DION®
Corrosion Guide
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Content
ASTM Reinforced Plastic Related Standards
3
- Sulfuric Acid
18
Introduction
4
- Hydrochloric Acid
18
- Using the DION® Chemical Resistance Guide
4
- Nitric and Chromic Acid
19
- Corrosion-Resistant Resin Chemistries
5
- Hydrofluoric Acid
19
- Markets
5
- Acetic Acid
19
- Applications
5
- Acetic Acid
19
6
- Perchloric Acid
19
- Warranty
6
- Phosphoric Acid
19
- Material Safety Data Sheets
6
- Deionized and Distilled Water
19
Resin Descriptions
7
- Desalination Applications
20
Bisphenol Epoxy Vinyl Ester Resins
7
- Electroplating and other Electrochemical Processes
20
Urethane-Modified Vinyl Ester Resins
7
- Fumes, Vapors, Hood & Duct Service
21
Novolac Vinyl Ester Resins
8
- Flue Gas Desulfurization
22
Elastomer-Modified Vinyl Ester Resins
8
- Gasoline, Gasohol and Underground Storage Tanks
22
Bisphenol-A Fumarate Polyester Resins
8
- Ore Extraction & Hydrometallurgy
23
Isophthalic and Terephthalic Polyester Resins
9
- Potable Water
23
- Ordering
DION®
Resins
Chlorendic Polyester Resins
10
- Radioactive Materials
24
Specifying Composite Performance
11
- Sodium Hydroxide and Alkaline Solutions
24
Factors Affecting Resin Performance
11
- Solvents
25
- Shelf Life Policy
11
- Static Electricity
25
- Elevated Temperatures
11
- FDA Compliance
25
Laminate Construction
12
- USDA Applications
25
- Surfacing Veil
12
Additional Reference Sources
- Chopped Strand Mat
13
Common Types of Metal Corrosion
46
- Woven Roving
13
- Oxygen Cell-Galvanic Corrosion
46
- Continuous Filament Roving
13
- Passive Alloys and Chloride Induced Stress Corrosion
47
- Resin Curing Systems
13
- Sulfide Stress Cracking
47
- Post-Curing
14
47
26-45
- Secondary Bonding
14
- CO2 Corrosion
- Other Types of Stress Corrosion
- Resin Top Coat
14
- Hydrogen Embrittlement
48
- Dual Laminate Systems
14
- Abrasive Materials
15
- Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Microbially Induced
Corrosion (MIC)
48
Selected Application Recommendations
16
Alternate Materials
49
- Biomass and Biochemical Conversion
16
- Thermoplastics
49
- Bleaching Solutions
16
Other Thermosetting Polymers
49
- Sodium Hypochlorite
17
- Epoxy
49
- Chlorine Dioxide
17
- Phenolic Resins
50
- Chlor-Alkali Industry
17
- Rubber and Elastomers
50
- Ozone
17
- Acid Resistant Brick and Refractories
50
- Concentrated Acids
18
- Concrete
51
47
2
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ASTM Reinforced Plastic Related Standards
ANSI/ ASTM E 84
Surface burning characteristics of building materials
ASTM D 2310
Classification for machine-made reinforced thermosetting resin
pipe standard
ASTM D 229
Testing rigid sheet and plate materials used in electrical
insulation
ANSI/ ASTM D 2321
Underground installation of flexible thermoplastic sewer pipe
ASTM D 256
Impact resistance of plastic and electrical insulating materials
ASTM D 2343
ASTM F 412
Standard definition of terms relating to plastic piping systems
Tensile properties of glass fiber strands, yarns, and roving
used in reinforced plastics
ANSI/ ASTM D 445
Kinematic viscosity of transparent and opaque liquids
ASTM D 2344
Apparent horizontal shear strength of reinforced plastics by short
beam method
ASTM D 543
Resistance of plastics to chemical reagents
ASTM D 2412
External loading properties of plastic pipe by parallel-plate loading
ANSI/ ASTM D 570
Water absorption of plastics
ANSI/ ASTM D 2487
Classification of soils for engineering purposes
ASTM D 579
Woven glass fabrics
ASTM D 2517
Reinforced thermosetting plastic gas pressure pipe and fittings
ASTM C 581
Chemical resistance of thermosetting resins used in glass
fiber-reinforced structures
ANSI/ ASTM D 2563
Classifying visual defects in glass-reinforced plastic laminate
parts
ASTM D 618
Conditioning plastics and electrical insulating materials for
testing
ASTM D 2583
Indentation hardness of plastics by means of a barcol impressor
ASTM D 2584
Ignition loss of cured reinforced resins
ASTM D 2585
Preparation and tension testing of filament-wound pressure
vessels
ASTM D 2586
Hydrostatic compressive strength of glass reinforced plastics
cylinders
ASTM D 621
Deformation of plastics under load
ANSI/ ASTM D 635
Rate of burning and/or extent and time of burning of selfsupporting plastics in a horizontal position
ANSI/ ASTM D 638
Tensile properties of plastics
ASTM D 648
Deflection temperature of plastics under flexural load
ASTM D 2733
Interlaminar shear strength of structural reinforced plastics at
elevated temperatures
ASTM D 671
Flexural fatigue of plastics by constant-amplitude-of-force
ASTM D 2774
Underground installation of thermoplastic pressure piping
ASTM D 674
Long-time creep or stress-relation test of plastics under tension
or compression loads at different temperatures
ASTM D 2924
Test for external pressure resistance of plastic pipe
ANSI/ ASTM D 695
Compressive properties of rigid plastics
ASTM D 2925
Beam deflection of reinforced thermoset plastic pipe under full
bore flow
ASTM D 696
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion of plastics
ASTM D 2990
Tensile and compressive creep rupture of plastics
ASTM D 747
Stiffness of plastics by means of cantilever beam
ASTM D 2991
Stress relaxation of plastics
ASTM D 759
Determining the physical properties of plastics at subnormal
and supernormal temperatures
ASTM D 2992
Obtaining hydrostatic design basis for reinforced thermosetting
resin pipe
ASTM D 785
Rockwell hardness of plastics and electrical insulating materials
Flexural properties of plastics
ASTM D 2996
ASTM D 790
Specification for filament-wound reinforced thermosetting resin
pipe
ASTM D 792
Specific gravity and density of plastics by displacement
ASTM D 2997
Specification for centrifugally cast reinforced thermosetting resin
pipe
ASTM D 883
Definition of terms relating to plastics
ANSI/ ASTM D 3262
Reinforced plastic mortar sewer pipe
ASTM D 1045
Sampling and testing plasticizers used in plastics
ASTM D 3282
ASTM D 1180
Bursting strength of round rigid plastic tubing
Classification of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures for highway
construction purposes
Viscosity of paints, varnishes and lacquers by the Ford
viscosity cup
ASTM D 3299
ANSI/ ASTM D 1200
Filament-wound glass fiber-reinforced polyester chemicalresistant tanks
Fine-to-failure of plastic pipe under constant internal pressure
ASTM D 3517
ANSI/ ASTM D 1598
Specification for reinforced plastic mortar pressure pipe
ASTM D 1599
Short-time rupture strength of plastic pipe, tubing, and fittings
ASTM D 3567
Determining dimensions of reinforced thermosetting resin pipe
and fittings
ASTM D 1600
Abbreviation of terms related to plastics
ASTM D 3615
Test for chemical resistance of thermoset molded compounds
used in manufacture
ASTM D 1694
Threads of reinforced thermoset resin pipe
Longitudinal tensile properties of reinforced thermosetting
plastic pipe and tube
ASTM D 3681
ASTM D 2105
Chemical resistance of reinforced thermosetting resin pipe in the
deflected condition
ASTM D 3753
Glass fiber-reinforced polyester manholes
ANSI/ ASTM D 2122
Determining dimensions of thermoplastic pipe and fittings
Cyclic pressure strength of reinforced thermosetting plastic pipe
ASTM D 3754
ASTM D 2143
Specification for reinforced plastic mortar sewer and industrial
pressure pipe
ASTM D 2150
Specification for woven roving glass fiber for polyester glass
laminates
ASTM D 3839
Recommended practice for underground installation of flexible
RTRP and RPMP
ASTM D 2153
Calculating stress in plastic pipe under internal pressure
ASTM D 3840
Specification for RP mortar pipe fittings for nonpressure
applications
ASTM D 2290
Apparent tensile strength of ring or tubular plastics by split
disk method
ASTM D 4097
Specification for contact molded glass fiber-reinforced thermoset
resin chemical-resistant tanks
ASTM = The American Society for Testing and Materials
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ANSI = The American National Standards Institute
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Introduction
DION® resins are among the most established and best-recognized products in the corrosion-resistant resin market.
DION® resins were originally developed for some extremely demanding applications in the chlor-alkali industry and their
success has led to diverse and highly regarded applications. These products became part of the Reichhold family of resins
in 1989 with the acquisition of the Koppers Corporation’s resin division. Reichhold is a dedicated thermosetting polymer
company offering a complete line of corrosion-resistant resin products and actively developing new resins to serve the
changing needs of the industry.
Using the DION® Chemical Resistance Guide
The corrosion performance of DION® resins has been demonstrated over the past 50 years through the successful use of a
variety of composite products in hundreds of different chemical environments. Practical experience has been supplemented
by the systematic evaluation of composites exposed to a large number of corrosive environments under controlled laboratory
conditions. This corrosion guide is subject to change without notice in an effort to provide the current data. Changes may affect
suggested temperature or concentration limitations.
Laboratory evaluation of corrosion resistance is performed according to ASTM C-581, using standard laminate test coupons that
are subjected to a double-sided, fully immersed exposure to temperature-controlled corrosive media. Coupons are retrieved at
intervals of 1, 3, 6, and 12 months, then tested for retained flexural strength and modulus, barcol, hardness, changes in weight,
and swelling/ shrinkage relative to an unexposed control. These data and a visual evaluation of the laminate’s appearance and
surface condition are used to establish the suitability of resins in specific environments at the suggested maximum temperatures.
Experience and case histories are also duly considered.
All of the listed maximum service temperatures assume that laminates and corrosion barriers are fully cured and fabricated to
industry accepted standards. In many service conditions, occasional temperature excursions above the listed maxima may be
acceptable, depending on the nature of the corrosive environment. Consultation with a Reichhold technical representative is
then advised. A Reichhold Technical Representative may be reached via the Reichhold Corrosion Hotline at
(800) 752-0060, via email at corrosion@reichhold.com, or at www.reichhold.com/corrosion. All inquiries will be
answered within 24 hours.
When designing for exposures to hot, relatively non-aggressive vapors, such as in ducting, hoods, or stack linings, temperature
extremes above those suggested may be feasible; however, extensive testing is strongly urged whenever suggested
temperatures are exceeded. Factors such as laminate thickness, thermal conductivity, structural design performance and
the effects of condensation must be taken into account when designing composite products for extreme temperature
performance.
4
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Corrosion-Resistant Resin Chemistries
The diverse corrosive properties of industrial chemicals require that a number of resin chemistries be employed to optimize
the performance of composite materials. Basic resin chemistries include isophthalic, terephthalic, flame-retardant, vinyl ester,
chlorendic and bisphenol fumarate resins. Each has unique advantages and disadvantages, and consequently it is important to
weigh the pros and cons of each resin type when creating resin specifications. Reichhold is a full-line supplier of all the corrosionresistant resin types in common usage and will assist in evaluating specific requirements.
Markets
DION® vinyl ester and corrosion-resistant polyester resins serve the needs of a wide range of chemical process industries.
• Pulp and paper
• Chlor-Alkali
• Power generation
• Waste treatment
• Petroleum
• Ore processing
• Plating
• Electronics
• Water service
• Agriculture
• Pharmaceutical
• Food Processing
• Automotive
• Aircraft
• Marine
• Polymer concrete
• Alcohols and synthetic fuels
Applications
DION® resins have over 50 years of field service in the most severe corrosive environments.
• Chemical storage tanks
• Underground fuel storage tanks
• Pickling and plating tanks
• Chemical piping systems
• Large diameter sewer pipes
• Fume ducts and scrubbers
• Chimney stacks and stack liners
• Fans, blowers, and hoods
• Chlorine cell covers, collectors
• Pulp washer drums, up flow tubes
• Secondary containment systems
• Wall and roofing systems
• Grating and structural profile
• Cooling tower elements
• Floor coatings and mortars
• Gasoline containment
5
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Chemical attack can alter the structural performance of composites and must be considered in the selection of an appropriate
resin. Reichhold provides direct technical assistance for specific applications and for conditions that may not be covered in
the guide. Test coupons prepared according to ASTM C-581 are available for in-plant testing. When calling, please have the
following information ready for discussion:
1. Precise compostion of the chemical enviroment
2. Chemical concentration(s)
3. Operation temperature
(including any potential temperature fluctuations, upsets, or cycling conditons)
4. Trace materials
5. Potential need for flame-retardant material
6. Type and size of equipment
7. Fabrication process
Warranty
The following are general guidelines intended to assist customers in determining whether Reichhold resins are suitable for their
applications. Reichhold products are intended for sale to sophisticated industrial and commercial customers. Reichhold requires
customers to inspect and test our products before use and satisfy themselves as to content and suitability for their specific
end-use applications. These general guidelines are not intended to be a substitute for customer testing.
Reichhold warrants that its products will meet its standard written specifications. Nothing contained in these guidelines shall
constitute any other warranty, express or implied, including any warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose,
nor is any protection from any law or patent to be inferred. All patent rights are reserved. The exclusive remedy for all proven
claims is limited to replacement of our materials and in no event shall Reichhold be liable for any incidental or consequential
damages.
Material Safety Data Sheets
Material safety data sheets are available for all of the products listed in this brochure. Please request the appropriate data
sheets before handling, storing or using any product.
Ordering DION® Resins
To order DION® resins and Atprime® 2, contact your local authorized Reichhold distributor or call Reichhold customer
service at 1-800-448-3482.
6
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Resin Descriptions
Bisphenol Epoxy Vinyl Ester Resins
Bisphenol epoxy based epoxy vinyl ester resins offer
excellent structural properties and very good resistance
to many corrosive environments. The resins are
styrenated and involve the extension of an epoxy
with bisphenol-A to increase molecular weight and
feature the characteristic vinyl ester incorporation of
methacrylate end groups. The inherent toughness and
resilience of epoxy vinyl esters provides enhanced
impact resistance as well as improved stress properties,
which is advantageous in applications involving thermal
and cyclic stress. Non-promoted bisphenol-A based
vinyl esters display a minimum six-month shelf life,
and the pre-promoted versions feature a three-month
shelf life.
DION® 9100 Series are non-promoted bisphenol-A
epoxy vinyl esters used in lay-up and filament wound
pipes for a wide range of acidic, alkaline and assorted
chemicals, including many solvents. A pre-promoted
version of DION® 9100 is also available.
DION® 9102* Series are lower viscosity, reduced
molecular weight versions of DION® 9100, with
similar corrosion resistance, mechanical properties and
storage stability. The DION® 9102 series also features
improved curing at lower promoter levels for enhanced
performance in filament winding applications.
DION® 9102-00 is unique since it is certified to NSF/
ANSI Standard 61 for use in domestic and commercial
potable water applications involving both piping and
tanks at ambient temperature.
DION® IMPACT 9160 is a low styrene content (<35%)
version of DION® 9100.
DION® IMPACT 9102-70 (US) is a special version and
offers lower color, reduced viscosity and improved
curing at lower promoter levels. The resin is particularly
suited for filament winding applications which require
fast and efficient wet-out of reinforcement. It is certified
to NSF/ANSI Standard 61 for potable water tank and
piping at ambient temperature.
