., 2002)
and their support staff (Stoner, Gosse, Vyrostko, Griffiths, et al., 2002). The partner
agency established a Human Rights Facilitation Committee that includes a broad range of
community participants to insure that both
the people supported by, and the staff of, the
agency had an appropriate mechanism to review rights concerns following training (Owen
et al.). The effectiveness of our classroom activity-based approach (Owen et al.) led us to
the next step of designing an interactive CDROM to further improve effectiveness and
generalization, and allow for broader dissemination. The goal of this study was to compare
the effectiveness of an interactive video-based
CD-ROM to traditional, classroom-based training in teaching human rights violation identification and remediation to individuals with
ID.
Method
Participants
Participants included 39 (19 males and 20
females) individuals with ID who were consumers of residential, day, and other support
services provided by two community agencies
(21 in Agency 1; 18 in Agency 2). Although
documentation of participants’ ID was not
available, such documentation had been required earlier in order for them to be eligible
to receive services and funding reserved for
persons with ID. Participation was completely
voluntary and informed consent was obtained.
Sixteen participants were living in structured
group homes (maximum support up to 24
hrs/day), nine were living in semi-independent apartments (minimum staff support, less
than 10 hrs/month) and 14 were living in
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2007
family support homes (community-based family home with varying levels of support). Twenty-two participants with ID had no previous
human rights training, while 17 participants
had received our preliminary classroom training on different human rights topics from
those covered in this study. Participants had
not received any other type of training in
human rights or related issues. Each community agency employed approximately 60 support staff members; support staff typically held
a community college diploma and had an average of 5 to 10 years of experience (ranging
from ⬍ 1 year to ⬎ 25 years) working within
the community agency.
Design
We used a within-subject cross-over design
(with counterbalancing) to compare the effectiveness of two types of human rights awareness training: (a) interactive CD-ROM and (b)
our original adult education activity-based
classroom program (Owen et al., 2003). Pre-,
flip, and post-tests measured participants’
identification of human rights violations and
ways in which they could be redressed.
Outcome Measures
Human rights awareness was defined as: the ability to identity (1) rights violations in hypothetical testing scenarios, (2) the specific nature
of the rights violation depicted, and (3) possible solutions for resolving hypothetical
rights violations—solutions, more specifically,
that involved the exercise of rights in the context of respect and responsibility. Human
rights awareness was measured immediately
after viewing test scenarios on a CD-ROM or
hearing scenarios read (see below). For example, one of the scenarios read as follows:
Jane likes to eat only hamburgers and wants
to eat them at least once every day. Sue,
Jane’s roommate, would like to eat other
foods, like chicken and ham, but Jane refuses to let her have them in the house. Jane
and Sue eat together for most meals. It is
almost dinnertime and Jane once again
wants to have hamburgers for dinner, but
Sue wants to have something else.
For each scenario, participants were asked
the following three questions: (1) “What problem does [protagonist’s name e.g., Sue]
have?” (2) “What do you think that [protagonist’s name] should do in this situation?” and
(3) “Why do you think that this is the best
thing to do?” Participants’ responses to the
first and third questions were then assigned
one of the following four codes: 0 - unrelated
answer e.g., “I don’t know”; 1- related but
nondescriptive e.g., “Hamburger”; 2 - discusses one side of the problem e.g., “She only
eats hamburgers”; 3 - discusses both sides of
the problem e.g., “She wants hamburgers, but
her roommate wants something else.” A separate system was developed to code participants’ responses to the second question, with
responses assigned one of five codes: 0 - unrelated answer e.g., “I don’t know”; 1 - inappropriate suggestion, in which neither the notion
of rights, nor that of respect or responsibility,
was invoked e.g., “Throw out her food.”; 2 suggestion involves either some allusion to
rights or acting in a manner that shows some
minimal signs of respect for and responsibility
to self or others e.g., “Just let her eat hamburgers.”; 3 - suggestion that more clearly reflects
knowledge of rights or of acting respectfully
and responsibly e.g., “Tell her to eat fish because it’s better for you, not as greasy.”; 4 suggestion contains both an allusion to rights
and an awareness of exercising those rights in
the context of respect and responsibility e.g.,
“They can eat what they would like as long as
they understand what is healthy for them.”
