Journal of Geodynamics 75 (2014) 53–63
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Journal of Geodynamics
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jog
Migration of growth axial surfaces and its implications for multiphase
tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Zhangwu fault depression,
southern Songliao Basin, NE China
Baoling Gui a,1 , Dengfa He a,∗ , Weijia Chen a,2 , Wenjun Zhang b,3
a
b
China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, Huabei Oil Field, PetroChina, Renqiu 062552, Hebei, China
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 11 April 2013
Received in revised form 26 February 2014
Accepted 26 February 2014
Available online 6 March 2014
Keywords:
Normal fault-bend folding
Growth strata
Rifting phase
Tectono-sedimentary evolution
Zhangwu fault depression
Songliao Basin
a b s t r a c t
The normal fault-bend folding theory uses active axial surfaces, inactive axial surfaces, and growth axial
surfaces to describe the geometric relationship between faults and deformation of a hanging wall. The
dip of a growth axial surface is related to the fault slip rate and the basin sedimentation rate: higher
fault slip rates result in smaller dips of growth axial surfaces, whereas higher basin sedimentation rates
produce larger dips of growth axial surfaces. Moreover, the growth axial surface will be a straight line
if both the fault slip and sedimentation rates remain relatively unchanged, but will become curved if
both rates are variable. Therefore, the characteristics of growth axial surfaces can provide clear information on the evolution of faulting and deposition. By studying the seismic profiles of the Zhangwu
fault depression of the southern Songliao Basin, we show that the migration of growth axial surfaces and
unconformities can be used as indicators of basin development. Multiphase tectonic activity will not only
produce unconformities but also result in migration of growth axial surfaces or inactive axial surfaces.
Therefore, the normal fault-bend folding theory, particularly with regard to the evolution of growth axial
surfaces, can be applied to the interpretation of geometric and kinematic evolutions of half-grabens and
the exploration of related tectono-sedimentary processes.
© 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1. Introduction
Tectonic deformation and its effects on deposition are very significant components of basin analysis, especially for extensional
basins (Suppe, 1983, 1985; Shaw et al., 1994, 1996, 1997, 2005; Qi
et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 2004; He et al., 2005; Guo and Qi, 2008;
Xiao and Suppe, 1992). In particular, at places where the dominant
tectonic processes are not evident, identification of syntectonic
deposition can help in exploration of the structural deformation
history (Xiao and Suppe, 1992; Suppe et al., 1997; Shaw et al., 1997).
Therefore, addressing basin formation and evolution in combination with sedimentary analysis can prove useful. Several geometric
and kinematic models of fault-related folding exist for thrust faults,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 1082323868; fax: +86 1082326850.
E-mail addresses: guizi0603@163.com (B. Gui), hedengfa282@263.net (D. He),
zhenjia619117@sina.com (W. Chen), yjy zwjun@petrochina.com.cn (W. Zhang).
1
Tel.: 86 13811107416.
2
Tel.: 86 18810552057.
3
Tel.: 86 15226707939.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2014.02.009
0264-3707/© 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
on the basis of which we can discuss the quantitative relationships
among the uplift rate, sedimentation rate, and fault slip rate by
analyzing syntectonic deposition (Suppe et al., 1992). Such analysis represents a new methodology for studying the relationship
between structural deformation and sedimentation. Similarly, is it
possible to study quantitatively the relationship between normal
fault slip rate and sedimentation rate based on existing theories
of extensional fault-related folding (Xiao and Suppe, 1992; Shaw
et al., 1994, 1996, 2005)?
Half-grabens formed during crustal extension are typically controlled by large-scale bounding normal faults, whose dips decrease
gradually with depth; this results in hanging wall collapse and produces rollover anticlines (Hamblin, 1965), which occur extensively
in rift basins globally (Bally, 1983; Nunns, 1991). Many researchers
have presented different geometric and physical models of hanging
wall collapse along vertical or angular shear surfaces (e.g., Gibbs,
1983; Jackson and Galloway, 1984; White et al., 1986; Rowan and
Kligfield, 1989; Groshong, 1990; Nunns, 1991; White and Yielding,
1991; Withjack et al., 1995). During fault slipping, the hanging
wall bends through the axial surface, which is pinned to the fault
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B. Gui et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 75 (2014) 53–63
Fig. 1. Geometric and kinematic model of normal fault-bend fold (Xiao and Suppe, 1992).
bend, and secondary faults form easily at the bends of the master
fault, and these faults eventually flatten to an underlying detachment (Dula, 1991; McClay and Scott, 1991; Xiao and Suppe, 1992;
Withjack et al., 1995).