DION® FR 9300 Series are non-promoted, flame
retardant vinyl esters with corrosion resistance similiar
to DION ® 9100 and DION ® 9102. Resin laminates display a Class I flame spread with the addition of 1.5%
antimony trioxide or 3.0% antimony pentoxide. DION®
FR 9300 is frequently used in flame retardant ducting
which conforms to the requirements of the International Congress of Building Officials (ICBO). It has
also been used in the field fabrication of large diameter Chiyoda-type Jet Bubbling Reactors (JBRs)
associated with gypsum by-product flue gas desulfurization projects by major utility companies. Chimney
and stack liners have been other major applications.
DION® FR 9310 & 9315 Series arenon-promoted, premium flame retardant resins designed to meet ASTM
E 84 Class I flame spread properties without the addition of antimony based synergists. DION® FR 9310 &
9315 series resins also have low VOC content (<35%)
and provide corrosion resistance equal to, or in some
cases superior, to well-recognized DION® FR 9300 &
9315 resin.
Urethane-Modified VinyI Ester Resins
DION® 9800 Series (formerly Atlac® 580-05 & 580-05A)
are premium highly regarded special urethane modified
vinyl esters with distinguishing features. The vinyl ester
does not foam when catalyzed with ordinary methyl
ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) and displays excellent
glass wet-out characteristics. It may also be thixed
with conventional (non-hydrophobic) grades of silica
carbide. DION® 9800 is well-suited for hand lay-up,
filament winding, and pultrusion applications and displays many user-friendly features. DION® 9800 displays
exceptional wetting characteristics with carbon fiber,
aramid, and conventional glass fibers. The resin has
superior acid, alkaline, bleach and other corrosion
resistant properties.
7
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Resin Descriptions
Novolac Vinyl Ester Resins
Novalac vinyl esters are based on use of multi-functional
novolac epoxy versus a standard and more commonly
used bisphenol-A epoxy. This increases the crosslink
density and corresponding temperature and solvent
resistance.
Bisphenol-A Fumarate Polyester Resins
Bisphenol fumarate polyester resins were among the
earliest and most successful premium thermosetting
resins to be used in corrosion resistant composites. They
have an extensive history in challenging environments
since the 1950’s. Thousands of tanks, pipes, chlorine
cell covers, bleach towers, and scrubbers are still in
service throughout the world.
DION® Impact 9400 Series provides good corrosion
resistance, including solvents. Due to reactivity, shelf
life is limited to three months.
Bisphenol fumarate resins typically yield rigid, high
crosslink density composites with high glass transition
temperatures and heat distortion properties. These
attributes enable excellent physical property retention at
temperatures of 300° F and higher. Bisphenol fumarate
resins also have good acid resistance which is typical
for polyesters, but unlike other polyesters they also
display excellent caustic and alkaline resistance as well
as suitability for bleach environments.
Elastomer-Modified Vinyl Ester Resins
Inclusion of high performance and special functional
elastomers into the polymer backbone on a vinyl ester
allows exceptional toughness.
DION® 9500 Series are non-accelerated rubber modified vinyl esters that possess high tensile elongation, good toughness, low shrinkage, and low peak
exotherm. They are well-suited for dynamic loads and
demonstrate excellent adhesion properties. Corrosion resistance is good, but limitations occur with
solvents or other chemicals which display swelling
with rubber. DION® 9500 is well-suited for hand and
spray lay-up applications and other fabrication techniques. It may also be considered for use as a primer
with high density PVC foam or for bonding FRP to
steel or other dissimilar substrates.
All of the bisphenol fumarate resins have excellent
stability with a minimum shelf life of six months.
DION® 382* Series (Formerly Atlac® 382) are bisphenol fumarate resins with a long, world-wide success
history. They are normally supplied in pre-promoted
and pre-accelerated versions.
Laminates at Temperature
Resin
DION® 9100
6
Tensile Strength, psi
Tensile Modulus, x 10 psi
77° F
150° F
200° F
250° F
300° F
77° F
150° F
200° F
250° F
300° F
19200
22100
22700
14600
9900
1.70
1.70
1.39
0.80
0.80
DION® FR 9300
22600
28100
30100
21200
13700
2.16
1.94
1.82
1.62
1.18
DION® 9800
19500
19500
19500
13000
9000
---
---
---
---
---
DION® 9400
23900
25000
27700
26700
20900
2.13
2.23
2.00
1.61
1.47
DION® 6694
22000
22400
24800
27700
25000
1.95
2.14
1.86
1.86
1.62
DION® 6631
31000
28600
24000
14700
4300
1.38
1.20
0.85
0.50
0.31
DION® 382
18000
21500
21500
20000
---
1.45
1.40
1.35
1.20
---
DION® 797
16800
17800
19400
20200
10900
1.39
1.36
1.21
0.98
0.59
DION® 490
14300
16200
16600
15300
11700
1.15
0.90
0.76
0.58
0.47
Laminate Construction V/M/M/WR/M/WR/M/WR/M
V = 10 mil C-glass veil
M = 1.5 oz/ sq ft chopped glass mat
WR = 24 oz woven roving
Glass content = 45%
8
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Resin Descriptions
DION® 6694* Series are bisphenol fumarate resins modified to optimize the unique properties of bisphenol fumarate polyesters. These resins offer excellent chemical
resistance. They are well suited to hot alkaline environments, like those found in caustic/chlorine production,
and to oxidizing environments, like those used in pulp
bleaching .
Isophthalic and Terephthalic Unsaturated Polyester Resins
Isophthalic and terephthalic resins formulated for corrosion applications are higher in molecular weight than those
often used in marine and other laminated composites.
These polyesters display excellent structural properties
and are resistant to acids, salts, and many dilute
chemicals at moderate temperature. Resins are rigid,
and some terephthalic resins offer improved resiliency.
They perform well in acidic enviroments, however they
are not recommended for caustic or alkaline environments,
and the pH should be kept below 10.5. Oxidizing environments usually present limitations. These resins have
good stability, with a minimum 3-month shelf life.
DION® 6631* Series are rigid, thixotropic, pre-promoted
isophthalic resins developed for hand lay-up, spray-up,
and filament winding. A version which complies with
SCAQMD Rule 1162 is also available.
DION® 490 Series (Formerly Atlac® 490) are thixotropic,
pre-promoted resins formulated for high temperature
corrosion service that requires good organic solvent resistance. A key feature is the high crosslink density,
which yields good heat distortion and chemical resistance properties. The most notable commercial application relates to gasoline resistance, including gasoline/
alcohol mixtures, where it is an economical choice.
Approval has been obtained under the UL 1316 standard. In some applications DION® 490 offers performance
comparable with that of novolac epoxy based vinyl
esters, but at a much lower cost.
DION® 495 Series are lower molecular weight and lower
VOC versions of DION® 490 .
*DION® 6334, 6631, 9100, 382 and 9102 comply with FDA Title21 CFR177.2420 and can be used for
food contact applications when properly formulated and cured by the composite fabricator.
DION® 6334* Series are resilient non-promoted nonthixotropic resins. Their use is typically restricted to nonagressive ambient temperature applications, such as
seawater.
Laminates at Temperature
Resin
6
Flexural Strength, psi
Flexural Modulus, x 10 psi
77° F
150° F
200° F
250° F
300° F
77° F
150° F
200° F
250° F
300° F
DION® 9100
32800
33100
25700
3000
---
1.17
1.12
0.83
0.37
---
DION® FR 9300
31700
30600
30500
5100
2800
1.53
1.35
1.22
0.23
0.19
DION® 9800
26300
25600
23100
19200
7400
1.01
0.87
0.74
0.58
0.32
DION® 9400
30000
31800
33500
26000
7900
1.50
1.38
1.25
0.93
0.46
DION® 6694
28700
30400
30700
29600
20900
1.50
1.39
1.25
1.08
0.87
DION® 6631
31000
28600
24000
14700
4300
1.38
1.20
0.85
0.50
0.31
DION® 382
25500
27000
23500
17500
---
1.21
1.10
1.00
0.88
---
DION® 797
30100
30000
29600
25200
15400
1.50
1.35
1.16
0.91
0.48
DION® 490
23600
25800
25500
22600
17100
1.08
0.99
0.85
0.60
0.41
Laminate Construction V/M/M/WR/M/WR/M/WR/M
V = 10 mil C-glass veil
M = 1.5 oz/ sq ft chopped glass mat
WR = 24 oz woven roving
Glass content = 45%
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Resin Descriptions
Chlorendic Polyester Resins
Chlorendic polyester resins are based on the
incorporation of chlorendic anhydride or chlorendic acid
(also called HET acid) into the polymer backbone. Their
most notable advantage is superior resistance to mixed
acid and oxidizing environments, which makes them
widely used for bleaching and chromic acid or nitric
acid containing environments, such as in electroplating
applications. The cross linked structure is quite dense,
which results in high heat distortion and good elevated
temperature properties. This is a dense structure that
can display reduced ductility and reduced tensile
elongation. Despite good acid resistance, chlorendic
resins should not be used in alkaline environments.
Due to the halogen content, chlorendic resins display
flame retardant and smoke reduction properties.
The DION® 797 series are chlorendic anhydride based
resins with good corrosion resistance and thermal
properties up to 350° F. DION® 797 is supplied as a
pre-promoted and thixotropic version. An ASTM E-84
flame spread rating of 30 (Class II) is obtained with the
use of 5% antimony trioxide. Many thermal and corrosion resistant properties are superior to those of
competitive chlorendic resins.
Atprime® 2 Bonding & Primer
Atprime® 2 is a two-component, moisture-activated
primer that provides enhanced bonding of composite
materials to a variety of substrates, such as FRP,
concrete, steel, or thermoplastics. It is especially
well suited for bonding to non-air-inhibited surfaces
associated with contact molding or aged FRP
composites. This ability is achieved due to the formation
of a chemical bond to the FRP surface. Atprime® 2 is
free of methylene chloride and features good storage
stability.
Atprime® 2 is well-suited for repairs of FRP structures.
Many FRP structures have been known to fail due to
the failure of secondary bonds, which can serve as
the weakest link in an otherwise sound structure.
Thus Atprime® 2 merits important consideration in
FRP fabrication. The curing mechanism relies on
ambient humidity and does not employ peroxide
chemistry.
Castings
Tensile
Strength psi
Tensile 6
Modulus x10
psi
Elongation at
Break %
Flexural
Strength psi
Flexural 6
Modulus x10
psi
Barcol
Hardness
HDT° F
DION® 9100
11600
4.6
5.2
23000
5.0
35
220
DION® FR 9300
10900
5.1
4.0
21900
5.2
40
230
DION® 9800
13100
4.6
4.2
22600
4.9
38
244
DION® 9400
9000
5.0
3.0
20500
5.1
38
290
DION® 6694
8200
3.4
2.4
14600
4.9
38
270
DION® 6631
9300
5.9
2.4
16600
5.2
40
225
DION® 382
10000
4.3
2.5
17000
4.3
38
270
DION® 797
7800
0.5
1.6
21700
1.0
45
280
DION® 490
8700
4.8
2.1
16700
5.2
40
260
Resin
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Specifying Composite Performance
The design and manufacture of composite equipment for
corrosion service is a highly customized process. In order
to produce a product that successfully meets the unique
needs of each customer, it is essential for fabricators
and material suppliers to understand the applications
for which composite equipment is intended. One of the
most common causes of equipment failure is exposure
of equipment to service conditions that are more severe
than anticipated. This issue has been addressed
by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) in their RTP-1 specification for corrosion-grade
composite tanks. RTP-1 includes a section called the
User’s Basic Requirement Specifications (UBRS).
The UBRS is a standardized document provided to
tank manufacturers before vessels are constructed.
It identifies, among other factors, the function and
configuration of the tank, internal and external operating
conditions, mechanical loads on the vessel, installation
requirements and applicable state and federal codes
at the installation site. Reichhold strongly recommends
that the information required by the UBRS is provided to
composite equipment fabricators before any equipment
is manufactured.
Factors Affecting Resin Performance
Shelf Life Policy
Most polyester resins have a minimum three-month
shelf life from the date of shipment from Reichhold.
Some corrosion resistant resins have a longer shelf life,
notably unpromoted bisphenol epoxy vinyl ester resins,
unpromoted and accelerated bisphenol fumarate resins,
and DION® 6694 modified bisphenol fumarate resin.
See the individual product bulletins, available at
www.reichhold.com, for specific information for each
resin. Shelf stability minimums apply to resins stored in
their original, unopened containers at temperatures not
exceeding 75° F, away from sunlight and other sources
of heat or extreme cold. Resins that have exceeded
their shelf life should be tested before use.
Elevated Temperatures
Composites manufactured with vinyl ester or bisphenol
fumarate resins have been used extensively in
applications requiring long-term structural integrity at
elevated temperatures. Good physical properties are
generally retained at temperatures up to 200° F. The
selection of resin becomes crucial beyond 200° F
because excessive temperatures will cause resins to
soften and lose physical strength. Rigid resins such
as ultra-high crosslink density vinyl esters, bisphenol
fumarate polyesters, epoxy novolac vinyl esters, and
high-crosslink density terephthalics typically provide the
best high-temperature physical properties. Appropriate
DION® resin systems may be considered for use in
relatively non-aggressive gas phase environments at
temperatures of 350° F or higher in suitably designed
structures.
When designing composite equipment for high
temperature service, it is important to consider
how heat will be distributed throughout the unit.
Polymer composites have a low thermal conductivity
(approximately 0.15 btu-ft/ hr-sq. ft.° F) which provides
an insulating effect. This may allow equipment having
high cross-sectional thickness to sustain very high
operating temperatures at the surface, since the
structural portion of the laminate maintains a lower
temperature.
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Laminate Construction
Composite products designed for corrosion resistance
typically utilize a structural laminate and a corrosion
barrier. This type of construction is necessary since the
overall properties of a composite are derived from the
widely differing properties of the constituent materials.
Glass fibers contribute strength but have little or no
corrosion resistance in many environments. Resins
provide corrosion resistance and channel stress into the
glass fibers and have little strength when unreinforced.
Consequently, a resin-rich corrosion barrier is used to
protect a glass-rich structural laminate.
In accordance with general industry practice, corrosion
barriers are typically 100-125 mils thick. They typically
consist of a surfacing veil saturated to a 90% resin
content, followed by the equivalent of a minimum
of two plies of 1.5-oz to 2-oz/ ft chopped strand mat
impregnated with about 70% resin. The structural
portion of the laminate can be built with chopped strand
mat, chopped roving, chopped strand mat alternating
with woven roving, or by filament-winding. An additional
ply of mat is sometimes used as a bonding layer
between a filament-wound structural over-wrap and
the corrosion barrier. Filament-wound structures have
a glass content of approximately 70% and provide high
strength combined with light weight.
abrasive attack, but also yields a corrosion barrier that
is more prone to cracking in stressed areas. This can
be an issue in corrosion barriers where multiple plies
of veil are used, and in areas where veil layers overlap.
Should the resin-rich veil portion of a corrosion barrier
crack, the barrier is breached and all of the benefits of
using multiple veils are lost. Furthermore, multiple plies
of synthetic veil can be more difficult to apply and often
lead to an increase in the number of air voids trapped
in the corrosion barrier. Many composite specifications,
including ASME RTP-1, impose a maximum allowable
amount of air void entrapment in the corrosion barrier.
Attempts to repair air voids are time-consuming and
can reduce the corrosion resistance of the composite.
Fabricators utilizing two plies of synthetic veil should
carefully follow the veil manufacturer’s instructions and
also take special caution to ensure that no excessively
resin-rich areas are formed. Where a two-ply corrosion
barrier is desired, C-glass veil can be used for one or
both plies. This provides a degree of reinforcement to
the corrosion barrier, reduces resin drainage, and
creates a corrosion barrier that is less prone to
interlaminar shear cracking.
Because resin provides corrosion resistance, a resinrich topcoat is often used as an exterior finish coat,
particularly where occasional contact or spillage with
aggressive chemicals might occur. UV stabilizers or
pigments may be incorporated into top coats (to minimize weathering effects) or used in tanks designed to
contain light sensitive products. A top coat is especially useful for filament-wound structures due to their high
glass content.