Participants’ scores were summed across the
eight scenarios for each of the pre-, flip-, and
post-testing sessions, with total human rights
awareness scores at each of these sessions
ranging from 0 to 80. Two specially trained,
independent raters coded all responses. The
level of agreement between raters was 89%.
Testing
Participants were tested at three points. The
pretest was given before any training; the flip
test was given after they completed one type of
training (either interactive CD-ROM or classroom), but before they started the second
type of training; the posttest was given after
the participant completed both kinds of training. Each test consisted of a series of eight
Comparison of Interactive Computer-based and Classroom Training
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51
scenarios that were followed by a series of
questions. Two different types of testing stimuli were used, both of which were presented as
a video clip on a computer screen. In the
dictation test, a research assistant (unknown
to the participants) read a description of a
human rights scenario.
In the action video test, the video clip depicted actors with ID and research assistants
acting out human rights scenarios in a group
home setting that resembled events that might
naturally occur in the participants’ everyday
lives. Both testing condition scenarios were
presented on the computer screen, but participants did not interact directly with the computer. Audio cues were used to signal the
stimulus questions in both testing conditions.
If participants were uncertain about the questions as presented on the computer, a research assistant would read the questions
again, once only. Participants responded to
the questions orally and the research assistants
recorded their responses without telling them
if responses were correct or incorrect. To test
for generalization, four of the eight scenarios
(two action, two dictation) that participants
viewed in the testing phases were not taught in
training.
Interactive CD-ROM Training
We developed a series of interactive computer-based video scenarios that focused on the
exercise of human rights in the context of
respect for and responsibility to oneself and
others, based on the literature outlining the
factors and conditions that would be most
likely to promote individuals’ generalization
of human rights awareness to similar, realworld situations (Griffiths et al., 1997; Horner
& Albin, 1988; Langone et al., 2003; Miltenberger et al., 1999; Neef, Lensbower, Hockersmith, DePalma, & Gray, 1990). The computer-based video training sessions were
unstructured and participants could manipulate the program in the manner they chose
and for the length of time they wished, for up
to 1.5 hours. Participants were given an informal, brief tutorial on the sections of the CDROM before beginning the training. If a participant did not fully understand how to use
the computer or mouse, then a research assistant was available to help the individual. In
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90% of the cases, the instructor launched the
program and then relinquished control of the
mouse to participants when the program was
underway.
The interactive CD-ROM involved participants making independent choices throughout the presentation of the brief human
rights. These scenarios depicted events and
circumstances that many persons with ID have
encountered in their lives. For example, one
scenario showed a resident of a group home,
Bob, wanting to go to the movies with his
friend. He cannot get a ride from his support
staff because another individual in the home
is sick. In this example, participants were
asked to respond to questions such as “What
should Bob do next – stay home and let his
friend know that he will not be going to the
movies (option A) or take the bus to meet his
friend at the movies (option B)?” by clicking a
mouse. They would then see a videotaped scenario that depicted the likely outcome of the
choice they had made. The computer-based
training was done individually and a research
assistant was always present to provide assistance. Because the video segments involved
two valid choices a formal correction procedure was not utilized. However, exploratory
feedback was built in the video segments in
the form of a research assistant explaining
why choice one was good and why choice two
was better.
Classroom Training
The classroom activity-based training involved
a standard lesson plan consisting of previous
class review, games, role-play and discussion,
and routinely concluded with a review of the
day’s lessons. Classes proceeded through the
3Rs training curriculum by reviewing the interdependent concepts of rights, responsibility, and respect. Using an adult-education orientation, facilitators engaged participants in
discussion about issues that had immediate
relevance in their daily lives. They were encouraged to give examples of issues that were
of concern to them and, through these examples, participants guided the direction of the
class content.
Classroom groups consisted of no more
than 10 persons with ID who received training
in blocks of 8-10 two-hour sessions. Two facil-
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2007
itators introduced the key concepts of human
rights, respect, and responsibility, and the interconnections among these concepts. Participants then reviewed central elements in the
agency’s Statement of Rights and the Human
Rights Facilitation Committee. In an effort to
have the training materials appeal to individuals with different learning approaches, the
sessions involved a broad range of learning
activities, such as word-picture association
games, discussion and role-playing e.g., mock
election to illustrate the right to vote.