Xiao and Suppe (1992) simulated hanging wall collapses along
axial surfaces on the basis of Coulomb shear and derived a theoretical model of normal fault-bend folding: if the rock is rigid, a
gap is formed between the hanging wall and the footwall when
the hanging wall slips to the bottom right (Fig. 1a), and a kink
band develops if the hanging wall collapses, thereby filling up the
gap. The active axial surface takes its shape from cutoff point x
on the footwall, whereas the inactive axial surface takes its shape
from cutoff point x on the hanging wall. Folds form in the hanging wall around the active axial surface during fault slipping and
come into the kink band or rollover surfaces, whose width equals
to the slip of the fault (Fig. 1b). If faulting occurs synchronously
with deposition, the sequences deposited are referred to as growth
strata; conversely, sequences deposited before faulting are known
as pre-growth strata. Furthermore, the rollover width of growth
strata reflects the slip of the fault that occurs during deposition;
this explains why early rollovers are wider than later rollovers.
Consequently, these syntectonic deposition strata narrow upward
gradually, thus constituting a growth triangle. The growth triangle
is confined by the active axial surface and inactive axial surface in
the growth strata; the latter of these is referred to as the growth
axial surface. The active axial surface, inactive axial surface, and
growth axial surface, together with part of the fault segment, xx ,
jointly constitute a kink band in which folds are likely to develop
(Fig. 1c).
Growth strata record basin evolution well, whereas growth axial
surfaces in the growth strata of half-grabens reflect variations in
faulting and sedimentation processes (Shaw et al., 1997). Xiao and
Suppe (1992) found that the dips of growth axial surfaces are
related to both the sedimentation rate and the fault slip rate. In this
paper, we propose that multiphase tectonic activity will not only
produce unconformities but also result in migration of growth axial
surfaces.
The Zhangwu fault depression in the southern Songliao Basin
is characterized by extensional fault-bend folds. High-resolution
seismic reflection profiles indicate that its bounding fault is a
large-scale normal fault that bends only once, and the geometry of the fault depression agrees with the theoretical model
of normal fault-bend folding. Moreover, the geometric and kinematic evolution of the Zhangwu fault depression provide an
ideal opportunity to address the tectono-sedimentary processes
of extensional basins through investigation of the evolution of
growth axial surfaces that are controlled by the relationship
between faulting and deposition. By utilizing acquired seismic data
and newly drilled well data, we analyze the geometry and kinematic history of the Zhangwu fault depression and explore related
tectono-sedimentary processes using the methods discussed
above.
2. Growth axial surface evolution and fault activity
2.1. Normal fault and accommodation space
The geometric shape and related rollover panels of normal faults
control the size and shape of the accommodation space accompanied by deposition. A half-graben accommodation space is the
maximum accommodation space that can be produced by fault
slip; in such cases, the accommodation space is determined by the
maximum tectonic difference at the top of the pre-growth strata
of the hanging wall and the footwall (Shaw et al., 1997) (Fig. 2a).
Rollover accommodation space, which is part of the half-graben
accommodation space, is produced by folds resulting from strata
rollover (Shaw et al., 1997) (Fig. 2b). The rollover accommodation
space includes two compartments (hereafter referred to as compartment 1 and compartment 2) that are separated by the active
axial surface. These two compartments experience different subsidence rates, which are controlled by the dip of the fault segment
immediately underneath them: the subsidence rate of the associated compartment increases with the fault segment dip. Thus, the
subsidence rate of compartment 1 is higher than that of compartment 2. Where a fault is steeper at the top than at the bottom, the
growth strata would be thickest over the steepest fault segment,
Fig. 2. Concepts of normal fault and accommodation space (a) half-graben accommodation space; (b) rollover accommodation space (Shaw et al., 1997).
B. Gui et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 75 (2014) 53–63
assuming that deposits either just fill or slightly overflow the halfgraben accommodation space; conversely, fault segments with a
shallower dip are covered by thinner growth strata.
If the rollover accommodation space does not become filled with
sediments (i.e., if the sedimentation rate is lower than the subsidence rate), the space will be underfilled. The lower sedimentation
rate will result in all sediments entering the rollover accommodation space, with no deposition on the footwall of the fault.
Conversely, if the deposits only just fill the half-graben accommodation space (i.e., the sedimentation rate is equal to the subsidence
rate), the space will be filled, and no deposition will occur on
the footwall. If deposits overflow the half-graben accommodation
space (i.e., if the sedimentation rate is higher than the subsidence
rate), the space will be overfilled; in such cases, deposition will
occur on the footwall, and the fault will grow upward.
