HOW TEACHERS AND
PARAEDUCATORS CAN WORK
TOGETHER TO CREATE POSITIVE
LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS:
TEACHERS’ AND PARAEDUCATORS’
ROLES IN MAINTAINING
SAFE AND ORDERLY SCHOOLS
Council for Exceptional Children
Pre-Convention Workshop
April 18, 2001
Presented By:
MARY QUINN
DEPUTY DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR EFFECTIVE COLLABORATION AND PRACTICE
LORI HAGEN
TEACHER, HOOVER MIDDLE SCHOOL, ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO
LINDA WRIGHT
PARAPROFESSIONAL, HOOVER MIDDLE SCHOOL, ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO
BETH BADER
SENIOR RESEARCH ANALYST, AMERICAN INSTITUTES FOR RESEARCH
How Teachers and Paraeducators Can Work Together to Create
Positive Learning Environments:Teachers’ and Paraeducators’ Roles in
Maintaining Safe and Orderly Schools
COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN – Pre-Convention Workshop
April 18, 2001
Mary M. Quinn, Lori Hagen, Linda Wright, Beth D. Bader, Presenters
SCHEDULE OF WORKSHOP
9:00–9:25
9:25–10:10
Overview
Paraprofessional Roles
Beth Bader
Creating Structured Environments
Lori Hagen and Linda Wright
10:10–10:30
Identifying Behavior that Interferes with Learning
Mary Quinn
10:30–10:45
Break
10:45–12:00
Developing a System of Effective Behavior Management
Mary Quinn and Beth Bader
12:00–1:00
Lunch
1:00–1:45
Putting the Behavior Management System in Place
Lori Hagen and Linda Wright
1:45–2:30
Acting Out Cycle and Early Warning Signs
Mary Quinn
2:30–2:45
Break
2:45–3:00
Escorting Non-Cooperative Students
Self-Defense
Breaking Up Fights
Mary Quinn
3:00 – 3:30
Supports and Resources
Beth Bader
3:30 – 4:00
Summary, Wrap-up and Questions
A LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS
Dear Educator,
Welcome to Creating Positive Learning Environments, a pre-convention
workshop of the Council for Exceptional Children’s 2001 Convention.
You have a very tough job to do. Every day you work with students,
trying to help them get an education and learn new ways to deal with their
problems. We want to help you with this challenging work by giving you new
tools to add to the things you already know how to do
We have spent a lot of time putting this workshop together because we
believe that your work is important. The behavior management methods that
we have put in this book work. Behavior specialists all over the country have
used them successfully with students of all ages. The methods work to
prevent problems from happening in the first place, and to keep many problems that do happen from becoming serious emergencies.
What you will learn in this workshop is not a quick or easy approach. It
takes work to use these strategies. But these strategies should make your
work easier as time goes on. Working with students is never easy, but when
you change a student’s life and help him or her to grow, the rewards are very
great. We know that is why you became an educator.
We look forward to hearing from you about what you learn in the course
and how it helps you in your work.
Sincerely,
Mary Quinn
Lori Hagen
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Linda Wright
Beth Bader
The American Institutes for Research
SUMMARY
Many students come to school with serious behavior problems. They are challenging to work with,
and can cause worry and stress for adults and other students. Educators care about such students, but
they also want to make school a safe and pleasant place for all students. Many educators – paraprofessionals, teachers, administrators, other school professionals – as well as the parents of these children are
left wondering what to do.
There are many reasons why students have behavior problems. We call them “Risk Factors.” In
some cases it is because the students have physical conditions such as Attention Deficit Disorder or
serious emotional disabilities. In others it is because their families do not know how to teach them to
follow rules. Sometimes they are imitating the behavior of their friends, classmates, or family members.
Sometimes behavior that is unacceptable in school or other public places is very acceptable in the home
or the neighborhood. Some neighborhoods are extremely poor. Some provide a great deal of access to
drugs and to weapons. These neighborhoods also may have a high tolerance for what we call antisocial
behavior. Also, students see a great deal of violence on television and read about it in books, magazines,
and newspapers. Violence becomes a part of the way they try to solve the problems that they have.
There are also “Protective Factors” that keep many students who are exposed to risk factors from
becoming antisocial. Some families are able to give their children a strong sense of right and wrong even
in troubled neighborhoods. Other adults and groups work closely with children who are at-risk. They care
about these children and also have high ideals. These adults and groups attract children who may have
been exposed to many risk factors. When these families, other adults, and groups set high expectations
for student behavior, they can often overcome the risk factors that the students have been exposed to. A
caring adult with strong positive values is a valuable “friend” for a student to have. This adult can make
the difference between whether the student becomes an adult with a good life or an adult with a troubled
life.
One successful way of working with behavior problems is to try to prevent them as much as possible.
We can do this by creating a structured environment and a positive feeling about school. We can do
this by:
•
talking to students in ways that tell them what we want them to do while making them feel good
about themselves;
•
setting and enforcing rules that explain what we want students to do;
•
teaching students how to follow procedures such as lining up for class, getting on the bus,
entering and leaving the school, and other things they do every day;
•
explaining to students the kinds of behavior we want to see from them, teaching them how to
perform that behavior, and making sure that they do;
•
keeping close watch on what they are doing so we can see problems coming and keep them
from getting out of hand;
•
explaining to students how to correct what we don’t like, and how to repeat what we do like; and
•
changing their environment to reduce some of the things that set off the unacceptable behavior.
WE CAN CONCENTRATE ON WHAT WE WANT TO SEE INSTEAD OF CONCENTRATING ON
WHAT WE DON’T WANT TO SEE.
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When a student’s behavior is unacceptable, we must identify, measure, and record (or document)
behavior that is interfering with learning. Then there are a number of ways that we can put in place a
system of effective behavior management to work with that student for acceptable behavior by:
•
teaching students how to follow the rules when they don’t know how to
•
replacing unacceptable behavior by teaching students behavior that is acceptable, such as anger
management and good problem solving skills
•
increasing their acceptable behavior by rewarding students for acceptable behavior in different
ways, so that their behavior is acceptable more often
•
reducing unacceptable behavior by providing consequences when their behavior is not acceptable.
Always we want them to know that we are trying to help them to meet high standards of behavior, and
that it is their behavior that we don’t like. We want our students always to know that we care about them.
Sometimes this can be the hardest thing for us to do when students have serious behavior problems.
Sometimes a student loses control of his or her behavior and become a serious danger to self and/or
to others. When this happens we have to provide intensive interventions. We have to make sure that
everyone is safe. But we also need to be aware of the things that lead up to the point where the student
lost control. Often there is a predictable sequence of events – we call it “The Acting-Out Cycle” – that
lead up to this point and we can step in to try to avoid the loss of control. If we need to take students who
are out of control to the office, or if they assault us or are in fights, there are ways that we can handle
things without hurting the student or getting hurt ourselves.
We have all heard about times when students become so dangerous that classmates, schoolmates,
and school staff are in danger of losing their lives. But we also know that these students give us warning
signs that they are in trouble. We have included “Early Warning Signs” and “Imminent Warning
Signs” in this course, so that you can learn about them and watch for them. Your knowledge of these
signs must be used carefully, however. It is easy to cause children and families a lot of harm if you do not
interpret them correctly.
Many of the students you work with have disabilities. Their education is guided by their Individualized
Education Programs, or IEPs. You are an important part of the team that has been put in place to help
those students receive an education. It is important for you to work with other members of the team to
make sure that you know what your part is in this system. Students with behavior problems should have
positive behavioral interventions in their IEPs. If the students you work with have these interventions in
their IEPs, it will be your task to work with other members of the team to implement many of these
interventions. This workshop is designed to provide some assistance to you in carrying out these
interventions.
We can’t teach you everything you need to know in one day. Working with such challenging students
requires a lot of knowledge. It requires trying new strategies and practicing new ways of thinking about
children. However, we think that the knowledge you will get in this course will be a good start. We think
that the full approach that we are presenting will help you to be more successful in your work.
The presenters will concentrate on discussing strategies and presenting activities that will help you to
understand the tools we are talking about. We hope that you will read the rest of the book. Each chapter
explains more fully the ideas and strategies that you learn in the course. The book also has a lot of
additional information about “tricks of the trade” for listening to students, creating a positive environment,
helping students do a better job of behaving, and helping them to get better at their schoolwork as well.
There are also outside resources that we think can help you in your work with students at school and also
with your own children.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PARTICIPANTS MANUAL
SUMMARY..............................................................................................................................................II
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW .......................................................................................................................1
The Way this Book is Organized ................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER 2: BUILDING A KNOWLEDGE BASE...................................................................................5
Students with Emotional Disturbance and Behavioral Problems ...........................................................5
Causes of Emotional Disturbance and Behavioral Problems ................................................................5
Risk and Protective Factors.................................................................................................................6
Prevention of Behavior Problems.........................................................................................................8
The Educator’s Role in Identifying and Referring Students...................................................................8
Working with Students Who Have Been Identified as Needing Support................................................8
Getting Support from Others................................................................................................................9
Moving Forward.................................................................................................................................10
CHAPTER 3: CREATING A STRUCTURED ENVIRONMENT ..............................................................11
I. Setting Rules and Expectations ......................................................................................................11
II. Helping Students Comply with Rules and Expectations..................................................................11
III. Scheduling the Day ......................................................................................................................12
IV. Establishing Routines and Procedures .........................................................................................12
V. Building a Positive Climate ............................................................................................................13
Communicating with Students............................................................................................................13
Positive and Corrective Feedback ............................................................................................. 13
Alpha and Beta Commands....................................................................................................... 14
Summary...........................................................................................................................................14
CHAPTER 4: IDENTIFYING BEHAVIOR THAT IS INTERFERING WITH LEARNING..........................15
School Assistance Teams and Pre-Referral Systems ........................................................................15
Referring Students.............................................................................................................................16
Documenting Behaviors.....................................................................................................................16
A Word about Cultural Differences.....................................................................................................18
CHAPTER 5: A SYSTEM OF EFFECTIVE BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT..............................................19
Teaching Replacement Behaviors .....................................................................................................20
Teaching Social Skills........................................................................................................................20
Social Problem Solving......................................................................................................................21
Anger Management ...........................................................................................................................21
Increasing Acceptable Behaviors .......................................................................................................21
Decreasing Unacceptable Behaviors .................................................................................................23
Summary...........................................................................................................................................25
Intensive Interventions for Aggressive Behaviors ...............................................................................25
Asking for Help at School ..................................................................................................................26
Working Together with Families.........................................................................................................26
When All Else Fails............................................................................................................................27
Moving Forward.................................................................................................................................27
CHAPTER 6: SUPPORT AND RESOURCES .......................................................................................29
ORGANIZATIONS ................................................................................................................................29
The Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice (CECP) ..............................................................29
The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC).......................................................................................29
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National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities (NICHCY) ..................................29
The Federation of Families for Children’s Mental Health (FFCMH).....................................................30
Parent Advocacy Coalition for Educational Rights (PACER) Center ...................................................30
The Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders (CCBD)...............................................................30
The Associations of Service Providers Implementing IDEA Reforms in Education (ASPIIRE)
Partnership, and The IDEA Local Implementation by Local Administrators (ILIAD) Partnership..........30
The Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence (CSPV) ............................................................31
Blueprints for Violence Prevention .....................................................................................................31
Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support ...................................................................31
The Institute on Violence and Destructive Behavior ...........................................................................31
National Association of School Psychologists (NASP)........................................................................32
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) .........................................................................................32
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) ........................................................32
MATERIALS FOR FURTHER STUDY...............................................................................................33
Bibliography of Resources for Dealing with Antisocial Behavior..........................................................33
CECP Publications .................................................................................................................... 34
Periodicals: ............................................................................................................................... 35
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS..............................................................................................................36
APPENDIX A: WORKSHEETS AND READINGS .................................................................................40
APPENDIX B: OVERHEADS ................................................................................................................49
APPENDIX C: ADDITIONAL MATERIALS ......................................................................................... 125
Appendix C-1: What Educators Need To know About Students Taking Medication ......................... 125
Appendix C-2 functional behavioral assessment .............................................................................. 126
Appendix C-3 Alternative Settings.................................................................................................... 130
Appendix C-4: Arranging the Physical Environment ......................................................................... 131
helping students to work more efficiently.......................................................................................... 131
Make sure that students actually understand all directions before they begin independent work....... 131
Appendix C-5: Collaborating Successfully........................................................................................ 132
APPENDIX D: GLOSSARIES ............................................................................................................. 133
Appendix D-1: General Glossary ..................................................................................................... 133
Appendix D-2: Defining Antisocial Behavior ..................................................................................... 134
Oppositional Defiant Disorder .......................................................................................................... 134
Conduct Disorder............................................................................................................................. 134
Serious Emotional Disturbance........................................................................................................ 134
Appendix D-3: Components Of A System Of Care........................................................................... 135
EXHIBIT 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 135
Appendix D-4: Terms Used.............................................................................................................. 136
1. Mental Health Services................................................................................................................ 136
2. Social Services............................................................................................................................ 136
3. Education Services...................................................................................................................... 137
4. Health Services ........................................................................................................................... 137
5. Vocational Services ..................................................................................................................... 138
6. Recreational Services.................................................................................................................. 138
7. Operational Services ................................................................................................................... 139
APPENDIX E: THE INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES EDUCATION ACT (P.L. 105-17):............... 141
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CHAPTER 1:
OVERVIEW
Clark is an 8-year-old student with learning disabilities and emotional and
behavior disorders. This year, he has been included in a regular 3rd
grade class of 30 students. The classroom is managed by one teacher,
Ms. Cameron, who was not able to attend Clark’s IEP meeting due to
lack of coverage for her classroom.
Ms. Cameron reports that while Clark is a bright student, his learning difficulties and behavior problems have caused him to fall well behind in his
studies, particularly in math. While most of his classmates were at grade
level in math when they entered third grade, Clark was functioning at a
first-grade level. Although Ms. Cameron has tried a number of strategies
to assist Clark in making progress, he has not responded well to them.
Further, for half the year Clark has been seriously disruptive during the
math lesson. He refuses to do his work, calls out and makes loud noises,
throws pencils across the room, and tears up his classmates’ papers.
Repeated trips to the principal’s office and calls home to Clark’s parents
have been of no consequence. Because he has an IEP, the principal believes that Clark cannot be disciplined. His parents are reluctant to allow
him to be placed back in a special education classroom, even just part
time for math class.
Ms. Cameron is particularly worried because Clark’s disruptive behavior
is causing her to fall behind in teaching the lessons. So, in addition to
Clark not making progress, other students are also falling behind. Also,
Clark’s classmates are angry about his constant disruption. They are becoming less tolerant of his disabilities rather than more tolerant, refusing
to sit next to him and avoiding him during recess. Ms. Cameron worries
about how Clark’s behavior is affecting learning in her classroom.
Most educators can tell stories of their own
“Clark.” In fact, students like Clark challenge
best practices, and contribute their own brand of
worry and stress to adults and other students.
Educators care about such students, but care as
well about others’, and their own, peace of mind.
Many educators – administrators, teachers,
other school professionals, paraprofessionals –
as well as the parents of these children are left
wondering what to do.
At a basic level, the good news is that the
1997 Reauthorization of the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has addressed
many classroom concerns that have arisen over
the years. The new statute, in fact, includes
provisions to: (1) improve services for all
students with disabilities, including those with
1
emotional disturbance and behavioral problems,
(2) address their problem behavior, and (3)
foster an effective learning environment for all
students. See The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) in Appendix E. This part of
the law explains the procedures that must be
followed for disabled students who have
behavior problems.
The new IDEA, passed in 1997, provides
the following changes:
q assessment of the causes of undesirable
behavior, and identification of positive
behavioral supports and strategies;
q more emphasis on training special and
general educators to provide the right
services to students with disabilities; and
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q language that allows paraprofessionals and
assistants “who are appropriately trained
and supervised” to assist in providing
special education and related services
These additions to the IDEA offer support to
educators who see the value of taking a
proactive and collaborative approach when
designing successful learning experiences for
students like Clark. Well-trained and skilled
paraprofessionals are resources that can be
valuable in helping educators to take a proactive
approach to behavior problems.
We know that there are no easy answers or
“quick fixes” when working with students with
emotional disturbance and behavioral problems.
However, over the years, researchers,
educators, and families have accumulated a
wealth of information about how to work with
these students. While there is much that
remains unknown, both practitioners and
researchers have much to say about how to
provide learning opportunities for just such
students. For every “Clark,” (student who has
not yet been reached) practitioners have found a
way to reach a “Trisha” or a “Clyde” or a
“Charles.” And paraprofessionals regularly play
an important part in reaching those students.
Roles of Teachers and Paraprofessionals
Paraprofessionals play an important role in
the education of students, and it is important to
understand the differences in the roles of
teachers and paraprofessionals. Both are adults
who have the potential to provide significant
academic and emotional support to students.
However, because of the differences in their
training and pay structures, there are also big
differences in the responsibilities they can be
expected to carry out.
Teachers have full responsibility for the
instructional programs for the classroom and for
individual students who need specific or
additional instructional assistance and services.
Teachers are official members of the IEP teams
of students with disabilities and they collaborate
with other service providers on the instructional
program for these students. Teachers are
responsible for integrating paraprofessionals into
the instructional program, and for the training,
supervision, and assignment of responsibilities
2
to the paraprofessionals who are assigned to
assist them. Teachers, and not paraprofessionals, are responsible for the design, implementation, and assessment of educational programs
and for coordinating the provision of related
services to students with disabilities.
Paraprofessionals are responsible for
assisting the educators they are assigned to.
They can be asked to provide academic or
behavioral interventions and assistance to
students individually or in small groups, and to
observe and document their interactions with,
and the academic performance and/or behavior
of these students.
In today’s schools and other education
agencies, paraprofessionals may
•
instruct one student or a small group of
students using plans and strategies
developed by teachers
•
work with a large group of students in the
classroom so that the teacher can work with
small groups or individual students
•
document student behavior and participation
in other activities
•
implement teacher-developed behavior
management and discipline plans
•
prepare student materials and maintain
learning centers
•
work under a teacher's supervision to
implement a student’s Individualized
Education Program (IEP).
Paraprofessionals – just like teachers and other
professionals – are able to do a better job at what
they are asked to do when they receive proper
training. This training should be received before the
paraprofessional begins any specific assigned
duties.
The Importance of Classroom Educators
Perhaps it also goes without saying that
teachers and paraprofessionals (whom we
sometimes refer to collectively as educators) are
on the front lines when it comes to giving
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students with emotional disturbance and
behavioral problems opportunities to learn. This
course is designed to provide paraprofessionals
with a place to start – a base of practical ideas
for helping students to build a successful
education experience. The course also provides
information that you can share with your
cooperating teacher.
Many of the strategies educators find most
successful improve the classroom experience
for all students. For that reason, this booklet
contains general strategies as well as
specialized approaches. The booklet also
answers questions often asked by classroom
practitioners who must address the learning and
behavioral needs of all students.
Strategies and techniques used successfully
in real classrooms are offered as examples for
practitioners to consider. Also included are
strategies and approaches that reflect the
guidelines of the National Agenda for Achieving
Better Results for Children and Youth with
Serious Emotional Disturbance. The U.S.
Department of Education’s Office of Special
Education Programs (OSEP) developed this
agenda, with assistance from the American
Institutes for Research. Examples used
throughout the book were gathered from schools
across the country that support the spirit and
intent of the National Agenda.
Research funded by the U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Special Education
Programs suggests that schools consider a
three level prevention model for addressing the
behavior of all students. This three – level
prevention model includes:
•
school-wide primary prevention efforts to
teach expected behavior to all students;
•
early interventions directed at students who
are at risk of developing emotional disturbance or behavioral problems; and
•
more intensive services targeted at students
with emotional disturbance or more serious
behavioral problems.
Classroom teachers, paraprofessionals, school
social workers, guidance counselors, school
psychologists, and other school personnel play
important roles in developing and implementing
strategies that embrace those characteristics.
Schools that successfully employ the three level
model of prevention and intervention strategies
display several characteristics, including:
•
•
•
•
•
This book emphasizes a “strengths-based”
approach – an approach that builds on the
strengths of a student in addressing that
student’s problems.
•
The practices and strategies presented in
this course are based on an approach that
builds on the strengths students already have.
(see page 16 for questions that will help to
identify and assess students’ strengths) These
strengths can provide a basis for classroom and
behavior management. Effective behavior
management makes use of students’ strengths,
capitalizes on what students are able to achieve,
and helps them to meet high standards of
conduct.
3
they value all members of the school
community,
they have high academic expectations and
clear and positive behavioral expectations,
they provide student-centered instruction,
they use positive and proactive approaches
to school discipline,
they collaborate with family, community, and
other service providers, and
they support students, teachers, staff, and
families so those students can meet
expectations.
The Way this Book is Organized
Based on sound professional advice, we
have organized the rest of the book into the
following chapters:
Chapter 2: Building A Knowledge Base.
Paraprofessionals need to have knowledge
about issues related to the behavior of students
with emotional disturbance and behavioral
problems. The next chapter, Chapter 2, contains
basic information to help build that knowledge
base, and to help provide a better understanding
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of the characteristics and needs of students with
emotional and behavioral problems.
Chapter 3: Creating a Structured Environment. Students learn best when there is
order in their learning environment and they feel
at ease. This chapter offers tips and ideas for
strengthening efforts to prevent behavior
problems through management of the
environment and improved communication
practices.