Surfacing Veil
A well-constructed corrosion barrier utilizing surface
veil is required for any polymer composite intended for
corrosion service. Veils based on C-glass, synthetic
polyester fiber and carbon are available. C-glass
veils are widely used because they readily conform to
complex shapes, are easy to wet out with resin and
provide excellent overall corrosion resistance. Synthetic
veils are harder to set in place and wet out, but can
provide a thicker, more resin-rich corrosion barrier.
The bulking effect of synthetic veil allows the outer
corrosion barrier to have a very high resin content,
which has both benefits and drawbacks. Higher resin
concentration can extend resistance to chemical and
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Laminate Construction
Chopped Strand Mat
Chopped strand mat is widely used in the fabrication of
corrosion-resistant structures to obtain consistent resin/
glass lamination ratios. Many types of glass mat are
available, and the importance of proper mat selection
should not be overlooked. Mats are available with a
variety of sizings and binders, and even the glass itself
can vary between manufacturers. These differences
manifest themselves in the ease of laminate wet-out,
corrosion resistance, physical properties, and the
tendency of the laminate to jackstraw. Manufacturers of
glass mat can provide assistance in selecting the most
suitable mat for specific and end-use applications.
Woven Roving
Woven continuous fiberglass roving at 24 oz/ sq.yd.
may be used to improve the structural performance of
FRP laminates. If more than one ply of woven roving
is used, it should be laminated with alternating layers
of glass mat separating each ply, otherwise, separation
under stress can occur. Due to the wicking action of
continuous glass filaments, woven roving should not
be used in any surface layer directly in contact with the
chemical environment.
Continuous Filament Roving
Continuous roving may be used for chopper-gun
lamination and in filament winding. Filament winding
is widely employed for cylindrical products used in the
chemical equipment market and is the predominant
manufacturing process for chemical storage tanks
and reactor vessels. Glass contents of up to 70% can
be achieved using filament winding, which provides
uniform, high-strength structural laminates. Because
the capillary action of continuous rovings can carry
chemical penetration deep into the composite structure,
a well constructed, intact corrosion barrier is essential for
filament-wound structures. Topcoats are often used for
filament-wound products intended for outdoor exposure
to protect the glass fibers from UV attack.
Some laboratory studies have suggested that
the combination of benzyl peroxide (BPO) and
dimethylaniline (DMA) may provide a more complete
cure before post-curing than the standard cobalt DMA/
MEKP system. In some instances, resins have demonstrated a permanent undercure for reasons that are
not fully understood. One theory is that undercure is
related to initiator dispersion. Typically BPO is used in
paste form, which is prepared by grinding solid BPO
particles in an inert carrier. Dispersion and dissolution
of BPO paste is clearly a more challenging procedure
than blending in low-viscosity MEKP liquid, especially
in cold conditions. Another advantage of MEKP systems
is a more positive response to post-curing.
Vinyl ester resin promoted with cobalt/ DMA tends to
foam when MEKP initiator is added. This increases
the difficulty of eliminating entrapped gases from the
laminate. Foaming can be reduced in a number of
ways. BPO/ DMA reduces foaming, as does the use of
an MEKP/ cumene hydroperoxide blend or straight CHP.
Using a resin that does not foam, such as DION® 9800
urethane - modified vinyl ester resin or a bisphenol
fumarate resin, is another alternative.
High-quality composite products can be fabricated
using either of the promoter/ initiator combinations
described above. For end-users, it is suggested that
the preferences of the fabricator involved be taken into
account when specifying initiator systems.
Resin Curing Systems
One of the most important factors governing the
corrosion resistance of composites is the degree of
cure that the resin attains. For general service, it is
recommended that the laminate reach a minimum of
90% of the clear cast Barcol hardness value listed by the
resin manufacturer. For highly aggressive conditions, it
may be necessary to use extraordinary measures to
attain the highest degree of cure possible. One effective
way to do this is to post-cure the laminate shortly after it
has gelled and completed its exotherm.
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Laminate Construction
Post-Curing
Post-Curing at elevated temperatures can enhance
the performance of a composite product in most
environments. Post-Curing of composites provides
two benefits. The curing reaction is driven to completion which maximizes the cross-link density of
the resin system, thus eliminating unreacted crosslinking sites in the resin. This improves both chemical
resistance and physical properties. Thorough and even
Post-Curing for an extended period of time can also
relieve stresses formed in the laminate during cure,
thus reducing the likelihood of warping during normal
thermal cycling/ operation.
In general, one can relate the recommended PostCuring temperatures to the chemistry of the matrix resin
used in the construction - this mostly relates to the HDT
of the resin.
It is recommended that the construction is kept for 1624 hours at room temperature (>18° C) before PostCuring at elevated temperature starts. Increasing and
decreasing temperature should be done stepwise to
avoid possible thermal shock, and consequent possible
built-in stresses.
Post-Curing, hours
Post-Curing
HDT of the resin, °C
65
85
100
130
40
24
48
96
120
50
12
24
48
92
60
6
12
18
24
70
3
6
9
12
80
1.5
3
4
6
Temp °C
Table shows typical recommended Post-Curing
temperatures and times for different resins, related
to their HDT.
Secondary Bonding
One of the most common locations of composite
failure is at a secondary bond. To develop a successful
secondary bond, the composite substrate must either
have a tacky, air-inhibited surface or it must be specially
prepared.
Composites with a fully-cured surface may be prepared
for secondary bonding by grinding the laminate down
to exposed glass prior to applying a new laminate.
Secondary bond strength can be greatly enhanced
by using the Atprime® 2 primer system. Atprime® 2
is specially designed to provide a direct, chemical
bond between fully-cured composites and secondary
laminates. Atprime® 2 can also improve the bond
of FRP composites to concrete, metals, and some
thermoplastics.
Resin Top Coating
Top coats are often used to protect the exterior of
composite products from weathering and from the
effects of occasional exposure to corrosive agents. A
topcoat may be prepared by modifying the resin used to
manufacture the product with thixotrope, a UV absorber
and a small amount of wax. Blending 3% fumed silica,
suitable UV inhibitor along with 5% of a 10% wax
solution (in styrene) to a resin is a typical approach to
top coat formulation.
Dual Laminate Systems
When vinyl ester or bisphenol fumarate corrosion
barriers are unsuitable for a particular environment,
it may still be possible to design equipment that takes
advantage of the benefits of composite materials by
employing a thermoplastic corrosion barrier. This
technology involves creating the desired structure by
shaping the thermo plastic, then rigidizing it with a
composite outer skin. Thermoplastics such as polyvinyl
chloride, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene,
and a wide variety of high performance fluoropolymers
are commonly used. Dual laminates may be used
and can provide cost-effective performance in
conditions where composites are otherwise inappropriate.
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Laminate Construction
Maintenance and Inspection
The service life that can reasonably be expected
from corrosion-grade composite equipment will
vary depending upon a number of factors including
fabrication details, material selection, and the nature
of the environment to which the equipment is exposed.
For example, a tank that may be expected to provide
service for 15 years or more in a non-aggressive
environment may be deemed to have provided an
excellent service life after less than 10 years of
exposure to a more aggressive media. Other factors,
such as process upsets, unanticipated changes in
the chemical composition of equipment contents and
unforeseen temperature fluctuations, may also reduce
the service life of composite products. These are some
of the reasons why a program of regularly scheduled
inspection and maintenance of corrosion-grade
composite equipment is vital. A secondary benefit is
the reduction of downtime and minimization of repair
expenses.
Beyond issues of cost and equipment service life, the
human, environmental and financial implications of
catastrophic equipment failure cannot be understated. A
regular program of maintenance and inspection is a key
element in the responsible care of chemical processes.
Selected Applications Recommendations
Abrasive Materials
Composite pipe and ducting can offer significantly better
fluid flow because of their smooth internal surfaces. For
products designed to carry abrasive slurries and coarse
particulates, the effects of abrasion should be considered
during the product design process. Resistance to mild
abrasion may be enhanced by using synthetic veil or,
for extreme cases by using silicon carbide or ceramic
beads as fillers in the surface layer. Resilient liners
based on elastomer - modified vinyl ester resin are also
effective in some cases.
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Selected Application Recommendations
Biomass and Biochemical Conversion
Applications have been increasing for processes
which transform biomass or renewable resources into
usable products. Most of the impetus has been energy
related, but the technology has diverse relevance, such
as various delignification processes associated with
elemental chlorine-free pulp production. Raw materials
include things like grain, wood, agricultural or animal
wastes, and high cellulose content plants.
Sometimes the processes involve pyrolysis or
gasification steps to break down the complex molecules
of the biomass into simpler building blocks such as
carbon monoxide or hydrogen, which in turn can be
used as fuels or catalytically synthesized into other
products, such as methanol. However, the most common
biochemical conversion process is fermentation, in
which simple sugars, under the mediation of yeasts or
bacteria, are converted to ethanol. With lingo-cellulose
or hemicellulose, the fermentation must be preceded by
thermochemical treatments which digest or otherwise
render the complex polymers in the biomass more
accessible to enzymatic breakdown. These enzymes
(often under acidic conditions) then enable hydrolysis of
starches or polysaccharides into simple sugars suitable
for fermentation into ethanol. Many of the conversion
steps have other embodiments, such as the anaerobic
digestion to produce methane for gaseous fuel.
A great deal of technology and genetic engineering is
evolving to enable or to improve the efficiency of these
processes. It is expected that many of the process
conditions can often be quite corrosive to metals, and
FRP composites can offer distinct benefits.
Bleaching Solutions
Bleach solutions represent a variety of materials
which display high oxidation potential, These include
compounds or active radicals like chlorine, chlorine
dioxide, ozone, hypochlorite or peroxide. Under most
storage conditions these materials are quite stable, but
when activated, such as by changes in temperature,
concentration, or pH, the bleaches are aggressive and
begin to oxidize many metals and organic materials,
including resins used in composites. Thus, resins
need to display resistance to oxidation as well as to
the temperature and pH conditions employed in the
process. Most interest centers on bleaching operations
employed in the pulp and paper industry, but similar
considerations apply to industrial, disinfection, and
water treatment applications.
Bleach solutions are highly electrophilic and attack
organic materials by reacting with sources of electrons,
of which a readily available source is the residual
unsaturation associated with an incomplete cure.
Consequently, the resistance of composites to bleach
environments demands a complete cure, preferably
followed by post-curing. Since air-inhibited surfaces are
especially susceptible to attack, a good paraffinated
topcoat should be applied to non-contact surfaces,
including the exterior, which may come into incidental
contact with the bleach.
BPO/ DMA curing systems are sometimes advocated
for composites intended for bleach applications due to
concerns over reaction with cobalt promoter involved
in conventional MEKP/ DMA curing systems. While
BPO/ DMA curing can offer appearance advantages,
the conventional MEKP/ cobalt systems yield very
dependable and predictable full extents of curing and
thus have a good history of success.
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Selected Application Recommendations
Sodium Hypochlorite
When activated, sodium hypochlorite generates
hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions which afford
oxidation. Unstable solutions can decompose to form
mono-atomic or nascent chlorine compounds which
are exceptionally aggressive. Decomposition can be
induced by high temperature, low pH, or UV radiation.
Best stability is maintained at temperature no greater
than 125◦ F and a pH of >10.5. This will often happen
if over-chlorination is used in the production of sodium
hypochlorite. Over-chlorination makes temperature
and pH control very difficult and can result in rapid
deterioration and loss of service life of the hypochlorite
generator. Adding chlorine gas to the hypochlorite
generator can cause mechanical stress, so attention
should be given to velocity, thrust, and other forces which
the generator may encounter. Composites intended
for outdoor service should contain a UV absorbing
additive and a light colored pigment in the final exterior
paraffinated topcoat to shield the hypochlorite solution
from exposure.
Thixotropic agents based on silica should never be
used in the construction of composite equipment or in
topcoats intended for hypochlorite service. Attack can
be severe when these agents are used.
Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine dioxide now accounts for about 70% of
worldwide chemically bleached pulp production and is
finding growing applications in disinfection and other
bleach applications. Use is favored largely by trends
toward TCF (totally chlorine free) and ECF (elemental
chlorine free) bleaching technology. Composites made
with high performance resins have been used with great
success for bleach tower upflow tubes, piping, and
ClO2 storage tanks. Chlorine dioxide in a mixture with
6-12% brown stock can be serviced at a temperature up
to 160◦ F. Higher temperature can be used, but at the
expense of service life. Under bleaching conditions the
resin surface may slowly oxidize to form a soft yellowish
layer known as chlorine butter. In some cases the
chlorine layer forms a protective barrier which shields
the underlying composite from attack. However, erosion
or abrasion by the pulp stock can reduce this protective
effect. DION® 6694, a modified bisphenol-A fumarate
resin displays some of the best chemical resistance to
chlorine dioxide.
Chlor-Alkali Industry
Chlorine along with sodium hydroxide is co-produced
from brine by electrolysis, with hydrogen as a
byproduct. Modern high amperage cells separate the
anode and cathode by ion exchange membranes or
diaphragms. Cells can operate at 200 ◦ F or higher.
Wet chlorine collected at the anode can be aggressive
to many materials, but premium corrosion resistant
composites have a long history of successful use. One
of the best resins to consider is DION ® 6694, which
was one of the original resins designed to contend
with this challenging application. A major concern with
chlorine cells is to avoid traces of hypochlorite, which
is extremely corrosive at the temperatures involved.
Hypochlorite content is routinely monitored, but tends
to form as the cell membranes age or deteriorate,
which allows chlorine and caustic to co-mingle and
consequently react.
Ozone
Ozone is increasingly used for water treatment as well
as for selective delignification of pulp. Ozone is highly
favored since it is not a halogen and is environmentally
friendly. It is generated by an electric arc process, and
in the event of leaks or malfunctions, the remedy can be
simply to stop electrical power.
The oxidizing potential of ozone is second only to that of
fluorine, and this makes ozone one of the most powerful
oxidizing agents known. Even at 5 ppm in water, ozone
is highly active and can attack the surface of composites.
Attack is characterized by a gradual dulling or pitting.
At <5 ppm a reasonable service life is expected, but at
higher concentrations (10-30 ppm) serious erosion and
degradation can occur. This requires frequent inspection
and eventual re-lining.
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Selected Application Recommendations
Concentrated Acids
Containment of acids is one of the most popular uses
of corrosion grade composites. Polyesters and vinyl
esters display excellent acid resistance, and almost all
acids can be accommodated in dilute form. However,
there are some concentrated acids which can be quite
aggressive or deserve special attention.
Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric acid below 75% concentration can be handled
at elevated temperatures quite easily in accordance
with the material selection guide. However, because
of the strong affinity of SO3 toward water, concentrated
sulfuric acid (76-78%) is a powerful oxidizing agent
that will spontaneously react with polymers and other
organic materials to dehydrate the resin and yield a
characteristic black carbonaceous char. Effectively,
composites behave in an opposite manner to many
metals. For very concentrated sulfuric acid, including
oleum (fuming sulfuric acid) it is common to use steel or
cast iron for shipment and containment, but even very
dilute sulfuric acid can be extremely corrosive to steel.
Hydrochloric Acid
Although resins employed with hydrochloric acid are
by themselves resistive, HCl is sterically a relatively
small molecule which can diffuse into the structural
reinforcement by mechanisms which depend in some
part on the glass and sizing chemistry. This osmosis can
induce a gradual green color to the composite, although
this does not necessarily denote a problem or failure.
Wicking or blistering is also sometimes observed. While
elevated temperature and increased concentration
accelerates the attack by HCl, tanks made from premium
resins have provided service life of 20 years or more
with concentrated (37%) acid at ambient temperature.
Muriatic acid and other dilute forms can be handled up
to 200◦ F with no blistering or wicking.