2.2. Dip variation of growth axial surface
Changes in the sedimentation rate and the fault slip rate have
profound effects on the shape of the rollover, even with a fixed
fault shape. These effects commonly dominate rollover geometry.
Dip variation of a growth axial surface is an indicator of the relative variation in the fault slip and sedimentation rates (Xiao and
Suppe, 1992). For a constant sedimentation rate, increasing the
fault slip rate will decrease the dip of the growth axial surface until
it becomes a horizontal line. For a constant fault slip rate, a higher
sedimentation rate will result in a steeper dip of the growth axial
surface (Fig. 3). Thus, the growth axial surface will be a straight
line when the fault slip rate and strata sedimentation rate are relatively constant. During the evolution of a basin, the ratio of the fault
slip rate to the sedimentation rate becomes unstable if either ratio
changes, which will change the dip of the growth axial surface, making the surface a curve. If the ratio of the sedimentation rate to fault
slip rate persistently increases, the dip of the growth axial surface
will become increasingly steeper with time, and finally the growth
axial surface will have a concave-upward shape. In contrast, if the
ratio of the sedimentation rate to the fault slip rate decreases persistently, the dip of the growth axial surface will become increasingly
shallower with time, and finally, the growth axial surface will have
a convex-upward shape. Consequently, it is possible to determine
relative changes in the fault slip and sedimentation rates by analyzing the growth axial surface of a fault basin, thereby determining
the tectono-sedimentary evolution history of the basin.
When deposits just fill or do not fill the rollover accommodation
space, truncation occurs in the growth triangle. Moreover, because
this truncation is not the result of denudation, it must be distinguished when defining the sequence boundaries (Shaw et al., 1997)
(Fig. 3d and d ).
2.3. Growth axial surface and fault activity phases
When a bent normal fault has been active with no deposition,
folds will be produced in its hanging wall strata with the active and
inactive axial surfaces as the fold hinges. This faulting is known as
phase 1 faulting. The strata deposited before the phase 1 faulting
are known as phase 1 pre-growth strata, and the inactive axial surface produced is known as the phase 1 inactive axial surface. The
fold deformation in the hanging wall strata produces a half-graben
accommodation space, which continues to receive sediments even
after the phase 1 faulting terminates. As the fault is inactive, the
strata deposited during this time are not deformed; rather, they
onlap the phase 1 pre-growth strata. The deposits exceed the halfgraben accommodation space when sedimentation is substantial
(Fig. 4a). After a certain period of inactivity, the fault reactivates
without any deposition. This faulting is referred to as the phase 2
faulting, and the strata deposited before this period are referred to
55
as the phase 2 pre-growth strata. The phase 2 pre-growth strata
are subjected to phase 2 faulting, resulting in deformation and the
production of a new kink band, with the active axial surface and
the phase 2 inactive axial surface acting as boundaries (Fig. 4b).
During this time, the active axial surface is parallel to the phase
2 and phase 1 inactive axial surfaces; the distance along the fault
between the active axial surface and the phase 2 inactive axial surface represents the slip of the phase 2 faulting (Fig. 4b(1)), whereas
that between the active axial surface and the phase 1 inactive axial
surface represents the aggregate slip of phase 1 faulting and phase
2 faulting (Fig. 4b(2)). This occurs because the phase 1 pre-growth
strata have undergone both periods of faulting activity, whereas the
distance along the fault between the phase 2 and phase 1 inactive
axial surfaces represents the slip of only the phase 1 faulting. As can
be seen from Fig. 4b, which illustrates the period after the phase 2
faulting, the dip of the strata in the phase 2 kink band on the profile
is consistent with that in the phase 1 kink band. The inactive axial
surface migrates during the phase 1 faulting and phase 2 faulting,
and there is an onlap between the two inactive axial surfaces.
As a result of the phase 1 faulting, fold deformation occurs in
the hanging wall strata and produces a rollover accommodation
space (Fig. 5a). If the phase 2 faulting activates during deposition,
the rollover accommodation space receives sediments that form
growth strata, referred to as phase 2 growth strata (Fig. 5b). In
these growth strata, a growth axial surface develops and intersects
the active axial surface to form a growth triangle. The maximum
distance along the fault between the active axial surface and the
growth axial surface represents the slip of the fault during the phase
2 faulting (Fig. 5b(1)), whereas that between the active axial surface and the inactive axial surface represents the total slip of the
fault during phases 1 faulting and phase 2 faulting (Fig. 5b(2)). The
growth axial surface and the inactive axial surface are separated by
an unconformity.