Chapter 4: Identifying Behavior that is
Interfering with Learning. Because some
students need more attention to help them meet
standards of behavior, educators need to
intervene. In order to determine which
interventions should be used, it is necessary to
identify the extent of the unwanted behavior and
report this information. This chapter explains
how to isolate, identify, measure, and document
student behavior in preparation for putting
interventions into place.
Chapter 5: A System of Effective Behavior Management. This chapter describes
strategies
to
help
educators
provide
interventions for students with more urgent
behavior needs in a manner that still maintains a
positive classroom environment.
Chapter 6: Support and Resources. For
readers who want to know more about the topics
covered in the booklet, this chapter lists
additional sources of information and contact
information for organizations that may be of
assistance.
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CHAPTER 2:
BUILDING A KNOWLEDGE BASE
Under federal law, “emotional disturbance
includes schizophrenia,” but does not apply to
students who have problems getting along with
others, “unless it is determined that they also
have emotional disturbance” (34CFR300.7
(c)(4)).
This chapter answers questions frequently
asked by paraprofessionals and teachers
about educating students with emotional and
behavioral problems.
Understanding students’ emotional and
behavioral problems assists teachers and
paraprofessionals in planning instructional
programs that meet students’ needs more
successfully. Team members who work with
these students must share a basic understanding of student characteristics and the
educational challenges confronting them.
STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL
DISTURBANCE AND BEHAVIORAL
PROBLEMS
Students with emotional disturbance and
behavioral problems show a wide range of
characteristics. The intensity of the disabilities
and problems varies, as does the way in which
disabilities or problems present themselves.
While some students have mood disorders,
such as depression, others may experience
intense feelings of anger or frustration. Further,
individual students react to feelings of
depression, anger or frustration in very different
ways. For example, some students keep these
feelings inside, acting shy and withdrawn; others
may act out their feelings, becoming violent or
aggressive toward others.
School-based teams – called “multidisciplinary teams” identify some students as having
emotional disturbance – one of the disability
classifications recognized under the IDEA.
Although definitions and terms change from
state to state, the Federal definition identifies
students who exhibit behavior disorders over a
long period of time, and to a marked degree,
that adversely affect the ability to learn as
having an emotional disturbance. Factors that
contribute to this definition appear below.
5
It is believed that the number of students
with emotional disturbance who are currently
eligible to receive special education services
represent only a small number of all the
students with mental health needs. While most
mental health experts estimate that 3 to 8
percent of all school-age children and youth
have emotional or behavior problems serious
enough to require treatment, less than 1 percent
(only 0.74 percent of the school-age population
in 1996 and 1997) are identified by schools as
having emotional disturbance.
The IDEA lists these factors in the Federal
definition of emotional disturbance (34 CFR
§300.7(b)(4)) include:
q An inability to learn that cannot be
explained in terms of intellectual, sensory,
or health factors;
q An inability to build or maintain satisfactory
interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers;
q Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings
under normal circumstances;
q A general, pervasive mood of unhappiness
or diagnosed depression; and
q A tendency to develop physical symptoms
or fears associated with personal or school
problems.
CAUSES OF EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE
AND BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS
Professionals in the field of emotional
disturbance use various approaches to explain
the causes of what are often called “behavioral
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difficulties.” Knowledge about characteristics of
emotional disturbance and behavioral problems
can help schools, teachers, and paraprofessionals to understand how these characteristics
actually affect the way students perform.
Teachers and paraprofessionals can
frequently use their knowledge of these
characteristics to improve a student’s school
experience. If it is suspected that a student’s
problem behavior is caused by physical
conditions, activities requiring the student to pay
attention for a long time should be changed.
Attempts should also be made to help the
student to concentrate for longer periods of time.
Students should not be punished for physical
conditions that are beyond their control.
RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS
Some children and youth are more likely
than others are to have undesirable – antisocial
– behavior. Why is this so? Researchers have
discovered certain things that put a child at
greater risk for undesirable behavior. They call
these things “risk factors.” We know several
things about “risk factors”. First, they are not
specific to any particular culture or race. In other
words, they affect children in the same way no
matter what the child’s culture or race is. Some
risk factors are more powerful than others are,
or more intense in one child than in another one.
For example, a 9th grader who is reading on a 2nd
grade level will probably have more trouble
feeling loyal to school than a 5th grader reading
at a 2nd grade level.
Risk factors can be present in the community, the school, the family, and within the child.
A child who is exposed to only one risk factor
does not necessarily have a high risk for
antisocial behavior. Children with antisocial
behavior usually have several risk factors. See
the list of Risk Factors on the next page.
See the overheads “Development of
Antisocial Behavior” and “Roots of Antisocial
Behavior.”
Some children who are exposed to many
risk factors beat all the odds and become
successful anyway. Researchers have found
several things that seem to “inoculate” kids with
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many risk factors from becoming antisocial.
These “protective factors” are the main reason
that some children who have multiple risk
factors do not become antisocial. It is important
for paraprofessionals to realize that they can
make a huge difference in a child’s life by
focusing on the protective factors.
Protective Factors
Social bonding—Adults and groups that work
closely with children, care about them, and also
have high ideals, attract children who may have
many risk factors. These children want to be a
part of these groups rather than other groups
that value antisocial behavior (e.g., gangs).
Mentors who work with individual children are
particularly good at helping children from
distressed situations to overcome their risk
factors.
Healthy beliefs and clear standards for
behavior—Organizations such as schools and
neighborhood recreation agencies can provide
protective factors by having clearly stated
policies and standards for behavior, and
providing support for realizing those standards
Collective factors—multiple protective factors
or protective factors in a number of places (e.g.,
social bonding at home, at school, and in the
community) have a greater impact than any one
individual protective factor alone.
Understanding the factors that contribute to
the development of antisocial behavior helps
educators understand the outcomes of antisocial
behavior, respond to early signs of antisocial
behavior, and develop effective strategies for
prevention and intervention. There are several
factors that are known contributors to the
development of antisocial behavior. These
factors include:
Acceptable – Student do not understand
that some aggressive behaviors that are
accepted or tolerated in some situations are not
acceptable in schools.
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Risk Factors
Individual and Peer Groups
• Rebellious behavior—the individual does not feel as though they belong or fit in with mainstream
society
• Delinquent attitudes—the individual holds attitudes that are favorable to antisocial behavior
• Early initiation—problem behaviors show up early in a child’s life
• Physical factors—certain biological factors increase the likelihood of antisocial behavior (e.g., lack of
impulse control)
• Antisocial friends – involvement with friends who display antisocial behavior.
Families
• Extreme deprivation—family is extremely poor or socially deprived
• Behavior management—families that have difficulty supervising their children, not knowing where
they are, not being able to set clear expectations for acceptable behavior, using harsh punishment
• Family conflict—between family members
• Family attitudes—accepting their child’s involvement in problem behavior or being involved
themselves in socially unacceptable behavior
Schools
• School rules and consequences not set and enforced
• No early identification—not identifying students with disabilities, behavior, or learning problems that
may interfere with success
• No intervention—not providing interventions for students with disabilities, behavior problems, or
learning problems that may interfere with success
• No schoolwide prevention—a lack of programs meant to teach appropriate behavior and social skills
to all students
• Insufficient bonding—a lack of organized activities that allow students to gain a sense of
commitment to their school
• Fragmented services—a lack of coordinated services for students with learning or behavior
problems
• Poor instruction—a lack of effective teaching and/or interesting schoolwork
Communities
• Easy access to drugs and firearms – drugs and/or firearms are easy to get in the community
• Laws are weak or unenforced—local laws do not control firearms and alcohol (e.g., prohibit firearms
and alcohol in public places, provide for a special taxation on the sale of firearms and alcohol)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pervasive violence—modeled in communities or portrayed in the media
Frequent transitions—students don’t have any help making school changes, (even seemingly
common changes such as from elementary to middle school) and/or students experience high rates
of mobility
Fragmented services—or a lack of social services for families
Inadequate support—lack of support to families in need
Insufficient bonding—lack of attachment to the neighborhood and community disorganization
Extreme deprivation—economic poverty and/or social deprivation
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Consequence – Student are aggressive
because it allows them to get what they want or
avoid doing something that they don’t want to
do.
Imitation – Students learn aggressive
behavior by imitating adults.
Classmates and friends – Students who
have classmates and friends that exhibit
aggressive behaviors are often aggressive too.
The development of antisocial behavior can
be explained by several factors, such as:
genetic abnormalities, family-related influences
(e.g., inconsistent discipline and parenting
practices), co-occurrence of Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder and learning disabilities,
post-traumatic stress, and negative influences
from friends, classmates, school (e.g., poor
school performance), and community.
PREVENTION OF BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
In addition to understanding the causes and
characteristics of antisocial behavior, we need to
know about specific interventions to prevent this
behavior. Researchers have found that
prevention activities should take place on three
different levels. Not every student with a
behavior problem requires Third Stage
interventions. The behavior can be addressed
with primary or second stage prevention
measures. These stages include:
Primary Prevention. (for all students)
Primary prevention is used to keep students
from developing antisocial behavior. These
strategies focus on procedures that can be used
school wide and that are fairly inexpensive to
administer (e.g., create a school-wide mission
statement, implement a consistent discipline
code,
teach
expected
behaviors,
and
acknowledge appropriate behaviors). These
procedures not only prevent misbehavior in the
majority of students, but also will reduce the
behavior problems of students who are at risk
for developing behavior problems or students
with serious behavior problems or disorders. In
many places, if these types of prevention are in
place, the majority of students will have few or
no behavior problems.
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Second Stage Prevention. (interventions
for small groups of students) These are
procedures that quickly deal with problems while
they are still in the beginning stages. Second
stage prevention procedures are more intense
than primary prevention activities (e.g., special
classes, small-group interventions, and targeted
procedures such as behavioral contracts, social
skill instruction, and problem-solving training). It
is estimated that 15-17% of problem behavior
can be eliminated when school uses these types
of prevention measures.
Third Stage Prevention. (interventions for
individual students) This level of intervention
involves more intense interventions for individual
students with ingrained, chronic patterns of
problem behavior. Interventions usually are very
individualized,
incorporate
wrap-around
services, and emphasize protection and control.
It is believed that only about 3-5% of students
will need these types of prevention measures.
There is a graph and that represents this
system and discussions of the stages on pages
51 and 52 of the overheads.
THE EDUCATOR’S ROLE IN IDENTIFYING
AND REFERRING STUDENTS
School personnel, especially teachers and
paraprofessionals, serve a critical role in referral,
diagnosis, and program planning. In fact, it is
often the classroom teacher who begins the
process of getting help for a student.
Paraprofessionals can play an important part in
helping the teacher obtain services for a
student.
WORKING WITH STUDENTS WHO HAVE
BEEN IDENTIFIED AS NEEDING SUPPORT
While paraprofessionals are not required
members of the IEP team, a paraprofessional
who is responsible for day-to-day support of a
student should ask the teacher to explain his or
her responsibilities in carrying out the IEP.
Information about the student’s disability,
however, is confidential, and the paraprofessional must maintain that confidentiality.
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If a student in a regular education classroom
has an IEP, the regular classroom teacher
becomes a partner in carrying out the IEP.
Under law, at least one of the student’s regular
education teachers now becomes a member of
the student’s IEP team in addition to the
student’s special education teacher. In fact,
once an IEP is completed, it is the regular
classroom teacher who is often responsible for
monitoring the student’s achievement with the
help of other members of the team. Classroom
teachers and paraprofessionals may express
concerns when necessary. To be successful,
classroom teachers and paraprofessionals must
have sufficient support to implement IEPs.
Under certain circumstances, for example,
when a student exhibits behavior that interferes
with his or her learning or the learning of others,
the IEP team must consider, when appropriate,
strategies,
including
positive
behavioral
interventions, and supports to address that
behavior. These strategies and supports should
be based on a functional behavioral
assessment, should establish clear expectations
about appropriate behavior, and should be
designed to help the student succeed. The team
monitors the student’s behavior regularly, and if
it is not satisfactory, the team modifies the
strategies and supports.
A student will often arrive in school already
identified as qualifying for specially designed
instruction or services under the IDEA. Still,
even though a student may already be receiving
special education and related services, regular
classroom teachers and paraprofessionals have
major responsibility for educating the student if
he or she is assigned to the regular classroom.
GETTING SUPPORT FROM OTHERS
Many schools already have teacher support
teams, prereferral teams, or child study teams
that can offer suggestions for remedying
classroom dilemmas. Many special educators,
behavior specialists, and school psychologists
know a good deal about emotional and
behavioral strategies. They may be a valuable
source of ideas and information. Administrators
also can be consulted for recommendations and
resources.
Other professionals might be available to
assist the teacher or student, either on a
permanent or an as-needed basis.
Special education teachers, paraprofessionals, guidance counselors, school social workers,
and school psychologists all have skills that can
support students with emotional disturbance.
Properly trained and supervised paraprofessionals can also be valuable in putting small-group
and individual behavioral interventions into
place. In addition, these students might receive
additional supports, described below, which are
sometimes identified in the student’s IEP, and
which are often provided by a support specialist.
Understanding what different support service
personnel perform can do can help teachers
take advantage of all available resources.
TYPICAL FUNCTIONS OF A SUPPORT
SPECIALIST
q Psychiatric counseling (Psychiatrist)
q Behavioral and therapeutic management
(Behavior Specialist).
q Liaison between the school, the student and
his or her family, and community agencies
(Social Services Facilitator or Case Manager).
q Coordination for students who are currently
involved with the juvenile justice system
(Juvenile Justice Caseworker).
Across the country, families, school
psychologists, mental health specialists, and
other special service providers are starting to
work with teachers and paraprofessionals to
foster cooperative and positive learning
opportunities for students with emotional
disturbance and behavioral problems. Building
collaborative partnerships is, in fact, a key
ingredient in supporting these students, both in
regular education classrooms and in other
environments.
Educators also can learn about students
with emotional disturbance and behavioral
problems from the students’ families. The family
is, after all, the most obvious source of
information about a student’s behavior. As
defined here, a family can extend beyond the
birth, adoptive, or foster parents; it may include
other adults who influence the day-to-day care
of the student. In some families, grandparents or
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aunts and uncles may serve a primary care role
in a child’s life. Including families in that
student’s education program can enhance the
program’s relevance and the student’s chance
for success.
Educators who have formed partnerships
with other professionals and family members are
discovering effective ways to serve the
educational needs of students with emotional
disturbance and behavioral problems. These
successful strategies can be appropriate for all
students, not just students with emotional and
behavioral problems. However, given the
scheduling constraints in many schools,
collaboration may require creative juggling of
time. Sometimes it is best to initiate a request
for support (including the time necessary to get
things done).
MOVING FORWARD
When teachers and paraprofessionals
understand the nature of their students’
emotional and behavioral problems, instructional
programs have a much better chance of
producing academic progress.
Some approaches have been effective in
improving the classroom learning of students with
emotional disturbance and behavioral problems.
The next chapter describes some of those
approaches.
SOME WAYS OF ACCESSING INFORMATION
AND SUPPORT
q Find out if the school offers pupil personnel
teams – teacher support or assistance
teams;
q Contact available support personnel such
as members of the pupil personnel team or
members of the school-based support
team (social workers, psychologists,
counselors, etc.) and meet with them on a
regular basis.
Some students have needs that cannot be
served in the regular classroom. Their needs are
too challenging to be resolved in the time and
capabilities available to the classroom teachers
and the paraprofessionals who assist them. In
these cases, intensive services must be brought
in to assist the student. The IEP team will
probably want to consider the full continuum of
services and placements as described in the
IDEA regulations.
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CHAPTER 3:
CREATING A STRUCTURED ENVIRONMENT
This chapter explores how teachers and
paraprofessionals can strengthen their
behavior-management systems to provide a
positive environment and accommodate the
special needs of students with emotional
disturbance and behavioral problems.
POSITIVE BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT
Although they do not solve all behavioral
problems,
school-wide
and
classroom
management systems that provide clear
expectations do provide a structure that the
majority of students respond to.
A positive behavior management system can
provide exactly the structure students (especially
those with emotional disturbance and behavioral
problems) need for managing their own
behaviors. All components of a management
system are important, but the following are most
important:
I.
Setting rules and expectations;
II. Helping students comply with rules and
expectations;
III. Scheduling the day;
As discussed in Chapter 2, these are Primary
Prevention activities that are intended to prevent
misbehavior from developing in the first place. By
concentrating on teaching, practicing, and
enforcing a limited number of rules, teachers and
paraprofessionals provide the essential foundation
for improving student behavior and promoting
student success. All students, especially students
with emotional disturbance and behavioral
problems, need to know what is expected of them.
Once five or six rules have been stated
clearly, it is important to teach students how to
follow them.
Educators can enhance education for all
students by creating a structured environment that
clearly articulates expectations and goals. Students
with disabilities may also need to have positive
behavioral supports as part of their IEPs. These will
be discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
Paraprofessionals who work with small
groups of students or with individual students
may also set rules for the times when they are
alone with their students, and teach the students
how to follow those rules. These rules should fit
well with classroom and school rules.
I. SETTING RULES AND EXPECTATIONS
II. HELPING STUDENTS COMPLY WITH
RULES AND EXPECTATIONS
At the beginning of the year, teachers
establish rules for classroom behavior. One
technique that can increase compliance with
such rules is to express them in positive,
concrete terms that describe the behavior that is
expected of them (e.g., “raise your hand to be
called upon to talk”), rather than defining what
behavior is not acceptable (e.g., “no talking”). In
addition, consequences for failing to follow the
rules should be logical, fair, predictable, and
directed at the inappropriate behavior.
Consequences should also be explained before
an infraction occurs.
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IV. Establishing routines and procedures; and
V. Building a positive climate that provides all
students with a variety of opportunities for
success.
Educators sometimes assume that students
know how to follow the rules, when, in fact, they
do not. Students with emotional disturbance and
behavioral problems are especially likely to need
the skills necessary to follow the rules. This
means they are also likely to be punished for
rule breaking, even though they may not
understand how to follow them. If, for example,
the classroom rule is to “listen when others are
talking,” then some students will need to be
taught how to listen.
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The first day that students come to school,
they should know what the rules are, and what
the consequences of breaking the rules are. The
consequences must be fair and consistently
enforced. Students must often be reminded
what the discipline code says must happen
when they break the rules.
In addition, students with emotional
disturbance and behavioral problems have
difficulty understanding what happens to others
when they break the rules. If a student breaks a
rule, ask that student to explain what happens to
others because of his or her actions.
Consider the following points when you
develop classroom rules:
q State rules in clear terms. It is difficult for
student to follow rules that they don’t
understand. For example, what does it
mean to be “responsible” or to be “nice”?
Students, especially younger ones, need
concrete terms and examples they can
understand, such as raising a hand to
speak.
q Make rules easy for students to remember.
Post reminders in the learning area; and
q Encourage students to suggest rules so
they feel as though the rules are theirs.
This is not necessary for good management if you do not do it.
For students with emotional disturbance or
behavioral problems, several considerations
might be useful when scheduling activities
throughout the day. For instance, a time for
students to get calmed down while in a state of
transition to a more structured activity can be
built into the day’s schedule. Also, since many
students who have behavioral challenges find it
difficult to maintain attention for long periods of
physically inactive work time, it can be helpful to
break large tasks into several smaller tasks with
short breaks between them.
IV. ESTABLISHING ROUTINES AND
PROCEDURES
Establishing routines for how things are
done. Examples of routines include: Emptying
trays at lunch, being excused from the library,
lining up, walking in the halls, etc. Teaching
those routines can help students stay on target
in a classroom. It is important to implement
consistent routines for those times when
students have to make a transition from one
lesson to another, or for times when they have
to get and put away materials, and so on.
Routines can, of course, be taught, and students
can be rewarded for following them.
Educators may want to support students in
accomplishing routine tasks by using the
following simple tactics:
Although educators can prevent many minor
rule-breaking behaviors by making sure that
students understand the rules, stating rules
clearly and enforcing them fairly, students with
serious behavior problems may have difficulty
following even the most clearly stated and fairly
enforced rules. To be fair and consistent, then,
paraprofessionals and teachers must know
whether or not the student has the necessary
skills to follow with the rules.
The next section of this chapter discusses
ways educators can support students’
appropriate behavior.
III. SCHEDULING THE DAY
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Student cue cards. Small, wallet-sized cards
on which transition steps are written can serve
as visual cues. Cards can be taped to the
student’s desk, or notebook, or carried in a
pocket. The teacher or paraprofessional may
direct students’ attention to the card before
moving on to a transition period.
Reflection time. Many educators find that
having students stop all activity for a moment
and reflect upon what they are going to do next
goes a long way in preparing them for an
actual transition.
Advance notice. Because some students find
it difficult to cognitively or emotionally
disengage from an activity in which they are
immersed, advance notice (such as a fiveminute warning prior to the activity’s end)
prepares them for disengagement and
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movement toward the next activity.
Buddy support. When a younger student is
learning a new routine or is having difficulty
following a procedure, many teachers assign a
buddy to reinforce and guide the student
through the required steps of transition.
Subtle prompts. Pointing to a clock or putting
away materials can cue students that it is time
for a change. Praise or encouragement also
can be used effectively to prepare for a
transition. For example, saying “Ginny, you
have really worked hard on your paper,” or,
“Look how much you have written today,” helps
to focus the student’s attention on “wrapping
up” the activity.
V. BUILDING A POSITIVE CLIMATE
Allison rarely spoke in class, and when she
did, it was in a whisper. Concerned, Ms. Davis,
the language arts teacher, built a positive
rapport with her silent student. Each day, Ms.
Davis and Ms. Peters, the paraprofessional,
made it a point to initiate conversations with
Allison. Patient efforts paid off, and Allison
gradually began giving more than one-word
answers.