The osmosis or diffusion effects can result in localized
formation of water soluble salts, which in turn form salt
solutions. This creates a concentration gradient, and
the salt solutions effectively try to dilute themselves
with water diffusing from a salt solution of lower
concentration. The diffusing water thus creates osmotic
pressure with effects such as blistering.
Since osmotic effects are based on concentration
differences it is advisable to always use the tank with
the same concentration of acid and the tank should
not be cleaned unless necessary. The cleaning should
never be done with water. If cleaning is necessary,
some owners will employ a slightly alkaline salt solution,
typically 1% caustic and 10% NaCl.
Low grades of hydrochloric acid are often produced
via a byproduct recovery process and may contain
traces of chlorinated hydrocarbons. These high density
organic compounds are immiscible and may settle to
the bottom of the tank and gradually induce swelling of
the composite. For example, this is a common problem
with rubber-lined railcars transporting low grade HCl.
Purity should thus be carefully evaluated in specifying
the equipment.
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Selected Application Recommendations
Nitric and Chromic Acid
Nitric and chromic acid (HNO3 and H2CrO4) are strong
oxidizing agents that will gradually attack the composite
surface to form a yellow crust which eventually can
develop microcracks and lead to structural deterioration.
Diluted nitric and chromic acids (5% or less) can be
handled at moderate temperatures in accordance with
the selection guide. These dilute acids are commonly
encountered in metal plating, pickling, or electrowinning
processes, where composites often out-perform
competitive materials such as rubber-lined steel.
When dealing with nitric acid, care should always be
given to safe venting of NOx fumes as well as dealing
with heat of dilution effects. It is also important to avoid
contamination and avoid mixed service of the tank
with organic materials, which can react (sometimes
explosively) with nitric acid.
Hydrofluoric Acid
Hydrofluoric acid is a strong oxidizing agent and can
attack resin as well as glass reinforcements. This can
occur with concentrated as well as diluted acid (to 5%).
Synthetic surfacing veil is commonly used.
Fluoride salts, as well as fluoride derivatives (such as
hydrofluosilicic acid) used in fluoridation of drinking
water, can be accommodated with use of vinyl esters
or other premium resins as indicated in the material
selection guide. HF vapors associated with chemical
etching in the electronics industry can be accommodated
by resins appropriate for hood and duct service.
Acetic Acid
Glacial acetic acid causes rapid composite deterioration
due to blister formation in the corrosion barrier. This is
usually accompanied by swelling and softening. Acetic
acid becomes less aggressive when diluted below 75%
concentration, and at lower concentrations can be
handled by a variety of resins.
Perchloric Acid
While perchloric acid can be an aggressive chemical, a
main issue from a composite standpoint is safety. Dry
perchloric acid is ignitable and presents a safety hazard.
When a tank used for perchloric acid storage is emptied
and allowed to dry out, residual acid may remain on the
surface. Subsequent exposure to an ignition source,
such as heat or sparks from a grinding wheel may result
in spontaneous combustion.
Phosphoric Acid
Corrosion resistant composites are generally quite
resistant to phosphoric and superphosphoric acid.
Some technical grades may contain traces of fluorides
since fluoride minerals often occur in nature within
phosphorous deposits. This is ordinarily not a problem,
but is worth checking.
Deionized and Distilled Water
High purity deionized water, often to the surprise of
many, can be a very aggressive environment. The
high purity water can effectively act as a solvent to
cause wicking and blistering especially at temperature
>150◦ F. Purified water can also extract soluble trace
components from the resin or glass reinforcement
to thereby compromise purity, conductivity, or other
attributes. Good curing, including post-curing, preferably
in conjunction with a high temperature co-initiator, such
a tertiary butyl perbenzoate (TBPB), is suggested to
maximize resistance and to prevent hydrophyllic attack
of the resin. It is best to avoid using thixotropic agents
which can supply soluble constituents, and where
possible any catalyst carriers or plasticizers should be
avoided.
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Selected Application Recommendations
Desalination Applications
Droughts, demographic changes, and ever-increasing
need for fresh water are spurring needs to desalinate
brackish water and sea water to meet demand. There
is already one major project in progress in the City of
Tampa, and others are being considered on the east
coast as well as developing countries.
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a mature process, yet has
become more cost effective and energy efficient in
recent years due primarily to advances in membrane
technology. Although RO is regarded as the baseline
technology, there are other desalination processes
under development, many of which are a tribute to
ingenuity. These include processes such as vapor
recompression, electrodialysis, and gas hydrate
processes which entail crystalline aggregation of
hydrogen-bonded water around a central gas molecule
(for example propane), such that the hydrate can be
physically separated upon freezing, which takes less
energy than evaporation.
Electroplating and other Electrochemical
Processes
Electroplating is used to electrolytically deposit specific
metals onto conductive substrates for anodizing or
other functional or decorative purposes. Most plating
solutions are acidic and thus reinforced composites as
well as polymer concrete vessels that have been used
extensively. Some plating solutions, such as those
associated with chrome, are aggressive due to the
oxidation potential as well as the presence of fluorides.
Synthetic surfacing veils are commonly used. Good
curing is also necessary, especially if there are concerns
about solution contamination.
Apart from plating there can be growing applications
in electrolysis processes which might be practical
for hydrogen fuel production. The same applies to
accommodation of electrolytes (such as phosphoric
acid or potassium carbonate) associated with fuel cells.
Vinyl esters are already being used in fuel cell plate and
electrode applications.
Very often, most of the expense in these processes is
associated with water pretreatment, but nevertheless
there is overall a great deal of equipment involved, such
as storage tanks, piping, and reaction vessels.
Upon desalination, some saline solutions must be
disposed. Chlorides and other constituents can greatly
limit the use of stainless steel, and often it is necessary
to consider titanium or high nickel content alloys, all
of which are expensive. Hence corrosion resistant
composites can offer significant cost and technical
advantages.
20
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 40
18/11/2008 17:58:03
Selected Application Recommendations
Fumes, Vapors, Hood & Duct Service
Composites are widely used in hood, ducting, and
ventilation systems due to corrosion resistance, cost,
weight considerations, and dampening of noise.
Generally speaking, corrosion resistance is quite
good, even with relatively aggressive chemicals since
there is so much dilution and cooling associated with
the high volume of air. When dealing with vapors it is
good practice to compute the dew point associated with
individual components of the vapor and to assess the
chance that the ducting may pass through the relevant
dew point to result in condensation and hence high
localized concentration of condensate. Because of
the high air volume, the dew points are reduced and
there is benefit from the low thermal conductivity of the
composite which has an insulating effect. If fumes are
combustible, applicable fire codes should be checked
especially if there is chance that an explosive mixture
could be encountered.
DION® flame retardant resins will meet the ASTM E-84
Class 1 flame spread requirement of 25 when blended
with the appropriate amount of antimony trioxide.
Antimony trioxide provides no flame retardance on
its own, but has a synergistic flame-retardant effect
when used in conjunction with brominated resins. It
is typically incorporated into resin at a 1.5-5.0% level.
Please consult the product bulletin for a specific resin
to obtain its antimony trioxide requirement. Antimony
trioxide typically is not included in the corrosion liner
for duct systems handling concentrated wet acidic
gases in order to maximize corrosion resistance. It is
used in the structural over-wrap to provide good overall
flame retardance. To maximize flame retardance in
less aggressive vapor-phase environments, antimony
trioxide may be included in the liner resin.
Accidental fires are always a concern with ducting
due to potential accumulation of grease or other
combustibles. If a fire indeed occurs, drafts may serve to
increase fire propagation. Concern is highest for indoor
applications, especially in regard to smoke generation.
Brominated flame retardant resins with combined
corrosion resistance are normally selected due to their
self-extinguishing properties as well as reduced flame
spread. Unfortunately, the chemical mechanisms which
serve to reduce flame spread can lead to reduced the
rate of oxygen consumption, which generates smoke
or soot. Many techniques have evolved to contend
with smoke generation, including the use of fusible
link counterweighed dampers which can shut off air
supply. Dominant relevant standards are those of the
National Fire Prevention Association (NFPA) and the
International Congress of Building Officials (ICBO).
DION ® FR 9300 flame retardant vinyl ester is widely
used in ducting applications and conforms to ICBO
acceptance criteria.
21
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 43
18/11/2008 17:58:05
Selected Application Recommendations
Flue Gas Desulfurization
Corrosion resistant composites are extensively used
for major components of FGD systems associated
with coal based power generation, and many of the
structures are the largest in the world. Components
include chimney liners, absorbers, reaction vessels,
and piping. Operating conditions of flue gas
desulfurization processes are quite corrosive to
metals due to the presence of sulfur dioxide and sulfur
trioxide. These serve to form sulfuric acid either within
the scrubbing system itself or from condensation of
SO3 as a consequence of its affinity for water and
elevation of dew point. Corrosion of steel is further
aggravated by the presence of free oxygen which
originates from excess air used in coal combustion,
or in some processes as a result of air blown into the
system in order to oxidize sulfite ions to sulfate.
Since there is net evaporation within the absorber, and
since coal ash contains soluble salts, chloride levels can
be quite high, which in turn limits the use of stainless
steel or else requires high nickel content alloys, which
are not only expensive, but also require close attention
to welding and other installation procedures.
The acid and chloride resistance of FRP makes it an
excellent choice. Wet scrubbers typically operate near
to saturation temperatures of about 140◦ F, but flue gas
may sometimes be reheated to >200◦ F to increase
chimney draft or to reduce mist or plume visibility.
The worst upset conditions involve a total sustained
loss of scrubbing liquor or make-up water, which may
allow temperature to approach that of flue gas leaving
the boiler air preheater or economizer, typically up
to 350◦ F. Although such temperature excursions
are difficult to generalize, the usual practice is to
employ vinyl esters or other resins with good heat
distortion or thermal cycling properties. Although
there are negligible (if any) combustibles present in
FGD systems, the selected resins often display flame
retardant properties in the event of accidental ignition
or high natural drafts.
Gasoline, Gasohol and Underground Storage
Tanks
Ethanol and Ethanol/ Gasoline Blends
Ethanol derived from corn has increasingly been
used to increase the extent of gasoline production
and maintain octane requirements. Ethanol can be
corrosive to steel, aluminum, and a variety of polymeric
materials, due to the alcohol itself and the possible
companion presence of water. Ethanol is miscible with
water and azeotropic distillation and drying techniques
are necessary in fuel applications. Phase separation,
compatibility with gasoline, or salt contamination can
influence many of the corrosion considerations. Vinyl
esters as well as isophthalic and terephthalic resins
(such as DION® 490) can display excellent resistance
to ethanol and various blends with gasoline, of which
E-85 (85% gasoline/ 15% ethanol) is a popular
example. The superior resins display a high crosslink
density. This directly increases the solvent resistance
by restricting permeability or diffusion into the resin
matrix. In addition, a high degree of crosslinking
reduces any extraction or contamination of the fuel
by trace components in the composite matrix, such
as residual catalyst plasticizer or carriers. As always,
good curing and post-curing will enhance resistance.
22
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 44
18/11/2008 17:58:06
Selected Application Recommendations
Methanol and Other Gasoline-Alcohol Blends
Apart from ethanol, methanol is also widely considered
in gasoline applications, and in contrast to fermentation
of sugar or polysaccharides, methanol is ordinarily
made from carbon monoxide and hydrogen containing
gas associated with gasification or various synthesis
processes. Methanol has good octane properties, but
displays similar, if not more problematic concerns over
water, volatility, and phase separation. As in the case
of ethanol, resins, especially those with good crosslink
density, can display excellent resistance to methanol
based blends of gasoline.
Longer chain alcohols, such as butanol may find
increasing favor over ethanol due to butanol’s lower
polarity, reduced fuel compatibility problems, and closer
resemblance to volatility and energy content of many
gasoline components. Historically, there have been
many cycles of interest in alcohol fuels and other fuel
additives, such as MTBE, and this is likely to continue
until energy policies become more definitive. Thus, it
is always good to select resins which are resistive to
all gasoline formulations which might be reasonable
to expect in the future. This is especially important in
regard to the octane properties offered by alcohols.
Octane requirements have significant implications
affecting refinery reforming capacity and in allowing
higher engine compression ratios necessary to meet
mileage standards mandated for newer automobiles.
Methanol has many other future implications for use as
a direct fuel for internal combustion engines and is in the
early stage of development for direct use in fuel cells.
Ore Extraction & Hydrometallurgy
Apart from conventional mining, smelting, and high
temperature ore reduction, extractive metallurgy
based on aqueous chemistry has evolved to permit
recovery of metal from ores, concentrates, or residual
materials. Metals produced in this manner include gold,
molybdenum, uranium, and many others.
Leached ores are then concentrated by a variety of
solvent or ion exchange type extraction processes. The
final step involves metal recovery and purification using
electrolysis (such as electrowinning) or various gaseous
reduction or precipitation processes.
Many of these unit operations can induce galvanic or
stress related corrosion to metals. Consequently, FRP
has a long history of successful use in hydrometallurgical
applications.
Potable Water
Piping, tanks and other components used to contain or
to process potable water must conform to increasingly
stringent requirements, such as those of the National
Sanitary Foundation (NSF), Standards 61 and 14.
Standard 61 entails a risk assessment to be performed
by NSF on extracted organics and other health related
features. It is always the responsibility of composite
products to ensure that such standards are met.
Composites based on the DION® IMPACT 9102 series
of vinyl esters have conformed to requirements of
NSF/ ANSI Standard 61 as applicable to drinking water
components. Resins, such as DION® 6631 also conform
to international standards associated with drinking
water, such as British Standard 6920.
When manufacturing composites for drinking water
applications it is good practice to obtain a good cure,
including post-curing and to wash exposed surfaces
thoroughly with a warm non-ionic detergent before
placing the equipment into service. It is also good to
use minimal amounts of plasticizers or solvent carriers
during fabrication.
The first step involves selective leaching of the metal
from the ore using a variety of acidic or basic solutions
depending on mineral forms or other factors. Acids are
commonly sulfuric or nitric acid, and common alkaline
materials include sodium carbonate or bicarbonate.
The leaching can be done on pulverized or specially
prepared ores, but some processes are amenable to
in-situ contact with the ore, which is sometimes called
solution mining.
23
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 47
18/11/2008 17:58:07
Selected Application Recommendations
Radioactive Materials
Polymer-matrix composites in general have a very low
neutron cross-section capture efficiency. Therefore, they
are very well-suited to the containment of radioactive
materials, even at relatively high levels of radioactivity.
Testing of uncured DION® 382 by Atlas Chemical
Laboratories demonstrated that this resin is highly
resistant to molecular weight changes at dosages up
to 15 million rads. Extrapolations based on this study
estimate that DION® 382 may be able to withstand 50
to 100 million rads. For reference, the lethal radiation
dose is about 400 rads. Given the hazardous nature of
radioactive materials, testing is recommended before
actual use in high radiation environments.
Sodium Hydroxide and Alkaline Solutions
Alkaline solutions can attack the resin, usually by
hydrolysis of any ester groups. Glass fibers and other
silica based materials can also be attacked or digested.
This leads to a very characteristic type of wicking and
blistering, as well as fiber blooming. Dilute sodium
hydroxide is often more aggressive than the more
concentrated solutions. This relates to the fact that
NaOH is a very strong base, but at higher concentration
there is equilibrium between dissolved and solid phase
NaOH, which reduces the caustic effects. Epoxy based
vinyl esters and bisphenol-A based polyesters display
exceptional resistance to caustic.
Even though novolac based vinyl esters are wellregarded for excellent corrosion and thermal resistance
in many applications, it is often observed that novolac
based resins can show somewhat inferior caustic
resistance. Laminates based on novolac vinyl esters
exposed to caustic have a tendency to develop a pinkish
color incipient to failure. It is speculated this is due to
formation of phenolates from the novolac structure.
