Internal
Combustion
Engines
Internal Combustion Engines
Applied Thermosciences
Third Edition
Colin R. Ferguson
Allan T. Kirkpatrick
Mechanical Engineering Department
Colorado State University, USA
This edition first published 2016
c 2016, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
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First Edition published in 2014
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ferguson, Colin R.
Internal combustion engines : applied thermosciences / Colin R. Ferguson,
Allan T. Kirkpatrick. -- Third edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-53331-4 (hardback)
1. Internal combustion engines. 2. Thermodynamics. I. Ferguson, Colin, R.
II. Kirkpatrick, Allan T. III. Title.
TJ756.F47 2015
621.43--dc23
2015016357
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Set in 10/12pt TimesLTStd-Roman by Thomson Digital, Noida, India
1 2016
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
1. Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
Introduction 1
Historical Background 4
Engine Cycles 5
Engine Performance Parameters 9
Engine Configurations 16
Examples of Internal Combustion Engines
Alternative Power Plants 26
References 29
Homework 30
2. Heat Engine Cycles
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
Introduction 32
Constant Volume Heat Addition 33
Constant Pressure Heat Addition 36
Limited Pressure Cycle 37
Miller Cycle 39
Finite Energy Release 41
Ideal Four-Stroke Process and Residual Fraction
Discussion of Gas Cycle Models 62
References 63
Homework 64
54
66
Introduction 66
Thermodynamic Properties of Ideal Gas Mixtures 66
Liquid--Vapor--Gas Mixtures 72
Stoichiometry 76
Low-Temperature Combustion Modeling 79
General Chemical Equilibrium 84
Chemical Equilibrium using Equilibrium Constants 89
References 94
Homework 94
4. Fuel--Air Combustion Processes
4.1
4.2
23
32
3. Fuel, Air, and Combustion Thermodynamics
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
1
97
Introduction 97
Combustion and the First Law
97
v
vi
Contents
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
Maximum Work and the Second Law 103
Fuel--Air Otto Cycle 108
Four-Stroke Fuel--Air Otto Cycle 113
Homogeneous Two-Zone Finite Heat Release Cycle 116
Comparison of Fuel--Air Cycles with Actual Spark Ignition Cycles
Limited Pressure Fuel--Air Cycle 125
Comparison of Limited Pressure Fuel--Air Cycles with Actual
Compression Ignition Cycles 128
References 129
Homework 129
5. Intake and Exhaust Flow
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
131
Introduction 131
Valve Flow 131
Intake and Exhaust Flow 147
Superchargers and Turbochargers 150
Effect of Ambient Conditions on Engine and Compressor
Mass Flow 158
References 159
Homework 160
6. Fuel and Airflow in the Cylinder
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
Introduction 163
Carburetion 163
Fuel Injection--Spark Ignition 166
Fuel Injection--Compression Ignition 168
Large-Scale in-Cylinder Flow 174
In-Cylinder Turbulence 180
Airflow in Two-Stroke Engines 185
References 193
Homework 195
7. Combustion Processes in Engines
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
197
Introduction 197
Combustion in Spark Ignition Engines 198
Abnormal Combustion (Knock) in Spark Ignition Engines
Combustion in Compression Ignition Engines 214
Low-Temperature Combustion 225
References 229
Homework 231
8. Emissions
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
163
234
Introduction 234
Nitrogen Oxides 235
Carbon Monoxide 243
Hydrocarbons 245
Particulates 249
206
123
Contents
8.6
8.7
8.8
9. Fuels
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
Emissions Regulation and Control
References 258
Homework 259
262
Introduction 262
Hydrocarbon Chemistry 263
Refining 266
Fuel Properties 267
Gasoline Fuels 269
Alternative Fuels for Spark Ignition Engines
Hydrogen 281
Diesel Fuels 282
References 286
Homework 287
10. Friction and Lubrication
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
288
318
Introduction 318
Engine Cooling Systems 319
Engine Energy Balance 320
Cylinder Heat Transfer 324
Heat Transfer Modeling 326
Heat Transfer Correlations 330
Heat Transfer in the Exhaust System
Radiation Heat Transfer 339
Mass Loss or Blowby 340
References 342
Homework 344
12. Engine Testing and Control
12.1
12.2
274
Introduction 288
Friction Coefficient 288
Friction Mean Effective Pressure 291
Friction Measurements 291
Friction Modeling 294
Journal Bearing Friction 295
Piston and Ring Friction 298
Valve Train Friction 306
Accessory Friction 308
Pumping Mean Effective Pressure 310
Overall Engine Friction Mean Effective Pressure 311
Lubrication 312
References 315
Homework 316
11. Heat and Mass Transfer
