TLEP International Journal Of Environmental Technology Research
ISSN 2488-9324(Paper) E-ISSN 2488-9334(Online)
Vol. 2. Issue. 1. 2016
PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS AND THREATS TO
DOMESTIC WATER QUALITY IN OWERRI METROPOLIS IN
IMO STATE NIGERIA.
*CLINTON I EZEKWE
Department of Geography and Environmental Management
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
PRINCEWILL W IGBAGARA
Department of Chemical Engineering
Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun, Nigeria.
TONYE V ODUBO
Department of Geography and Environmental Management
Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT:
One of the most significant threats to the health and safety of man is the quantity and quality of the water consumed; and in
especially the developing world, inadequate sanitation facilities and shortage of clean water sources is the cause of
waterborne diseases and death to millions of people. This study was therefore geared towards understanding the sources
and threats to domestic water supply in the city of Owerri and peoples’ preference for different water sources and possible
health implications of such choices. A combination of field observation, interview techniques and questionnaire survey was
applied in the study. The study concludes that groundwater sources remain the most preferred water source for domestic
use in Owerri town while majority of city dwellers prefer satchet or bottled water for drinking purposes. Major threats to
water quality included improper waste disposal and management and unsafe water storage/handling processes. It was also
realized that, there is little or no treatment of all water sources in Owerri before usage both for drinking and other
domestic uses. Recommendations include proper implementation of environmental/water protection laws and edicts,
proper monitoring of packaged water production factories and processes by public health officials.
Key Words: Water quality; water and sanitation, urban water, Owerri, African cities
1.0: INTRODUCTION:
Of the over one billion people living in Africa, about 40 per cent live in urban areas, and by 2050, it is expected that this
will triple to 1.23 billion; and 60% of this urban population live in slum conditions [1]. Although there is some
improvement in global access to “improved water sources, defined as one that is protected from outside contamination”,
runaway urban growth in African cities has equally increased the number of people without adequate access to potable
water thereby jeopardizing the struggle to ensure the greater health of African urban dwellers [2].
One of the most significant threats to the health and safety of man is the quantity and quality of the water consumed; and in
especially the developing world, including Nigeria, inadequate sanitation facilities and shortage of clean water sources is
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the cause of waterborne diseases and death to millions of people. Agglomerations of human populations and activities
place a lot of demand and stress on natural space and resources, leading to scarcity, overuse, depletion and or degradation
of the quality of the natural environment. The World Health Organization stated that 2.5 billion men, women and children
around the world lack access to basic sanitation services. About 1 billion people continue to practice open defecation, while
an additional 748 million people do not have ready access to an improved source of drinking-water. Hundreds of millions
of people also live without clean water, facilitating the spread of diarrhoeal disease, the second leading cause of death
among children less than five years of age. Many other water-borne diseases, such as cholera, typhoid and hepatitis, are
prone to explosive outbreaks in third world cities like Owerri with inadequate disease surveillance and health emergency
response. Poor sanitation and hygiene also lead to debilitating diseases affecting scores of people, like intestinal worms,
blinding trachoma and schistosomiasis ]3].
Rising populations and the effects of climate change will most likely be the major threats to the provision of safe water
and adequate sanitation in African cities, and access to clean drinking water and sanitation is very important as it is directly
linked to human health and therefore peoples productive capacity; gender and the nutrition of women and as well as their
role in collecting water for families and communities [4]. According to Mafuna et al, [5], African governments and public
institutions have not been able to match service delivery with rising urban populations leading to net deficits in water and
sanitation supplies leading to concomitant rise in disease burden and disaffection among city dwellers. Demand for clean
water supply and adequate sanitation is growing due to the increasing population, and in response to the international
commitment to meet the Millennium Development Goals. However, access to improved water supply in most African
cities range from as low as 17% in Equator town in the Democratic Republic of Congo to 28 per cent in Ibadan Nigeria and
30% in cities in Chad and Burundi [6].