There is widespread belief that it is advisable to use
synthetic surfacing veils versus C-glass in caustic
applications. However, controlled laboratory tests
usually reveal no clear-cut or distinct advantages to a
synthetic veil, and there is a long history of use of C-veil
in alkaline environments.
The synthetic veil allows an increased resin content at
the surface to ostensibly afford more protection. On the
other hand, the resin rich areas can make the surface
more prone to cracking and can, at times, present more
fabrication difficulties.
24
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 48
18/11/2008 17:58:09
Solvents
Organic solvents can exert a variety of corrosive effects
on composites. Small polar molecules, such as methanol
and ethanol, for example, may permeate the corrosion
liner, causing some swelling and blistering. Chlorinated
solvents, chlorinated aromatics, as well as lower
aldehydes and ketones, are especially aggressive and
can cause swelling and spalling of the corrosion liner
surface. Corrosive environments containing low levels
of solvents may still exert significant effects depending
on the solvent involved and the properties of any other
materials present.
Best results in solvent environments are obtained by
using resins with high crosslink density, such as DION®
9400, DION® 6694, and DION® 490.
Static Electricity
Resin/ glass composites are non-conductive materials,
and high static electric charges can develop inducting
and piping. Static build-up can be reduced by using
conductive graphite fillers, graphite veils or continuous
carbon filaments in the surface layer. Use of copper
should be avoided because it can inhibit the resin cure.
FDA Compliance
The various versions of DION® 382, DION® 6631, DION® 490, DION® 9102 DION® 6334, and
DION® 9100 conform to the formulation provisons specified for food contact in FDA Title 21, CFR
177.2420. These resins may be used for food contact when properly formulated and cured.
It is good practice to follow the general curing and surface preparation techniques that apply to
potable water, as described herein.
It is the responsibility of the manufacturer of composite materials to ensure conformance
to all FDA requirements.
USDA Applications
USDA approvals must be petitioned directly from the USDA by the fabricator. Typically, any
product which conforms to the requirements of FDA Title 21, CFR 177.2420 will be approved.
25
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 51
18/11/2008 17:58:10
Additional Reference Sources
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
DION® 9800
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9400
DION® 6694
DION® 382
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
A
Acetaldehyde
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Acetic Acid
10
210
210
210
210
210
170
170
210
Acetic Acid
25
180
180
180
180
180
150
150
210
Acetic Acid
50
140
140
140
140
140
---
---
125
Acetic Acid, Glacial
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Acetic Anhydride
100
NR
--
100
110
110
NR
NR
100
Acetone
10
180
180
180
180
180
NR
NR
NR
Acetone
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Acetonitrile
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Acetophenone
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
75
Acetyl Chloride
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Acrylic Acid
0-25
100
100
110
110
100
---
NR
NR
Acrylic Latex
All
120
150
160
150
150
130
---
80
Acrylonitrile
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Acrylontirile Latex
All
---
150
---
150
150
---
---
80
Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid
92
120
120
120
150
150
---
---
120
Alkyl Benzene C10 - C12
100
150
150
---
150
150
---
---
100
Allyl Alcohol
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Allyl Chloride
All
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Alpha Methyl Styrene
100
NR
NR
90
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Alpha Olefin Sulfates
100
120
120
120
120
120
---
---
80
Alum
All
210
210
250
250
220
170
170
200
Aluminum Chloride
All
210
210
250
250
220
170
170
210
Aluminum Chlorohydrate
All
210
210
210
250
210
150
150
165
Aluminum Chlorohydroxide
50
210
210
210
250
210
150
150
NR
Aluminum Citrate
All
210
210
250
250
210
170
170
150
Aluminum Fluoride 1
All
80
110
80
120
110
NR
NR
150
Aluminum Hydroxide
All
180
180
190
210
210
NR
NR
NR
Aluminum Nitrate
All
180
180
180
180
180
170
140
---
Aluminum Potassium Sulfate
All
210
200
250
250
210
170
170
210
Aluminum Sulfate
All
210
200
250
250
210
175
170
220
Amino Acids
All
100
100
100
100
100
---
--
---
Ammonia, Liquified
All
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
26
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 52
18/11/2008 17:58:11
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 9800
DION® 9400
DION® 6694
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
200
200
NR
NR
NR
FR 9300
Ammonia Aqueous
(see Ammonium Hydroxide)
1
200
200
210
Ammonia (Dry Gas)
All
100
200
100
200
200
---
---
NR
Ammonium Acetate
65
100
110
80
110
110
80
NR
80
Ammonium Benzoate
All
180
180
180
180
180
140
---
150
Ammonium Bicarbonate
100
160
160
160
170
160
120
120
130
Ammonium Bisulfite
Black Liquor
--
180
180
180
210
180
NR
NR
195
Ammonium Bromate
40
160
160
160
160
160
---
---
150
Ammonium Bromide
40
160
160
160
160
160
---
---
150
Ammonium Carbonate
All
150
150
150
150
150
140
80
150
Ammonium Chloride
All
210
210
210
210
210
170
170
200
Ammonium Citrate
All
160
160
160
170
160
120
120
---
Ammonium Fluoride 3
All
150
150
150
150
140
NR
NR
150
Ammonium Hydroxide
(Aqueous Ammonia)
1
200
200
190
200
200
NR
NR
NR
5
180
180
180
180
180
NR
NR
NR
10
150
150
150
170
150
NR
NR
NR
20
150
150
100
150
140
NR
NR
NR
Ammonium Hydroxide
(Aqueous Ammonia)
Ammonium Hydroxide
(Aqueous Ammonia)
29
100
100
100
100
100
NR
NR
NR
Ammonium Lauryl Sulfate
30
120
120
120
120
120
---
---
---
Ammonium Ligno Sulfonate
50
---
160
---
180
180
---
---
---
Ammonium Nitrate
All
200
200
150
250
210
140
140
200
Ammonium Persulfate
All
180
180
210
210
180
140
NR
150
Ammonium Phosphate
(Di or Mono Basic)
All
210
210
210
210
180
140
140
180
Ammonium Sulfate
All
210
200
250
250
210
170
170
220
Ammonium Sulfide (Bisulfide)
All
120
110
120
110
110
---
NR
120
Ammonium Sulfite
All
150
150
150
150
150
80
NR
150
20
210
210
210
250
210
140
140
180
50
110
110
110
150
110
80
80
180
Ammonium Thiosulfate
50
100
100
120
150
110
---
NR
180
Amyl Acetate
60
NR
NR
120
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
Amyl Alcohol
All
120
150
150
210
210
170
80
200
Amyl Alcohol (Vapor)
---
150
150
140
210
210
100
100
100
Amyl Chloride
All
120
---
120
Aniline
All
NR
NR
70
Ammonium Thiocyanate
---
---
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
125
27
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 53
18/11/2008 17:58:12
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
DION® 9800
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9400 DION® 6694
DION® 382
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
Aniline Hydrochloride
All
180
180
180
180
180
140
---
---
Sat’d
210
210
210
250
210
140
140
200
Aqua Regia (3:1 HCl HNO3)
All
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
130
Arsenic Acid
80
110
110
140
110
110
80
---
110
Arsenious Acid
20
180
180
180
180
180
80
80
180
Aniline Sulfate
B
Barium Acetate
All
180
180
180
180
180
140
NR
180
Barium Bromide
All
210
210
210
210
180
---
---
---
Barium Carbonate
All
210
210
180
250
210
80
80
200
Barium Chloride
All
210
210
210
250
210
175
170
200
Barium Cyanide
All
150
150
150
150
150
---
---
---
Barium Hydroxide
All
150
160
150
170
160
NR
NR
NR
Barium Sulfate
All
210
210
210
180
210
175
170
180
Barium Sulfide
All
180
180
180
180
180
NR
NR
---
Beer
---
---
---
---
---
110
---
80
---
Beet Sugar Liquor
All
180
180
180
180
180
175
110
180
Benzaldehyde
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Benzene
100
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
75
Benzene, HCl (wet)
All
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Benzene Sulfonic Acid
All
210
210
150
180
210
140
NR
200
Benzene Vapor
All
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Benzoic Acid
All
210
240
210
250
210
170
170
220
Benzoquinones
All
150
180
180
180
180
---
---
---
Benzyl Alcohol
All
NR
110
100
90
100
80
NR
---
Benzyl Chloride
All
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Biodiesel Fuel
All
180
180
180
180
180
175
140
175
Black Liquor (pulp mill)
All
180
200
180
210
200
NR
NR
NR
Bleach Solutions
(see selected applications)
Calcium Hypochlorite
All
180
200
100
210
210
NR
NR
---
Chlorine Dioxide
---
160
160
160
160
160
NR
NR
180
Chlorine Water
All
180
200
180
210
200
NR
NR
200
Chlorite
50
100
110
100
110
110
NR
NR
110
Hydrosulfite
---
180
190
180
190
190
NR
NR
---
Sodium Hypochlorite
15
125
125
125
125
125
NR
NR
---
28
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 50
18/11/2008 17:58:10
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
DION® 9800
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9400 DION® 6694
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
Borax
All
210
210
210
210
210
175
170
170
Boric Acid
All
210
210
210
250
210
170
170
200
Brake Fluid
---
110
110
110
110
110
---
---
---
Brine, salt
All
210
210
180
250
210
175
170
220
Liquid
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Bromine Water
5
180
180
180
180
180
80
---
---
Brown Stock (pulp mill)
---
180
180
180
180
180
---
NR
---
Bunker C Fuel Oil
100
210
210
220
220
210
175
140
175
Butanol
All
120
120
120
150
110
100
NR
100
Bromine
Butanol, Tertiary
All
---
NR
---
110
110
---
---
100
Butyl Acetate
100
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
80
NR
80
Butyl Acrylate
100
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Butyl Amine
All
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Butyl Benzoate
100
---
---
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Butyl Benzyl Phthalate
100
180
180
180
210
210
175
NR
NR
Butyl Carbitol
80
100
---
100
100
100
NR
NR
NR
Butyl Cellosolve
100
100
100
100
120
120
NR
NR
85
Butylene Glycol
100
160
180
180
200
180
175
150
120
Butylene Oxide
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Butyraldehyde
100
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Butyric Acid
50
210
210
210
210
210
100
80
120
Butyric Acid
85
80
110
110
110
110
NR
NR
80
Cadmium Chloride
All
180
190
180
190
180
150
150
150
Calcium Bisulfite
All
180
180
180
200
180
140
140
150
Calcium Bromide
All
200
200
190
250
210
---
---
200
Calcium Carbonate
All
180
200
180
250
210
160
160
180
All
210
200
250
250
210
150
150
220
Sat'd
210
210
250
240
210
175
170
220
C
Calcium Chlorate
(see selected applications)
Calcium Chloride
29
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 49
18/11/2008 17:58:09
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION®
DION®
DION®
9800
9400
6694
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
160
160
NR
FR 9300
Calcium Hydroxide
All
180
180
180
210
180
Calcium Hypochlorite
(see selected applications)
All
180
200
180
210
200
NR
NR
180
Calcium Nitrate
All
210
210
210
250
210
170
170
200
Calcium Sulfate
All
210
210
250
240
210
175
170
220
Calcium Sulfite
All
180
180
180
200
190
---
---
180
Cane Sugar Liquor and Sweet
Water
All
180
180
180
180
180
175
110
180
180
Capric Acid
All
180
180
210
210
200
140
---
Caprylic Acid (Octanoic Acid)
All
180
180
210
210
200
140
---
140
Carbon Dioxide Gas
---
210
200
300
300
300
210
210
250
Carbon Disulfide
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
210
200
300
300
300
210
210
160
Carbon Tetrachloride
100
100
100
150
100
100
80
NR
NR
Carbowax 7
100
100
100
120
100
100
120
---
---
Carbowax 7 Polyethylene
Glycols
All
150
180
180
---
180
---
---
150
Carboxy Methyl Cellulose
All
150
160
150
160
160
---
---
---
Carboxy Ethyl Cellulose
10
150
160
180
180
180
---
---
150
Cashew Nut Oil
All
---
200
---
200
200
140
---
---
Castor Oil
All
160
160
160
160
160
80
---
---
Chlorinated Pulp
(see selected applications)
---
180
180
180
200
200
---
---
180
Chlorinated Washer Hoods
---
180
180
180
200
180
NR
NR
150
Chlorinated Waxes
All
180
180
180
180
180
150
150
150
Chlorine (liquid)
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
210
200
210
210
210
---
---
200
Chlorine Dioxide
---
160
160
160
160
160
NR
NR
160
Chlorine Water
All
180
200
180
210
200
NR
NR
200
Chloroacetic Acid
25
180
200
120
210
210
80
NR
90
Chloroacetic Acid
50
100
140
100
150
140
80
NR
80
Carbon Monoxide Gas
Chlorine Gas (wet or dry)
Chlorobenzene
100
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Chloroform
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Chloropyridine
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
30
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 46
18/11/2008 17:58:07
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100 DION® 9800
DION® 9102
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 9400
DION® 6694
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
FR 9300
Chlorosulfonic Acid
Chloroethylene
(1,1,1-trichloroethylene)
All
NR
NR
NR
---
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Chromic Acid
(see selected applications)
5
110
110
120
120
110
80
NR
200
Chromic Acid
(see selected applications)
20
NR
NR
110
100
NR
NR
NR
195
180
Chlorotoluene
Chromic:sulfuric acid
20:20
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Chromium Sulfate
All
150
150
180
180
150
140
---
---
Chromous Sulfate
All
180
140
180
180
160
140
140
150
Citric Acid
All
210
210
210
250
210
175
160
180
Cobalt Chloride
All
180
180
180
180
180
---
---
---
Cobalt Citrate
All
180
180
180
---
180
---
---
---
Cobalt Naphthenate
All
150
150
150
150
150
---
---
---
Cobalt Nitrate
15
120
180
120
180
180
---
---
120
Cobalt Octoate
All
150
150
150
150
150
---
---
---
Coconut Oil
All
180
200
190
250
200
175
150
---
Copper Acetate
All
210
180
180
250
180
170
170
---
Copper Chloride
All
210
210
250
250
210
170
170
220
Copper Cyanide
All
210
210
210
250
210
140
130
200
Copper Fluoride
All
210
---
---
210
---
NR
NR
170
Copper Nitrate
All
210
210
210
250
210
170
170
140
Copper Sulfate
All
210
210
250
240
220
175
170
220
Corn Oil
All
200
200
190
200
200
175
170
175
Corn Starch
All
210
210
210
210
210
175
---
200
Corn Sugar
All
210
210
210
210
210
175
---
200
Cottonseed Oil
All
210
210
210
200
200
175
---
175
Cresol
10
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Cresylic Acid
All
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Crude Oil, Sour or Sweet
100
210
210
250
250
210
170
170
210
Cyclohexane
100
120
NR
150
120
110
80
NR
140
Cyclohexanone
100
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
---
NR
---
31
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 45
18/11/2008 17:58:06
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
180
180
---
---
---
DION® 9100 DION® 9800 DION® 9400 DION® 6694
DION® 9102
FR 9300
D
Decanol
100
120
150
180
Dechlorinated Brine Storage
All
180
---
180
180
180
---
---
180
Deionized Water
All
200
200
190
210
210
175
170
200
Demineralized Water
All
200
200
190
210
210
175
170
200
Detergents, Organic
100
160
160
160
180
180
---
100
100
Detergents, Sulfonated
All
200
200
190
210
210
120
120
200
Diallylphthalate
All
180
180
210
210
180
175
110
120
Diammonium Phosphate
65
210
210
210
210
180
---
120
---
Dibasic Acids
(FGD Applications)
30
180
180
180
180
180
180
170
180
Dibromophenol
---
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Dibromopropanol
All
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Dibutyl Ether
100
100
100
150
110
110
80
NR
80
Dibutyl Phthalate
100
180
180
190
200
180
175
150
80
Dibutyl Sebacate
All
200
200
190
210
210
---
---