Similarly, if deposition occurs during the two phases of faulting, two growth axial surfaces will be formed; these will also be
separated by an unconformity.
Based on this geometry and the kinematics model illustrated in
Figs. 4 and 5, we believe that the inactive surface will be discontinuous if the basin that is controlled by one bounding fault experiences
multiphase rifting. Thus, the characteristics of axial surfaces are
helpful for analysis of the tectonic evolution of basins.
3. Multiphase rift characteristics of the Zhangwu fault
depression
3.1. Geological background of the Zhangwu fault depression
The Songliao Basin, an Early Cretaceous extensional rift basin
located in the Northeast China, has a very complex dynamic
background. The basement rocks of the Songliao Basin are
metasandstones of the Paleozoic age with marble, slate, and phyllite; abundant Triassic and Paleozoic granites also occur, and the
sedimentary cover is Cenozoic and Mesozoic in age (Hu et al., 2005).
The Xing’an-Inner Mongolia, Jihei, and Yanshan fold belts lie to the
west, east, and southeast, respectively, of the Songliao Basin. Thus,
the basement of the Songliao Basin can be considered the result of a
threefold belt (Liu, 1993). Several opinions exist on the dynamics of
the Songliao Basin (Ge et al., 2010). Some emphasize the role of subduction of the paleo-Pacific (Watson et al., 1987; Tian et al., 1992;
Liu et al., 2000; Li and Shu, 2002; Ren et al., 2002; Schellart and
Lister, 2005) or Mongolia–Okhotsk plates (Wang et al., 2006a,b):
that is, the Songliao Basin is a large back-arc rift basin or a rift
basin on the magmatic arc that is produced by subduction (Yan
et al., 2002). Others emphasize the effects of mantle plumes (Xiao
et al., 2004), with the belief that the mantle plumes formed from
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Fig. 3. Models for rollover geometry of a constant fault shape with varying sedimentation and fault slip rates (Xiao and Suppe, 1992). The growth axial surface dip increases
with an increase in the sedimentation rate and a decrease in the fault slip rate.
Fig. 4. Growth axial surface and faulting phases: phase 2 faulting is rapid with no syndeposition. (1) slip during phase 2 faulting; (2) total slips during phase 1 and 2 faulting
B. Gui et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 75 (2014) 53–63
57
Fig. 5. Growth axial surface and faulting phases: phase 2 faulting is slow with syndeposition. (1) slip during faulting phase 2, (2) total slips during phase 1 and 2 faulting
the Late Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous in the Songliao area and that
the upwelling of the asthenosphere and the mantle, crustal uplift
and extension, and volcanic activity caused the formation of the
Songliao Basin. Some others emphasize the involvement of strikeslipping, suggesting that the Songliao Basin is a pull-apart basin
formed by the Tanlu Fault (Yilan–Yitong fault) (Wang et al., 1998;
Ren et al., 1998).
The Songliao Basin can be divided into the northern and southern parts according to its tectonic subsidence history. The northern
Songliao Basin experienced not only synrift development but
also large-magnitude post-rift or thermal subsidence. In contrast,
the southern Songliao Basin exhibits minor post-rift subsidence
despite undergoing intense rifting (Wei et al., 2010). The northern
Songliao Basin has been studied extensively, whereas the southern Songliao Basin is has not been explored much until now. The
Early Cretaceous depressions in the southern Songliao Basin are
broadly distributed. Two basement faults exist in the southern
Songliao Basin (Fig. 6). One is the Chifeng–Kaiyuan fault which is
a lithospheric, compressive, and transpressive reverse fault. This
fault originated in the Early Paleozoic era and thrust in the Late
Permian–Triassic period; it stopped in the Early Cretaceous Epoch.
The other is the Yilan–Yitong fault, which is a sinistral strike-slip
fault that originated in the early Early Cretaceous, became a reverse
fault in the middle Early Cretaceous, converted to a right-lateral
strike-slip fault in the Paleocene, and again became a reverse fault at
the end of the Oligocene. The Chifeng–Kaiyuan fault did not activate
in the Early Cretaceous; therefore, it did not play a role in the formation and evolution of depressions in the Southern Songliao Basin.
The Yilan–Yitong fault actived very late, and it could influence
the depressions in the Southern Songliao Basin. The depressions
located to the north of the Chifeng–Kaiyuan fault are larger than
those to its south (Fig. 6).