Testing and Training Schedule
Testing and training sessions were completed
in five phases: (1) Pre-test – computer-based
video testing (with both dictation and action
elements); (2) Training #1 – classroom activity-based or computer-based video training;
(3) Flip-test – computer-based video testing
(with both dictation and action elements); (4)
Training #2 – classroom activity-based or computer-based video training; and (5) Post-test –
computer-based video testing (with both dictation and action elements).
The presentation of all testing and training
materials was counterbalanced. Specifically,
participants received eight classroom activitybased training sessions and four computerbased video training sessions with the order of
presentation of the two training and two testing formats (action scenarios and dictated scenarios) counterbalanced across groups. The
order of training (interactive CD-ROM or
classroom instruction) was randomly determined for each participant. Participants were
selected for participation in the training by
staff of the community agencies, and accommodation in group assignment was made for
transportation and scheduling constraints of
group home residents who had to travel together by insuring that they were assigned to
different groups that were scheduled at the
same time. In addition, staff of the agency
made recommendations about group assignment based on interpersonal compatibility.
Testing and training phases were completed
over the course of 11 weeks.
Results
There were no significant pretest differences
in the human rights awareness scores of par-
ticipants with and without previous training in
human rights, or from the two different agencies.
Figure 1 shows the training effects (action
and dictation tests combined) on the group
that had classroom instruction first and then
the CD-ROM versus the group that had training in the opposite order. The within-subject
cross-over design with counterbalancing of order of training (classroom activity-based versus interactive CD-ROM) revealed that both
types of training methods were equally effective in increasing awareness of human rights.
A repeated measures ANOVA showed a significant training effect, F(1.95) ⫽ 18.35, p ⬍
.001, when the two types of training were combined; the order of training was not significant. Post-hoc analyses revealed a significant
increase in human rights awareness scores (action and dictation tests combined) from pretest (M ⫽ 33.74, SD ⫽ 17.18) to flip-test (M ⫽
40.72, SD ⫽ 18.13), (p ⬍ .001) and from pretest to post-test (M ⫽ 42.69, SD ⫽ 16.94) (p ⬍
.001). Flip- to post-test change scores were not
significant. Independent samples t-tests directly comparing the order of training (classroom activity-based versus interactive CDROM) at each the pre-test, flip-test and posttest did not reveal significant differences in
participants’ overall human rights awareness
scores (see Figure 1).
Overall gains in human rights awareness
scores were compared as a function of exposure to realistically acted (action test) versus
dictated (dictation test) test conditions. For
both classroom activity- and computer-based
video training conditions combined, the results of three separate dependent samples ttests revealed that participants had higher
scores when they received the action versus
dictated test scenarios: pre-test, t(38) ⫽ 11.40;
flip-test, t(38) ⫽ 9.35; post-test, t(38) ⫽ 10.21,
all ps ⬍ .001. The means and standard deviations for the two testing conditions across pre-,
flip- and posttests respectively were: action test
scenarios, M ⫽ 22.62 (SD ⫽ 8.20), M ⫽ 26.41
(SD ⫽ 7.71), M ⫽ 27.95 (SD ⫽ 6.83); dictated
test scenarios, M ⫽ 11.13 (SD ⫽ 10.01), M ⫽
14.31 (SD ⫽ 11.73), M ⫽ 14.74 (SD ⫽ 11.38).
Two dependent samples t-tests revealed significant increases in pre- to posttest scores on
the generalization questions, using the action
test method (pretest, M ⫽ 13.28, SD ⫽ 5.07;
Comparison of Interactive Computer-based and Classroom Training
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53
Figure 1. Comparison of mean human rights awareness scores between the group that received classroom
instruction and then the interactive CD-ROM and the group that received training in the opposite
order.
posttest, M ⫽ 16.44, SD ⫽ 4.63), t(38) ⫽
⫺5.03, p ⬍ .000, and the dictation test method
(pretest, M ⫽ 5.56, SD ⫽5.46; posttest, M ⫽
7.36, SD ⫽ 6.06), t(38) ⫽ ⫺2.49, p ⬍ .017.