Techniques teachers have used, and
recommended, to communicate respect to
students during nonacademic discussions:
Actively listen. Teachers need to let students
know that they are being listened to. Looking
the student in the eye, and saying back to the
student what he or she said are two simple
ways to show the student that you are
listening. However, it is important to
understand that in many cultures, it is
considered rude for children to look adults in
the eye.
Use non-threatening questions. When
students have misbehaved, questions that
focus on “what” (e.g., “What went through your
mind just before you kicked your shoes into the
hallway?”) and “how” (e.g., “How did your math
book end up in the trash?”) are easier to
answer than those that focus on “why” (e.g.,
“Why did you throw your book in the trash?”).
Students who have had behavioral difficulties
for a long time have learned that “why
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questions” often accompany punishment and
often react to those questions as if they are
being put on the spot. Tone of voice is also
important. Questions should be asked as a
genuine effort to help the student understand
the behavior.
Use open-ended questions. For students
who have failed often, questions that can be
answered “yes” or “no” often make them fearful
that they will give the wrong answer (for
example, “Did you follow all the directions
during the science lab today?”). Questions that
allow students to talk about things more openly
(often called “open-ended” questions) can be
used instead, especially when you have a
conversation with the student (for example,
“What did you do in science class today?”).
Show personal interest in the student. It is
important for students to talk about
themselves. Sharing details about their own
likes and dislikes can open the door to more
motivation in the classroom.
COMMUNICATING WITH STUDENTS
Positive and Corrective Feedback
In addition to setting high but realistic
expectations for schoolwork, it is very important
to show students that you respect them. For
students with emotional disturbance and
behavioral problems, the first step in building
trust is building a positive relationship through
mutual respect and acceptance.
It is also important to establish and maintain
a good relationship with students. Often
relationships break down when adults must
discipline students; therefore, adults should let a
student know that it is his or her behavior that is
a problem, not the student as an individual.
Research has shown that positive and corrective
feedback allow educators to maintain good
relationships with students while addressing
undesirable behaviors. Positive feedback tells
students what they have done well. The student
learns what behavior they performed and why it
was acceptable. Corrective feedback tells
students what they have done that is
unacceptable and how they can correct it.
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See page 43 for more information about
positive and corrective feedback.
Alpha and Beta Commands
It is also important to communicate expectations simply without a lot of discussion. If a
student is finished lunch but not getting ready to
leave, a statement like “When you have finished
with your lunch, emptied your trash, and put
your tray on the rack you may be excused to the
playground,”(Alpha Command) is more effective
than a statement like, “Why can’t you ever get
ready to leave the way you are supposed to.
How many times have I told you to empty your
trash and put your tray on the rack.” (Beta
Command) See the overheads on Alpha and
Beta Commands for more information on these
commands.
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT APPROPRIATE
BEHAVIOR
Proximity control. The educator uses physical
presence to reduce inappropriate behavior and to
increase appropriate behavior. For example, if a student
is staring out of a window, the teacher can continue
lecturing, but move toward the student in a nonthreatening way. Or the paraprofessional can position
him/herself close to the student. The adult’s presence
serves as a reminder to the student that he or she
should be paying attention. The use of direct eye contact
can be used to enhance this technique. It is important to
remember that in emotionally charged situations it is not
good to get too close or make the student feel cornered.
Signal interference. Rather than use a direct warning to
stop an inappropriate behavior and encourage a positive
one, educators can signal or prompt a student by using a
previously agreed upon sign. (This can be a private
signal known only by the student and educator.) For
example, teachers and paraprofessionals commonly put
their index finger over their lips to indicate that it is time
to be quiet; or they tap a chime to alert students to stop
what they are doing and face the teacher.
to count backwards or breathe deeply before reacting. It
is best, however, to teach students such techniques
when they are calm. Educators also may enhance the
success of these techniques by teaching students to
recognize triggers of stress and anger.
Talking the student down. If a student has become
agitated, but has not lost control, it may be useful to “talk
the student down” to a more relaxed state. This
technique has the teacher or paraprofessional talk very
calmly, slowly, and quietly to a student, leading him or
her to a positive solution.
Humor. Sometimes potentially volatile behavior can be
diffused by gently drawing attention to something funny
about the situation provoking the behavior. Educators
are cautioned, however, against using sarcasm or
trivializing a deeply felt emotion. It is important to
maintain a mutually respectful relationship with the
student.
SUMMARY
Knowing how to prevent behavior problems
enables educators to move away from a
negative environment that depends on
punishments, toward a more proactive
environment. Teachers and paraprofessionals
can do a great deal to establish a classroom
environment that shows respect to students and
allows them to learn to the best of their potential.
At a minimum, educators can provide a
foundation for improving student behavior, and
for promoting student success, by maintaining
an orderly, predictable classroom, letting all
students know what is expected of them, and
helping them to meet those expectations.
Redirection. Teachers and paraprofessionals use
redirection, when necessary, to verbally remind a
student of the task at hand. For example, if a student is
wandering out of his seat, the paraprofessional might
redirect the behavior by saying: “John, show me how
many answers you’ve completed in your workbook.” The
statement positively reminds John of what he should be
doing, and it allows him to re-engage in the learning
activity without punishment.
Relaxation. When students are agitated (e.g., after a
heated argument during recess), teachers can have
them relax quietly by putting their heads on their desks.
Similarly, when students feel upset, they can be taught
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CHAPTER 4:
IDENTIFYING BEHAVIOR THAT IS INTERFERING WITH LEARNING
Kevin, a new student in Mr. Blanchard’s fifth grade class, was
constantly out of his seat and completed very few assignments. Mr.
Blanchard asked Mr. Butler, a paraprofessional who works with
students who have behavior problems, to observe Kevin’s behavior
and document it. During one half-hour period, Mr. Butler noted that
Kevin sharpened his pencil five times, got three drinks of water, and
went to the materials table four times. Armed with this information,
Mr. Blanchard was determined to decrease Kevin’s “roaming,” He
reviewed all assignments to ensure that Kevin was capable of
completing them. He then met with the special education teacher to
explore what might be done to help Kevin succeed in the classroom.
Mr. Butler observed Kevin in the classroom,
and interviewed him to determine whether or not
he knew and understood classroom rules.
Convinced that Kevin did understand the school
psychologist and Mr. Blanchard developed a
contract with Kevin: If he stayed in his seat,
Kevin earned points toward a reward of his own
choosing (fifteen minutes of computer time). If
his in-seat time did not improve, Kevin would
have to stay in from after-lunch recess.
Within a few weeks, Kevin had increased
staying in his seat by about 20 percent, and he
was completing 50 percent of his work.
Teachers and paraprofessionals often are
the first to recognize that a student is struggling
with school assignments. They also notice
problems in relationships with other students
and adults. While this may eventually result in a
referral for services, it is critical for educators to
identify behaviors that interfere with students’
education, and help students to overcome these
behaviors. Teachers and paraprofessionals
begin this process by analyzing the kinds of
behavior that put students at risk.
Some student’s emotional and behavior
problems respond to simple classroom
interventions. Others may require major
changes in a student’s entire educational
program. When major changes are necessary,
the place to start is with other people who know
the student. It is a good idea to consult with
15
others – family members, other school staff,
social workers, school counselors and/or school
psychologists – whenever problems disrupt
teaching and learning. Some administrators may
also be familiar with a particular student’s
problems or family. Families can usually provide
insight regarding their children’s strengths,
special needs, and stressful situations that may
be occurring in their children’s daily lives.
SCHOOL ASSISTANCE TEAMS AND PREREFERRAL SYSTEMS
Over the last few decades, a growing
number of schools have formed assistance
teams that offer help in doing observations and
recommending interventions. In addition, many
districts have established pre-referral systems.
The goal of these two strategies is to serve the
student’s and teacher’s needs before a more
formal approach is undertaken. In such systems,
teachers seek help in working with a student
who has presented significant and recurring
problems.
As part of these processes, teachers and
paraprofessionals are frequently asked to
document the presenting problem, along with
the different strategies that have been used to
intervene. Colleagues can then review such
information with the teacher, and make
suggestions.
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These systems must not, however, be used
to delay appropriate referral of a student
suspected of having a disability.
REFERRING STUDENTS
If preventive interventions do not work, and
help from others has run its course, it may be
necessary to initiate a formal referral. When
school officials begin to suspect that a student
has a disability, the student must be referred for
appropriate evaluation. Keeping in mind that the
purpose of a referral is to determine whether a
disability or condition is, in fact, linked to the
observed problem behavior. A teacher’s role at
the referral stage is not to make a diagnosis, but
to be a part of the team that does an evaluation
of the student. Teachers will likely be asked to
present concrete information describing the
student’s behavior, the situations in which that
behavior occurs, and any interventions that may
have already been tried. Documentation that the
teacher, paraprofessional, or other school staff
may have made will be helpful in this process.
As part of the referral process, teachers are
sometimes
asked
to
provide
additional
documentation of the student’s behavior, paying
attention to particular details. Such a practice is
helpful, as it reveals characteristics that ultimately
may result in a more effective behavioral
intervention plan. In considering a student’s
behavior, it is important to use a strengths-based
approach, which means that in addition to
identifying challenging behaviors, behaviors
supporting learning and other student strengths
also are identified.
It is valuable to name strengths, such as
identifying instances when the student’s
behavior is appropriate as well as describing the
student’s inappropriate behavior.
Questions that may help to guide a strengthsbased assessment include:
occur over and over? For example, the
behavior may not occur all day, but only
during activities in which the student
must read and understand information.
q When is the student most successful?
For example, the student may do well in
highly structured tasks in which the
expectations and directions are clearly
given.
q What conditions tend to trigger the
problem behavior? For example, after
recording outbursts for a week, the
paraprofessional finds that most problems occur when the student works with
other classmates.
q What holds the student’s attention? For
example, a student may be able to
concentrate for more than 30 minutes
when engaged in particular kinds of
tasks.
DOCUMENTING BEHAVIORS
Generally, the first step in identifying
behaviors is to define the behavior in terms that
can be observed and measured. Defining
behavior as “disruptive” or “dangerous” does not
specify the specific behaviors that occur, and
therefore will not be helpful when planning
interventions. A better definition might be “loud
yelling in the classroom,” “pushing a classmate”
or “tapping a pencil continuously” – behaviors
that can be observed and measured.
Several strategies are typically used in school
settings to document behavior. In some cases, it is
helpful to use more than one technique to
understand a student’s behavior patterns.
There are several techniques that can be used
to measure behavior. The most commonly used
techniques include identifying patterns, measuring
frequency, and measuring duration. These
techniques are used a great deal in developing an
assessment known as the Functional Behavioral
Assessment. See Appendix C-3 for some sample
forms that may be used for a functional behavioral
assessment.
The results of the Functional Behavioral
Assessment is then used to develop a positive
q Are there any behavior patterns that
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behavioral intervention to address the student’s
antisocial/undesirable behavior.
Identifying Patterns. This technique is
used to identify possible patterns of
behavior by pinpointing the specific events
that precede (also called antecedents) or
follow (also called consequences) the
problem behavior that may serve to
maintain it. Observers keep a written
record of everything they see and hear,
and note the entire context in which the
target behavior occurs. Observation
narratives are most useful when they are
completed in several settings over a period
of time.
Date (or dates) of observations
•
Observer name and role with respect to
the student
•
Start time
•
Setting of observation
•
Definition of behavior being observed
•
Key to any codes used
Although recording strategies are associated
with referral, many teachers find that classroombased observational data can uncover the
source of many problems and lead to their
correction. An educator may discover, for
instance, that a student swears only when in the
presence of certain students. In some cases,
too, the student’s behavior may be shown to be
a response – even though it is not appropriate –
to the actions of others. These kinds of data
provide educators with the information they need
to address students’ behavioral needs.
Measuring Frequency. This technique is
used to measure the number of times a
behavior occurs during a certain period.
The teacher defines the behavior, and
either the teacher or paraprofessional
observes the student at specified times,
and notes how often the behavior occurs
(e.g., the number of times a student uses
profanity during a class lecture).
Measuring Duration. This technique is
used to measure the length of time that a
student performs a particular behavior
(e.g., the amount of time a student is seen
to be daydreaming during math activities).
When choosing a measurement technique
there are a few things that will help you decide
with one is best for the behavior you need to
observe. If you are not sure what is “causing”
the behavior it is a good idea to first identify
patterns. If you are interested in getting a
measure just to give you an idea how intense
the behavior is, a frequency measure or a
duration measure will help. To determine
whether to use frequency or duration measures,
see the Overhead How to Choose a System for
Measuring Behavior on page 59.
No matter which technique you choose to
use, you will need to include certain information
on the recording forms to help organize your
data. This information includes:
•
•
Student’s name
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Careful evaluation of a student suspected of
being disabled also involves an assessment of the
student’s behavior if his or her behavior interferes
with their learning, or the learning of others.
Districts and states should have established
procedures for student evaluation and assessment
that ensure compliance with the 1997
Amendments to the IDEA and with Section 504 of
the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Once such
procedures are established, the team should use a
number of tests and observations that are culturally
non-biased to evaluate students with emotional
disturbance. These could include:
•
classroom observations by evaluators,
•
results of all interventions (e.g., teacher
documentation and team information),
•
interviews, checklists, and questionnaires
completed by teachers, family members,
and the students, as appropriate, including
developmental, health, and sensory data,
•
psychological or psychiatric evaluations,
•
previous academic evaluations, including
work samples, and
•
a review of the student’s school history.
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Because of their direct experience, Classroom teachers often are called upon by the
evaluation team of the student to complete
assessment tasks, and to share what they know
about a student. Information that is gained from
experience is valuable in interpreting student
behavior, or in putting together a successful
intervention.
A paraprofessional who has worked closely
with a student and who is trained in the
procedures can be helpful to a teacher in
providing this information.
A WORD ABOUT CULTURAL
DIFFERENCES
It is important to remember that everyone’s
behavior is influenced by his or her culture and
subcultures (e.g., the area of the country where
they live, their neighborhood, their family’s
religious beliefs, the country they came from,
their tribal or ethnic group, etc.). When
educators become concerned about a student’s
behavior they must determine whether the
behavior may be the result of a cultural
difference rather than a behavior problem. In
some cases, behaviors are merely different from
those of the educator’s or school system’s
culture.
18
Educators should discuss with the student
and his or her family members the possibility
that behaviors may be influenced by culture. For
example, some Native American cultures frown
on competition, so students will not give
answers in class that might make them look like
they are smarter than their classmates are.
These discussions should include considerations
about how or if the cultural foundations of the
behavior should be addressed. The educators
and family members together should decide
whether a replacement behavior should be
taught (e.g., teaching the student to be
competitive), if the student should be taught to
use different behaviors in different situations
(e.g., teaching the student that competition is
appropriate under certain circumstances), or if
the school should make accommodations to
respect the student’s cultural differences (e.g.,
use cooperative learning rather than competitive
techniques). In any case, educators need to
understand how their own cultural beliefs
influence the way they think about the behavior
of students.
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CHAPTER 5:
A SYSTEM OF EFFECTIVE BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT
At the beginning of the school year, teachers at Sherrill Street Elementary School agree on five basic rules applicable to all students, and during the first week of school, they devote time to teaching and reinforcing
the five agreed-upon rules. Many teachers produce bulletin board displays in the hallways, which serve as reminders of those rules. The principal supports this effort by making statements concerning the five rules
in all of her opening announcements. Special service personnel also
contribute by making self-control cards on which the rules are written,
and supplying those cards to students who need additional support in
mastering the rules.
Cristina, a student at Sherrill Street Elementary, had difficulty stopping
one activity and moving on to a new one. When told to stop what she
was doing, Cristina usually ignored the command or began screaming
“No.” Rather than just assuming that Cristina had mastered the necessary transition skills, her teacher asked Ms. Avery, the paraprofessional,
to teach a transition routine to Christina. Once Ms. Avery let the teacher
know that Cristina had mastered that routine, the teacher had Ms. Avery
initiate a contingency system in which Cristina earned points for appropriate behavior during transitions.
In addition, to help Cristina prepare for an important, upcoming change,
the paraprofessional now cues her five minutes in advance, a strategy
that is helping Cristina make transitions with less resistance.
Second stage and third stage prevention
systems depend on having an effective behavior
management system. The basic difference
between second stage and third stage
prevention is that second stage interventions
can be done in small groups. Third stage
interventions need to be highly individualized,
often requiring one-on-one instruction or
intervention. Third stage prevention strategies
usually require a team-based problem-solving
response that includes both a behavior support
team, and a teacher assistance team.
Examples of second stage and third stage
prevention techniques are shown in the graph
Second Stage and Third Stage Prevention
Strategies on page 52.
If students with emotional disturbance and
behavioral problems are to reach their full
academic potential, reducing incidences of
problematic behavior is essential. For years,
19
teachers
and
paraprofessionals
have
successfully applied behavioral management
techniques to increase positive behaviors and to
decrease inappropriate ones. As they have
learned, the key to success is not to try to
control behavior reactively, per se, but to
proactively manage it consistently and
productively.
There are several effective techniques for
changing behavior. These include:
Change the environment. Take a look at
the environment and see if it could be
contributing to the problem. Is the student sitting
in a place that is distracting (e.g., near a door,
window or pencil sharpener, near a place where
others are working together and talking, or near
the reading groups).
Teach replacement behaviors. Teach the
student acceptable behaviors that serve the
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same purpose as the inappropriate behavior.
For example if the student is acting out to get
attention, teach them more acceptable ways to
get attention. Sometimes this will require
teaching academic skills. If students act out
because they are frustrated or embarrassed
because they lack the academic skills to perform
the task, you will need to teach the academic
skills as well as teaching them how to
appropriately ask for help.
Enhance acceptable behaviors. If the
student occasionally does use the appropriate
behavior (e.g., sometimes works well with their
peers) provide some sort of incentive for them
when they use these behaviors rather than just
punishing them when they don’t act
appropriately.
Reduce unacceptable behaviors. Under
some circumstances (when the behavior is
dangerous or so obnoxious that the student is
being totally rejected by other students, or when
all positive attempts to change the behavior has
failed) it is necessary to use punishment
techniques (e.g., suspension, time-out, removal
of privileges). Two things should be noted,
however. It is only punishment if the behavior
reduces (what is punishing to one student might
not be punishing to another) and punishment is
the least effective way to change a behavior.
student’s part, but simply the inability to behave
in an appropriate manner.
Such a situation may arise if certain social
skills are required for the performance of a specific
task (e.g., sharing or taking turns as lab partners in
a science experiment). Many students with
emotional disturbance and behavioral problems
have never been taught correct social skills, and,
as a result, are at a distinct disadvantage in
situations requiring any social interaction.
Once the students have performed the new
behavior with frequent success, a selfmonitoring strategy may be introduced where
students keep a count of how often they use the
new behavior. Such strategies are used to help
students manage and evaluate their own
behavior. For example, a student may keep
track of the frequency (or duration) with which
he or she demonstrates the new behavior.
The following combination of instructional
strategies may help when teaching students
new behaviors:
q Modeling—showing the student the
appropriate use of the behavior.
q Rehearsing appropriate behavior—
providing opportunities for the student to
practice the behavior.
Preventing disturbing behavior through
predictable means is clearly a major ingredient in
fostering any kind of success in the classroom.
There are times, however, when more corrective
approaches are called for. Students in the best of
classrooms will lose control of their actions on
occasion, some acting out and others withdrawing.
Knowing how to help students manage these
challenging behaviors gives teachers additional
techniques for helping students with emotional
disturbance and behavioral problems.
q Role-playing—providing the student the
opportunity to practice the behavior in the
context of a situation in which the behavior
might be needed.
TEACHING REPLACEMENT BEHAVIORS
TEACHING SOCIAL SKILLS
Some students with learning difficulties do
not learn appropriate behaviors by observation
alone. Sometimes, a student may not be
performing a particular behavior simply because
he or she has not been taught it. In these cases,
the behavior may not indicate defiance on the
A growing trend in schools is to teach social
skills as part of regular classroom lessons.
Teachers first identify necessary classroom
social skills (such as waiting one’s turn, sharing
materials, saying “excuse me,” listening, and
following directions), then they select a particular
skill and break it down into observable steps.
20
q Continuous reinforcement—providing
reinforcement to the student as he or she
practices the new behaviors.
q Prompting—giving the student cues to help
him or her remember how and when to use
the new behaviors.
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They teach those steps, while modeling the
behaviors themselves, and while asking
students to do the same. Students also role-play
the skill, and receive positive feedback from the
teacher, paraprofessional, and other students.
Throughout the rest of the day, adults target
naturally occurring opportunities to reinforce the
students when they demonstrate newly learned
social skills.
SOCIAL PROBLEM SOLVING
Students who are highly aggressive usually
have poor problem solving skills. When these
students are faced with problems, they often
have trouble figuring out how to solve them in
socially acceptable ways. They are more likely
to need adults to teach them how to solve
problems
effectively
without
becoming
aggressive or violent.
Social Problem Solving consists of five
thinking and decision-making processes that can
be applied to solving problems:
Thinking of Alternative Solutions: Students
are encouraged to think up as many different
solutions as they can to a particular problem. They
learn how to turn to alternative solutions when the
first one attempted fails to solve the problem.
Thinking about Causes and Consequences: Students are taught to consider how
and why a particular even causes the next
event, and how their actions affect themselves
or others. They learn also how to link actions
and consequences. What will happen if they
take a certain action? What are the short-term
effects? What are the long-term effects?
Sensitivity: Students are encouraged to
think about the feelings of others and to identify
how their behavior affects others’ feelings.