---
Dichlorobenzene
100
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
Dichloroethane
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Dichloroethylene
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Dichloromethane
(Methylene Chloride)
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Dichloropropane
100
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
-----
Dichloropropene
100
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
Dichloropropionic Acid
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Diesel Fuel
All
180
180
210
210
180
175
140
175
Diethanol Amine
100
80
110
110
110
110
NR
NR
110
Diethyl Amine
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Diethyl Ether (Ethyl Ether)
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Diethyl Ketone
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Diethyl Formamide
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Diethyl Maleate
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
--220
Di 2 Ethyl Hexyl Phosphate
20
---
200
---
210
210
---
---
Diethylenetriamine (DETA)
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Diethylene Glycol
100
200
200
190
250
210
175
170
100
Diisobutyl Ketone
100
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
32
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 42
18/11/2008 17:58:05
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9800 DION® 9400 DION® 6694
DION® 382
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
80
FR 9300
Diisobutyl Phthalate
100
120
150
150
180
180
---
---
Diisobutylene
100
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Diisopropanol Amine
100
110
110
120
100
100
---
---
---
Dimethyl Formamide
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Dimethyl Phthalate
100
150
150
170
170
150
140
NR
80
Dioctyl Phthalate
100
180
180
190
210
180
175
150
80
Dioxane
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Diphenyl Ether
100
80
120
120
140
120
120
NR
---
Dipiperazine Sulfate Solution
All
---
100
---
---
100
80
---
---
Dipropylene Glycol
All
200
200
210
250
210
175
170
---
Distilled Water
All
180
200
190
210
210
---
170
200
Divinyl Benzene
100
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Dodecyl Alcohol
100
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
150
Embalming Fluid
All
110
110
110
110
110
NR
NR
110
Epichlorohydrin
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Epoxidized Soya Bean Oil
All
150
200
150
200
200
---
---
150
Esters of Fatty Acids
100
180
180
180
210
180
---
150
120
Ethanol Amine
100
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethyl Acetate
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethyl Acrylate
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol)
10
120
140
150
150
140
110
---
110
Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol)
50
100
100
120
120
120
100
---
125
Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol)
95-100
80
80
100
120
110
80
---
80
Ethyl Benzene
100
NR
NR
100
NR
100
NR
NR
NR
Ethyl Benzene / Benzene
Blends
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethyl Bromide
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethyl Chloride
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethyl Ether (Diethyl Ether)
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethylene Chloride
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethylene Chloroformate
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethylene Chlorohydrin
100
100
110
100
110
110
80
NR
200
E
33
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 41
18/11/2008 17:58:04
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 9800
DION® 9400
DION® 6694
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
Ethylene Diamine
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethylene Dibromide
All
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethylene Dichloride
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Ethylene Glycol
All
200
200
210
250
210
180
170
250
Ethylene Glycol Monobutyl
100
100
100
100
100
100
NR
---
NR
Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic
Acid
100
100
110
100
110
110
NR
NR
---
Ethylene Oxide
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Eucalyptus Oil
100
140
140
140
140
140
---
---
---
Fatty Acids
All
210
210
250
250
210
175
170
220
Ferric Acetate
All
180
180
180
180
180
140
---
---
Ferric Chloride
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
220
Ferric Nitrate
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
220
Ferric Sulfate
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
200
Ferrous Chloride
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
220
Ferrous Nitrate
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
210
Ferrous Sulfate
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
220
Fertilizer, 8,8,8
---
120
110
120
120
110
---
120
---
Fertilizer, URAN
---
120
110
120
120
110
---
120
---
F
Flue Gases
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Fluoboric Acid
10
210
180
250
250
200
---
150
---
30:10
---
120
120
---
---
---
---
---
10
150
150
150
150
150
NR
NR
180
Fluosilicic Acid
35
100
100
100
100
100
NR
NR
160
Fluosilicic Acid
Fumes
180
180
180
180
180
NR
NR
---
Fly Ash Slurry
(see selected applications)
---
---
180
---
---
180
---
---
---
Formaldehyde
All
150
110
150
150
150
NR
NR
150
Formic Acid
10
180
150
180
150
150
120
100
200
Formic Acid
50
100
110
100
110
110
80
NR
100
Freon 11
100
---
110
100
NR
110
80
NR
NR
Fuel Oil
100
210
210
210
210
210
175
140
175
Furfural
10
100
110
120
150
110
NR
NR
80
Furfural
50-100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
80
Fluoride Salts & HCl
Fluosilicic Acid
34
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 38
18/11/2008 17:58:03
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 9800
DION® 9400
DION® 6694
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
---
---
---
110
FR 9300
G
Gallic Acid
Sat'd
100
100
100
100
100
Gasoline
(see selected applications)
Premium Unleaded
110
110
110
110
110
110
110
110
Regular Unleaded
100
80
---
100
---
---
110
---
110
Alcohol-Containing
110
110
110
110
110
110
110
110
110
Gluconic Acid
50
160
160
160
160
160
100
100
140
Glucose
All
210
180
210
180
210
110
110
180
Glutaric Acid
50
120
120
120
120
120
---
---
200
Glycerine
100
210
210
210
210
210
180
170
150
Glycolic Acid
(Hydroxyacetic Acid)
10
180
---
200
---
200
---
---
200
Glycolic Acid
(Hydroxyacetic Acid)
35
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
Glycolic Acid
(Hydroxyacetic Acid)
70
80
---
100
100
---
---
---
200
Glyoxal
40
100
110
100
110
110
80
---
200
Green Liquor (pulp mill)
---
180
200
180
210
200
140
NR
NR
Heptane
100
200
200
210
210
200
150
140
200
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
100
---
110
110
110
110
80
NR
200
Hexachoropentadiene
100
---
---
---
110
---
80
NR
---
Hexamethylenetetramine
65
---
110
120
---
110
80
NR
NR
H
Hexane
100
150
140
150
150
140
80
---
Hydraulic Fluid
100
150
180
180
180
180
NR
NR
---
Hydrazine
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Hydrobromic Acid
18
180
200
180
210
210
140
---
200
Hydrobromic Acid
48
150
160
150
170
160
80
80
200
150
Hydrochloric Acid
(see selected applications)
10
210
200
250
210
210
160
160
230
Hydrocloric Acid
15
210
200
210
210
210
140
140
210
Hydrocloric Acid
25
160
150
160
150
150
140
110
180
Hydrocloric Acid
37
110
110
110
110
110
80
---
100
Hydrocloric Acid and Organics
---
NR
NR
140
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Hydrocyanic Acid
10
180
200
180
210
210
140
80
200
Hydrofluoric Acid
1
125
125
125
125
125
NR
NR
---
35
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 37
18/11/2008 17:58:02
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9800
DION® 9400
DION® 6694
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
Hydrofluoric Acid
10
125
125
120
125
125
NR
NR
80
Hydrofluoric Acid
20
100
100
100
100
100
NR
NR
80
Hydrofluosilicic Acid
10
150
150
160
150
150
NR
NR
180
Hydrofluosilicic Acid
35
100
100
100
100
100
NR
NR
160
Hydrogen Bromide, vapor
All
180
---
180
210
210
NR
140
140
Hydrogen Chloride, dry gas
100
210
180
210
250
200
NR
150
250
Hydrogen Fluoride, vapor
All
150
150
150
180
180
NR
80
80
Hydrogen Peroxide
(storage)
5
150
150
150
150
150
80
NR
210
Hydrogen Peroxide
30
100
150
100
100
100
NR
NR
105
Hydrogen Sulfide, gas
All
210
200
210
240
210
140
140
250
Hydroiodic Acid
10
150
---
150
150
150
---
80
---
Hypophosphorus Acid
50
120
---
120
---
120
---
---
120
I
Iodine, Solid
All
150
150
150
170
150
---
NR
---
Isoamyl Alcohol
100
120
120
120
120
120
---
---
---
Isobutyl Alcohol
All
120
125
120
125
125
120
---
---
Isodecanol
All
120
150
180
180
180
140
---
150
Isononyl Alcohol
100
---
125
140
125
125
---
---
125
Isooctyl Adipate
100
---
180
150
---
180
---
---
---
Isooctyl Alcohol
100
---
100
140
150
150
---
---
---
Isopropyl Alcohol
All
120
110
120
120
110
80
80
160
Isopropyl Amine
All
100
---
120
120
---
---
---
---
Isopropyl Myristate
All
200
200
190
210
210
---
---
---
Isopropyl Palmitate
All
200
200
210
210
210
180
---
---
Itaconic Acid
All
120
125
120
125
125
80
---
95
J
Jet Fuel
Jojoba Oil
---
180
180
180
210
180
140
140
175
100
180
180
180
180
180
---
---
180
100
180
180
180
210
180
140
140
175
K
Kerosene
36
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 34
18/11/2008 17:58:00
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9100 DION® 9800 DION® 9400 DION® 6694
DION® 9102
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
L
Lactic Acid
All
210
200
210
250
210
140
130
200
Latex
All
120
150
120
150
150
120
---
120
Lauric Acid
All
210
200
210
210
210
180
---
180
Lauryl Alcohol
100
150
160
180
180
180
---
---
---
Lauryl Mercaptan
All
---
150
150
150
150
---
---
---
Lead Acetate
All
210
200
250
250
210
140
110
160
Lead Chloride
All
200
200
250
210
210
140
---
200
Lead Nitrate
All
210
200
250
250
210
---
140
200
Levulinic Acid
All
210
200
250
210
210
140
---
200
Lime Slurry
All
180
180
180
210
180
---
160
NR
Linseed Oil
All
210
200
250
250
200
180
---
203
Lithium Bromide
All
210
200
250
250
210
---
170
---
Lithium Carbonate
All
---
---
150
---
---
---
---
---
Lithuim Chloride
All
210
200
210
250
210
180
170
---
Lithium Sulfate
All
210
---
210
210
210
---
---
---
M
Magnesium Bicarbonate
All
180
170
180
210
170
130
130
---
Magnesium Bisulfite
All
180
180
180
180
180
140
---
180
Magnesium Carbonate
15
180
180
180
210
180
130
130
180
Magnesium Chloride
All
210
200
250
250
210
140
140
220
Magnesium Hydroxide
All
210
200
210
210
210
---
---
NR
Magnesium Nitrate
All
210
---
210
250
210
---
170
---
Magnesium Sulfate
All
210
200
250
210
210
175
150
200
37.5
---
140
140
140
140
---
---
140
Maleic Acid
All
200
200
250
210
210
140
140
200
Maleic Anhydride
100
200
200
210
210
210
140
140
---
Manganese Chloride
All
210
200
210
250
210
---
---
---
Manganese Sulfate
All
210
200
210
210
210
---
150
150
Mercuric Chloride
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
210
Mercurous Chloride
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
210
Magnesium Silica Fluoride
37
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 33
18/11/2008 17:58:00
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9800 DION® 9400
DION® 6694
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
Mercury
---
210
200
250
250
210
175
170
250
Methyl Alcohol (Methanol)
100
80
80
95
110
110
80
80
125
Methyl Bromide (Gas)
10
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
All
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Methyl Methacrylate
All
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Methyl Styrene
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Methyl Tertiarybutyl Ether
(MTBE)
All
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
Methylene Chloride
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Milk and Milk Products
Al
l---
---
---
---
100
100
---
100
Mineral Oils
100
210
200
250
250
210
175
170
80
Molasses and Invert Molasses
All
---
110
110
110
110
80
---
-----
Molybdenum Disulfide
All
200
---
---
---
---
---
---
Molybdic Acid
25
---
150
150
150
150
140
---
---
Monochloroacetic Acid
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Monochlorobenzene
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Monoethanolamine
100
80
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Monomethylhydrazine
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Morpholine
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Motor Oil
100
210
210
250
250
210
175
140
---
Mustard
All
---
---
---
---
210
140
---
---
Myristic Acid
All
210
210
210
210
210
80
---
---
Naphtha, Aliphatic
100
180
150
190
180
150
130
110
200
Naphtha, Aromatic
100
---
110
120
---
110
120
---
---
Naphthalene
All
180
---
210
250
200
---
130
---
N
Nickel Choride
All
210
200
210
250
210
140
140
220
Nickel Nitrate
All
210
200
210
250
210
---
140
220
Nickel Sulfate
All
210
200
210
250
210
180
140
220
Nicotinic Acid (Niacin)
All
---
110
---
---
110
80
---
110
Nitric Acid
(see selected applications)
2
160
200
180
210
210
150
150
210
Nitric Acid
Fumes
---
---
180
---
---
120
---
200
Nitrobezene
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Nitrogen Tetroxide
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
38
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 30
18/11/2008 17:57:57
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
DION® 9800
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9400 DION® 6694
DION® 382
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
O
Octylamine, Tertiary
100
---
110
110
110
110
80
---
---
Oil, Sweet or Sour Crude
100
210
210
250
250
210
175
140
210
Oleic Acid
All
210
200
210
250
210
175
170
200
Oleum (Fuming Sulfuric Acid)
---
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Olive Oil
100
210
200
250
250
200
175
170
---
Orange Oil (limonene)
100
210
200
160
180
200
175
170
---
Organic Detergents, pH<12
All
160
160
160
180
180
---
100
---
Oxalic Acid
100
210
200
210
250
210
175
170
220
---
80
80
---
80
80
---
---
100
Palm Oil
100
210
200
210
250
200
175
170
175
Palmitic Acid
100
210
200
250
250
210
175
170
--NR
Ozone (< 4 ppm in water phase)
(see selected applications)
P
Paper Mill Effluent (typical)
100
---
150
---
150
150
NR
NR
Pentasodium Tripoly Phosphate
10
210
200
210
210
210
140
120
---
Perchloroethylene
100
100
110
110
110
100
80
NR
110
Perchloric Acid
10
150
---
150
150
150
NR
NR
85
Perchloric Acid
30
100
---
100
100
100
NR
NR
---
Phenol (Carbolic Acid)
5
NR
110
NR
110
110
NR
NR
110
Phenol
>5
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
100
Phenol Formaldehyde Resin
All
100
120
120
120
120
---
---
---
Phosphoric Acid
80
210
200
210
210
210
140
140
250
Phosphoric Acid
Vapor & Condensate
---
210
180
210
210
190
---
170
210
NR
Phosphorous Trichloride
---
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Phthalic Acid
100
210
200
210
210
210
170
170
---
Phthalic Anhydride
100
210
200
210
210
210
170
170
200
Picric Acid (Alcoholic)
10
---
110
110
110
110
80
NR
100
---
Pine Oil
100
---
150
---
150
150
NR
NR
Pine Oil Disinfectant
All
---
120
---
120
120
120
NR
---
Piperazine Monohydrochloride
---
---
110
---
110
110
80
NR
---
Plating Solutions
(see selected applications)
--180
200
180
210
210
80
---
---
Cadmium Cyanide
39
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 29
18/11/2008 17:57:57
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
DION® 9800
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9400 DION® 6694
DION® 382
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
Chrome
---
120
---
120
130
---
80
NR
200
Gold
---
100
200
100
210
210
140
---
200
Lead
---
180
200
190
210
210
80
---
200
Nickel
---
180
200
180
210
210
140
---
200