The Zhangwu fault depression lies at the southern end of the
Songliao Basin, in the vicinity of some smaller fault depressions
(such as the Zhangdong, Daleng, and Yaobao, Tayingzi, Yemaotai
fault depressions). The Zhangwu fault depression is a very small
fault depression and covers an area of 128 km2 (Fig. 6). At a large
scale, the Zhangwu fault depression has an NNE strike and can
be considered a Jurassic–Early Cretaceous fault basin. Although
the Chifeng–Kaiyuan fault is very close to the Zhangwu fault
depression, it affects only the basement and has no effect on the
deformation of shallow sedimentary cover. Cretaceous sediments
include the Quantou (K1 qt), Fuxin (K1 fx), Shahai (K1 sh), Jiufotang
(K1 jf), and Yixian (K1 yx) formations; Jurassic sediments include the
Tuchengzi (J3 tch), Lanqi (J2 lq), Haifanggou (J2 hf), Beipiao (J1 bp),
and Xinglonggou (J1 xl) formations (Fig. 7). Cretaceous sediments
are distributed in the entire Songliao Basin, which has been studied extensively, and the formers have unified and compared the
stratigraphy of Cretaceous in the Songliao Basin (Gao et al., 1994;
Wang et al., 2002; Sha, 2007). The drilling wells in the Zhangwu
fault depression (such as Zw2-2 in Fig. 6) are not very deep into the
Jurassic strata, but Jurassic strata are present in the outcrop near
the Zhangwu fault depression. The Jurassic strata in Well Hei1 in
Dahongqi fault depression, which is not far away the Zhangwu fault
depression, were drilled. This study uses the age of Jurassic strata
from Well Hei1.
3.2. Tectonic geometry and kinematics of the Zhangwu fault
depression
The Zhangwu fault depression lies at the southernmost part of
the Songliao Basin where it is very close to the Bohai Bay Basin. This
exceptional geographic location accounts for the complex tectonic
evolution of the fault depression, which possibly involved multiphase tectonic activity. Fig. 8 illustrates a two-dimensional (2-D)
seismic profile through the center of the depression. This profile is a
very typical representation of the depression, being perpendicular
to the strike of the bounding fault and traversing its main structures. A large bounding fault, which controls the sedimentation of
the entire depression, can be identified clearly in the profile. Fig. 8a
illustrates the folded strata, in which two axial surfaces are present:
one is an active axial surface, pinned to the bend of the bounding fault, and the other is a growth axial surface. The growth axial
surface intersects the active axial surface to form a growth triangle. The strata inside this triangle have been deformed; conversely,
those outside the triangle have not and remain nearly horizontal.
Fig. 8b illustrates a distinct angular unconformity where the overlying strata onlap the underlying strata. Along this unconformity,
the strata can be divided geometrically into two tectonic layers,
each with different geometric deformations. Fig. 8c illustrates fold
deformations at the northwestern margin of the fault depression,
forming a single anticline. A growth axial surface can be identified
when the bend points of the strata are connected. Instead, forming a straight line, this growth axial surface is curved, with its dip
tapering upward to zero. This suggests that either the fault slip
rate or the sedimentation rate was relatively unstable when this
fault was accompanied by deposition: either the fault slip accelerated or the sedimentation rate declined. A number of truncation
points are observed at the edge of the fault depression; these are
not the products of denudation, but rather the result of an angular
unconformity that forms when the dip of the growth axial surface
reaches zero, where the sedimentation rate is lower than or equal
to the subsidence rate.
Interpretation of the profile (Fig. 9) based on the fault-bend folding theory indicates that two growth axial surfaces are present on
the profile: growth axial surface 1 was produced in the Jurassic
strata, whereas growth axial surface 2 was produced in the Lower
Cretaceous strata. The two growth axial surfaces are separated by
the unconformity between the Jurassic and Cretaceous systems.
Because the ages of growth strata define the timing of deformation
(Shaw et al., 2005), it may be possible to determine the fault slip
rates and associated sedimentation rates during different phases of
development.
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Fig. 6. Location of the Zhangwu fault depression, Southern Songliao Basin Daleng fault depression; 2 Yemaotai depression; 3 Tayingzi depression; 4 Zhangwu fault depression;