Means-end Thinking: Students learn to
make step-by-step plans for achieving a
particular goal, including recognizing obstacles
in the way of achieving that goal.
Considering the Views of Others:
Students learn to recognize that different people
have different opinions and ways of looking at
21
the same situation, and may respond differently
to the same situation.
ANGER MANAGEMENT
Researchers have found that students who
have serious behavior problems have serious
problems expressing their anger constructively.
When they are very young, these students learn
that they can control other children and even
adults using out-of-control anger. When people
give in to these children’s aggressive behavior,
this way of responding to problems is reinforced.
They learn to cope by acting out instead of using
other means to resolve their conflicts.
The first step for these students is to
recognize that their anger is inappropriate, and
that they must learn appropriate ways to
manage that anger. They need to recognize
what triggers the anger and aggression, and to
develop strategies to calm themselves down
before they act on their anger. Strategies to
control anger include:
•
Self-instruction, including self-talk and selfprompting – thinking aloud
•
Cognitive mediation such as using cue cards
that remind students of the anger management steps they need to take
•
Relaxation skills such as measured
breathing and physical exercises that allow
the student to reduce stress and the
physical symptoms of anger
•
Social problem-solving and perspective
taking to assist them in viewing problems as
situations to be resolved and not battles to
be won.
The goal of anger management is to increase
control of the anger – not to eliminate it. Anger is
a natural emotion that should not be repressed,
but channeled into effective coping strategies.
INCREASING ACCEPTABLE BEHAVIORS
It is important to respond to student
behavior in positive ways; and it is important to
resist the temptation to focus on undesirable
behavior. The first step in modifying behavior is
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to identify the behavior that should occur,
instead of merely focusing on the inappropriate
behavior. Once desirable behaviors are selected
for reinforcement, the following strategies can
be used to increase the likelihood that the
student will use them.
Positive reinforcement. Point systems,
stickers, smiles, and public recognition for a job
well done are all examples of positive
reinforcement. When a desired behavior is
followed by something that the student finds
rewarding, the likelihood that the desired
behavior will occur more often increases.
Educators find that setting up positive
reinforcements for some students helps them
learn to use new behaviors. Positive
reinforcements help students improve their
behaviors, particularly when the student is not
intrinsically motivated to change.
Continuum of Rewards
Internal Rewards
• Social – positive feedback and praise;
should always be paired with out extrinsic reinforcers.
• Natural – reinforcers that do not
depend on directions or reinforcements from others
External Rewards
• Edible – food or drink; most appropriate for younger students
• Tangible – stickers, pencils, etc. that
have value in themselves;
• Token – a chip, a check on a chart,
etc., that can be accumulated towards
receiving a later reward;
• Activity – an on-campus or off-campus
event that is earned through acceptable behavior;
• Self – students provide their own
rewards for acceptable behavior.
Token economies (point systems) are
systems of positive behavior reinforcement.
Students are asked to perform appropriate
behaviors. They then receive tokens (or points),
to be exchanged later for a reward. As students
get better at performing acceptable behavior,
points are given less frequently. When using
point systems it is sometimes useful for the
22
student to see a visual chart that represents
progress toward reaching a goal.
While many students are intrinsically
rewarded by social recognition (e.g., adult or
peer praise) for their appropriate behavior, other
students will initially need extrinsic reinforcers,
such as those described in the previous chart. It
is important, though, to pair extrinsic rewards
with social reinforcement so that the social
reinforcement, itself, will ultimately become
rewarding and the extrinsic reinforcer can
gradually be removed.
Behavior contracts. A behavior contract is
a more complex strategy for making a reward
depend upon desirable behavior. Good behavior
contracts also contain appropriate consequences for not achieving the desired behavior.
Most effective contracts usually contain the
following:
•
Definitions of the expected behavior that the
student can understand;
•
Positive rewards for achieving the expected
behavior;
•
A statement of everyone’s roles and
responsibilities (e.g., “Mr. Jameson will
monitor the walking in the hall during the
time of the contract”);
•
Consequences for not
expected behavior; and
•
A statement of commitment from everyone
involved.
achieving
the
Tips for moving from tangible reinforcers to
social reinforcers:
q Reinforce immediately, (especially when
working with new behaviors or young or
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immature students) as any delay may
result in ambiguity over what behavior is
being reinforced;
q If immediate reinforcement is not
possible, acknowledge the behavior and
remind the student that the reinforcement
will be coming;
q Give a verbal description of the behavior
being reinforced so that the student
knows exactly which behaviors have led
to the reward;
q Use social (e.g., praise or recognition)
and activity reinforcers (e.g., time on a
computer) in conjunction with tangible
ones;
q Phase out tangible and contrived
reinforcers as soon as possible;
q Gradually increase the time between the
behavior and the reinforcer; and
q Be sensitive to peer pressure, and be
careful not to embarrass a student when
presenting reinforcement.
DECREASING UNACCEPTABLE
BEHAVIORS
For most students, an increase in appropriate behaviors will replace the need for
interventions that focus on decreasing
inappropriate behaviors. However, some
inappropriate behaviors may necessitate the use
of “behavior-decreasing consequences,” as
follows.
Planned Ignoring. The use of planned
ignoring is based upon the theory that, if the
unwanted behavior is used to gain attention,
ignoring the behavior will result in its becoming
“extinct.” Three points should be stressed when
using this strategy:
•
It is not a good idea to ignore behavior that
is unsafe or harmful;
•
If the student is getting attention from
classmates, the behavior will continue
unless classmates also ignore it;
•
Often, the unwanted behavior at first tends
to become worse before it becomes better.
23
Time-Out.
Time-out
is
an
oftenmisunderstood punishment technique that
actually refers to “time-out from positive
reinforcement.” With time-out, all reinforcement
ceases and the student is essentially removed
from a reinforcing situation. It is especially
effective for behaviors that are used to seek
attention. For example, if a student makes
inappropriate comments during small group
activities to get the other students to laugh,
removing the student from the others in his or
her group might be a good intervention.
Effective use of time-out requires discussing
with the student in advance those behaviors that
may lead to a time-out, as well as the proper
procedures for going to, being in, and returning
from time-out. Time-out, then, should be clearly
differentiated from other removal techniques,
such as planning rooms or places to cool-down,”
which students voluntarily go to when they feel
they need time to gain control over themselves
or their situation.
Effective time-out strategies use a system of
increasingly disciplinary timeouts. For example,
a student may be asked to put his or her head
down. At the next level, the student might be
told to turn away from or leave the group. If
these do not work, the student may be placed in
a separate location, or “seclusionary time-out.”
This extreme consequence would be used when
only when the intensity of the behavior warrants
such removal.
The use of seclusionary time-out has
caused a great deal controversy. Critics believe
that it denies students their right to education,
that it is a form of “imprisonment.” Because of
these claims, some school districts have banned
the use of seclusionary time-out. It is, therefore,
best to consult school policies before
implementing seclusionary time-out in the
classroom; it is also a good idea to discuss the
procedure with the student’s IEP team before
implementing such a technique. If school board
policy allows seclusionary time-out, the facilities
should be adequate, and the time-outs wellmonitored, short in duration, and used carefully.
The question should be asked each time a
student is sent to time-out, “Is this student being
denied an opportunity to learn while in
seclusionary time-out?”
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The following table contains guidelines for
implementation of time-out procedures.
•
Behavior during time-out.
Review the time-out log regularly to evaluate
the effectiveness of the time-out procedures.
TIME-OUT: GUIDELINES FOR
IMPLEMENTATION
q TIME OUT MUST BE USED VERY
CAREFULLY
q Consult school administration for district timeout policies.
q Discuss the use of time-out options and
procedures with students’ parents.
q Define which behaviors will earn time-out.
q Decide how long the time-out should last.
q Thoroughly discuss the time-out procedure
with the students:
q Specify the behaviors.
q Specify the warnings to be given.
q Teach directions for going to time-out.
q Teach proper time-out behaviors.
q Teach procedures for returning from time-out.
q Post time-out rules in the classroom.
q Warn students when their behaviors may
lead to time-out.
q Implement time-out without emotion or
discussion.
Punishment. Punishment receives a great
deal of attention. While occasionally it may be
necessary to use punishment as a consequence
for inappropriate behaviors (see sidebar: Using
Punishment), it should be only a small part of a
behavioral management plan. The theory behind
punishment is that the behavior will decrease if it
is followed by something the student perceives
as negative.
Many antisocial behaviors are very frustrating for educators, and it is this frustration that
often
leads
to
punishment.
However,
punishment only lasts for a short time and not a
long-term deterrent to antisocial behavior.
Punishment focuses on what the student should
not be doing rather than on what he or she
should be doing. Punishment also often causes
emotional reactions, not only from the student
whose behavior is being punished, but also from
other students. It is important to react to
frustrating behaviors in a calm and rational
manner, attempting to use positive responses,
and only using punishment as a last resort.
When punishment is used often, in the long run
it tends to increase negative behavior, not
decrease it.
q Begin the time-out only when the student
begins to exhibit appropriate behavior.
q Discuss appropriate alternative behaviors in
private upon student’s return from time-out.
q Specify time-out procedures in the IEP of a
student with a disability.
Logging Time-out. Keep a time-out log for
each incidence of seclusionary time-out. The log
must include:
•
•
•
•
Student’s name
Description of behavior or incident that
resulted in time-out
Time of incident
Duration of time-out
24
USING PUNISHMENT
Punishment should only be considered under
certain circumstances:
q When the behavior is dangerous to the
student or others,
q When every other intervention has been
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appropriately implemented and has failed to
stop the undesirable behavior; or
classroom, educators must protect the safety of
everyone involved.
q When the student’s behavior is so
obnoxious that it prevents him/her from
learning or from forming meaningful social
relationships.
Usually, a student does not lose control
without “giving notice.” We understand from
research that when students act out, their
behavior follows a predictable pattern. In fact,
one of the best lines of defense for classroom
teachers and paraprofessionals is to understand
the nature of this acting-out behavior pattern,
and to use that knowledge to support the
student.
SUMMARY
Motivation is a key to increasing appropriate
behaviors and decreasing inappropriate ones.
Teachers and paraprofessionals can actually
teach motivation and improve classroom
behavior
by
carefully
using
behavior
management strategies.
Strategies designed to manage behaviors
may be quite effective in the short run, but, by
themselves, they are not sufficient to bring about
long-term behavior change. Paraprofessionals and
teachers who also build a positive relationship with
students have the greatest chance of succeeding
over time. Basic skills must be delivered within a
caring context – a safe environment filled with
caring relationships. All students benefit from
having caring adult educators in their lives. Both
students and educators know that such a person
can be the most important factor in helping anyone
with emotional disturbance or behavioral problems
take the first step toward adjustment. It is
impossible to overstate the power of caring.
A student’s sense of calm can become
disrupted by certain environmental “triggers,”
such as changes in routine, too many errors or
corrections
on
assignments,
or
peer
provocation. Triggers also may be outside the
classroom, and might include gang pressure,
substance abuse, lack of sleep, or peer or family
conflicts. There are some triggers that educators
can control (e.g., preparing students for
transition, ensuring a student takes his or her
medication as scheduled, teaching anger
management skills), and others that are beyond
their control (e.g., an upheaval in the family,
conflicts with friends, etc.). Providing a
structured, supportive environment and teaching
the student the skills needed to control anger
and to problem-solve will reduce the impact of
triggers on a student’s behavior.
If a student is triggered, he or she usually
becomes confused or defiant. The student may
ask lots of questions and begin arguing.
Sometimes just showing interest in him or her,
or giving the student a chance to talk about what
is bothering him or her, can help the student
regain self-control or enable the educator to
provide appropriate support. Provide the student
with time and space at this point. Allow him to
work independently and prompt him to use
relaxation skills and problem-solving skills to
work through his anger. It is important to remain
calm and to continue to treat the student with
respect. If you become upset or rude it will only
escalate the student’s behavior.
INTENSIVE INTERVENTIONS FOR
AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIORS
Back early from lunch, Terrance storms
into the classroom, knocking over desks
and chairs. He swings at a stack of books
sitting on the counter, sending them sailing
across the room. The few students who
also are back early begin moving quickly
away from Terrance, hovering close to the
teacher’s desk and along the room’s
perimeter. Screaming, “I hate you,” he
lunges toward Bryan, who is racing toward
the door.
Even when lessons are delivered effectively,
a good management system is in place and a
good relationship has been established, it is still
possible for students to have aggressive
behavior. When a student loses control in the
25
If the student’s behavior continues to
escalate remind him or her in a respectful way of
the consequences of the behavior. Give the
student the opportunity to choose the
appropriate behavior.
The American Institutes for Research
If a student loses control, however, the
priority is safety. This includes the safety of the
others in the room, as well as the safety of the
student who is out of control. If the student’s
behavior is endangering others in the classroom,
ask the student to leave the room. If he or she
will not leave, have the other students leave the
room and send one student for help. In either
case, tell the student(s) exactly where they
should go and whom they should talk to. Again,
remain calm and respectful so as not to escalate
the behavior. The overheads Breaking Up
Fights, Escorting Aggressive Children, and SelfDefense, provide specific actions that can help
you during particular kinds of peak situations.
After an acting-out incident, the teacher or
paraprofessional should talk with the student
about what happened when the student has
calmed down and is willing to work with an adult
to improve his or her behavior. Help the student
identify acceptable alternatives to the explosive
behavior. This debriefing should be approached
as an opportunity for the student to learn. The
issues of discipline and consequences for the
disruptive behavior should be brought up
separately.
Schools should take the time to develop
emergency procedures in the event that a student
loses control and threatens the safety of other
students. This plan should be taught and practiced
before an incident occurs.
ASKING FOR HELP AT SCHOOL
Some students need more attention and
understanding than any one teacher or
paraprofessional can give. It is rare that these
students have problems with their behavior in
only one place (classroom, lunchroom,
playground, or hallways). In such cases, school
adults need to work together to help support the
student’s behavior. For example, they must all
work together to put a behavior management
plan in place. School-wide approaches are good
ideas, because they can reduce things in the
environment that trigger unwanted behavior.
They can also provide structure and
consistency, and they are more effective in
addressing behavioral needs over the long run.
It is a good idea for all adults that work with
students to know the warning signs for
26
aggressive behaviors. Recognizing the potential
for aggression and knowing what to do can
prevent violence from occurring or getting out of
control. See overheads on Early Warning Signs
and the Acting-Out Cycle on pages 82 through
88 for important information on this behavior.
WORKING TOGETHER WITH FAMILIES
Emotional
disturbance
and
behavioral
problems affect children in all life situations –
home, community, school, church, etc.
In addition, families experience significant
stress when a child has emotional and
behavioral problems and they need to work with
the school to address the student’s needs.
Communication with the student’s family should,
therefore, be one of the most important
components of any school program. A family unit
may be configured in many ways. Therefore, it
frequently helps to know and refer to the significant
members of a child’s family (e.g., mother, father,
grandparent, aunt, older sibling, other adult). It also
helps to know the part they play in a student’s life
and in all the plans that are made for the education
of a student with emotional or behavioral problems.
The core members of the family should be included
in all significant deliberations about the student’s
education.
The IEP team offers opportunities to meet
with the student’s family. Collaboration can
extend throughout the year, as family members
are made to feel at home with teachers and
other professionals charged with instructing their
children. Meetings can be scheduled to facilitate
family involvement, and conducted in a manner
that demonstrates respect for the student’s
family, their culture, and their knowledge and
concerns. Empathy, respect, and sincerity are
key factors in establishing and maintaining a
positive relationship with families.
Because families like to hear good news, we
suggest that those who work with students
should share reports on student progress with
families, either through notes, reward charts,
completed contracts, phone calls, or record
cards. In order to build trust and good support
between educators and families, it may be
helpful to begin with positive examples of a
The American Institutes for Research
student’s performance or behaviors before
addressing inappropriate behaviors.
Sometimes school officials and parents do
not agree on the best approach to working with
a student. In these cases it is important to work
together until all parties are in agreement. One
technique to use to overcome these differences
is the same social problem solving techniques
that we teach students. The following sidebar
outlines the steps that can be used to implement
this technique with parents.
When talking to a family about a child’s behavior
in school, the following approaches may enlist
their support:
q Talk about behavioral difficulties as
obstacles for the child in mastering
academic goals;
q Be concrete and specific about
behavior problems. Expressions that
exaggerate the frequency of problem
behaviors, such as “he always looks
away when I smile at him,” or “she
talks back all of the time,” serve only to
make family members defensive;
q Actively listen to family members, be
sympathetic with their concerns, and
learn from their knowledge and experience;
q Share positive examples of the
student’s performance, and reaffirm a
commitment to helping the student
become successful in school; and
q Ask for the family’s suggestions
concerning how to reduce inappropriate
behaviors.
WHEN ALL ELSE FAILS
When all good faith efforts and best-practice
procedures do not produce desired results,
however, it may be time to enlist the support of
the school psychologist, behavior specialist, the
IEP team, special educator, and/or other support
personnel. It may be that the IEP team needs to
be reconvened to modify the existing behavior
intervention plan or academic objectives.
Depending on the effect of the behaviors on
the safety and learning opportunities for the
student and for other students in the classroom,
27
the IEP team should consider a change of
placement if concerted, documented efforts to
modify serious behavior problems have proven
unsuccessful.
MOVING FORWARD
Many students at some time or another
present challenging behaviors. Teachers and
paraprofessionals are, therefore, always on the
front lines, as they work to prevent inappropriate
behavior from interfering with students’
academic progress. Clearly, helping students
manage their behavior is an important part of
making sure that they will not miss out on the
education that will improve the quality of their
lives. As the examples in this book suggest, a
number of things can ensure that students
continue to learn and develop acceptable behavior:
•
comprehensive
expectations,
•
structure of the environment and improved
behavior management – using rules and
procedures, teaching replacement behavior,
strategies that enhance acceptable behavior
and reduced unacceptable behavior
•
collaborative teaming to address the needs
of students with low-level challenging
behavior,
•
emergency planning, and
•
high – quality alternative settings for
students whose needs cannot be met in the
regular classroom or neighborhood school.
(see Appendix C-4 for the components of
quality alternatives)
programs
of
discipline
While the characteristics presented by
students with emotional disturbance and
behavioral problems may sometimes be very
difficult to work with, the bottom line is never to
give up on any student. Because students with
emotional disturbance and behavioral problems
may challenge educators’ patience and cause
momentary despair, teachers and paraprofessionals should not be alone in helping students
succeed.
The American Institutes for Research
The school is a learning community. While it
is important to build a positive climate in the
classroom, the work does not stop at the
classroom door. The success of a classroom
behavior management program can be
enhanced by other colleagues as well as by the
student’s family. The next chapter presents
some organizations that are helping to support
paraprofessionals, teachers, schools and
districts.
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The American Institutes for Research
CHAPTER 6:
SUPPORT AND RESOURCES
There is now much that teachers and
paraprofessionals can do to support the
educational development of students with
emotional disturbance and behavioral problems,
particularly since many of the techniques that
work with these students can work to improve
results for all students.
This chapter suggests additional organizations
and resources that educators and school districts
can use to assist them in improving the education
of all students.
Center on many of the topics addressed in this
document.
The Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
American Institutes for Research
Thomas Jefferson St. NW, Suite 400
Washington DC 20007
Phone: 202-944-5400 or
Toll-Free at: 1-888-457-1551
Fax: 202-944-5454
E-mail: center@air.org
Internet: www.air.org/cecp/cecp.html
THE COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL
CHILDREN (CEC)
ORGANIZATIONS
THE CENTER FOR EFFECTIVE
COLLABORATION AND PRACTICE
(CECP)
The Center is working to improve results for
children and youth with, or at risk of developing,
emotional disturbance and behavioral problems
and their families. Its main goals are to identify
effective practices and to disseminate this
information to teachers, mental health
professionals, Head Start personnel, juvenile
justice personnel, child welfare professionals,
family members, and others. To do this, the
Center has put together a network of individuals
and information sources that can help teachers
locate a variety of resources, and it constantly
updates its own records to include many of
those on the list that follows. In addition, the
Center: (1) maintains E-mail-based listservs for
teachers, school psychologists, emotional and
behavioral disorder specialists, and those
interested in issues of implementing the IDEA;
(2) offers Author Online discussions through its
website; (3) maintains a database of relevant
meetings and conferences on the website; and
(4) helps to link individuals to services providers
through its network of Nursery and Greenhouse
sites. The Center’s website also provides
access to free publications produced by the
29
CEC is the largest international organization
dedicated to improving educational outcomes for
students with disabilities. The CEC holds
international, state, and local conferences
through its various chapters, and produces a
catalog of publications, available by calling 1800-232-7323. It also maintains several ERIC
Clearinghouses of information and research on
education issues, accessible though the
Internet. The Council can be contacted at:
The Council for Exceptional Children
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 20191-1589
Voice phone: 800-641-7824
703-620-3660
TTY: 703-264-9446
FAX: 703-264-9494
E-mail: cec@cec.sped.org
Internet: www.cec.sped.org
NATIONAL INFORMATION CENTER FOR
CHILDREN AND YOUTH WITH
DISABILITIES (NICHCY)
NICHCY is an information clearinghouse
funded by the Department of Education, and
provides information on disabilities and
disability-related issues for children and youth
The American Institutes for Research
(birth to age 22). Many of its documents are
provided free of charge. NICHCY can be
contacted at:
National Information Center for Children and
Youth with Disabilities
P.O. Box 1492
Washington, DC 20013-1492
Phone: 1-800-695-0285
Fax: 202-884-8441
E-mail: nichcy@aed.org
Website: www.NICHCY.org
THE FEDERATION OF FAMILIES FOR
CHILDREN’S MENTAL HEALTH (FFCMH)
The FFCMH is a national, parent-run
organization focused on the needs of children
and youth with emotional, behavioral, or mental
disorders, and their families. The Federation has
chapters in every state, offers regional and
national meeting and events, provides technical
assistance and materials, and publishes a
newsletter, Claiming Children. The national
office can be contacted at:
The Federation of Families for Children’s Mental
Health
1021 Prince Street
Alexandria, VA 22314-2971
Phone: 703-684-7710
Fax: 703-836-1040
E-mail: ffcmh@crosslink.net
Internet: www.ffcmh.org
PARENT ADVOCACY COALITION FOR
EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS (PACER)
CENTER
PACER is a non-profit statewide organization created to improve and expand
opportunities that enhance the quality of life for
children and young adults with disabilities and
their families. PACER offers a variety of
programs that provide assistance for children
with disabilities from birth to adulthood, and for
students and schools. PACER also offers
technical assistance to parent centers locally
and nationwide. PACER’s goal is to make
parents informed consumers for the welfare of
their children by providing them with knowledge
30
of their rights and responsibilities as parents,
and about laws and other resources pertaining
to their special needs children and their roles as
parents.