Discussion
Results of our study suggest that individuals
with ID can be taught to identify and remediate human rights violations using classroom
activity-based or individual interactive CDROM training. Participants demonstrated
awareness that they should exercise their
rights in a context of respect and responsibility toward themselves and others. Moreover,
both training modalities resulted in generali-
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zation of training to nontrained human rights
scenarios.
We also evaluated two different ways of testing for human rights knowledge and we found
that participants scored higher on human
rights awareness, i.e., recognizing violations
and suggesting appropriate corrective actions,
when presented with realistically acted video
rights scenarios (action test condition, with
actors with ID portraying persons with ID
whose rights were being violated) than they
did when presented with scenarios that were
simply read by a research assistant on the
video (dictation test condition). Anecdotally,
participants showed greater interest in, and
engagement with, the action test scenarios
than they did with the dictation test scenarios.
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2007
This result suggests that traditional dictated
tests may underestimate the conceptual and
practical knowledge of persons with ID.
Our findings are consistent with that of a
meta-analysis showing the overall effect size
for interactive video was positive and slightly
higher than effect sizes previously reported
for computer-assisted instruction without the
interactive video enhancements (Neil & Nelson, 1991). In interpreting these meta-analytic
findings, the authors highlighted the key difference between interactive and noninteractive computer-based instruction, including the
depiction of naturally occurring situations
and events with real time opportunities for
active engagement and choice making in the
interactive mode; this difference also applied
when the testing conditions in this study were
compared. Consistent with previous research,
our work highlighted some additional benefits
of the computer-based video approach for
successful human rights awareness testing
and training (Hawkridge & Vincent, 1992;
Langone et al., 2003; Standen et al., 2001).
The interactive training components appear
to be as effective as activity-based training and
the testing components that included realistically acted scenarios appeared to stimulate
better responding.
This study yielded several practice and research implications. First, computers that play
interactive CD-ROMs are now readily available
and relatively easy to disseminate and recycle.
The participants in the current study quickly
learned how to use the computer-based technology. From that point on, it was simply a
matter of participants’ engaging with the technology at their own leisure and pace; they
could go over the scenes until they felt that
they fully understood the human rights problems and solutions depicted in them. Unlike
classroom activity-based training, computerbased training did not require an instructor to
direct and assist participants throughout the
process. Even so, some participants continued
to need support in operating the computer.
The interactive technology thus fostered selfdirected learning. Future studies should determine if the benefits of this interactive
format extend to the enhancement of participants’ self-esteem and self-efficacy. Future research should also examine the interaction of
individual characteristics, preferences and
learning style and instructional modality.
Whereas some participants seemed to be
more engaged during the group discussions,
others seemed to benefit more from the audiovisual prompts from the computer-based
video technology.
Limitations of Study and Future Research
Objectives
While the results of this study are promising,
we acknowledge that our work needs to be
replicated with a larger sample and a research
design offering long-term follow-up, before
any definitive conclusions of the effectiveness
of the human rights training can be drawn.
As a group, participants’ post-test scores
were in the 40s, compared to the maximum
possible score of 80. While these post-test
scores give the impression that performance
did not reach optimal levels, we now recognize that the response standards we set to
receive high scores in testing went considerably beyond what would be required to
achieve a pragmatic resolution to a human
rights concern. Future training studies should
empirically validate criterion scores at a response level that would lead to a functional
solution specific to the rights problem presented.
Another limitation of this study is that we
did not run in vivo probes to test for generalization of rights awareness skills to real life
situations (cf., Griffiths et al., 1997). Anecdotally, staff members, family home providers
and others who knew the participants remarked on seeing greater awareness of human rights, respect and responsibility by the
participants. Finally, future training studies
should include a measure of consumer satisfaction regarding the type of training received, particularly as the results of this study
found both computer-based and classroom activity-based approaches to human rights training to be equally effective.
Conclusion
This study represents one of the first attempts
to develop and evaluate an interactive videobased CD-ROM for use in teaching human
rights awareness to individuals with ID. Our
early results hold promise that interactive
Comparison of Interactive Computer-based and Classroom Training
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55
computer-based technology is an effective, efficient, and readily available training strategy
for teaching human rights awareness and
other complex self-advocacy skills (e.g., health
care, legal rights) to persons with ID.
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Received: 22 November 2005
Initial Acceptance: 18 January 2006
Final Acceptance: 20 May 2006
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2007