Increasing rates of urbanization and urban population dynamics in Nigeria coupled with high levels of corruption and
decaying public institutions has made Nigeria a country with one of the lowest Water and Sanitation coverage rates in the
world. Between 1990 and 2006, access to improved water sources stagnated countrywide at 47% but increased to about
54% in 2010; while access to adequate sanitation decreased from 39% in 1990 to 35% in 2010, with a particularly marked
decrease in urban areas, as about 47% of Nigerians use shared and other inadequate sanitation facilities. Another 22% out
rightly defecated in the open as they have no access to sanitation facilities at all [1]. In the city of Makurdi, the capital of
Benue State, Nigeria, only about 25-30% of the population are served by a crumbling network of water facilities and
inhabitants fetch raw water in buckets from the polluted Benue River. In 2008, construction of a water treatment plant
sponsored by foreingn aid was started but was left unfinished and government officials were unable to account for about 6
million U.S dollars meant for the project [7].
Global threats to water quality especially in urban areas like Owerri may range from over-exploitation from population
explosion (population-natural resource imbalance) and/or degradation from anthropogenic pollution emanating from
industrial and technological expansion and rabid urbanization. Continuos and indirect discharge of industrial urban
sewerage are major sources of pollutants to water resources. According to Kanu and Achi [8], these industrial discharges or
wastes include “heavy metals, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
petrochemicals, phernolic compounds and microorganisms”. These wastes are usually discharged into water bodies from
untreated effluents and have been found to be carcinogenic while other chemicals constituents have various debilitating
effects on the environment and man depending on duration and levels of exposure.
Domestic water sources in cities of Nigeria, is faced with a lot of problems, ranging from shortage of supply, pollution,
contamination and improper management of its sources due to increase in population, urbanization and industrialization.
The need to identify water sources and address the issues that threaten their existence and utility is of urgent importance
and this must involve legislations, policies and action in terms of water management plans and programs. A
comprehensive water management program must combine a variety of social, treatment and distribution technologies.
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Social issues involves the acceptability of particular programs such as the Millennium Development Goals; while water
treatment is a means to manage water quality.
1.1: Objective of Study:
This study was geared towards understanding the sources of domestic water in Owerri Municipal and peoples’ preference
of the different water sources and possible threats to water quality in the metropolis. This study is also an attempt to shed
light on the ways and means of managing city water supply in Nigeria, including performance of public utilities and
challenges to their operations.
2.0: STUDY AREA:
Owerri metropolis a rapidly growing urban centre consequent to its designation as the capital of Imo State in 1976 is
located on the south Eastern part of Nigeria. Owerri metropolis has an area of about
Figure 1: location of study area in the Gulf of Guinea, West Africa
58 square kilometres and is located on latitudes, 50 25’’ 50 23’’ N and 50 32’ 24.42’’ N and longitudes, 60 58’ 50 23’’ E and
70 04’ 07.51’’ E (Fig.1). The topography is fairly low, with comparatively few undulations. The area is well drained by
rivers Otamiri, Nworie and the seasonal Okitankwo, an offshoot of the Imo River. These surface water sources also serve
as sources of domestic and industrial water supply to the metropolis. Owerri has a mean annual rainfall (also a source of
domestic water) of about 2250 -2500mm; mean temperature is 25-270c, relative humidity of about 80%. Owerri has a
population of less than 500,000 persons. According to the 2006 National census, Owerri metropolis had a population of
127, 213 inhabitants and from 17, 000 households, including shops and offices [9]. There are various water sources for
domestic uses in Owerri. The Otamiri River is the major drainage channel in the metropolis, originating from a forest north
of Owerri city and flows southwards through the Owerri metropolis. Its watershed covers about 10,000 km 2 and mostly
covered by depleted rainforest vegetation [10]. The Otamiri River is assaulted on different fronts by industrial and
commercial activities such as landfills, motor mechanic villages and untreated urban run-off, yet it is used by several
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residents of Owerri metropolis for domestic or industrial purposes including laundry and car wash services and also serves
recreational and bathing purposes to especially a younger population in the city.