PACER Center
4826 Chicago Avenue South
Minneapolis, MN 55417-1098
Phone: 612-827-2966
TDD: 612-827-7770
Toll-Free (in MN): 800-53-PACER
Internet: http://www.pacer.org
THE COUNCIL FOR CHILDREN WITH
BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS (CCBD)
The CCBD, a division of the Council for
Exceptional Children, is committed to promoting
and facilitating the education and general
welfare of children and youth with behavioral
and emotional disorders. The CCBD publishes
the research journal Behavioral Disorders, a
newsletter,
and
a
practitioner-oriented
magazine, Beyond Behavior, which are
distributed to its members several times a year.
The Council for Exceptional Children may be
contacted for information regarding the CCBD’s
other publications, as well as membership
opportunities and regional and national
conferences.
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF SERVICE
PROVIDERS IMPLEMENTING IDEA
REFORMS IN EDUCATION (ASPIIRE)
PARTNERSHIP, AND THE IDEA LOCAL
IMPLEMENTATION BY LOCAL
ADMINISTRATORS (ILIAD) PARTNERSHIP
The Associations of Service Providers
Implementing IDEA Reforms in Education
(ASPIIRE) Partnership and The IDEA Local
Implementation by Local Administrators (ILIAD)
Partnership are made up of over 15 educational
organizations and related services associations.
As a group, the members of ASPIIRE and ILIAD
pull together the strength of their individual
organizations to provide ideas, technical
assistance, and other information to implement
IDEA ‘97.
The American Institutes for Research
experiences encountered during the program’s
implementation.
ASPIIRE and ILIAD Projects
Council for Exceptional Children
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 20191-1589
Phone (Toll-Free): 1-877-CEC-IDEA
TDD: 703-264-9480
Fax: 703-264-1637
E-mail: Ideapractices@cec.sped.org
Internet: www.ideapractices.org
http://www.ideapractices.org/aspiire.htm
http://www.ideapractices.org/iliad.htm
Blueprints for Violence Prevention
Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence
Institute of Behavioral Science
University of Colorado at Boulder
900 28th Street, Suite 107
Campus Box 442
Boulder, CO 80309
Phone: 303-492-1032
Fax: 303-443-3297
E-mail: blueprints@colorado.edu
Internet: www.colorado.edu.cspv/blueprints
THE CENTER FOR THE STUDY AND
PREVENTION OF VIOLENCE (CSPV)
CSPV was established in 1992 to provide
assistance toward understanding and preventing
violence, particularly among adolescents. Since
that time, CSPV has expanded its focus to
violence prevention throughout the course of life.
CSPV’s research-to-practice efforts have
resulted in the following services: (1) a collection
of research literature and resources relating to
the study and prevention of violence; (2)
technical assistance for the development and
evaluation
of
violence
prevention
and
intervention programs; and (3) research
analyses that focus on the causes of violence
and the search for best practices to prevent
against violence.
Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence
Institute of Behavioral Science
University of Colorado at Boulder
Campus Box 442
Boulder, CO 80309-0442
Phone: 303-492-8465
Fax: 303-443-3297
Internet: www.colorado.edu
BLUEPRINTS FOR VIOLENCE PREVENTION
Blueprints for Violence Prevention is a
collection of ten violence prevention programs,
which, the Center for the Study and Prevention
of Violence (CSPV) determined, have high
scientific standards of program effectiveness.
“Blueprints” includes a description of each of the
selected violence prevention programs, including
the theoretical rationale for the program, the
program’s core components for implementation,
evaluation design and results, and practical
31
CENTER ON POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL
INTERVENTIONS AND SUPPORT
The Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support was created through the U.S.
Department of Education’s Office on Special
Education Programs to give schools capacitybuilding information and technical assistance for
identifying, adapting, and sustaining effective
school-wide disciplinary practices. The Center
aims to meet two goals: (1) to widely
disseminate information concerning school-wide
positive behavioral interventions and supports to
schools, families, and communities; and (2) to
demonstrate to concerned parties at all levels
(students, schools, districts, and states) that
school-wide positive behavioral interventions
and supports are feasible and effective.
Center on Positive Behavioral
Interventions and Support
5262 University of Oregon
Eugene, OR 97403-5262
Phone: 541-346-2505
Fax: 541-346-5689
E-mail: pbis@oregon.uoregon.edu
Internet: www.pbis.org
THE INSTITUTE ON VIOLENCE AND
DESTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR
The Institute on Violence and Destructive
Behavior (IVDB) at the University of Oregon is
an institute made up of University of Oregon
faculty representing schools of Education,
Psychology, Sociology, Law, Architecture, and
The American Institutes for Research
Public Policy and Planning. IVDB was created to
address social problems of public concern; to
focus, make accessible, and deliver expertise
related to violence and destructive behavior; and
to integrate the Institute’s research, training, and
service activities in this context. Its activities
focus on research, instruction, and public
service. One school-wide violence prevention
curriculum that IVDB has implemented is
Effective Behavior Support (EBS), which is
described in further detail below.
behavioral research. NIMH and NIH serve under
the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services.
NIMH Headquarters
Neuroscience Center Building
6001 Executive Blvd.
Bethesda, MD 20892
E-mail: nimhinfo@nih.gov
Internet: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/home.htm
OFFICE OF JUVENILE JUSTICE AND
DELINQUENCY PREVENTION (OJJDP)
Institute on Violence and Destructive Behavior
1265 University of Oregon
Eugene, OR 97403-1265
Phone: 541-346-3592
E-mail: ivdb@darkwing.uoregon.edu
Internet:
http://interact.uoregon.edu/ivdb/ivdb.html
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL
PSYCHOLOGISTS (NASP)
NASP has more members than any
association of school psychologists in the world.
Their goal is to promote effective researchvalidated programs that facilitate the creation of
healthy
school
environments,
support
independence,
and
maximize
learning.
Professional, but caring service, reliable
research, advocacy, and constant program
evaluation are emphasized. NASP publishes a
newspaper eight times a year, as well as a
quarterly journal. In addition to these, NASP
publishes books, monographs, pamphlets,
videos, papers, and fact sheets.
National Association of School Psychologists
4340 East West Highway, Suite 401
Bethesda, MD 20814-9457
Phone: 301/657-0270
FAX: 301/657-0275
TDD: 301/657-4155
Internet: www.naspweb.org
The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) is one of several
bureaus that serve under the U.S. Department
of Justice’s Office of Justice Programs (OJP).
OJP was established in 1984 to develop the
nation’s capacity to prevent and control crime,
improve the criminal and juvenile justice
systems, increase knowledge about crime and
related issues, and assist crime victims. OJJDP
creates and funds programs that target such
issues as gang violence and juvenile crime. With
OJP, OJJDP forms partnerships among federal,
state, and local governments to address these
and other problems relating to youth violence in
the U.S.
OJJDP
810 Seventh Street, NW
Washington, DC 20531
Phone: 202-307-5911
Fax: 202-307-2093
E-mail: askjj@ojp.usdoj.gov
Internet: http://ojjdp.ncjrs.org/
Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse
P.O. Box 6000
Rockville, MD 20849-6000
Toll-Free: 800-638-8736
Fax: 301-519-5212
E-mail: askncjrs@ncjrs.org
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH
(NIMH)
The National Institute of Mental Health
(NIMH)’s mission is to diminish the burden of
mental illness through research. NIMH is a
branch of the National Institutes of Health (NIH),
the primary federal agency for biomedical and
32
The American Institutes for Research
MATERIALS FOR FURTHER STUDY
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESOURCES FOR DEALING WITH ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
A number of publications specifically address practitioners’ questions about educating students with
emotional disturbance and behavioral problems. While this annotated bibliography is by no means
exhaustive, we hope that it will serve as a useful collection of publications on successful approaches to
dealing with students with behavior problems. Each publication is grounded in years of rigorous research,
and contains its own resource guide to finding additional information.
Included are low-intensity intervention and prevention strategies that are appropriate for in-class use,
and that might help prevent some problem students from having to be assigned to a more restrictive
environment. Some of these low intensity interventions can also be implemented by a paraprofessional
as small group or pullout programs for the one or two students who are creating problems.
To help prevent valuable instructional time from being lost, these behavior management activities
should be integrated with academic lessons, wherever possible.
u The Tough Kid Tool Box and The Tough Kid Book, by William Jenson, Ginger Rhode, and H.
Kenton Reavis. Both are published by Sopris West and can be ordered by calling 800/547-6747.
These are hands-on, practical guides that can provide day-to-day assistance with behavior problems. They are easy to read, and contain examples of materials that are necessary for the implementation of the interventions.
u The Acting-out Child: Coping with Classroom Disruption by Hill Walker. This volume is also
published by Sopris West, and can be ordered from the number above.
This book provides a more in-depth discussion of acting-out behavior. It contains instructions for
implementing behavior management interventions, and sets the context for providing interventions. It also explains how and why the interventions work, and provides advice on day-to-day
classroom management and instructional practices that can, in many cases, prevent acting-out
behavior from starting and minimize it when it does. It also helps teachers recognize inadvertent
adult behavior that can act as a catalyst for acting-out behavior.
u Antisocial Behavior in School: Strategies and Best Practices, by Hill Walker, Geoff Colvin,
and Elizabeth Ramsey. This book is published by the Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, (800)
354-9706.
This textbook on dealing with antisocial behavior in school summarizes the relevant research in
the field, provides a comprehensive description of interventions at all levels, offers guidance for
getting families involved, and outlines a system-wide approach to school safety and dealing with
students with difficult behavior problems. It also discusses prevention and early intervention, as
well as gang identification and control.
u Effective Strategies for Teaching Appropriate Behaviors to Children with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, by Robert B. Rutherford, Jr., Mary M. Quinn, and Sarup Mathur
(Order #D5133), and Teacher-Mediated Behavior Management Strategies for Children with
Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, by Sarup R. Mathur, Mary M. Quinn, and Robert B. Rutherford, Jr. (Order #D5135).
33
The American Institutes for Research
These short, but extremely useful, handbooks are available from the Council for Exceptional
Children. The contents summarize research-based practice in easy to read form. The strategies
are appropriate for all students with behavior problems, whether or not they are identified as disabled. They can be ordered by writing to: P.O. Box 79026, Baltimore, MD 21279-0026; calling
800/232-7323; or faxing a request to 703/264-1637.
u
Techniques for Managing Verbally and Physically Aggressive Students, by Beverly Johns
and Vivian Carr. (Order #9505)
This book contains hands on information about how to handle confrontations with students. There
is information about breaking up fights, defending oneself from less violent physical attacks such
as hair pulling and wrist grabs, and escorting aggressive children. The book can be ordered from
Love Publishing Co., 9101 Kenyon Avenue, Suite 2200, Denver, Colorado 80237. Phone orders
with a credit card can be made by calling 303-221-7333.
CECP Publications
The Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice has produced a variety of products that will be
useful for teachers, paraprofessionals, administrators and others. They provide strategies for working
with children and youth with emotional and behavioral problems. These are listed and described below,
and most can be acquired free of charge. To obtain any of these materials (unless otherwise indicated),
please contact the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice using the information provided on page
29.
Early Warning, Timely Response: A Guide to Safe Schools. This document was produced in
collaboration with the National Association of School Psychologists in response to the President’s call for
the development of an early warning guide to help “adults reach out to troubled children quickly and
effectively.” This guide has been distributed to every district in the nation to help them identify children in
need of intervention into potentially violent emotions and behaviors. It can be acquired through the U.S.
Department of Education by calling Toll-Free 1-877-4ED-PUBS or via the Center’s website.
Safe, Drug-Free, and Effective Schools for ALL Students: What Works! This report came out of a
collaborative effort between the Office of Special Education Programs and the Safe and Drug-Free
Schools Program, both of the U.S. Department of Education. It profiles six different approaches in three
different communities or districts to addressing schoolwide prevention and reduction of violent and
aggressive behavior by all students. The report is the result of a literature review and focus groups with
students, families, administrators, teachers, and community change agents from local agencies.
The Role of Education in a System of Care: Effectively Serving Children with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. This is one of seven monographs prepared for the Center for Mental Health Services
(CMHS) of the U.S. Department for Health and Human Services. It profiles effective school-based mental
health systems of care in three of CMHS’s Comprehensive Community Mental Health Services for
Children and Families program urban grantees. The information in this report was gathered through a
series of site visits and focus groups, interviews, and a review of the literature. Seven additional
monographs in this series on Promising Practices in a System of Care are also available by contacting
the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
Addressing Student Problem Behavior: An IEP Team’s Introduction to Functional Behavioral Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plans. Written with some of the country’s leading experts, this
document serves as a useful tool for educators to understand the requirements of IDEA ‘97 with regard to
addressing behavior problems and implementing the fundamental principals and techniques of functional
behavioral assessment and positive behavioral supports for students with behavior problems.
34
The American Institutes for Research
Addressing Student Problem Behavior – Part II: Conducting A Functional Assessment. The second
document in the Addressing Student Problem Behavior series, this monograph provides an in-depth
discussion of the rationale for functional behavioral assessment and instructions for how to conduct the
process. Sample forms are provided.
Addressing Student Problem Behavior Part III: Creating Positive Behavioral Intervention Plans and
Supports. The third document in the Addressing Student Problem Behavior series, this monograph
provides an in-depth discussion about creating and implementing positive behavior interventions and
supports. It explains how to use the information gathered during the functional behavioral assessment
process to develop and implement positive behavioral intervention plans. The fourth document will be a
trainers’ manual on the techniques outlined in the series.
Functional Assessment and Behavioral Intervention Plans: Part 1 is a two-hour video workshop on
functional behavioral assessment. Produced as a cooperative effort between the Center for Effective
Collaboration and Practice and Old Dominion University (as part of the University’s state-funded technical
assistance project), it covers (1) the definitions and origins of functional behavioral assessment, (2) what
is involved in conducting a functional behavioral assessment and the criteria for determining when one is
needed, and (3) other relevant issues surrounding this technique. It is available from the Training and
Technical Assistance Center, Old Dominion University, 1401 West 49th Street, Norfolk, VA 23529-0146.
Functional Assessment and Behavioral Intervention Plans: Part II is a two-hour video workshop that
builds on Part I to provide in-depth discussion of and instruction on how to conduct a functional
behavioral assessment. It will be available in the coming months and can be obtained by contacting Old
Dominion University at the address above.
Periodicals:
The Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Problems: Reclaiming Children and Youth and The Journal
of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders are both published quarterly by:
ProEd
8700 Shoal Creek Blvd.
Austin, TX 78757
Phone: (512)451-3246; or Toll-Free at: (800) 897-3202
Preventing School Failure is published quarterly by:
Heldref Publications
1319 Eighteenth Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20036-1802
Phone: (202) 296-6267, or Toll-Free at: (800) 365-9753
Fax: (202) 269-5149
Reaching Today’s Youth: The Community Circle of Caring Journal, published quarterly by:
National Educational Service
1252 Loesch Road
P.O. Box 8 Station Z1
Bloomington, IN 47402-0008
Phone: (812) 336-7700, or Toll-Free at: (800) 733-6786
Fax: (812) 336-7790
Local colleges and universities are another resource. Many college and university libraries subscribe
to research and practitioner journals that publish updated information on strategies for working with
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students with emotional disturbance and behavioral problems and their families. Also, education or school
psychology departments often are aware of upcoming conferences and workshops.
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS
Baer, D. M., & Wolf, M. M. (1970). The entry into natural communities of reinforcement. In R. Ulrich,
T. Stachnik, & J. Mabry (Eds.), Control of human behavior: From cure to prevention (Vol. 2, pp. 319-324).
Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Bristol, M. M. (1976). Control of physical aggression through school- and home-based reinforcement.
In J. D. Krumholtz & C. E. Thoresen (Eds.), Counseling methods (pp. 180-186). New York: Holt.
Barringer, D. and Gholson, B. (1979). Effects of Type and Combination of Feedback upon Conceptual Learning by Children, Implications for Research in Academic Learning, Review of Educational
Research, Vol. 49, pp. 459-478
Brophy, J.E. (1981). On praising effectively. The Elementary School Journal Vol. 8 1, No. 5, pp. 269278.
Brophy, J.E. (1981). Teacher praise: A functional analysis. Review of Educational Research, Spring,
198 1, Vol. 5 1, No. 1, pp. 5-32
Brophy, J.E. & Good, T. L. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M. Wittrock (Ed.),
Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 328-375). New York: MacMillan.
Colvin, G., Sugai, G., & Kameenui, E. (1992). An instructional approach for developing schoolwide
discipline plans. Unpublished manuscript. Project PREPARE: Promoting responsible, empirical, and
proactive alternatives in regular education for students with behavior disorders. Eugene, OR: College of
Education, University of Oregon.
Deitz, D. E., & Repp, A. C. (1983). Reducing behavior through reinforcement. Exceptional Education
Quarterly, 3, 34-46.
Devine, V. T., & Tomlinson, J. R. (1976). The work clock: An alternative to token economies in the
management of classroom behaviors. Psychology in the Schools,-13,-163-170.
Dodge, K. (1986). A social information processing model of social competence in children. In
M.Perlmutter (Ed.), Minnesota symposium in child psychology (Vol. 18, pp. 77-125). New York: Academic
Press.
Dodge, K. (1993). The future of research on conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5
(1/2), 311-320.
Dunkin, M. and Biddle, B. (1974). The Study of Teaching. (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston).
Emmer, E.T., Evertson, C.M., and Anderson, L.M., (1980). Effective Classroom Management at the
Beginning of the School Year. The Elementary School Journal, Vol. 80, No. 5, pp. 219 231.
Evertson, C., Anderson, C., Anderson, L., and Brophy, J. (1980). Relationships Between Classroom
Behaviors and Student Outcomes in Junior High Mathematics and English Classes. American
Educational Research Journal, Vol. 7, pp 43-60
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Gallagher, P. A. (1995). Teaching students with behavior disorders. Denver, CO: Love.
Goldstein, A. P. (1988). The prepare curriculum. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Homme, L., Csanyi, A. P., Gonzales, M. A., & Rechs, J. R. (1970). How to use contingency contracting in the classroom. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Hughes, C. A., & Hendrickson, J. M. (1987). Self-monitoring with at-risk students in the regular
classroom setting. Education and Treatment of Children, 10, 236-250.
Hughes, C. A., Ruhl, K. L., & Misra, A (1989). Self-management research with behaviorally disordered students in school settings: A promise unfulfilled? Behavioral Disorders, 14, 250-262.
Johns, B. H., & Carr, V. G. (1995). Techniques for managing verbally and physically aggressive
students. Denver: Love.
Kazdin, A. E. (1994). Behavior modification in applied settings (5th edition), Pacific Grove,
CA:Brooks/Cole.
Kelley, M. L., & Stokes, T. F. (1982). Contingency contracting with disadvantaged youths: Improving
classroom performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 447-454.
Kerr, M. M., & Nelson, C. M. (1989). Strategies for managing behavior problems in the classroom
(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kounin, J. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.
Larrivee, B. (1985). Effective teaching for successful mainstreaming. New York: Longman.
Lochman, J. E. (1992). Cognitive-behavioral intervention with aggressive boys: Three-year follow-up
and preventive effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 426432.
Lochman, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). Social-cognitive processes of severely violent, moderately
aggressive, and non-agressive boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 3 66-3 74.
Madsen,C.H.,&Madsen,C.K.(1998). Teaching discipline: a positive approach for educational development (3rd Ed). Boston: Allyn&Bacon.
Mathur, S. R., Quinn, M. M., & Rutherford, R. B. (1995). Teacher-mediated behavior management
strategies for children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: Council for Children with
Behavioral Disorders.
Mathur, S. R., & Rutherford, R. B. (1989). Analysis of literature on social competence of behaviorally
disordered children and youth. In R. B. Rutherford & S. A. DiGangi (Eds.), Severe behavior disorders of
children and youth (Vol. 12, pp. 72-86). Reston, VA: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
Mathur, S. R., & Rutherford, R. B. (1994). Teaching conversational social skills to delinquent youth.
Behavioral Disorders, 19, 294-305.
McIntyre, T. (1992). The culturally sensitive disciplinarian. In R.B. Rutherford & S.R. Mathur (Eds.),
Severe behavior disorders of children and youth (Vol. 15, pp 107-115). Reston, VA: Council for Children
with Behavioral Disorders.