5 Zhangdong dault depression; 6 Yaobao depression; 7 Dahongqi depression.
Growth axial surface 1 is not a straight line, which suggests
that the fault slip rate and sedimentation rate were relatively
unstable during deposition of the Tuchengzi (J3 tch), Lanqi (J2 lq),
Haifanggou (J2 hf), Beipiao (J1 bp), and Xinglonggou (J1 xl) formations. In Fig. 9, the minimum sedimentation thickness h1 of the
Xinglonggou Formation (J1 xl) is 524.8 m; the slip of the fault, d1,
was 436 m, and the sedimentation time was 13.4 Ma. Thus, the
minimum sedimentation rate of the Xinglonggou Formation (J1 xl)
during its sedimentation was 39.2 m/Ma; moreover, the fault slip
rate was 32.5 m/Ma, and the ratio of sedimentation rate to fault
slip rate was 1.20. The minimum sedimentation thickness of the
Beipiao Formation (J1 bp) is h2 = 482.0 m; the slip of the fault
was d2 = 454.7 m, and the sedimentation time was 14 Ma. Thus,
the minimum sedimentation rate of the Beipiao Formation (J1 bp)
during its sedimentation was 34.4 m/Ma, the fault slip rate was
32.5 m/Ma, and the ratio of sedimentation rate to fault slip rate was
1.06. The minimum sedimentation thickness h3 of the Haifanggou Formation (J2 hf) is 289.0 m; moreover, the slip of the fault, d3,
was 559.1 m, and the sedimentation time was 7.9 Ma. Thus, the
minimum sedimentation rate of the Haifanggou Formation (J2 hf)
during its sedimentation was 36.6 m/Ma, the fault slip rate was
70.8 m/Ma, and the ratio of sedimentation rate to fault slip rate
was 0.52. The minimum sedimentation thickness h4 of the Lanqi
Formation (J2 lq) is 194.4 m; furthermore, the slip of the fault, d4,
was 576.7 m, and the sedimentation time was 6.5 Ma. Thus, the
minimum sedimentation rate of the Lanqi Formation (J2 lq) during
its sedimentation was 29.9 m/Ma, the fault slip rate was 88.7 m/Ma,
and the ratio of sedimentation rate to fault slip rate was 0.34. The
minimum sedimentation thickness h5 of the Tuchengzi Formation (J3 tch) is 0 m; the slip of the fault, d5, was 678.9 m, and the
sedimentation time was 5.6 Ma. Thus, the minimum sedimentation
rate of the Tuchengzi Formation (J3 tch) during its sedimentation
was 0 m/Ma, the fault slip rate was 121.2 m/Ma, and the ratio of
sedimentation rate to fault slip rate was 0. This indicates that the
Jurassic sedimentation rate declined gradually while the fault slip
rate increased gradually, such that their ratio decreased to zero.
This explains why growth axial surface 1 is curved, with a dip that
tapers upward to reach zero.
The distance along the fault between the start and end
points of growth axial surface 1 (Fig. 9(1)) corresponds to
the slip of the fault during phase 1 activity and is approximately 2705 m. Moreover, the minimum sedimentation thickness
(h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 + h5) is 1495.2 m. The fault activity
lasted approximately 47.4 Ma, from sedimentation phase 1 of the
Xinglonggou (J1 xl) Formation until the final sedimentation phase of
the Tuchengzi Formation (J3 tch). Thus, the average activity rate of
B. Gui et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 75 (2014) 53–63
59
Fig. 7. Stratigraphic columns of the Zhangwu dault depression.
the fault during phase 1 was approximately 57.1 m/Ma; moreover,
the average sedimentation rate of the fault was 31.5 m/Ma, and the
ratio of sedimentation rate to fault slip rate was 0.55.
Growth axial surface 2 is a straight line, suggesting that the sedimentation and activity rates of the fault depression were stable
during the Cretaceous. The distance along the fault between the
start and end points of growth axial surface 2 (Fig. 9(3)) corresponds
to the slip of the fault during phase 2 activity, which was approximately 1459.7 m; the minimum sedimentation thickness h was
1732.1 m, and the activity lasted approximately 20.5 Ma, from sedimentation phase 1 of the Yixian Formation (K1 yx) until the final
sedimentation phase of the Fuxin Formation (K1 fx). Therefore,
the fault slip rate during phase 2 was approximately 71.2 m/Ma,
the sedimentation rate was 84.5 m/Ma, and the ratio of sedimentation rate to fault slip rate was 1.19. The distance along the
fault between the end point of growth axial surface 1 and the
start point of growth axial surface 2 (Fig. 9(2)) corresponds to
the slip of the fault during the sedimentary hiatus, which was
approximately 4641.7 m. This sedimentation lasted approximately
10.1 Ma during the Late Jurassic, when the sedimentation rate
was 0 m/Ma, the fault slip rate was approximately 459.6 m/Ma,
and the ratio of these rates was 0. Tectono-sedimentary evolution data on the Zhangwu fault depression are provided in
Table 1.