Rainwater is also a domestic water source in Owerri metropolis. Its provision is during the raining seasons. Rainwater is
collected via house roofs and stored in metal and plastic tanks for immediate and future domestic uses (washing, cooking
and sometime drinking). Borehole water is also one of the domestic water sources in Owerri metropolis. The water is
sourced from underground aquifers and may be distributed to residents even up to two kilometers from public utility
sources. In general terms, boreholes are drilled to a minimum depth of 50 meters or to a depth where there is an adequate
supply to meet the users demands and at which point there is perceived lesser risk of contamination. Borehole water can be
contaminated when stored/preserved in the tanks through photocatalytic reactions between the stored water and materials
used in manufacturing the storage tanks.
3.0: MATERIALS AND METHODS:
A combination of interview, field observation and interview-cum-questionnaire techniques were used in data gathering
between June 2013 and May 2014. Stratified random sampling was used in selecting the nth house in nth street (using
numbers 1-9) for the questionnaire survey for the study. Also, countless interview sessions where held formally and
informally with city administrators, dwellers and travellers using on-the spot techniques. One hundred and fifty (150)
households were covered in the questionnaire study segment covering thirty (30) households in each of the five sections of
the municipality. The entire questionnaires were fully returned.
4.0: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
Respondents were of varied characteristics consisting of about 48% male; 30.1% civil/public servants; 30%
businessmen/traders and artisans and 93% literate/semi-literate adult (25years and above) population. Over 36% lived in
rented flats, 50% in public yards, and 13% in owner-occupier houses, while less than 1% lived in makeshift or Batcha
houses. These findings are similar to the results on housing for the Owerri metropolis from a 2010 study by Ezekwe et al,
[11].
4.1: Sources of Domestic Water in Owerri Munincipality:
Table 1, describes responses as to the various sources of domestic water in the study area.
From the table, we see that over 99% of inhabitants in the inner city of Owerri depend on groundwater sources from
boreholes as a source of domestic water supply. This preference for borehole water stems from the assumed superiority of
groundwater quality over other sources of water, as 90% of the population sees borehole water as unpolluted and 72% take
same without treatment (Table 2).
This thinking is also common among water professionals. According to a famous hydrogeologist in Nigeria, “groundwater
has many advantages over surface water in that it is not exposed to contaminants dumped into the latter. It is filtered
naturally. Bacteria do not usually thrive deep down in the groundwater environment. The temperature is constant and the
density is less subject to changes than that of surface water” [12].
The table also reveals the relatively high performance of the water Board or public utilities in Owerri as over 66% of the
populace depends directly or indirectly on them for water supply. However, out of this percentage, only about 11% depend
on the utilities fully for domestic water supply while 89% remain uncartered for. The table also reveals the growing
importance of sachet water (31%) and push-cart water vendors or Aboki (18%) as sources of water supply to inner city
dwellers. This is a common trend in the cities of the developing world especially Nigerian urban centres.
In the city of Lagos, Nigeria, households are turning to private shallow hand-dug wells that provide water of dubious
quality usually coloured and with a strong smell. Some of these wells dry up especially in the dry season, thereby
exacerbating water hunger in the city. Households mostly rely on street water vendors, locally called Mai Ruwa (Aboki in
Owerri) who sell water from tanks and plastic containers on push-carts; and also from a thriving market for “sachet water”
or “pure water” packaged in polyethylene pouches [13;14].
In Owerri, only 4% of sampled population claimed to be having water supplied regularly from public utilities, while over
19% are not covered at all, more than 76% receive water less than 2 hours in an average day. Also about 44% described
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the water supplied as unwholesome in terms of colour, taste or ordour and almost 87% think that the utilities are inefficient.