Platinum
---
180
180
180
180
180
80
---
200
Silver
---
180
200
180
210
210
140
---
200
Tin Fluoborate
---
200
200
210
210
210
80
---
200
Zinc Fluoborate
---
200
180
210
210
80
---
180
210
200
210
210
210
140
140
180
All
---
120
120
120
120
---
---
---
All
120
150
140
140
150
120
120
120
80
Polyphosphoric Acid (115%)
---
Polyvinyl Acetate Adhesive
Polyvinyl Acetate Emulsion
180
Polyvinyl Alcohol
All
120
150
120
150
150
80
80
Potassium Aluminum Sulfate
All
210
200
250
250
210
170
170
Potassium Amyl Xanthate
5
---
150
150
150
150
140
---
150
Potassium Bicarbonate
10
150
160
150
170
160
80
---
80
Potassium Bicarbonate
50
140
140
140
140
140
80
---
80
Potassium Bromide
All
210
200
190
210
210
150
150
150
Potassium Carbonate
10
150
150
150
180
150
180
80
110
Potassium Carbonate
50
140
---
140
140
110
NR
---
110
Potassium Chloride
All
210
200
210
250
210
175
170
220
Potassium Dichromate
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
200
Potassium Ferricyanide
All
210
200
210
250
250
140
130
200
Potassium Ferrocyanide
All
210
200
210
250
210
140
130
200
Potassium Hydroxide
10
150
150
150
150
150
NR
NR
NR
Potassium Hydroxide
25
110
110
110
140
140
NR
NR
NR
200
Potassium Iodide
All
---
150
150
150
150
140
---
---
Potassium Nitrate
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
200
Potassium Permanganate
All
210
200
210
210
210
140
80
150
Potassium Persulfate
All
210
200
210
210
210
140
80
80
Potassium Pyrophosphate
60
---
150
150
150
150
---
---
150
Potassium Sulfate
All
210
200
210
250
210
175
170
220
Propionic Acid
20
200
---
190
---
200
---
---
---
Propionic Acid
50
180
180
180
180
180
---
---
---
Propylene Glycol
All
210
200
210
220
210
175
170
180
i-Propyl Palmitate
All
---
200
210
210
210
175
---
---
Pyridine
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
40
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 26
18/11/2008 17:57:54
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9100 DION® 9800 DION® 9400 DION® 6694
DION® 9102
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 382
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
150
120
---
80
FR 9300
Q
Quaternary Ammonium Salts
All
---
150
150
150
R
Radioactive Materials, solids
(See Special Applications)
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Rayon Spin Bath
---
---
150
150
140
140
NR
NR
180
Salicylic Acid
All
140
150
160
150
150
140
---
200
Sea Water
---
210
210
210
210
210
---
170
200
Sebacic Acid
All
210
---
210
---
---
---
---
200
Selenious Acid
All
210
180
210
180
180
140
---
200
S
Silicic Acid (hydrated silica)
All
250
---
200
250
---
---
170
---
Silver Cyanide
All
200
200
200
210
210
140
---
200
Silver Nitrate
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
220
Sodium Acetate
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
200
Sodium Alkyl Aryl Sulfonates
All
180
200
180
210
210
80
---
120
Sodium Aluminate
All
120
150
160
150
150
140
---
NR
Sodium Benzoate
All
180
180
180
180
180
170
170
180
Sodium Bicarbonate
All
180
180
180
210
180
100
100
140
Sodium Bifluoride
100
120
120
120
---
---
---
---
120
Sodium Bisulfate
All
210
200
210
250
210
175
170
200
Sodium Bisulfite
All
210
200
210
220
210
170
170
200
Sodium Borate
All
210
200
210
220
210
170
170
170
Sodium Bromate
5
---
110
110
110
110
---
---
100
Sodium Bromide
All
210
200
200
210
210
170
170
200
Sodium Carbonate (Soda Ash)
10
180
180
180
180
180
80
NR
80
Sodium Carbonate (Soda Ash)
35
160
160
150
160
160
NR
NR
80
Sodium Chlorate
(see selected applications)
All
210
200
210
210
210
NR
NR
200
Sodium Chloride
All
210
200
210
250
210
180
130
250
Sodium Chlorite
10
160
160
160
160
160
NR
NR
175
Sodium Chlorite
50
100
110
---
110
110
---
NR
---
Sodium Chromate
50
210
200
210
250
210
---
---
180
Sodium Cyanide
5
210
200
210
250
210
140
80
200
Sodium Cyanide
15
---
150
150
---
150
80
---
150
41
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 25
18/11/2008 17:57:54
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9800
DION® 9400
DION® 6694
DION® 382
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
Sodium Dichromate
All
210
200
210
250
210
---
140
200
Sodium Diphosphate
100
210
180
200
210
200
170
170
200
Sodium Dodecyl
Benzene Sulfonate
All
---
200
---
210
210
---
---
120
Sodium Ethyl Xanthate
5
---
150
150
150
150
140
---
---
Sodium Ferricyanide
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
220
Sodium Ferrocyanide
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
180
Sodium Fluoride
All
180
180
180
180
180
---
80
180
Sodium Fluorosilicate
All
120
120
120
120
120
---
---
---
Sodium Hexametaphosphate
10
150
120
150
150
150
---
---
---
Sodium Hydrosulfide
20
160
180
180
180
180
---
---
160
---
Sodium Hydroxide
(see selected applications)
1
150
200
140
210
200
NR
NR
Sodium Hydroxide
5
150
150
140
160
150
NR
NR
---
Sodium Hydroxid
10/25
150
150
140
160
150
NR
NR
NR
NR
Sodium Hydroxide
50
200
200
180
210
210
NR
NR
Sodium Hypochlorite
15
125
125
125
125
125
NR
NR
---
Sodium Hyposulfite
20
---
---
180
210
200
---
170
150
Sodium Lauryl Sulfate
All
180
160
180
200
160
---
---
100
Sodium Monophosphate
All
210
200
210
210
200
---
170
---
Sodium Nitrate
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
220
Sodium Nitrite
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
180
Sodium Oxalate
All
180
180
180
200
200
---
---
---
Sodium Persulfate
20
---
120
---
---
130
---
---
---
Sodium Polyacrylate
All
150
150
150
150
150
140
---
180
Sodium Silicate, pH<12
100
210
200
210
210
210
---
80
NR
Sodium Silicate, pH>12
100
210
200
210
200
200
---
NR
NR
Sodium Sulfate
All
210
200
210
250
210
180
170
80
Sodium Sulfide
All
210
200
210
250
210
80
80
140
Sodium Sulfite
All
210
200
210
250
210
80
80
220
Sodium Tetraborate
All
200
---
170
210
170
170
170
170
Sodium Tetrabromide
All
---
160
180
180
180
---
---
---
Sodium Thiocyanate
57
180
---
180
180
---
---
---
---
42
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 22
18/11/2008 17:57:51
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9800 DION® 9400 DION® 6694
DION® 382
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
Sodium Thiosulfate
All
180
180
150
150
---
140
140
---
Sodium Triphosphate
All
210
180
200
210
210
140
120
125
Sodium Xylene Sulfonate
40
---
200
210
---
210
140
80
150
Sorbitol
All
180
180
180
200
180
175
170
---
Soybean Oil
All
210
200
200
250
200
170
170
200
Soy Sauce
All
---
---
---
---
110
80
---
NR
Spearmint Oil
All
---
150
150
---
150
80
---
---
Stannic Chloride
All
210
200
200
250
200
170
170
80
Stannous Chloride
All
210
200
200
250
200
170
170
220
Stearic Acid
All
210
200
210
250
210
175
170
220
Styrene
100
NR
NR
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Styrene Acrylic Emulsion
All
120
120
120
120
120
---
---
80
Styrene Butadiene Latex
All
120
120
120
120
120
---
---
80
Succinonitrile, Aqueous
All
100
110
100
110
110
80
---
---
Sucrose
All
210
190
210
210
210
---
140
200
Sulfamic Acid
10
210
200
210
210
210
---
150
200
Sulfamic Acid
25
150
150
150
150
150
---
110
160
Sulfanilic Acid
All
210
180
210
180
180
80
---
160
Sulfite/Sulfate Liquors
(pulp mill)
---
200
200
190
210
210
140
---
NR
Sulfonated Animal Fats
100
---
180
180
180
180
---
---
180
Sulfonyl Chloride, Aromatic
---
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
80
Sulfur Dichloride
---
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
NR
Sulfur Dioxide (dry or wet gas)
(see selected applications)
5
210
200
200
210
220
170
140
250
Sulfur, Molten
---
---
150
---
250
200
---
---
150
Sulfur Trioxide Gas (dry)
(see selected applications)
Trace
210
200
200
250
210
NR
NR
200
Sulfuric Acid
(see selected applications)
0-25
210
200
210
250
200
175
170
250
Sulfuric Acid
50
180
200
180
250
200
160
140
200
Sulfuric Acid
70
180
190
180
180
190
100
NR
190
Sulfuric Acid
75
120
110
120
120
110
NR
NR
175
Sulfuric Acid
80
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
150
Sulfuric Acid
Dry Fumes
210
200
200
250
200
175
170
200
10/Sat’d
200
200
200
210
200
---
---
200
Sulfuric Acid/Ferrous Sulfate
43
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 21
18/11/2008 17:57:51
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9800
DION® 9400
DION® 6694
DION® 382
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
FR 9300
Sulfuric Acid/ Phosphoric Acid
10/20
180
180
180
180
180
---
---
200
Sulfuryl Chloride
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
SuperPhosphoric Acid
(105% H3PO4)
100
210
200
210
210
210
140
---
180
Tall Oil
All
150
150
190
160
150
140
---
200
Tannic Acid
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
220
Tartaric Acid
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
220
Tert-Amylmethyl Ether (TAME)
All
180
180
180
180
180
170
170
170
Tetrachloroethane
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
NR
100
Tetrachloropentane
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
NR
NR
Tetrachloropyridine
---
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
NR
NR
Tetrapotassium Pyrophosphate
60
125
125
150
125
125
80
---
80
Tetrasodium Ethylenediamine
Tetracetic Acid Salts
All
140
120
150
---
120
---
---
80
Tetrasodium Ethylenediamine
---
120
---
---
120
120
80
---
---
Tetrasodium Pyrophosphate
5
---
200
120
150
125
---
---
---
Tetrapotassium Pyrophosphate
60
125
125
140
150
125
80
80
---
Textone 7
---
200
200
210
---
210
140
---
---
Thioglycolic Acid
10
100
120
100
140
120
80
---
---
Thionyl Chloride
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
210
180
200
---
210
---
---
---
Toluene
100
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
80
NR
80
Toluene Di-isocyanate (TDI)
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
80
NR
150
T
Tobias Acid(2-Naphthylamine
Sulfonic Acid)
Toluene Diisocyanate
Fumes
80
---
80
---
---
---
---
80
Toluene Sulfonic Acid
All
210
200
210
250
210
---
---
100
Transformer Oils
100
210
210
230
210
210
175
---
175
Tributyl Phosphate
100
---
140
120
140
140
---
---
---
Trichloroacetaldehyde
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Trichloroacetic Acid
50
210
200
210
250
210
80
80
80
Trichloroethane
100
---
NR
120
NR
NR
---
NR
80
Trichlorophenol
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Tridecylbenzene
All
---
200
---
---
200
---
---
---
Tridecylbenzene Sulfonate
All
210
200
210
210
210
140
---
120
Triehanolamine
All
---
150
120
---
150
120
110
---
Triethanolamine Lauryl Sulfate
All
---
110
---
---
110
80
---
---
Triethylamine
All
---
125
120
---
125
80
---
---
Triethylene Glycol
100
---
180
180
---
180
---
---
---
44
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 18
18/11/2008 17:57:49
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE LIMIT, ◦F
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
%
CONCENTRATION
VINYL ESTER
DION® 9100
DION® 9102
BISPHENOL FUMARATE
DION® 9800 DION® 9400 DION® 6694
DION® 382
TEREPHTHALIC
ISOPHTHALIC
CHLORENDIC
DION® 490
DION® 6631
DION® 797
---
FR 9300
Trimethylamine Chlorobromide
---
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
NR
Trimethylamine Hydrochloride
All
130
130
130
130
130
80
NR
---
Triphenyl Phosphite
All
---
---
---
100
---
NR
NR
-----
Tripropylene Glycol
100
---
180
---
---
180
---
---
Trisodium Phosphate
50
175
175
180
175
175
140
120
---
Turpentine
---
---
150
150
150
150
80
NR
---
U
Uranium Extraction
(see selected applications)
---
---
180
---
---
180
---
---
NR
Urea
All
150
150
150
170
150
80
120
160
V
Vegetable Oils
All
210
200
180
250
210
---
170
170
Vinegar
All
210
200
180
250
210
150
150
200
Vinyl Acetate
All
NR
NR
70
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Vinyl Toluene
100
80
NR
100
NR
NR
NR
NR
---
Water, Deionized
(see selected applications)
All
180
200
200
210
210
175
170
---
Water, Distilled
(see selected applications)
All
180
200
200
210
210
175
160
---
W
Water, Sea
All
210
210
210
210
210
175
170
NR
Whiskey
All
---
---
---
---
110
80
---
---
White Liquor (pulp mill)
(see selected applications)
All
180
180
---
200
---
NR
---
NR
Wine 4
All
---
---
---
110
---
80
80
---
All
NR
NR
100
NR
NR
80
NR
100
X
Xylene
Z
Zeolite
All
---
200
210
210
210
---
---
---
Zinc Chlorate
All
210
200
210
210
210
---
170
200
220
Zinc Chloride
All
210
200
210
210
210
170
170
Zinc Cyanide
All
---
---
160
180
180
---
---
---
Zinc Nitrate
All
210
200
210
250
210
170
170
180
Zinc Sulfate
All
210
200
210
250
210
175
170
220
Zinc Sulfite
All
210
200
210
250
210
---
170
---
45
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 17
18/11/2008 17:57:48
Common Types of Metal Corrosion
Fiber reinforced composites do not match the
characteristically high elastic modulus and ductility of
steel and other metals, yet they display lower density,
this often translates to favorable strength/ weight ratio
which, in turn, leads to favor in transportation and
various industrial and architectural applications.
Composites can present other advantages over
steel, such as low thermal conductivity and good
dielectric or electrical insulating properties. However,
an overwhelming advantage to composites rests with
corrosion resistance.
When the cost and benefits of FRP and special resins
are considered for particular environments, it is useful to
understand the common mechanisms by which metals
are oxidized or corroded. FRP is immune or otherwise
quite resistive to many of these influences, at least
within the range of practical limits of temperature and
stress.
Oxygen Cell-Galvanic Corrosion
The most commonly observed instances of corrosion
to carbon steel involve oxidation-reduction galvanic
couplings in the presence of molecular oxygen and
hydrogen ion associated with acids.
Oxidation (anode)
Fe – 2e- → Fe2+
Reduction (cathode)
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH2H+ + 2e- → H2
Most forms of steel corrosion relate to some variation
of these mechanisms, as hereby the steel effectively
functions as an anode and becomes oxidized. Dissolved
salts and ionic components can accelerate this type
of corrosion by increasing electrical conductivity. It
can also occur in the presence of stray leaks of direct
current, such as in the vicinity of mass transit systems.
Galvanic corrosion of steel is accelerated in the vicinity
of metals such as copper which are cathodic to steel.
Due to impurities, as well as various metallurgical or
geometric factors, steel substrates are not always
uniform. There can be numerous microscopic anodecathode couplings along the surface or cross-sectional
gradients of the steel, and each can effectively function
as a galvanic oxidation cell.
Apart from paints and other protective or dielectric
coatings, various forms of cathodic protection are often
employed with steel. For small structures, sacrificial
anodes may be located near to the steel, so that
these anodes corrode selectively, or preferentially,
to the steel. Sacrificial anodes employ metals which
are more electronegative than iron within the galvanic
series. Examples include zinc, magnesium, or various
aluminum alloys. For larger structures, such as tanks,
impressed current methods are frequently used. This
involves use of separate anodes and DC current to
reverse or alter polarity, allowing the steel to function as
a cathode rather than as an anode, which is where the
oxidation occurs.
Galvanic corrosion is exceptionally severe in wet
acidic environments where free oxygen is present.
Flue gas desulfurization is a good example of where
the conditions strongly favor this type of corrosion. This
is due to the presence of sulfuric acid in combination
with oxygen associated with the excess air ordinarily
employed in coal combustion. Polyesters and vinyl
esters display excellent acid resistance and common
galvanic corrosion mechanisms do not influence
properly designed FRP.