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Myles, B. S., Moran, M. R., Ormsbee, C., & Downing, J. A. (1992). Guidelines for establishing and
maintaining token economies. Intervention in School and Clinic, 27(3), 164-169.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (1995). Guide for Implementing the Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders.
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
Pfiffner, L., & O'Leary, S. (1987). The efficacy of all positive management as a function of the prior
use of negative consequences. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 20(3), 265-71.
Premack, D. (1959). Toward empirical behavioral laws: 1. Positive reinforcement. Psychological
Review, 66, 219-21).
Quinn, M.M., Berger, M., and Billups, L.H. (1999). Managing Student Behavior for School-Related
Personnel. Washington, DC: Educational Research and Dissemination Program, American Federation of
Teachers.
Rhode, G., Jenson, W. R., & Reavis, H. K. (1993). The tough kid book: Practical classroom management strategies. Longmont, CO: Sophis West.
Reid, R. (1993). Implementing self-monitoring interventions in the classroom: Lessons from research.
In R. B. Rutherford & S. R. Mathur (Eds.), Monograph in severe behavior disorders of children and youth
(Vol. 16, pp. 43-54). Reston, VA: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
Robins, L. N., & Ratcliff, K. S. (1978-79). Risk factors in continuation of childhood antisocial behaviors into adulthood. International Journal of Mental Health, 7(3-4), 96-116.
Rutherford, R. B., Chipman, J., DiGangi, S. A., & Anderson, K. (1992). Teaching social skills: a
practical instructional approach. Ann Arbor, MI: Exceptional Innovations.
Rutherford, R.B., & Nelson, C.M. (1995). Management of aggressive and violent behavior. Focus on
Exceptional Children, 27, 1-15.
Rutherford, R. B., & Polsgrove, L. J. (1981). Behavioral contracting with behaviorally disordered and
delinquent children and youth: an analysis of the clinical and experimental literature. In R. B. Rutherford,
A. G. Prieto, & J. E. McGlothin (Eds.), Severe behavior disorders of children and youth (Vol. 4, pp. 4969). Reston, VA: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
Rutherford, R. B., Quinn, M. M., & Mathur, S. R. (1995). Effective strategies for teaching appropriate
behaviors to children with emotional and 'behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: -Council for Children with
Behavioral Disorders.
Shapiro, E. S., & Cole, C. L. (1992). Self-monitoring. In T. H. Ollendick & M. Hersen, (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent assessment (pp. 124-139). New York: Pergamon.
Shores, R. E., Gunter, P. L., Denny, R. K., & Jack, S. L. (1993). Classroom influences on aggressive
and disruptive behaviors of students with emotional and behavior disorders. Focus on Exceptional
Children, 26, 1 -1 0.
Shure, M. B., & Spivack, J. (1978). Problem-solving techniques in childrearing. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
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Skiba, R., & Raison, J. (1990). Relationship between the use of timeout and academic achievement.
Exceptional Children, 57, 36-46.
Spivack, G., Platt, J. J., & Shure, M. B. (1976). The problem solving approach to adjustment. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sugai, G., Kameenui, E., & Colvin, G. (1993). Project PREPARE: Promoting responsible, empirical,
and proactive alternatives in regular education for students with behavior disorders. Unpublished data.
Eugene: University of Oregon, College of Education.
Tharp, R. G. & Wetzel, R. J. (1969). Behavioral modification in the natural environment. New York:
Academic Press.
Trice, A. D. & Parker, F. C. (1983). Decreasing adolescent swearing in an instructional setting.
Education and Treatment of Children, 6, 29-3 5.
Walker, H.M. (1996). The acting-out child: Coping with classroom disruption. Longmont, CO: Sopris
West.
Walker, H. M., Colvin, G., & Ramsey, E. (1995). Antisocial behavior in school: Strategies and best
practices. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Walker, H. M. & Holland, F. (1979). Issues, strategies, and perspectives in the management of
disruptive child behavior in the classroom. Journal of Education, 161, 25-50.
Walker, H. M., Reavis, H. K., Rhode, G., & Jenson, W. R. (1985). A conceptual model for delivery of
behavioral services to behavior disordered children in educational settings. In P. H. Bornstein & A. E.
Kazdin (Eds.), Handbook of clinical and behavior therapy with children (pp. 700-741). Homewood, IL:
Dorsey Press.
Walker, H. M., Shinn, M. R., O'Neil, R. E., & Ramsey, E. (1987). A longitudinal assessment of the
development of antisocial behavior in boys: Rationale, methodology, and first year results. Remedial and
Special Education, 8, 2-16, 27.
Walker, H.M. & Walker, J. E. (1991). Coping with noncompliance in the classroom: A positive
approach for teachers. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Ware, B. (1978). What Rewards Do Students Want. Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 59, pp. 355-356
Yell, M. L. (1994). Timeout and students with behavior disorders: A legal analysis. Education and
Treatment of Children, 17, 29' )-301.
Zaragoza, N., Vaughn, S. R., & McIntosh, R. (1991). Social skills interventions and children with
behavior problems: A review. Behavioral Disorders, 16, 260-275.
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APPENDIX A:
WORKSHEETS AND READINGS
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WORKSHEET:
DEVELOPING WITH-IT-NESS
Consider Kounin's definitions:
With-it-ness: showing students that you have “eyes in the back of your head.”
Consider these questions:
1.
When do you feel “with-it”; when do you feel most aware of exactly what's going on in your area?
2.
At what times and in what situations do you most need to have your with-it-ness skills?
3.
Are there any certain times of the day when your “with-it-ness” seems to fade?
4.
Which student, group, or area needs more specific attention than others do during independent
activities?
Having considered the previous questions, now respond to the following:
1.
I am really “with-it” when ...
2.
I don't think I'm “with-it” when ...
3.
I can get “with-it” by ...
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK TO STUDENTS
EFFECTIVE POSITIVE FEEDBACK1
EFFECTIVE CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK
1. Is given when the student’s behavior is
desirable or when the student accomplishes
something important.
2. Lets the student know what he or she did
that was good about what was good about
it.
1. Is given respectfully.
2. Explains what the problems were with the
student’s performance, and how they can be
corrected.
3. Is expressed sincerely.
4. Provides meaningful information to the
student about the positive parts of what they
did.
3. Is expressed sincerely and spontaneously.
4. Is expressed in a variety of ways that the
student can believe.
5. Is constructive instead of critical.
5. Is given for genuine effort, progress, or
accomplishment.
6. Is positive instead of negative.
6. Provides information to students about their
competence or the value of their accomplishments.
7. Encourages students to improve for
personal reasons.
7. Helps students to better appreciate their
thinking, problem solving, and performance.
8. Attributes student success to effort and
ability, implying that similar successes can
be expected in the future.
9. Encourages students to appreciate their
accomplishments for the effort they expend
and their personal gratification.
1
Excerpted from Jere Brophy, “Teacher Praise: A Functional analysis,” Review of Educational Research, Spring
1981, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 5-32.
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WORKSHEET:
APPROPRIATE FEEDBACK
DIRECTIONS:
Consider the following situations and determine what kind of response or feedback is most appropriate.
Indicate whether you would give simple positive feedback, provide some corrective feedback, or not
respond to the student. Also indicate whether you think the feedback should be given privately or publicly.
Provide an example of how you would respond.
1. A student who usually gives you a hard time comes into the room and takes his seat quietly.
2. A highly disruptive student has just picked up a whole stack of napkins that were accidentally
knocked off the counter3. A group of students who usually run through the hall walk as you have asked them to.
4. A group of students who usually walk through the halls goes running through the halls.
5. Johnny never participates in discussions in the library. He has just volunteered and given his first
response. The answer is incorrect.
6. Ellen never participates in class. She has just volunteered and given her first response. The answer
is correct.
7. A student you see often in the halls and you have a soft spot for has just failed a class quiz.
8. It was necessary for you to leave the cafeteria in an emergency situation. There was quite an uproar
while you were out of the room. The staff complained that the uproar was disturbing their classes.
The guilty parties admitted their involvement.
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PRACTICE WORKSHEET:
CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR
Place a B or N in each blank, depending whether the term is a specific Behavior or Not a specific
behavior
_______1.
Angry
_______13. Raises hand
_______2.
Hits classmates and yells
_______14. Loves food
_______3.
Is bad
_______15. Cleans plate in 1 minute
_______4.
Does not complete
homework
_______16. Good boy
_______5.
Is sad
_______6.
Cries 4 times during
the day
_______17. Complies with adult requests
_______18. Is afraid
_______19. Hides in the corner when
confronted by the class bully.
_______7
Good student
_______8.
Pays attention
_______9.
Raises hand
_______20. Happy
_______21. Sings at recess
_______22. Has a bad mouth
_______10. Neurotic
_______11. Happy
_______23. Uses swear words 20 times in 10
minutes
_______12. Walks to the door
_______24. Verbally abusive
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SAMPLE FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT FORM
Student:
Start time:
End time:
Definition of Behavior:
Setting:
Observer:
STUDENT
Mon.
Tues.
Wed.
Thurs.
Fri.
Name
Key:
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SAMPLE DURATION MEASUREMENT FORM
Student:
Setting:
Definition of Behavior:
Observer:
Date
Start Time
End Time
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Duration
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SUPPLEMENTAL READING:
CASE STUDY BEHAVIOR CONTRACT
The following is a fictitious scenario. Please read the narrative and develop a behavior contract that
would be suitable and appropriate for the situation.
Andrea is 11 years old. She often calls out as she is running down the hall of the first floor. She has
lost recess privileges at least five times. The loss of recess, though, seems to have little effect
because she continues her behavior the next time she comes into the building. Her behavior causes
problems for her mother, Julia Green, who has to leave work to come to school for conferences
about Andrea’s behavior. Ms. Green has taken her frustrations out on Ms. Wells, the paraprofessional who works with the teacher, saying that Ms. Wells doesn’t care about Andrea.
Ms. Wells does care about Andrea, and knows she cannot allow Andrea to continue this behavior.
She has noticed that other younger students are beginning to shout and run down the hall, imitating
Andrea’s actions.
Ms. Wells cooperating teacher, Ms. Lambert, wrote a note to Ms. Green to let Ms. Green know that
she understood how Andrea's behavior created a problem for her at work, and wondered if they
might work together to help Andrea stop. She also asked Ms. Green if there were any privileges that
Andrea could “earn” if she stopped running and shouting in the hall.
Ms. Green was happy to hear from the teacher, and immediately called to say that she was willing to
work with Ms. Lambert and Ms. Wells to help. She also said that Andrea liked to go grocery shopping
with her and get a special treat for helping, but that Ms. Green had not taken her along the last few
times as a punishment. Ms. Green felt that Andrea would be happy to have the chance to earn that
privilege back.
Ms. Lambert asked Ms. Wells to develop the contract with Andrea and her mother. Ms. Wells spoke
with Andrea that morning after she arrived at school and told her of their idea. Ms. Wells asked
Andrea if she would be willing to work with her and Andrea’s mother to change the behavior that was
making everyone’s life difficult. Andrea agreed to try to earn this privilege back, but rather than the
special treat, she wanted to have some money to spend anywhere she wanted.
Ms. Wells wrote up a contract, and sent it home for Andrea and her mother to review, discuss, and
sign. The next morning she signed it as well, and started the intervention – a point system in which
every time Andrea went through the halls quietly without running, she earned 2 points. According to
the contract, if she earned 20 points in two weeks she would be able to go shopping with her mother.
If she earned 30 points in two weeks she would be able to have the amount of money her mother
usually spent on the treat.
After 2 weeks, Andrea had earned enough points to go shopping with her mother. Ms.Wells also saw
that she was much more respectful in the classroom, even smiling and greeting her when she came
in the room. After two more weeks, Andrea had earned enough points to be given the money. Ms.
Green said that she was negotiating a similar contract at home to teach Andrea to finish her chores.
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SAMPLE BEHAVIOR CONTRACT
Date Contract Begins:
Clause IA:
If Andrea walks through the halls without shouting, she will receive two points on her
behavior card from Ms. Wells, classroom paraprofessional.
Clause IB:
If Andrea runs or shouts in the halls, she will not receive a point on her behavior card
from Ms. Wells.
Clause 2A:
When Andrea receives 20 points on her behavior card in two weeks, her mother (Ms.
Green) will take her shopping on the next shopping day, and buy her one special treat.
Clause 2B:
If Andrea does not receive 20 points on her behavior card in two weeks, her mother will
not take her shopping or buy her a treat.
Clause 3A:
When Andrea earns 30 points on her behavior card in two weeks, her mother will take
her shopping on the next shopping day, and give her the treat money to spend herself.
Clause 3B:
If Andrea does not receive 30 points on her behavior card in two weeks, her mother will
not give her the treat money to spend herself.
All terms of this contract have been negotiated among myself, Andrea Green; Ms.
Wells, the paraprofessional; and Ms. Green, Andrea’s mother.
Andrea Green
Ms. Green
Ms. Wells
This contract will be renegotiated three weeks from the date at the top of the page.
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APPENDIX B:
OVERHEADS
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What Can We Do To Prevent
Antisocial Behavior?
Tertiary
Secondary
Primary
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Primary Prevention
4 Schoolwide Supports
4 Classroom Supports
– mission statement
– positively stated
behavioral expectations
– teach expected
behaviors
– continuum of strategies
– monitoring and recordkeeping
– curriculum selection
and modification or
accommodation
– design of instruction
– presentation of
curriculum and
instruction
– proactive classroom
management
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Secondary and Tertiary
Prevention
4written policies, procedures and formats
4active administrative support
4comprehensive, proactive schoolwide
system of behavior support
4build behavioral competence within each
building
4team-based problem-solving response
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School-wide Discipline
4 Increase effective
4 Communication
instruction
4 Proactive
4 Support
4 All staff
4 Staff development
4 High expectations
4 Values and encourages
acceptable behavior
4 Involves parents and
staff
4 Clear functional rules
4 Data collection
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Schoolwide Safety
4 Develop policy
4 Visitors
4 Review policy
4 Minimize unsecured
4 Crisis-intervention
entrances
4 Hall passes
4 Zero tolerance
4 Supervision
4 Communicate
expectations
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Effective Schoolwide Plans
4Designing
4Implementing
4Monitoring
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Effective Rules
To be effective, rules must be:
4 Easy to define -- what exactly does the rule do?
4 Reasonable -- the rules should make sense to students.
4 Enforceable -- if you do not enforce the rules, they will
have no meaning for students.
4 Few in Number -- only use rules that are important to
you.
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Rules for Making Rules
4 Establish rules on the first
4
4
4
4
day! Don't wait for a crisis.
Use positive language in rules-tell students what behavior
you want to see
Make rules that complement
and support those in other
parts of the school.
Keep rules short, clear and
use simple language.
Display rules where students
can see them
4 As much as possible, write the
4
4
4
4
4
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rules in words most students
can read.
Teach and review rules
often—edit if necessary.
Don't post obvious rules.
Apply rules to every student.
Practice through modeling
and role playing the desired
behavior for rules that are
frequently broken.
If a rule doesn't address a
problem, drop it.
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Routines
Routines help students complete
the tasks and actions that occur
regularly in class and around
school.
– Entering and leaving the
classroom
– Emptying their trays at lunch
(where/when).
– Turning in homework.
– Being excused from the
library.
– Sharpening pencils.
– Lining up.
– Walking in the halls.
– Preparing for leaving school
What other routines can you think of?
4 Routines should be structured and
complete.
4 Teach routines carefully.
4 Review routines often.
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Alpha and Beta Commands
Alpha Commands
♦
Clear, concrete, and
specific.
♦
Contain a minimal number
of words.
♦
Allow reasonable amount
of time for behavior to
occur.
Beta Commands
♦
Unclear.
♦
Too many words.
♦
Conveys anger or
frustration.
♦
Often contains more than
one set of
directions.
♦
Focuses on negative
behavior
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Alpha & Beta Commands
Examples
Alpha Command
4 “Karen, as soon as you raise your hand and get permission, you
may go to recess.”
Beta Command
4 “Robert, you never do what you’re supposed to be doing. What
are you doing while the other students are finishing their lunch?
No one else at this table has this problem. Now you've missed
recess, again! You know you act just like your brother when he
was in school here. Am I going to have to call your mother? Go to
the detention table and sit until recess is over. I don't want to hear
a sound out of you until then. Do you understand? (Does not wait
for an answer). Get over there!”
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Defining Antisocial Behavior
4 Oppositional Defiant Disorder
4 Conduct Disorder
4 Emotional Disturbance
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Development of Antisocial
Behavior
4Acceptable
4Consequences
4Imitation
4Peer Groups
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Roots of Antisocial Behavior
4 Unfavorable Early Rearing Environment
4 Community Factors
4 Aggressive Pattern of Behavior
4 Social Rejection from Peers
4 School Influences
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How to Choose a System for
Measuring Behavior
Define behavior in ways that can be observed and measured
4 Measuring How Often a Behavior Happens
4 Behavior has a definite beginning and end.
4 Behavior can be measured as an amount.
Examples:
4 number of times the student talks back,
4 number of times a student leaves seat without permission,
4 number of fights during recess, number of times the student
appropriately raises hand to be excused.)
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How to Choose a System for
Measuring Behavior (continued)
HOW TO CHOOSE A SYSTEM FOR MEASURING
BEHAVIOR
4 Measuring Length of Time a Behavior Happens.
4 How long does the behavior last?
4 How long is it before the behavior starts?
Examples:
4 amount of time the student is out of seat,
4 amount of time before a student follows verbal
instructions,
4 amount of time a student’s temper tantrum lasts.
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Recording Sheets
Recording Sheets should contain at least the following
information:
– Student's name.
– Date (or dates) of observation.
– Observer’s name and role with respect to student.
– Time when observation takes place.
– Setting in which observation takes place.
– Definition of behavior being observed.
– Key to any codes used.
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Measuring Frequency
4 Measuring behaviors that have an obvious beginning
and end.
– Make a mark on the form every time the behavior
occurs.
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Measuring Frequency
(continued)
Sample Completed Event Recording Form
Student:
Start time: 7:05
End time: 7:30
Setting: Math Class
Definition of Behavior: Yelling obscenities to other students
Observer: Danita Flowers (Teacher)
MON.
1/31/00
Key:
TUES.
2/1/00
IIII
II
III
WEDS.
2/2/00
III
IIII
III
THURS.
2/3/00
IIII
I
IIII
FRI.
2/4/00
II
Each mark represents one obscene word.
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Measuring Duration
Measuring how long a behavior lasts
4 Use a stopwatch or a watch with a second hand.
4 Start timing when behavior starts.
4 Stop when the behavior ends.
4 Record the beginning and ending times, and subtract the
beginning time from the ending time to find the amount
of time the behavior lasts
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Measuring Duration (continued)
Sample Completed Duration Recording Sheet
Student:
Setting: Principal's Office
Definition of Behavior: Student has tantrums showing inappropriate signs
of anger (e.g.:
clenched fists, yelling, cursing, kicking, refusal to follow directions,
punching, or using
obscene gestures).
Observer: Roger Allen (crisis management paraprofessional)
Date
2/1/00
2/2/00
Time behavior Time behavior Time behavior
starts
ends
lasts
8:45:07
8:59:09
:14:02
2:39:49
2:49:59
:10:10
9:05:03
9:14:03
:09:00
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How to Change Antisocial
Behavior
4Teach replacement behaviors
4Enhance acceptable behavior
4Change the environment
4Reduce unacceptable behaviors
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Social Skills Training
Social Skills definition: Behavior that helps people get along
with others.
Teaching Social Skills
4 Identify/define the social skill you want to teach.
4 Show the student how to perform the skill.
−
−
−
−
−
−
Specify the skill.
Make certain the student is able to perform the skill.
Simplify the behavior.
Make sure the student is paying attention.
Make sure you model the social skill correctly.
Make sure the student is performing the social skill
correctly.
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Social Skills Training
(continued)
4 Practice the target skill with the student.
4 Provide chances for the student to perform the social
skill.
4 Remind students to use skills at the right time.
4 Reward the student for performing the skill at the right
time and in the right situation.
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Social Problem Solving:
What Is It?
Definition The ability to solve problems appropriately. Social
problem-solving is often used in conflict resolution and peer
mediation.
Components of teaching social problem-solving
4 Help students think of possible solutions to problems.
4 Help students decide what will happen when those solutions are tried.
4 Help students be sensitive to the feelings and needs of others.
4 Help students think through the steps.
4 Help students to take the perspectives of others.
4 Help students implement and monitor solutions.
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Social Problem Solving:
How Is It Used?
Guidelines for Implementation
Teach students that problems are goals with obstacles.
4 Step 1. Identify the goal.
4 Step 2. Identify the obstacles to the goal.
– Have them state their own individual perspectives.
– Have them recognize the perspectives of others.
– Create many possible solutions to the problem.
4 Step 3. Determine possible consequences to each solution.
4 Step 4. Choose the best solution that:
– Achieves the goal.
– Is fair to all.
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Social Problem Solving:
How Is It Used? (continued)
4 Step 5. Plan how to put the solution into action.
4 Step 6. Put the solution into action
4 Step 7. Determine how effective the solution was based on:
– Did the solution accomplish the goal?
– Was the solution fair to everyone?
– Should this solution be used for similar problems in the
future?
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Anger Management
Definition
Recognizing anger and managing its effects.
Guidelines for Using Anger Management
4 Convince students who act out that they need to change the way they show
their anger.
4 Make students aware of the signals that mean their anger is taking over.
4 Teach students:
– self-talk techniques.
– problem-solving skills.
– relaxation skills.
– deep breathing.
– progressive relaxation.