This situation is also similar to what is obtainable in most African cities. Many public utilities in developing countries find
themselves locked in a vicious cycle entrenched by poor performance, poor public support and official corruption. Also, in
Latin America, the situation is similar where provision of water services is at a low level of equilibrium where low public
trust and confidence leads to poor support causing low prices, low quality service, limited service expansion, operational
inefficiency and corruption [15].
In most African countries, failure to provide water for 24 hours is common, and as noted by Kimey [16] in his study on
Tanzania’s water utilities. On average, most city dwellers received water for 4 to 10 hours per day and the hours of service
varied greatly from one residential area to the other. This haphazard service was caused by water demand management
problems, power cuts, main pipe bursts and low pumping pressure. Also, a recent study [15] carried out in the city of
Harare in Zimbabwe showed similar trends as 54.8% of the resident’s perceived water to be of poor quality and have
resorted to household level disinfection methods, drinking water from private boreholes and bottled water.
It was also revealed from the data collected in Owerri that about 33.3% and about 2% of the studied population depend on
river/stream water for bathing, cooking and washing and for drinking respectively. Inaccessibility to utilities and poverty
were cited as reasons for depending on these unwholesome sources of water supply. It is also noteworthy that only about
30% of city dwellers bother to treat their water before consumption (Table 2, 3 and 4). This carries a high risk burden for
water borne diseases. The World Health Organization (WHO) had estimated in 2004 that 2.1 millions people die annually
from diarrhea and 10% of the population in less developed countries suffer from parasitic worm infections and 80% of all
sickness and diseases in less developed countries can be attributed to water borne infection agents and unsafe water and
sanitation conditions [17].
It must also be stated that contrary to the belief of the city dwellers of Owerri, groundwater is not immune to contamination
and pollution, more so in an environment where there is no proper management of human and animal wastes. The most
serious ground water contaminations in terms of human health implications worldwide are pathogenic organisms. Among
the most significant water borne disease caused by these pathogenic agents are typhoid, cholera, bacterial and amebic
dysentery, polio infections, hepatitis and schistosomiasis [18].
Improper treatment of faecal waste before disposal is a major avenue through which micro-organisms like faecal coliform
and other pathogenic micro-organism can be transmitted to ground water system. Other means include leaky soak-away
pits and septic tanks and run off from animal feed lot; faeces of warm blooded animal and birds [19; 11]. Another way in
which harmful and pollution indicator micro-organisms enter ground water sources is through slime, formed by naturally
occurring ground water micro-organisms. The slime or (biofilm) cling to well screens, casings, pipes and pumps.
Disturbance during pumping or well maintenance can cause the slime to dislodge, releasing bacteria. Insects also can carry
coliform bacteria into a borehole due to improper casing or poor well seal or caps. Unplugged or abandon wells can also
allow coliforms access into deeper aquifers [20; 21].
4.2: Major threats to water Quality:
From Table 4, we conclude that the major threats to water quality in the city of Owerri include poor waste management and
water storage/handling. These include untreated urban sewage discharges, refuse dumping and oil spillages from machine
and mechanic shops. Discharge of untreated waste from drainages into water bodies which may in turn not only pollute the
surface water sources but may become sources of polluted recharge to groundwater sources.
Water is also contaminated in the process of storage in exposed overhead tanks as stored water may react with PVC
materials used in manufacturing the tanks. Also overhead storage tanks when not properly covered and regularly treated
poses a major health challenge as they may become breeding grounds for micro-organisms and mosquitoes especially in
disused wells or in boreholes with automatic pumps that do not allow for total drainage of tanks. Unhygienic conditions
during water bagging processes or possible contamination during collection, transportation and delivery of water by pushcart vendors is also a veritable water quality challenge.