46
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 14
18/11/2008 17:57:46
Common Types of Metal Corrosion
Passive Alloys and Chloride Induced Stress Corrosion
To avoid galvanic corrosion to steel, it is common
practice to employ stainless steel or other passive alloys.
Stainless steel contains at least 10.5% chromium, which
passivates the surface with a very thin chrome-oxide
film. This, in turn, serves to protect against acids and
other inducers of galvanic corrosion.
The most practical limitations occur in environments
where this chrome-oxide film can be broken down. Very
typically this occurs in the presence of the chloride ion,
particularly in the vicinity of areas such as welds, where
tensile stress is present. Although the mechanism
can be complex, the corrosion is accompanied by
a distinctive destruction of grain boundaries, which
characterize the morphology or metallurgical structure
of the stainless steel. This is ordinarily manifested as
pitting, crevice corrosion, or corrosion stress-cracking,
which may proceed rapidly once initiated. Chlorides can
often be present at exceptionally high levels, especially
in applications such as flue desulfurization, where there
is a net evaporation of water as well as leaching of
coal ash. Thus, even though stainless steel will display
quite good acid resistance, the corrosion can be severe
due to chlorides. Chlorides tend to be quite prevalent
in industrial environments, even in places where they
might not be obvious, so it is always important to be
wary in the use of stainless steels. Another corrosive
limitation to stainless steel relates to oxygen depletion.
Since the passivity of stainless steel depends on a thin
protective chrome oxide film, it is important to keep the
surface in an oxidized state. The passive film may no
longer be preserved in certain reducing environments,
or where the surface is insulated from oxygen by scale
or other strongly adhering deposits.
The class of stainless steel most commonly considered
in corrosive environments is known as austenite,
but the other types (martensetic and ferritic) are also
common. Over the years, many grades have been
developed to improve resistance to chloride and to
afford better strength, heat resistance, and welding
properties to minimize the effects of stress induced
corrosion. Characteristically, increased nickel content
alloys are favored for high chloride applications, such
as type 317L stainless steel, Hastelloy™, Inconel, or
the various Haynes series alloys, such as C-276. Since
these alloys are expensive, applications often involve
cladding or thin “wallpapering” procedures. The use of
these selections involves a great deal of welding, which
must be done with a high degree of expertise, expense,
and high level inspections with attention to detail, since
welds are especially susceptible to stress corrosion.
Sulfide Stress Cracking
Somewhat akin to chloride-induced stress corrosion
is sulfide stress corrosion cracking. This is common
in oilfield and other applications, such as geothermal
energy recovery and waste treatment. Carbon steel as
well as other alloys can react with hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
which is prevalent in sour oil, gas, and gas condensate
deposits. Reaction products include sulfides and atomic
hydrogen which forms by a cathodic reaction and
diffuses into the metal matrix. The hydrogen can also
react with carbon in the steel to form methane, which
leads to embrittlement and cracking of the metal.
CO2 Corrosion
Carbon dioxide can be quite corrosive to steel (at times
in excess of thousands of mils per year) due to the
formation of weak carbonic acid as well as cathodic
depolarization. This type of corrosion is especially
devastating in oil and gas production and is apt to receive
even more attention in the future due to increased
use of CO2 for enhanced oil recovery. Additionally,
various underground sequestering processes are being
inspired by concerns over global warming. Turbulence,
or gas velocity, can be a big factor in the CO2 induced
corrosion of steel due to the formation and/ or removal
of protective ion carbonate scale. On the other hand,
FRP is not affected by these mechanisms of corrosion.
Other Types of Stress Corrosion
Sometimes internal stress corrosion-cracking of steels
may occur unexpectedly due to mechanisms which
are not yet completely understood. For example, there
is some evidence this occurs with ethanol in high
concentrations, especially around welds. Likewise,
anhydrous methanol can be corrosive to aluminum as
well as titanium.
47
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 13
18/11/2008 17:57:46
Common Types of Metal Corrosion
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Atomic hydrogen can diffuse or become adsorbed into
steel. It then reacts with carbon to form methane or
microscopic gas formations which weaken and detract
from ductility. Usually this happens at high temperature
under conditions where FRP is ordinarily not considered.
The same type of mechanism of attack is associated
at lower temperatures with various forms of galvanic
or stress induced corrosion. Quite often hydrogen
embrittlement can be a problem for steel which has
been electroplated or pickled, especially when done
improperly or inefficiently. Some of these matters are
receiving more attention due to future considerations of
hydrogen in fuel cell and other energy applications.
Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Microbially Induced
Corrosion (MIC)
Colonies of microorganisms, especially aerobic and
anaerobic bacteria contribute greatly to corrosion of
steel through a wide variety of galvanic and depositional
mechanisms. Usually the corrosion is manifested in the
form of pitting or sulfide induced stress cracking. Perhaps
the most significant type of such corrosion involves
sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), which metabolize
sulfates to produce sulfuric acid or hydrogen sulfide.
Such bacteria are prolific in water (including seawater),
mud, soil, sludge, and other organic matter.
These bacteria are a major reason why underground
steel storage tanks are corroded, and this has
lead to widespread use of FRP as an alternative or
as an external protective barrier to steel. Various
manifestations of MIC are seen far-and wide, including
industrial environments which inadvertently serve as
warm or nutrient-rich cultures for biological growth.
FRP is unaffected by many of the mechanisms
associated with MIC.
Apart from sulfate reducing bacteria, other forms of
microbial corrosion which affect metals include acid
producing bacteria, slime forming organisms, denitrifying
bacteria which generate ammonia, and other corrosion
associated with various species of algae and fungi.
It is expected that biologically induced corrosion will
receive increased attention as more applications and
technologies evolve in the field of energy production
associated with biomass and renewable resources.
Processing will include such things as aerobic and
anaerobic digestion, fermentation, enzymatic hydrolysis
and conversion of cellulose, lignin, or polysaccharides
to sugars, which in turn may be converted to ethanol.
Carbon and stainless steels are not the only metals
affected by MIC. Also routinely corroded are copper and
various alloys as well as concrete. The most common
example of which involves sewage and waste treatment
applications in the presence of the thiobacillus bacteria,
which oxidizes H2S to sulfuric acid. FRP has a long
history of successful use in these environments.
48
CORROSION GUIDE 181108_new table content format.indd 10
18/11/2008 17:57:45
Alternate Materials
Thermoplastics
There
are
numerous
commercially
available
thermoplastics. In the context of most industrial
corrosion resistant applications, the more common
competitive encounters with vinyl ester or polyester
composites involve the use of thermoplastics which
are glass reinforced. Apart from specialized and costly
so-called engineered plastics, most of these reinforced
thermoplastics are polyolefins, such as isotactic
polypropylene or polyethylene. These polymers tend to
be high in molecular weight and display good resistance
to solvents and many other chemical environments.
A major disadvantage to thermoplastics involves
restrictions to the size of equipment. Thermoplastics
normally require extrusion, injection molding, blow
molding, or other methods either impractical or
prohibitively costly for some of the sizes commonly
involved with lay-up or filament wound composites.
However, fairly large diameter extruded plastic pipe
(usually not reinforced) is commonly used.
Often plasticizers are necessary, which in some cases
can detract from chemical or thermal resistance, and
furthermore may introduce extraction concerns in the
final application. Glass and other fibrous reinforcement
can be difficult to wet-out or bind with thermoplastics.
Special coupling agents are normally required.
Longer fibers improve physical properties, but extrusion
and molding operating degrade longer fibers. Thus,
glass reinforced thermoplastics are limited to fairly
short fibers and cannot be employed with many of
the directional or multi-compositional reinforcements
common to the composites industry.
Although reinforcement greatly improves heat distortion
and thermal expansion properties, thermoplastic resins
differ quite distinctly from thermosetting resins (such as
crosslinked vinyl esters or polyesters). Thermoplastics
display distinct glass transition temperatures and
can melt or distort at elevated temperatures, so quite
often they cannot be considered in high temperature
applications.
Another problem with thermoplastics relate to water
absorption or permeation, which plagues even
expensive and highly corrosion resistant plastics such
as fluoro-polymers. Due to water permeation, cracks or
other damages with thermoplastics are difficult, if not
impossible, to repair.
Cracking of thermoplastics is common due to loss of
ductility especially at low temperatures, and secondary
bonding or painting can be a big problem.
Some relatively large thermoplastic tanks are mass
produced by roto-molding techniques. These can
be made from thermoplastic powders by thermal
rotational casting methods, to avoid sophisticated high
pressure injection equipment. Most often, the polymer
is a crosslinkable polyethylene. High temperature
peroxide initiators are used to crosslink through vinyl
unsaturation incorporated into the polymer. Most
often, these tanks are used in municipal applications
(such as for storage of hypochlorite) or for agricultural
uses and liquid transport. Common problems involve
cracking and difficulties in repair. A variety of hybrids
or combined technologies have evolved. Sheet stocks
of specially reinforced thermoplastics can be bonded to
FRP surfaces during manufacturing, to make so-called
dual laminates. Various thermoplastic coatings are
also quite common. At times, thermoplastic piping may
be filament wound with a thermosetting composite to
improve structural strength.
Other Thermosetting Polymers
Epoxy
The composites described in this guide are focused on
resins based on vinyl esters and polyesters.
Although vinyl esters employ epoxies in their formulation,
the epoxy (glycidal) functionality is extended and
chemically modified for vinyl curing, and should not
be confused with direct use of epoxy resins. Both
Bisphenol-A as well as novolac epoxies may be used
directly in fiber reinforced composites. They are cured
on a two-component basis with aromatic or aliphatic
amines, diamines, or polyamides. Most epoxy composite
applications involve high glass content filament wound
pipe used largely in oil recovery applications. Generally
speaking, viscosities are higher, and glass wet-out and
compatibility is always a concern. At times solvents
or reactive diluents are used to reduce viscosity.
Toughness is good, but thermal properties are inferior to
those of premium vinyl esters and polyesters. A medium
viscosity general purpose aliphatic amine cured epoxy
heat distortion temperature can be typically only 155160° F. Alkali and solvent resistance are generally good,
but acid resistance can sometimes present limitations
and is highly dependent on the curing system. Curing
and hardness development can be another limitation,
which may require heat activation and post-curing.
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Alternate Materials
Phenolic Resins
Phenolic resins have been used for a long time. They
are highly crosslinked resins based on reaction between
phenol and formaldehyde. Advantages include very good
heat resistance as well as low smoke generation due to
ablative or carbonizing properties. The ratio of phenol to
formaldehyde primarily determines the properties. Novolac
resins are based on a deficiency of formaldehyde and
are supplied as solid powders typically used in reactive
injection molding applications. They are then cured with
hexa methylene tetramine, which provides a formaldehyde
source. Resoles, on the other hand, are made with an
excess of formaldehyde and are normally supplied as
low viscosity liquids dissolved in water. They are normally
cured by application of heat and catalysis by an acid.
Composite applications employ the resole versions. A big
disadvantage to resole resins is the out-gassing of water
vapor which occurs during the cure. This leads to porosity
and voids as well as odor problems during processing.
These voids detract from composite properties including
corrosion resistance. Glass wet-out is another problem.
Quite often glass reinforcement commonly used in the
composites industry is not compatible with phenolic resin.
Since resoles are water soluble, corrosion resistance to
water or aqueous based solutions can be very poor if the
cure is not conducted properly. Care should also be taken
to avoid contact of phenolic composites with carbon steel
in the final application. Over time, the acid catalyst can
leach out and severely corrode the steel.
Acid Resistant Brick and Refractories
Both castable and mortar block chemically resistant
refractories have been used extensively. A good example
is in chimney construction, to withstand sulfuric acid
dew point corrosion. Usually steel is used for structural
support along with appropriate buckstays. Installation
costs can be high. Castable products must be anchored
to the steel structure by studs or Y-anchors. Refractories
are not ductile and concerns involve thermal cycling and
cracking. Block must be skillfully placed with proper acid
resistant mortar. High weight is a factor as well as seismic
considerations. The biggest problems involve operation
of wet stacks in conjunction with flue gas desulfurization.
Moisture leads to absorption and swelling, which may
eventually induce leaning. It is also common practice with
wet stacks to employ pressurized membranes to prevent
condensation onto the cold external steel surface. This
also can be expensive.
Rubber and Elastomers
Rubber often displays good chemical resistance, especially
to sulfuric acid. It is sometimes used in FGD applications for
lining of steel piping and process equipment. Rubber liners
have also been used in various bleaching applications.
Apart from corrosion resistance, rubber can offer good
abrasion resistance.
In the case of rubber linings, skilled and specialized
installation is required, which tends to make them
expensive. Many of the linings are difficult, if not impossible,
to install around restrictive geometry. It is essential to
obtain good bonding between the rubber and steel since
any permeation or damage to the liner can cause the steel
to quickly corrode. The low glass transition temperature
of rubber restricts use to moderate temperatures. Some
rubbers and elastomers can become embrittled if subjected
to cyclic wet and dry conditions. Solvents present swelling
problems, and water permeation can also be an important
consideration.
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Alternate Materials
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Concrete
Without a doubt, concrete represents the world’s most
extensively used material of construction. However, it is
subject to direct corrosive attack as well as spalling, or
cavitation. Good examples of corrosive attack involve
acids, including even dilute acid associated with acid
rain. Sulfates are also especially aggressive to concrete,
which presents problems when used in the vicinity of
FGD applications. Protection of concrete floors with a
layer of FRP is common practice. Acid resistant grades
of concrete have been developed, as well as so-called
polymer concrete wherein resin is used to replace all, or
a portion, of the Portland cement used in the concrete
formulation.
Almost all concrete is reinforced with steel mesh or
rebar due to the low tensile strength of concrete. Upon
cracking and permeation by acids or salt solutions the
steel is attacked by galvanic corrosion. This then spalls
and weakens the structure due to high tensile stress in
the vicinity of the corroding steel. Dangerous situations
sometimes exist with concrete used in infrastructure
applications. Composite structures including composite
rebar offer novel approaches.
Another corrosion mechanism associated with concrete
is carbonation. It occurs when carbon dioxide from the
surrounding air reacts with calcium hydroxide contained
in the concrete, to produce calcium carbonate.
Because calcium carbonate is more acidic than the
parent material, it effectively depassivates the alkaline
environment of concrete. At pH levels below about 9.8,
the concrete mass can reduce the passive film which
serves to protect the steel reinforcement. This type of
attack is commonly observed with concrete hyperbolic
cooling towers, where elevated temperature and high
humidity promote the progression of a carbonation
front. The same conditions promote diffusion inside
of the hyperbolic tower. This can lead to corrosion
of steel, especially around cracks or in the vicinity of
joints associated with slip forms used in construction.
Due to water conservation as well as scarcity of fresh
water, greater use of evaporative cooling is leading to
new designs in cooling towers. As a result, more scale
formation along with higher salt concentrations favors
composities which can be used more extensively as an
alternative to concrete.
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Design and Production www.ElcaMedia.com
For more information please contact our World Headquarters:
Reichhold
P.O. Box 13582
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
(800) 431-1920 ext. 1
Corrosion Hotline: (800) 752-0060
Customer Service: (800) 448-3482
www.Reichhold.com/corrosion
Email: corrosion@reichhold.com
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applications. Our products are intended for sale to industrial and commercial customers. We request
that customers inspect and test our products before using them to satisfy themselves as to contents
and suitability.
We warrant that our products will meet our written specifications. Nothing herein shall constitute
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are reserved. The exclusive remedy for all proven claims is replacement of our materials, and in
no event shall we be liable for special, incidental, or consequential damages.
Reproduction of all or any part is prohibited except by permission of authorized Reichhold
personnel. Copyright © 2009 by Reichhold, Inc. All rights reserved.
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