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
251
Introduction 346
Instrumentation 347
346
338
vii
viii
Contents
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
Combustion Analysis 354
Exhaust Gas Analysis 358
Control Systems in Engines 366
Vehicle Emissions Testing 369
References 370
Homework 370
13. Overall Engine Performance
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
Appendices
A
B
C
D
E
F
372
Introduction 372
Effect of Engine and Piston Speed 372
Effect of Air--Fuel Ratio and Load 373
Engine Performance Maps 376
Effect of Engine Size 379
Effect of Ignition and Injection Timing 380
Effect of Compression Ratio 383
Vehicle Performance Simulation 383
References 384
Homework 385
387
Physical Properties of Air 387
Thermodynamic Property Tables for Various Ideal Gases 389
Curve-Fit Coefficients for Thermodynamic Properties of Various Fuels and
Ideal Gases 397
Conversion Factors and Physical Constants 401
Thermodynamic Analysis of Mixtures 403
E.1 Thermodynamic Derivatives 403
E.2 Numerical Solution of Equilibrium Combustion Equations 405
E.3 Isentropic Compression/Expansion with Known Δ𝑃 408
E.4 Isentropic Compression/Expansion with Known Δ𝑣 409
E.5 Constant Volume Combustion 410
E.6 Quality of Exhaust Products 411
E.7 References 412
Computer Programs 413
F.1 Volume.m 414
F.2 Velocity.m 414
F.3 BurnFraction.m 414
F.4 FiniteHeatRelease.m 415
F.5 FiniteHeatMassLoss.m 417
F.6 FourStrokeOtto.m 420
F.7 RunFarg.m 421
F.8 farg.m 422
F.9 fuel.m 425
F.10 RunEcp.m 426
F.11 ecp.m 427
F.12 AdiabaticFlameTemp.m 437
F.13 OttoFuel.m 438
Contents
F.14
F.15
F.16
F.17
Index
455
FourStrokeFuelAir.m 440
Homogeneous.m 444
Friction.m 450
WoschniHeatTransfer.m 451
ix
Preface
This textbook presents a modern approach to the study of internal combustion engines.
Internal combustion engines have been, and will remain for the foreseeable future, a vital
and active area of engineering education and research. The purpose of this book is to apply
the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer to the analysis of
internal combustion engines. This book is intended first to demonstrate to the student the
application of engineering sciences, especially the thermal sciences, and second, it is a book
about internal combustion engines. Considerable effort is expended making the requisite
thermodynamics accessible to students. This is because most students have little, if any,
experience applying the first law to unsteady processes in open systems or in differential
form to closed systems, and have experience with only the simplest of reacting gas mixtures.
The text is designed for a one-semester course in internal combustion engines at the
senior undergraduate level. At Colorado State University, this text is used for a single term
class in internal combustion engines. The class meets for a lecture two times per week and
a recitation/laboratory once a week, for a term of 15 weeks.
This third edition builds upon the foundation of the second edition. The major changes
are the adoption of the programming software MATLABⓇ for the examples, and chapter
reorganization for a greater emphasis on combustion. The content changes include additional topics on heat and mass loss in finite heat release models, thermodynamic properties
of reacting mixtures, two-zone burn models for homogeneous mixtures, exhaust blowdown
modeling, diesel fuel injection, NO𝑥 concentration using finite rate chemistry, homogeneous charge compression ignition, and alternative fuels. The homework problems have
increased in number and topics covered.
xi
Acknowledgments
The approach and style of this text reflects our experiences as students at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. In particular, we learned a great deal from MIT Professors John
B. Heywood, Warren M. Rohsenow, Ascher Shapiro, and Jean F. Louis.
Many thanks to the editorial staff at John Wiley & Sons for their work on the third
edition. Mr. Paul Petralia, Mr. Clive Lawson, Ms. Sandra Grayson, and Ms. Shikha Pahuja
deserve special acknowledgement for their editorial assistance with this project. This edition
also benefited from technical discussions with Professors Anthony Marchese, Daniel Olsen,
and Brian Willson. Mr. Aron Dobos, a CSU ME graduate student, deserves thanks for
converting many of the computer programs in the first and second editions to a MatlabⓇ
form. Mr. Tyler Schott helped produce and format the solutions to the homework problems.
Finally, Allan Kirkpatrick would like to thank his family: Susan, Anne, Matt, Rob, and
Kristin for their unflagging support while this third edition was being written.
Dr. Allan T. Kirkpatrick (allan@engr.colostate.edu)
Fort Collins, Colorado
xiii