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Behavior Enhancement
Continuum
General Guidelines for Reinforcing Behavior
4 Define the behavior that will be rewarded.
4 Use social reinforcers together with external reinforcers so that
you can help students move away from external reinforcers.
4 Always work toward using fewer external reinforcers.
4 All kids are different--decide which reinforcers work for which
students.
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Behavior Reinforcers
Continuum of Reinforcers
4 Social Reinforcers
4 Food and Drink (Edible)
4 Stickers, Notes, Toys, etc. (Tangible)
4 Activities
4 Tokens or points to trade for tangible rewards
4 Self-Reinforcers
4 Natural Consequences
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Social Reinforcers
Using social reinforcers exclusively is our goal. Social
reinforcers are powerful and more natural than external
reinforcers.
Specific Guidelines
4 Use praise, positive and corrective feedback, and acceptance.
4 Pair social reinforcers with other rewards so that other rewards
can be faded out.
4 Social reinforcers must be sincere.
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Edible Reinforcers
Food/Drink
4 Specific Guidelines
– Always pair with social reinforcers.
– The student should be hungry or thirsty.
– Use a variety of foods.
– Use small amounts of food.
– Don't overuse sweets – fruit is better.
4 Drawbacks
– Be careful using food. Food is not a good reinforcer for
students who are overweight or who have food allergies. Too
many sweet things can cause cavities.
– Students may become “full.”
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Tangible Reinforcers
MANIPULATIVES
4 Specific Guidelines
– Always pair with social reinforcers.
– These are most effective with young or immature
students.
– Can be used initially.
– Help students see the connection between their
behavior and positive consequences.
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Other Ways to Reward Students
4 Awards--Certificates or symbolic objects can be used as awards
when students complete tasks.
4 Bonus points--Some students benefit from working toward a goal.
With a bonus points system, students earn points that can be saved
up and cashed in for rewards at a later time. When designing a
point system for students with emotional disturbance and
behavioral problems, it is important to make sure the student is
able to complete the task in a reasonable amount of time. If the
reward is too far into the future, the student may give up on the
task.
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Other Ways to Reward Students
(continued)
4 Accomplishment sheets--When students record their progress on a
chart or record sheet they can see their progress toward a goal.
4 Personal notes--Some students like notes from teachers or
paraprofessionals. Such notes provide encouragement to both the
student and his or her family.
4 Novel rewards--The process by which a student acquires a reward
can be motivating in itself, if it is age-appropriate. “Dot-to-dot
drawings” can be used to collect points, for example, with the
student earning the right to “connect the dots” by accomplishing
specified tasks; or students may receive shapes representing pizza
ingredients—and once the “dough” is covered, they earn a pizza
party.
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Activity Reinforcers
Allowing the student to participate in an activity that he or she
finds enjoyable.
4 Specific Guidelines
Activities are good rewards to use when there are many activities
available
– Begin to teach students to wait for a reward.
– Should be structured (timed, very specific).
– Should be activities that students enjoy.
– Always pair with social reinforcers
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Token Reinforcers
Definition: Students earn points or chips for appropriate
behavior. The points or chips can be used to purchase things
that the student wants.
4 Specific Guidelines
– Begins to teach students to wait for rewards.
– Should not be permanent. Phase out slowly to social
reinforcers.
– Change tokens or use them less and less during the year.
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Natural Consequences
Behavior and natural consequences
Desired behavior results not because ofdirections or
reinforcements from other people, but because of the student’s
understanding of real-life outcomes.
Example:
Student thinking, “If I study longer, I am more likely to get good
grades.”
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Behavior Contracts
Definition: A formal, written agreement for behavior change
negotiated between a child and a parent, peer, or other adult.
Guidelines for Implementation
4 The contract should describe the behavior you and the student
agree will be performed.
4 The contract should make a clear statement of the positive
consequences that will result from performing the behavior (See
Clause A on page 78).
4 The contract should make a clear statement of what will happen if
the student does not perform the behavior as stated. (See Clause B
on page 78)
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Behavior Contracts (continued)
4 The contract should state what your role and responsibility would
be for making the contract successful.
4 The contract should describe how the desired
behavior could be maintained.
4 The contract should be negotiated to ensure that it is fair to all
parties.
4 Focus on positive behavior and on using positive rewards.
4 Decide who should negotiate and oversee the contract.
4 Write the contract.
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Behavior Contracts (continued)
Include:
4 Clause A:. the reward for completing the contract.
4 Clause B: the consequence for failing to complete the contract.
– All parties sign the agreement.
– Deliver reward as soon as the student completes the contract.
– Make transition from contracts that are controlled by adults to
contracts that are controlled by students.
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Time-Out
Definition: Taking away positive rewards when students do
not behave appropriately.
Types of Time-outs
4 Planned Ignoring
Removing attention from the student.
4 Planned Ignoring plus Restraint
Removing attention and using a mild physical restraint such as a
light touch on the shoulder or holding hands.
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Time-Out (continued)
4 Contingent Observation
Separating a student from what the group is doing when the
student’s behavior is undesirable. The student can see what is
happening, but cannot participate.
4 Reduction of Student Rewards
Enriching the environment with reinforcing rewards, then
withholding the rewards for undesirable behavior.
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Continuum of Time-Outs
Exclusion
4 Removing the student from the immediate setting for undesirable
behavior. Should be for a defined period of time.
Seclusion
4 Placing the student in a separate room for undesirable behavior.
Should be for a defined period of time.
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Time-Out Implementation
Guidelines for Implementation
4 Decide which behavior will earn time-out
4 Decide how long the time-out should last.
– Discuss the time-out procedure with the students:
– What types of behavior will earn time-out
– Which warnings will be given
– How to go to time-out
– How to behave in time-out
– How to return from time-out
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Time Out Implementation
(continued)
4 Post the time-out rules so that students can see them.
4 Warn students when their behavior may lead to time-out.
Then, if behavior continues:
– Send or take the student to time-out without emotion or
discussion.
– Begin the time-out only when student is behaving
appropriately.
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Time-Out Implementation
(continued)
4 Discuss appropriate behavior privately with student when he or
she returns from time-out.
4 Keep a time-out log that includes
– student's name;
– description of behavior that resulted in the time-out;
– time of incident;
– how long the time-out lasted; and
– how the student behaved during time-out.
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Time-Out Implementation
(continued)
4 Always review the time-out log to see whether the time-outs are
working. Is the inappropriate behavior decreasing in frequency
and/or duration.
4 Ethical Considerations
– Is the student being denied an opportunity to learn while in
exclusionary time-out?
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Components of School-based
Interventions
4 early identification/intervention
4 efficient request for assistance
4 immediate planned response to crisis situations
4 functional assessment
4 behavior support plans
4 record-keeping and evaluation
4 wraparound
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Early Warning Signs
4 Social withdrawal
4 Feelings of being
4 Excessive feelings of
picked on and
persecuted
4 Low school interest
and poor academic
performance
4 Expression of violence
in writing or drawing
isolation and being
alone
4 Excessive feelings of
rejection
4 Being a victim of
violence
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Early Warning Signs
4 Uncontrolled anger
4 Intolerance for differences
4 Patterns of impulsive and
and prejudicial attitudes.
4 Drug use and alcohol use.
4 Affiliation with gangs.
4 Inappropriate access to
possession of, and use of
firearms.
4 Serious threats of violence
chronic hitting,
intimidating, and bullying
behaviors.
4 History of discipline
problems.
4 Past history of violent and
aggressive behavior
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Imminent Warning Signs
4 Serious physical
4 Detailed threats of
fighting with peers or
family members.
4 Severe destruction of
property
4 Severe rage for
seemingly minor
reasons.
lethal violence.
4 Possession and/or use
of firearms and other
weapons.
4 Other self-injurious
behaviors or threats of
suicide.
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Immediate Action
4Has presented a detailed plan(time, place,
method) to harm or kill others--particularly
if the child has a history of aggression or
has attempted to carry out threats in the
past.
4Is carrying a weapon, particularly a firearm,
and has threatened to use it.
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Acting-Out Stages
4 Calm
4Peak
4 Triggers
4De-escalation
4 Agitation
4Recovery
4 Acceleration
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Acting-Out Cycle
5 Peak
4 Acceleration
6 De-escalation
3 Agitation
2 Trigger
7 Recovery
1 Calm
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Calm: Description
4 On task
4 Follows rules and expectations
4 Responds to praise
4 Initiates appropriate behavior
4 Goal oriented
4 Socially appropriate
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Calm: Intervention
4 Structure
– Secure and predictable environment
– Provide attention
– Teach social behavior
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Triggers: Description
4School-based
4Non-school-based
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Trigger: Intervention
4Formal strategies for problem-solving
4Pre-correction plan for problem-solving
4Individual problem-solving plan
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Agitation: Description
4 More animated
4 Stares into space
4 Eyes dart-little focus
4 Language subdued and
4 Busy hands
non-conversational
4 Hands contained
4 Withdraws from
groups
4 Off task
4 Non-responsive
4 In and out of group
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Agitation: Intervention
4Utilize strategies that calm the child down
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
space
time
preferred activities
adult proximity
independent activities
movement activities
involve the child
relaxation activities
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Acceleration: Description
–
–
–
–
–
–
questions/argues
uncooperative
off-task
provokes others
tests limits
unacceptable social
behavior
– performs below
expected level
– whines and cries
– seeks to avoid an
activity
– threatens and
intimidates
– verbal abuse
– destroys property
– serious aggressive
behavior in general
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Acceleration: Intervention
4 Avoid escalating the behavior
4 Maintain calm, respect, and detachment
4 Utilize Crisis Prevention Strategies to interrupt the
chain of escalating behavior.
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Guidelines for Approaching the
Accelerating Child
4 move slowly
4 establish eye-level
4 speak privately, calmly
position
4 be brief
4 stay with the agenda
4 withdraw if behavior
escalates
4 avoid power struggles
4 acknowledge
cooperation
and respectfully with
child
4 minimize body language
4 keep reasonable distance
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Peak: Description
4 Serious destruction of
4 Hyperventilation
property
4 Assault
4 Screaming
4 Running
– someone is target or
victim
4 Violence
4 Self-abuse
4 Severe tantrums
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Peak: Intervention
4Preparation and precautions
4Short-term interventions to address safety
4Long-term interventions
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De-escalation: Description
4 no apparent focus or
4 responsive to very
purpose in behavior
4 reconciliation
4 withdrawal
4 denial
4 blaming others
4 Sleeping
concrete directions
4 responsive to
manipulation or
mechanical tasks
4 avoidance of
discussion (unless
there is an occasion to
blame others)
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De-escalation: Intervention
4 isolate child with
4 complete exit
supervision
4 allow some time to
cool down
4 engage in independent
work that produces a
product for about 20
minutes
paperwork
4 restore environment
4 resume regular
schedule
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– easiest activity for the
child at this point is
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Recovery: Description
4 Eagerness for
independent work or
activity
– interactions with other
children are difficult
4 Defensive
– some children will
display very cautious
behavior
4 Avoidance of de-
briefing
4 Subdued in group
– children are generally
reluctant to talk about
the outburst
work
4 Subdued in class
discussions
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Recovery: Intervention
– Provide strong focus
on normal routines
– Do not negotiate
consequences for the
serious behavior.
– Reinforce cooperation
after an incident.
– De-brief.
– Strongly acknowledge
problem-solving
behaviors.
– Communicate
expectation that child
can succeed with help.
– Establish plan with
specific steps.
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Acting-Out Cycle
5 Peak
4 Acceleration
6 De-escalation
3 Agitation
2 Trigger
7 Recovery
1 Calm
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Breaking Up Fights
4Never ignore aggression
4Go toward the scene
4Quickly assess situation
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Breaking Up Fights
4 Use correct body stance
4 Talk if aggression is not physical
4 Tell students to stop
4 Document what happened
4 Support victims
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Escorting Aggressive Children
4 Put your outside hand
4 Put your other hand in
on the child’s inside
wrist.
4 Turn their hand so the
palm is facing up.
the child’s armpit.
4 Lift the child up
slightly and gently so
they are a little off
balance.
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Self-defense
4 Bites
4 Choke holds
4 Pulling hair
4 Kicks
4 One-handed wrist
4 Punches
grabs
4 Two-handed wrist
grabs
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APPENDIX C:
ADDITIONAL MATERIALS
APPENDIX C-1: WHAT EDUCATORS NEED TO KNOW ABOUT STUDENTS
TAKING MEDICATION
Some students take medication to try to control their behavior. Paraprofessionals who work with
these students should become acquainted with how these medicines work.
Qualified medical professionals prescribe medication, and qualified nursing professionals should help
in administering and monitoring a student’s medication. Educators, however, can and do have a valuable
role and a vested interest in their students’ medical treatment. Educators can:
•
Make certain that students receive medication on schedule. Generally, this means reminding
students to go to the nurse’s office to take their medicine.
•
Observe the student’s behavior and note instances that support the use of medication or suggest
the presence of medication side effects. If a possible side effect manifests itself, a teacher or
other school staff should notify the school nurse or other appropriate school personnel and/or the
family. If necessary, the teacher should seek help; appropriate personnel, for example a psychologist and/or nurse, should be available to assist with evaluating the effects of medication on
a student’s learning.
The use of a medication to address behavior assumes some behavior that interfere with learning and
classroom participation can be controlled with medication. Central nervous system stimulants, for
example, are sometimes used to treat children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). When
working properly, these stimulants can temporarily reduce the symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity,
while increasing concentration. However, even when medication is working properly, other interventions,
including sound educational instruction and positive behavioral supports, are still needed to ensure
success.
Some drugs used in treatment plans for students with emotional disturbance include:
q
Stimulants, such as Cylert, Dexedrine, Ritalin, and Benzedrine, all of which are clinically used to
focus attention and energy while decreasing impulsive behavior.
q
Tranquilizers, such as Thorazine, Mellaril, and Haldol, which are used to suppress hyperactivity,
aggressiveness, self-injurious behavior, and hallucinations.
q
Antidepressants, such as lithium, Tofranil, Prozac, and Elavil, which are clinically used to alter
moods, reduce hyperactivity and aggression, and treat school phobias.
q
Anticonvulsants, such as Phenobarbital, Mysoline, Dilantin, and Valium, which are clinically used to
control seizures and convulsions.
There are many possible drug side effects. When you are working with a student on medication, you
should be aware of the side effects associated with the drug. When you share this information with the
teacher, it will help the teacher to recognize which behavior the student cannot control. Furthermore,
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such knowledge will enable the teacher to alert other educators, school officials, and family members if
should the student is experiencing serious side effects.
APPENDIX C-2 FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
The following pages are sample forms from a Functional Behavioral Assessment developed by the
Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice – Addressing Student Problem Behavior—Part II:
Conducting A Functional Assessment. This is the second document in the Addressing Student Problem
Behavior series. It provides an in-depth discussion of the reasons for conducting functional behavioral
assessment and instructions for how to conduct the process. Sample forms are provided. The Guide
suggests the following steps for conducting the assessment:
q
Describe and verify the seriousness of the problem.
q
Refine the definition of the problem behavior.
q
Collect information on the possible functions of the problem behavior.
q
Analyze information using triangulation and/or problem pathway analysis.
q
Generate a hypothesis statement regarding the probable function of the behavior.
q
Test the hypothesis statement regarding the function of the problem behavior.
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***PLACEHOLDER FOR FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
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***PLACEHOLDER FOR FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
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***PLACEHOLDER FOR FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
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APPENDIX C-3 ALTERNATIVE SETTINGS
When students require more than reconfiguration of services in their current setting to achieve
success in controlling or improving their behavior, educators may make the decision that a student could
be better served in an alternative setting. An alternative setting could be a “school within a school” or it
could be a separate school facility. The configuration of an alternative setting depends on what each
community can provide, but it is best to keep students as close to the mainstream setting as is
appropriate, because the goal of effective alternative programs should be to enable the students to get
back to their original settings as soon as possible.
In the past, many alternative settings were thought of as custodial programs that served to keep students
more than to educate them. Effective alternative programs now are more nurturing environments where trained
personnel offer coordinated services that support students’ return to their original settings. See the table
Selected Components of Effective Alternative Programs for a detailed description of services that alternative
programs should provide for students.
SELECTED COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE ALTERNATIVE SETTINGS
1. A Qualified Staff—The staff of alternative programs should be qualified, well-trained, and experienced to
teach students with emotional and behavior problems. They should choose to teach in these settings and
be present in sufficient numbers to guarantee a strong, positive adult presence. This ensures that students
are getting effective instruction and also are being understood by people who want to see them succeed.
2. Functional Assessment of Student’s Skills—An assessment should be performed to determine what each
student needs, both academically and behaviorally, rather than what a particular curriculum says should be
taught. Each assessment should be tailored to each individual student, rather than using a packaged
assessment program. This kind of assessment aligns with that required when preparing an individualized
program of instruction for each student.
3. Functional Curriculum—Based on the results of the individualized assessment, each student should have a
functional curriculum that addresses his or her particular needs. In addition to appropriate academic
instruction, the curriculum should be individualized to include instruction in whatever vocational, social, and
life training skills a student might need in order to function in the classroom. This curriculum should be
written into a student’s individualized plan of instruction.
4. Effective and Efficient Instructional Techniques—The instructional strategies chosen to implement the
student’s curriculum should take into account how each student learns, such as considering a student’s
attention span. For example, a student may learn better when a direct instruction approach is used, rather
than cooperative learning groups.
5. Transition Program—Alternative programs should have a process in place to assist a student in making the
transition back to his or her regular program. Each student should begin this process as soon as he or she
enters the alternative program. Transition programs should address the skills that each student needs to be
successful in his or her regular setting or in a job, when appropriate.
6. Comprehensive Systems—Alternative programs should work with community agencies that may also
provide services to students in a coordinated manner. Such agencies may include: social services, foster
care, juvenile justice, child protective services, and children’s mental health. Working together to meet each
student’s spectrum of needs may improve student outcomes both in and beyond school.
7. Availability of Resources for Students with Disabilities. Alternative programs should have small class sizes;
an emphasis on intensive instruction; effective and frequent communication among students, families,
teachers and other school staff; and sufficient social work, psychological, and counseling resources so that
all students receive effective services.
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APPENDIX C-4: ARRANGING THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Educators can discourage challenging behavior by the way they manage space. A number of
suggestions for arranging students’ space include:
Defining space. Some students realize the purposes for different spaces and how they should
behave in those spaces. Others need to be taught how to get around in the classroom and other spaces
at school. It often helps these students to have the classrooms divided into places that have clear
purposes.
Controlling the degree of stimulation. Students who are easily distracted may need to have less
stimulation than is usual. Easy steps to use to help these students include covering storage areas,
removing unused equipment from sight, replacing a loud fish-tank motor with a quiet one, and keeping
classroom displays organized.
Monitoring “high traffic areas.” There tends to be a lot of movement in certain places such as the
pencil sharpener, water faucet, trashcan, and the teacher’s desk. Students who are easily distracted
should be seated away from such areas while still within the eyesight of the teacher or paraprofessional.
In addition, procedures for using these areas should be developed and taught.
Establishing a quiet place. Some students need a quiet, “safe” place to sit and work or to calm
down after an emotional outburst. Study carrels, desk blinders (three-paneled cardboard pieces that
students can use at their seats for privacy), or an area behind a bookcase are examples of such quiet
places. It is important to note, however, that all students should remain in full view of the teacher or
paraprofessional at all times. Also, students benefit from feeling ownership of their belongings, and thus
benefit from having a personal space for storing them.
HELPING STUDENTS TO WORK MORE EFFICIENTLY
It is often helpful to:
q
Teach students to keep track of assignments, grades, and targeted behavior—with reminders such
as assignment sheets, daily schedules, and to-do lists.
q
Highlight behavior and academic successes with a daily record of work assignments and
accomplishments. When collected over time, these records show student progress and become
motivators for more student effort.
q
Have students take notes from both oral presentations and textbooks in order to give students a
means for reviewing what they are learning.
q
Help students manage their time by establishing routines for making transitions between lessons,
getting and putting away materials, and requesting assistance.
q
Reduce the amount of materials that may cause distractions during work time by having students put
away unnecessary items in a designated place for storing tools, materials, and books.
q
Provide time-management reminders, such as 10-, 5-, or 2-minute warnings before clean-up time, to
establish time limitations for completing work.
MAKE SURE THAT STUDENTS ACTUALLY UNDERSTAND ALL DIRECTIONS BEFORE THEY BEGIN INDEPENDENT WORK.
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APPENDIX C-5: COLLABORATING SUCCESSFULLY
Teachers and paraprofessionals who work together have important skills and knowledge to bring. They can
be an effective team if they learn how to work together. It is not always easy to collaborate with others,
however, especially when collaboration is not encouraged. However, teachers and paraprofessionals who do
work as a team report satisfaction with this way of working. They can share knowledge, expand skills, and
develop creative solutions to problems. Time has to be available on a regular basis for such collaborations to
become effective. Districts need to reduce barriers to collaboration and introduce opportunities for educators to
meet. (For information on specific resources, contact the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice or the
Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support.)
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APPENDIX D:
GLOSSARIES
APPENDIX D-1: GENERAL GLOSSARY
Antisocial:
Serious misbehavior.
Behavior:
Any action by a person that can be seen, defined, and measured so that
two or more observers can agree on whether it occurred or not.
Contingent Timeout
Separating the student from the group activity so that he or she can
observe but not participate.
Corrective
Feedback:
Using the student’s name, giving a brief description of the problem and
suggestion for an alternative, more appropriate behavior.
Duration Recording:
Recording the length of time a behavior occurs.
Event Recording:
Recording the number of times (frequency) that a behavior occurs. Also
called Frequency Recording.