A major threat to public health from water sources in Owerri may be the erosion of unwholesome chemicals from plastic
containers used in bottled and sachet storage. According to Linebarger [22], Bisphenol-A (BPA) is a common chemical
found in plastic water bottles, plastic containers and food storage containers. BPA leaches from the plastics that hold many
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of the foods and liquids consumed and in the United States of America, a 2004 study by the America Centre for Disease
Control and Prevention confirmed that about ninety-five percent of Americans have BPA in their urine. Once in the
bloodstream, BPAs (and other Bisphenols, B-Z) interferes with developmental and sexual hormone systems through
estrogenic activity (EA) by mimicking or antagonizing the actions of naturally occurring estrogens. Scientific studies have
also linked BPA and BPS to hyperactivity in children, birth defects; low sperm count in males, early onset puberty in
females, obesity, breast cancer and diabetes. It seems to be particularly dangerous during pregnancy and child
development.
It has been noted [23] that there are over a 100 dangerous chemicals having EA which “can leach from plastic products at
very low (e.g., nano molar to pico molar) concentrations that individually or in combination can produce adverse effects,
especially in foetal to juvenile mammals. This leaching of monomers and additives from a plastic item into its contents is
often accelerated if the product is exposed to common-use stresses such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight, micro
wave radiation, and/or moist heat via boiling or dishwashing. Chemicals having EA typically interact with one or more of
the classical nuclear estrogen receptor (ER) sub-types” and “can produce many health-related problems, such as early
puberty in females, reduced sperm counts, altered functions of reproductive organs, obesity, altered sex-specific
behaviours, and increased rates of some breast, ovarian, testicular, and prostate cancers” [24]
Also a study of fifteen brands of bottled water from Canada and forty-eight from Europe revealed that the toxin antimony
in bottles made from polyethylene terephthalate leach into the water they contain, and the concentration of this contaminant
increased with storage time [25]. Long-term exposures to antimony have been confirmed to potentiate pneumoconiosis and
caused altered electrocardiograms, stomach pain, diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach ulcers including an increase in hepatic
malfunction and blood changes [26].
5.0: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Groundwater sources remain the most preferred water source in Owerri town just like in cities in most developing countries
and major threats to water quality include improper waste disposal and management and water storage/handling processes.
This study concludes that the major domestic water source in Owerri Municipal is private boreholes, and public utility
sources. Despite the abundant stream/river water and rainfall sources around the city, the inhabitants do not use much of
them, because of fear pollution and contamination. While water from rainfall is mainly used for washing purposes and
rarely for drinking and cooking, the major drinking water source is sachet and borehole water. It was realized that, there is
little or no treatment of all water sources in Owerri before usage both for drinking and other domestic uses.
Finally, it is encouraging that only about 3% of the sampled populace think that the problem of water quality protection is
to be left to the government alone, although over 60% think that water pollution is not related to disease burden in the city.
The following suggestions are hereby forwarded in line with findings of the study:
There should be proper monitoring of packaged water production factories and processes by public health officials as this
is currently a major source of drinking water in the city. A task force on implementation of environmental/water protection
laws and edicts should be set up to regulate the use of water bodies for sinks of urban waste.
Adequate funding and rationalization of staffing in the water board is recommended so that savings from this process can
be channelled into new and effective technologies for water treatment and adequate safe water delivery system in the city.
It is also very pertinent to engage the general masses on the dangers of using untreated water and on the need for the
protection of water resources as a common good.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Special thanks to Mr Echendu Chukwuma and Mr Help Omurujia for assisting with
gathering some of the data used in this work.
6.0: REFERENCES
[1] WHO/UNICEF. (2010). A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring
Programme, Addis Ababa.).
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[2] Pravettoni R (2012). Access to water in urban Africa. From collection: Green Hills, Blue Cities - an Ecosystems
Approach to Water Resources Management for African Cities. UPLOADED 1ST FEB 2012 BY UNEP/GRIDArendal. http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/access-to-water-in-urban-africa_12a6
[3] WHO (2015). UN reveals major gaps in water and sanitation – especially in rural areas. Joint
World Health Organization and UNICEF (2006). Core questions on drinking-water and sanitation for household surveys.