The trend of the tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Zhangwu
fault depression during the Jurassic and Cretaceous indicates that
the minimum sedimentation rate of the fault depression continued
to decrease until it reached 0 at the end of the Jurassic, at which time
a sedimentary hiatus occurred. However, the activity rate of the
bounding fault continued to increase until the fault slip suddenly
became violent at the end of the Jurassic. By the Early Cretaceous,
both the sedimentation rate and the fault slip rate had become
stable (Fig. 10a). The data indicate that the ratio of the sedimentation rate to the fault slip rate continued to decrease throughout
the Jurassic, reaching 0 at the end of the Jurassic. At the start of the
Early Cretaceous, this ratio suddenly increased before stabilizing to
a constant level (Fig. 10b). Therefore, growth axial surface 1 became
curved in the Jurassic and growth axial surface 2 was a straight
line. Moreover, these two growth axial surfaces are separated by
an amount equal to the erosion time.
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Fig. 8. Seismic profile of the Zhangwu fault depression.
3.3. Tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Zhangwu fault
depression
In general, the bounding fault of the Zhangwu fault depression
can be regarded as a normal fault with only one bend that has
experienced two phases of tectonic activity. The bounding fault of
the Zhangwu fault depression was activated at the beginning of
the Jurassic, such that Jurassic strata were deposited syntectonically. This faulting is known as phase 1 faulting. The pre-Jurassic
and Jurassic strata are referred to as phase 1 pre-growth strata
and phase 1 growth strata, respectively. An inactive axial surface
developed in the pre-Jurassic system, and the phase 1 growth axial
surface developed in the Jurassic strata. During the Jurassic period,
when the Xinglonggou to Tuchengzi formations (J1 xl–J3 tch) were
being deposited, the ratio of the sedimentation rate to the fault
slip rate continued to decrease, and the dip of the growth axial surface in the sedimentation strata varied continually. These processes
explain why the phase 1 growth axial surface is a curved line, rather
than bing a straight line with gradually decreasing dip. By the end
of the Jurassic, the sedimentation rate had reached 0, and a sedimentary hiatus occurred in the absence of deposition. Moreover,
the bounding fault suddenly became violently active, producing a
rollover accommodation space. In the Early Cretaceous, the fault
was accompanied by deposition and the rollover accommodation
space received sediment. The sedimentation strata include the
Lower Cretaceous Yixian to Fuxin formations (K1 yx–K1 fx). This
faulting is known as phase 2 faulting. Therefore, the Yixian to Fuxin
formations are considered to be phase 2 growth strata, in which
the phase 2 growth axial surface developed and intersected the
active axial surface to form a growth triangle. During deposition
of K1 yx–K1 fx, the fault slip rate and sedimentation rate were relatively stable; therefore, the phase 2 growth axial surface developed
into a straight line. Because the accommodation space was produced before the strata were deposited, an onlap occurred between
Table 1
Tectonic-sedimentary evolution parameters of the Zhangwu fault depression.
Strata
System
Formation
Lower Cretaceous
Sedimentation
Jurassic
hiatus
J3 tch
J2 lq
J2 hf
J1 bp
J1 xl
Minimum
sedimentation
thickness
Fault slip
Horizon
extension
Time
Minimum
sedimentation
rate (m/Ma)
Fault slip
rate
(m/Ma)
Horizon
extension
rate
Ratio of
sedimentation rate
to fault slip rate
h (m)
d (m)
L (m)
t (Ma)
1732.1
0.0
1459.7
4641.7
1427.8
4540.3
20.5
10.1
84.5
0.0
71.2
459.6
69.6
449.6
1.19
0.00
0.0
194.4
289.0
482.0
524.8
678.9
576.7
559.1
454.7
436.0
664.1
564.1
546.9
444.8
426.5
5.6
6.5
7.9
14.0
13.4
0.0
29.9
36.6
34.4
39.2
121.2
88.7
70.8
32.5
32.5
118.6
86.8
69.3
31.8
31.8
0.00
0.34
0.52
1.06
1.20
B. Gui et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 75 (2014) 53–63
61
Fig. 9. Structural interpretation of the Zhangwu fault depression. (1) Slip of phase 1 faulting, (2) slip of fault during sedimentation hiatus, (3) slip of phase 2 faulting
the two phases of the growth axial surfaces, forming an angular unconformity. Moreover, the sedimentary hiatus and violent
activity of the bounding fault at the end of the Jurassic led to the
migration of the phase 1 growth axial surface to the position of the
phase 2 growth axial surface (Fig. 11).