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Geneva, Switzerland.
[4] Clos, A and Stetner,J (2011). UNEP/UN-HABITAT “Joint statement” on Green Hills, Blue Cities: An Ecosystems
Approach to Water Resources Management for African Cities. A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations
Environment Programme,/GRID-Arenda
[5] Mafuta, C., Formo, R. K., Nellemann, C., and Li, F. (eds). (2011). Green Hills, Blue Cities: An Ecosystems Approach
to Water Resources Management for African Cities. A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Environment
Programme/GRID-Arendal.
[6] UN-HABITAT (2010). Solid waste management in the world’s cities: water and sanitation in the world’s cities 2010.
United Nations Human Settlements Programme. Earthscan, London
[7] PBS / Pulitzer Center, (2012) "What's Causing Water Shortages in Ghana, Nigeria?". pp. Minutes 1-4 of the video. On
Crisis Reporting (15 March 2012).
[8] Kanu, I and Achi, O.K (2011). Industrial effluents and their impact on water quality of receiving rivers in Nigeria.
Journal of Applied Technology In Environmental Sanitation, 1 (1): 75-86.).
[9] Anunonwu O.C., Agwu N.A, Nwankwo, B.O, Nnadozie, J.NB, Oguejiofor C.N, S. Nwoga ,N.S and Odom U.C (2009).
Evaluation of Environmental Sanitation in Owerri Municipal Council of Imo State Research Journal of Medical
Sciences, 3(4): 137-140).
[10] Umunnakwe E. J and Nnaji A.O (2011). Influence of Land use patterns on Otamiri River, Owerri and Urban Quality
of Life, Department of Environmental Technology, FUTO, Imo State.
[11] Ezekwe I.C, Odubo T.V, Odubo Ebifuro and Akosa I. (2011). Housing, Sanitation, and Faecal Sludge Management in
Owerri, Nigeria. Journal of Geographic Thought (JOGET); 12(1&2):89-102.
[12] Oteze G E (1990). Trace elements in the groundwater in the Sokoto Basin, Nigeria. Water Res (Nig), 12(1): 7–13.
[13] Stimson Global Health Security (2009). "Lagos: Growth without infrastructure".
http://www.stimson.org/images/uploads/Lagos_Case_Study.pdf. Retrieved 12 April 2012./ Wikipedia online
Dictionary. Water supply and sanitation in Nigeria
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Nigeria
[14] Vanguard. "Lagos: Water everywhere but none to drink". pp. 3 April 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/04/lagos-water-everywhere-but-not-to-drink/
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[15] Hove M and Tirimbo A (2011). Assessment of Harare water service delivery. Journal of sustainable development in
africa (volume 13, no.4, 2011). ISSN: 1520-5509
[16] Kimey, V (2008). An Assessment of the Performance of Urban Water Supply Utilities: A Case Study of Korogwe
andMuheza Town, Tanzania, University of Zimbabwe, Department of Civil Engineering Unpublished MSc
Thesis.
[17] WHO, World Health Organisation. 2004. Water for health: Guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO, Geneva.
[18] Cummingham W.P. (2005) Environmental Science: A Global Concern, Eight Edition, McGram Hill, New York.