4. Discussion
There are obvious compressional structures in the post-rift
strata in the southern Songliao Basin which indicates that tectonic
inversion occurred in the Late Cretaceous (Wei et al., 2010). There
is no Upper Cretaceous sediment in the Zhangwu fault depression,
but we think that there is a post-rift stage in the Zhangwu fault
depression, and a tectonic inversion occurred in the Late Cretaceous in this depression. Uplifting as a whole in the Zhangwu fault
depression was the reason for the absence of the post-rift strata.
Normally, the tectonic inversion caused by a boundary fault may
result in the abnormality of growth axial surfaces, and the distance
between active axial surfaces and inactive axial surfaces corresponds to the total slip of the fault, which includes the extensional
Fig. 10. Jurassic–Cretaceous tectonic-sedimentation trend of the Zhangwu fault depression (a) variation trends of minimum sedimentation rate and fault slip rate, (b)
variation trend of ratio of minimum sedimentation rate to fault slip rate.
62
B. Gui et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 75 (2014) 53–63
Fig. 11. Tectono-sedimentary evolution diagram of the Zhangwu fault depression.
and compressional fault slips. However the tectonic inversion in
the Zhangwu fault depression is not boundary fault inversion, and
therefore, the tectonic inversion does not affect the geometry analysis of Zhangwu fault depression, which is based on an inactive or
growth axial surface.
Horizontal extensional rate = boundary fault slip rate × cos(dip
of fault), so the slip rate of the boundary fault of Zhangwu fault
depression governs the horizontal extension rate. The slip rate
of the boundary fault has been discussed in a previous paper,
as explained next. In the Jurassic, the slip rate increased from
32.5 m/Ma in J1 xl increased to 121.2 m/Ma in J3 tch; at the end of
the Jurassic, a very fast activity occurred, and the slip rate reached
to 459.6 m/Ma. In the Early Cretaceous, the slip rate decreased to
71.2 m/Ma and remained stable until the end of the Early Cretaceous. From Fig. 9, we found that the dip of the boundary fault is
12◦ , so the horizon extension and horizon extension rate could both
be calculated (Table 1). The horizon extension rate of the Zhangwu
fault depression increased in the Jurassic, from 31.8 m/Ma in J1 xl to
118.6 m/Ma in J3 tch; at the end of the Jurassic, a very fast activity
occurred, and the slip rate reached to 449.6 m/Ma. In the Early Cretaceous, the slip rate decreased to 69.6 m/Ma, and remained stable
until to the end of the Early Cretaceous.
Because the growth axial surface reflects the combined influences of faulting and sedimentary processes in half-grabens, it is
possible to determine the slip and deposition and their relative
variations by identifying and analyzing the growth axial surfaces.
This method was first proposed by Xiao and Suppe (1992) and was
subsequently developed by Shaw et al. (1997) through its application in the central Sumatra basin, Indonesia. For our example of
the Zhangwu fault depression in the southern Songliao Basin, we
quantify the sedimentation and fault slip rates in order to discuss
the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the basin. Of course, many
questions remain regarding this fault-sag basin. For example, what
caused the hiatus between the Jurassic and the Cretaceous? What
sort of process gives rise to the strong faulting that occurred in the
Late Jurassic? Finally, what are the dominant factors controlling the
multiphase evolution of rifting?
5. Conclusions
(1) The bounding fault of the Zhangwu fault depression controls
the sedimentation of the entire depression. Analysis of the growth
axial surface in the Zhangwu fault depression indicates two phases
of syndepositional tectonic activity in the area. The fault slip and
sedimentation rates were unstable in the early stages of syndepositional tectonic activity; therefore, the growth axial surface formed
was a curved line. Conversely, these rates were relatively stable
during the later phase, such that the growth axial surface formed
a straight line. A sedimentary hiatus occurred between these two
phases, accounting for the migration between the different growth
axial surfaces of the two phases.
(2) During the process of basin evolution, variations in the fault
slip rate or sedimentation rate resulted in dip variation of the
growth axial surfaces. Consequently, variations in either the fault
slip rate or the sedimentation rate resulted in the transition of the
growth axial surface from a straight line to a curved line. Multiphase
tectonic activity in the basin typically caused the migration of the
growth axial surface or the inactive axial surface, and formed an
unconformity. This phenomenon will enable us to identify relative
changes in the fault slip and sedimentation rates through investigation of the growth axial surface in a fault basin, thus allowing us
to determine the evolutionary processes of the basin.
Acknowledgments
The Sinopec Northeast Oilfield Company kindly supplied seismic
data and some of the well data. This research was financially supported by the National Science and Technology Major
B. Gui et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 75 (2014) 53–63
Project (2011ZX05008-001), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (40739906), and the Chinese State 973 Project
(2011CB201100).
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