[19] Schueler, T R (2000). "Microbes and Urban Watersheds: Concentrations, Sources, & Pathways." Reprinted in The
Practice of Watershed Protection. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD
[20] Washtenaw County Michigan (WCM), (2007). ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH FACT SHEET Coliform Bacteria and
Drinking Water.
http://www.ewashtenaw.org/government/departments/environmental_health/wells_septic/well_septic_pdf/eh_coli
formfactsheet.pdf
[21] Michigan Department of Environmental Quality. (2007). Coliform Bacteria and Water well Sampling. DEQ Factsheet.
http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/deq-wd-gws-wcu-coliformbactiwellwatersampling_270604_7.pdf
[22] Linebarger F (2007). Evidence mounts on dangers of plastics. Mountain View Voice. http://www.mvvoice.com/print/story/2007/10/19/evidence-mounts-on-dangers-of-plastics
[23] Yang C. Z, Yaniger S.I, Jordan V.C, Klein D.J and Bittner G.D (2011). Most Plastic Products Release Estrogenic
Chemicals: A Potential Health Problem that Can Be Solved. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119(7): 989-996
[24] Happybabyusa.org. http://happybabyusa.org/2012/12/20/does-bpa-free-or-phthalates-free-mean-its-safe/
[25] Shotyk, W, Krachler M and Chen B (2006). Contamination of Canadian and European bottled waters with antimony
from PET containers. J. Environ. Monit., 2006,8, 288-292. DOI: 10.1039/B517844B
[26] Cooper R.G and Harrison A.P (2009). The exposure to and health effects of antimony. Indian J Occup Environ Med.;
13(1): 3–10. doi: 10.4103/0019-5278.50716
TABLES:
Table 1: Distribution of sources of domestic water in Owerri Municipality
Source of Domestic Water
Number
Borehole Water only
36
Waterboard (public utility) only
16
Sachet water only
0
Aboki (push-cart water vendor) water only
0
Stream and river water only
1
Borehole and waterboard
50
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Percentage (%)
24%
10.67%
0%
0%
0.67%
33.33%
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Borehole and Rainwater
Borehole and sachet water
Borehole/waterboard/sachet and stream/river
Borehole/ waterboard/Aboki and sachet only
Borehole/waterboard/ Aboki/ sachet and rainwater
Borehole/waterboard, stream/river and sachet
Borehole/ rainwater and sachet
Borehole, waterboard, sachet and rainwater
Borehole/, sachet and rainwater
Total
1
9
3
18
6
1
3
5
1
150
0.67%
6%
2%
12%
4%
0.67%
2%
3.33%
0.67%
100%
Table 2: SUMMARY OF WATER TREATMENT BEFORE DRINKING:
Treating water before drinking
Number
Percentage
Yes
42
28%
No
108
72%
Total
150
100%
Types of treatment
Boiling
Number
33
Percentage
22%
Chemical
6
4%
Alum
5
3.33%
Others
0
0%
Table 3: Summary of Perception of Water Source Quality:
Rainwater pollution
Number
Yes
103
Percentage
68.67%
No
47
31.33%
Number
Percentage
66
44%
No
84
56%
Borehole pollution
Yes
Number
15
Percentage
10%
No
135
90%
Rainwater pollution
Yes
Number
103
Percentage
68.67%
No
147
31.33%
Aboki Water Pollution
Yes
Number
99
Percentage
66
No
51
34
Stream/River
Owerri
Yes
Pollution
in
Table 4: Perception of major threats to water Quality, pollution control and water as a disease vector:
Major threat to water Quality
Number
Percentage
Refuse dumping
67
44.67%
TLEP Journal Of Multi Discipline in – Science Research Issues
9
IJETR-www.tlepub.org
TLEP International Journal Of Environmental Technology Research
ISSN 2488-9324(Paper) E-ISSN 2488-9334(Online)
Vol. 2. Issue. 1. 2016
Oil pollution
Sewage/drainage disposal
Refuse dumping and sewage drainage
Refuse dumping and septic tanks
Responsible for pollution control
Government Alone
Individual/household
Collective responsibility
Water pollution a major source of
disease spread
Yes
No
3
37
41
2
Number
5
7
138
Number
2%
24.67%
27.33%
1.34%
Percentage
3.33%
4.67%
92%
Percentage
55
95
36.67%
63.33%
TLEP Journal Of Multi Discipline in – Science Research Issues
10
IJETR-www.tlepub.org