Exclusion Timeout:
Removing the student from the activity or setting due to his or her
undesired behavior.
Group Token Economy:
A token economy set up for an entire group. Everyone in the group must
meet the criteria in order for the group to get the reward.
Individualized
Token Economy:
A token economy set up for an individual student to meet his or her unique
needs.
Planned Ignoring:
The removal of social attention from a student in response to misbehavior.
Positive Feedback:
Using the student’s name, giving a brief description of what the student
did, and complimenting the student.
Precorrection:
Identifying and compensating for the likely triggers in the environment that
precede and set off acting-out behavior.
Seclusion Timeout
Removing a student to another room because of serious or chronic
undesirable behavior.
With-it-Ness
The ability to know at all times what a student or students are doing, or
what is happening in a room or an area
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APPENDIX D-2: DEFINING ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
The Fourth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) defines
“oppositional” as a recurrent pattern of negativistic, defiant, disobedient, and hostile behavior toward
authority figures that keeps happening for at least six months. This pattern is also characterized by the
frequent occurrence of at least four of the following behaviors: losing temper, arguing with adults, actively
defying or refusing to comply with the requests or rules of adults, deliberately doing things that will annoy
other people, blaming others for his or her own mistakes or misbehavior being touchy or easily annoyed
by others, being angry or resentful, or being spiteful or vindictive.
Conduct Disorder
The DSM-IV defines “conduct disorder” as: a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the
basic rights of others or social rules are violated. Children or adolescents with conduct disorder are often
aggressive and react aggressively to others”.
Serious Emotional Disturbance
“A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time to a
marked degree, which adversely affects educational performance: an inability to learn that cannot be
explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; an inability to build or maintain satisfactory
relationships with peers and teachers; inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal
circumstances; a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or a tendency to develop
physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.” (Individuals with Disabilities
Act, 1997)
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APPENDIX D-3: COMPONENTS OF A SYSTEM OF CARE
EXHIBIT 1
A glossary follows with definitions or descriptions of these components.
4. Health Services
Health education and prevention
Screening and assessment
Primary care
Acute care
Long-term care
1. Mental Health Services
Prevention
Early identification and intervention
Assessment
Outpatient treatment
Home-based services
Day treatment
Emergency services
Therapeutic foster care
Therapeutic group care
Therapeutic camp services
Residential treatment services
Crisis residential services
Inpatient hospitalization
5. Vocational Services
Career education
Vocational assessment
Job survival skills training
Vocational skills training
Work experiences
Job finding, placement, and retention services
Supported employment
2. Social Services
Protective services
Financial assistance
Home aid services
Respite services
Foster care
Adoption
6. Recreational Services
Relationships with significant others
After-school programs
Summer camps
Special recreation projects
7. Operational Services
Case management
Self-help and support groups
Advocacy
Transportation
Legal services
Volunteer programs
3. Educational Services
Assessment and planning
Resource rooms
Self-contained special education
Special schools
Homebound instruction
Residential schools
Alternative programs
Source: From A System of Care for Severely Emotionally Disturbed Children and Youth by B. A. Stroul & R. M. Friedman, 1986, rev.
1994. Washington, DC: CASSP Technical Assistance Center, Georgetown University Child Development Center.
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APPENDIX D-4: TERMS USED
1. MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES
Assessment. A process that results in an opinion about a child’s mental or emotional capacity, and
may include recommendations about treatment or placement.
Crisis residential services. Residential treatment services that aim to intervene in the crisis at hand
and transition the child or youth back into his or her home and community.
Day treatment. Day treatment programs provide education, counseling, and family interventions
during the entire day to a child or youth who then returns to his or her caregiver in the evening.
Early identification and intervention. Treatment for emotional and behavioral problems that begins
early in the course of the problem with the goal of lessening the duration and severity of the problem.
Emergency services. Emergency services range from prevention efforts through crisis stabilization
provided by a variety of agencies. Examples include hotlines and shelters for those in need of crisis
intervention or emergency care.
Home-based services. Home-based services are delivered to children and youth and their families
in a family’s home. One goal is to emphasize the needs of the whole family, not just an individual within
the family.
Inpatient hospitalization. Inpatient services that provide medical intervention for a child or youth’s
emotional or behavioral problem.
Outpatient treatment. Outpatient treatment includes mental health services available in nonresidential settings, such as mental health clinics, hospital outpatient departments, or community health
centers.
Prevention. The goal of prevention is to reduce the occurrence of emotional problems in children
and youth and their families who have not yet been identified as having emotional problems, particularly
those who may be at risk.
Residential treatment services. Residential treatment services are delivered in a facility that offers
24-hour residential care, as well as treatment and rehabilitation, or short-term crisis intervention.
Therapeutic foster care. Treatment and care for children and youth by trained families in their
private homes.
Therapeutic group care. Treatment for multiple children and youth provided in homes and employing a variety of interventions.
Therapeutic camp services. Children and youth and staff in therapeutic camp programs live
together in a rustic situation, which places greater expectations for responsible and independent behavior
on the campers than might more traditional residential settings.
2. SOCIAL SERVICES
Adoption. In contrast to temporary care, adoption is intended to be a permanent placement. It is
designed for those situations in which return to the biological parents is unlikely for a child or youth.
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Financial assistance. Financial assistance from sources including local and federal government to
help families pay for necessities, such as food, clothing, and shelter.
Foster care. Foster care includes the placement of children in foster family homes, group homes,
group childcare facilities, and residential treatment centers because of abuse, neglect, or abandonment.
Home-aid services. Services provided in the home, usually by nonprofessionals.
Protective services. Protective services are intended to prevent and protect children and youth from
neglect, abuse, and exploitation by offering social services to identified or at-risk children and youth and
their families.
Respite services. Temporary care given to an individual for the purpose of providing a period of
relief to the primary caregivers. Respite is used to decrease stress in the homes of persons with
disabilities or handicaps, thereby increasing caregivers’ overall effectiveness.
3. EDUCATION SERVICES
Alternative programs. Alternative programs include a wide range of settings, and are thus difficult to
define. Not all students served in these programs are formally identified as having a disability. The
advantage offered by alternative education programs is flexibility for students who have difficulty
functioning in the regular classroom setting and/or are at risk for dropping out.
Assessment and planning. Procedures used to identify and determine placement of students in
special education programs. Assessment is done using a variety of methods and measures. Planning for
a student assessed and identified with a disability includes the development of an individual educational
program (IEP).
Homebound instruction. Using this option, the school district arranges for the student to receive
instruction at home.
Residential schools. Often located outside a student’s home community, residential schools stress
educational achievement for students with emotional and behavioral problems.
Resource rooms. A setting within the regular school where students with disabilities may receive
educational services from a special education teacher (and teachers’ aids, when available) for one or two
instructional periods each day.
Self-contained special education. Full-time placement in a special education classroom, in which a
special educator (and teachers’ aids, when available) provides intensive, structured academic and
behavioral support and supervision.
Special schools. Non-residential programs that provide a full-day educational program for students
within a setting that is separate from the regular school.
4. HEALTH SERVICES
Acute care. Care for children who are injured or become ill. Services are usually provided in a clinic
or emergency room.
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Health education and prevention. Educational programs aimed at promoting both physical and
mental health, as well as educating students about public health issues, such as sex education or
substance abuse.
Long-term care. Services for children with chronic illnesses and their families. Children and youth
receiving long-term care for their health problems also may require services from schools.
Screening and assessment. Evaluation to identify potential health problems early, and to determine
an appropriate course of treatment or service delivery.
Primary care. Complete health examinations and follow-up care by physicians during a child’s
growth and development.
Long-term care. Services for children with chronic illnesses and their families. Children and youth
receiving long-term care for their health problems also may require services from schools.
5. VOCATIONAL SERVICES
Career education. Designed to prepare students to enter the working world, career education
programs teach students about types of careers, how to choose a career, skills and approaches that may
be useful, and what to expect in working with an employer and other employees.
Job finding, placement, and retention services. Provides services such as interviewing skills or
services listed above to help youth find job opportunities, apply for jobs, and maintain their employment
over time.
Job survival skills training. Programs that teach youth how to maintain and succeed at their job.
The skills covered often include training in: social skills for appropriate interaction with others, taking
criticism from employers, managing frustration, and meeting deadlines and staying on schedule.
Supported employment. An alternative to traditional full or part-time employment, for youth who
need assistance making the transition to these kinds of jobs. Through supported employment programs,
a youth has a paying job and the support of an adult to help him or her acquire and use the skills he or
she needs to maintain the position.
Vocational assessment. An evaluation process for determining a youth’s ability, career interests,
and readiness for employment.
Vocational skills training. Training in more technical vocational skills includes instruction in fields
such as technology or industries such as auto maintenance, childcare, or hospitality.
Work experiences. Some programs organize vocational training and work experience opportunities
for older youth to build their skill sets as well as their confidence.
6. RECREATIONAL SERVICES
After-school programs. Programs that typically offer students a place to do their homework with the
support of program staff, as well as opportunities to participate in extracurricular activities such as art,
music, or sports in a supervised setting between the close of the school day and the evening.
Relationships with significant others. Recreational programs, such as Big Brothers/Big Sisters,
that match a child or youth who could benefit from adult companionship with an adult volunteer.
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Summer camps. Held during the summer for a limited number of days or weeks, summer camps
provide children and youth with the opportunity to learn new skills, enjoy recreational activities, and
interact with adults and peers outside the school setting. Summer camps may operate as a day camp
program or as an overnight, residential program.
Special recreation projects. Projects designed to help children and youth with emotional and
behavioral problems learn and enjoy a new activity.
7. OPERATIONAL SERVICES
Advocacy. The process of actively supporting the cause of an individual (case advocacy) or group
(class advocacy), or speaking or writing in favor of—or on behalf of—an individual or group.
Case management. A service that helps clients obtain and coordinate community resources such as
income assistance, education, housing, medical care, treatment, vocational preparation, and recreation.
Legal services. Legal assistance is given in situations that cannot be settled through alternative
resolution methods. Legal services are commonly retained in such cases as when a child might be
removed from his or her home, or when a youth becomes involved in the juvenile justice system.
Self-help and support groups. Groups that provide emotional support and help for dealing with a
problem that participants or their family members share, such as alcoholism, substance abuse, or
extreme anxiety or anger.
Transportation. Many children and their families have difficulty accessing programs and services
because they lack transportation to and from the locations where they are offered.
Volunteer programs. Volunteers organized to serve in a variety of roles, such as acting as a big
brother/big sister or tutor, helping a youth find a job, or assisting in a classroom as a teacher’s aide.
These definitions were gathered from six sources:
Bruns, B.J., & Goldman, S. K. (Eds.). (1999). Promising practices in wraparound for children with serious
emotional disturbance and their families. Systems of Care: Promising Practices in Children’s Mental
Health, 1998 Series, Volume IV. Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice,
American Institutes for Research.
Butts, J.A., Snyder, H.N., Finnegan, T.A., Aughenbaugh, A.L., and Poole, R.S. (1996). Juvenile Court
Statistics, 1993. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (Available
online at http://www.rtc.pdx.edu/resource/terms.htm)
Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. (1994). Juvenile Justice Treatment Planning Chart. Rockville,
MD: Department of Health and Human Services.
Education Week on the Web. Glossary. (Available online at
http://www.edweek.org/context/glossary/glossary.htm)
Research and Training Center on Family Support and Children’s Mental Health. (1994). Glossary of
Children’s Mental Health Terms. Portland, OR: Author, Portland State University. (Available online at
http://www.rtc.pdx.edu/resource/terms.htm)
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Stroul, B.A., & Friedman, R.M. (1986, rev. 1994). A system of care for severely emotionally disturbed
children and youth. Washington, DC: CASSP Technical Assistance Center, Georgetown University
Child Development Center.
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APPENDIX E:
THE INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES
EDUCATION ACT (P.L. 105-17):
Sections of the Law that Pertain Specifically to Procedures for Addressing Behaviors that
Violate School Discipline Policies
Readers may find the complete text of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act statute and
regulations in a variety of places, including on the websites of the U.S. Department of Education
(http://www.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/IDEA/) and the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
(http://www.air.org/cecp/).
Sec. 612(a)(22) SUSPENSION AND EXPULSION RATES(A) IN GENERAL- The State educational agency examines data to determine if significant discrepancies are occurring in the rate of long-term suspensions and expulsions of children with disabilities—
(i) among local educational agencies in the State; or
(ii) compared to such rates for nondisabled children within such agencies.
(B) REVIEW AND REVISION OF POLICIES- If such discrepancies are occurring, the State educational agency reviews and, if appropriate, revises (or requires the affected State or local educational
agency to revise) its policies, procedures, and practices relating to the development and implementation
of IEPs, the use of behavioral interventions, and procedural safeguards, to ensure that such policies,
procedures, and practices comply with this Act.
Sec.613(j) DISCIPLINARY INFORMATION- The State may require that a local educational agency
include in the records of a child with a disability a statement of any current or previous disciplinary action
that has been taken against the child and transmit such statement to the same extent that such
disciplinary information is included in, and transmitted with, the student records of nondisabled children.
The statement may include a description of any behavior engaged in by the child that required disciplinary
action, a description of the disciplinary action taken, and any other information that is relevant to the
safety of the child and other individuals involved with the child. If the State adopts such a policy, and the
child transfers from one school to another, the transmission of any of the child’s records must include
both the child’s current individualized education program and any such statement of current or previous
disciplinary action that has been taken against the child.
Sec. 614(d)(3) DEVELOPMENT OF IEP
(B) CONSIDERATION OF SPECIAL FACTORS- The IEP Team shall—
(i) in the case of a child whose behavior impedes his or her learning or that of others, consider, when
appropriate, strategies, including positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports to address
that behavior;…
(C) REQUIREMENT WITH RESPECT TO REGULAR EDUCATION TEACHER- The regular
education teacher of the child, as a member of the IEP Team, shall, to the extent appropriate, participate
in the development of the IEP of the child, including the determination of appropriate positive behavioral
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interventions and strategies and the determination of supplementary aids and services, program
modifications, and support for school personnel consistent with paragraph (1)(A)(iii).
Sec. 615(j) MAINTENANCE OF CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PLACEMENT- Except as provided in
subsection (k)(7), during the pendency of any proceedings conducted pursuant to this section, unless the
State or local educational agency and the parents otherwise agree, the child shall remain in the thencurrent educational placement of such child, or, if applying for initial admission to a public school, shall,
with the consent of the parents, be placed in the public school program until all such proceedings have
been completed.
Sec. 615(k) PLACEMENT IN ALTERNATIVE EDUCATIONAL SETTING(1) AUTHORITY OF SCHOOL PERSONNEL(A) School personnel under this section may order a change in the placement of a child with a
disability—
(i) to an appropriate interim alternative educational setting, another setting, or suspension, for not
more than 10 school days (to the extent such alternatives would be applied to children without
disabilities); and
(ii) to an appropriate interim alternative educational setting for the same amount of time that a child
without a disability would be subject to discipline, but for not more than 45 days if—
(I) the child carries a weapon to school or to a school function under the jurisdiction of a State or a
local educational agency; or
(II) the child knowingly possesses or uses illegal drugs or sells or solicits the sale of a controlled
substance while at school or a school function under the jurisdiction of a State or local educational
agency.
(B) Either before or not later than 10 days after taking a disciplinary action described in subparagraph
(A)—
(i) if the local educational agency did not conduct a functional behavioral assessment and implement
a behavioral intervention plan for such child before the behavior that resulted in the suspension described
in subparagraph (A), the agency shall convene an IEP meeting to develop an assessment plan to
address that behavior; or
(ii) if the child already has a behavioral intervention plan, the IEP Team shall review the plan and
modify it, as necessary, to address the behavior.
(2) AUTHORITY OF HEARING OFFICER- A hearing officer under this section may order a change in
the placement of a child with a disability to an appropriate interim alternative educational setting for not
more than 45 days if the hearing officer—
(A) determines that the public agency has demonstrated by substantial evidence that maintaining the
current placement of such child is substantially likely to result in injury to the child or to others;
(B) considers the appropriateness of the child’s current placement;
(C) considers whether the public agency has made reasonable efforts to minimize the risk of harm in
the child’s current placement, including the use of supplementary aids and services; and
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(D) determines that the interim alternative educational setting meets the requirements of paragraph
(3)(B).
(3) DETERMINATION OF SETTING(A) IN GENERAL- The alternative educational setting described in paragraph (1)(A)(ii) shall be
determined by the IEP Team.
(B) ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS- Any interim alternative educational setting in which a child is
placed under paragraph (1) or (2) shall—
(i) be selected so as to enable the child to continue to participate in the general curriculum, although
in another setting, and to continue to receive those services and modifications, including those described
in the child’s current IEP, that will enable the child to meet the goals set out in that IEP; and
(ii) include services and modifications designed to address the behavior described in paragraph (1) or
paragraph (2) so that it does not recur.
(4) MANIFESTATION DETERMINATION REVIEW(A) IN GENERAL- If a disciplinary action is contemplated as described in paragraph (1) or paragraph
(2) for a behavior of a child with a disability described in either of those paragraphs, or if a disciplinary
action involving a change of placement for more than 10 days is contemplated for a child with a disability
who has engaged in other behavior that violated any rule or code of conduct of the local educational
agency that applies to all children—
(i) not later than the date on which the decision to take that action is made, the parents shall be
notified of that decision and of all procedural safeguards accorded under this section; and
(ii) immediately, if possible, but in no case later than 10 school days after the date on which the
decision to take that action is made, a review shall be conducted of the relationship between the child’s
disability and the behavior subject to the disciplinary action.
(B) INDIVIDUALS TO CARRY OUT REVIEW- A review described in subparagraph (A) shall be
conducted by the IEP Team and other qualified personnel.
(C) CONDUCT OF REVIEW- In carrying out a review described in subparagraph (A), the IEP Team
may determine that the behavior of the child was not a manifestation of such child’s disability only if the
IEP Team—
(i) first considers, in terms of the behavior subject to disciplinary action, all relevant information,
including—
(I) evaluation and diagnostic results, including such results or other relevant information supplied by
the parents of the child;
(II) observations of the child; and
(III) the child’s IEP and placement; and
(ii) then determines that—
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(I) in relationship to the behavior subject to disciplinary action, the child’s IEP and placement were
appropriate and the special education services, supplementary aids and services, and behavior
intervention strategies were provided consistent with the child’s IEP and placement;
(II) the child’s disability did not impair the ability of the child to understand the impact and consequences of the behavior subject to disciplinary action; and
(III) the child’s disability did not impair the ability of the child to control the behavior subject to
disciplinary action.
(5) DETERMINATION THAT BEHAVIOR WAS NOT MANIFESTATION OF DISABILITY(A) IN GENERAL- If the result of the review described in paragraph (4) is a determination, consistent
with paragraph (4)(C), that the behavior of the child with a disability was not a manifestation of the child’s
disability, the relevant disciplinary procedures applicable to children without disabilities may be applied to
the child in the same manner in which they would be applied to children without disabilities, except as
provided in section 612(a)(1).
(B) ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENT- If the public agency initiates disciplinary procedures applicable to
all children, the agency shall ensure that the special education and disciplinary records of the child with a
disability are transmitted for consideration by the person or persons making the final determination
regarding the disciplinary action.
(6) PARENT APPEAL(A) IN GENERAL(i) If the child’s parent disagrees with a determination that the child’s behavior was not a manifestation of the child’s disability or with any decision regarding placement, the parent may request a hearing.
(ii) The State or local educational agency shall arrange for an expedited hearing in any case described in this subsection when requested by a parent.
(B) REVIEW OF DECISION(i) In reviewing a decision with respect to the manifestation determination, the hearing officer shall
determine whether the public agency has demonstrated that the child’s behavior was not a manifestation
of such child’s disability consistent with the requirements of paragraph (4)(C).
(ii) In reviewing a decision under paragraph (1)(A)(ii) to place the child in an interim alternative
educational setting, the hearing officer shall apply the standards set out in paragraph (2).
(7) PLACEMENT DURING APPEALS(A) IN GENERAL- When a parent requests a hearing regarding a disciplinary action described in
paragraph (1)(A)(ii) or paragraph (2) to challenge the interim alternative educational setting or the
manifestation determination, the child shall remain in the interim alternative educational setting pending
the decision of the hearing officer or until the expiration of the time period provided for in paragraph
(1)(A)(ii) or paragraph (2), whichever occurs first, unless the parent and the State or local educational
agency agree otherwise.
(B) CURRENT PLACEMENT- If a child is placed in an interim alternative educational setting pursuant
to paragraph (1)(A)(ii) or paragraph (2) and school personnel propose to change the child’s placement
after expiration of the interim alternative placement, during the pendency of any proceeding to challenge
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the proposed change in placement, the child shall remain in the current placement (the child’s placement
prior to the interim alternative educational setting), except as provided in subparagraph (C).
(C) EXPEDITED HEARING(i) If school personnel maintain that it is dangerous for the child to be in the current placement
(placement prior to removal to the interim alternative education setting) during the pendency of the due
process proceedings, the local educational agency may request an expedited hearing.
(ii) In determining whether the child may be placed in the alternative educational setting or in another
appropriate placement ordered by the hearing officer, the hearing officer shall apply the standards set out
in paragraph (2).
(8) PROTECTIONS FOR CHILDREN NOT YET ELIGIBLE FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION AND
RELATED SERVICES(A) IN GENERAL- A child who has not been determined to be eligible for special education and
related services under this part and who has engaged in behavior that violated any rule or code of
conduct of the local educational agency, including any behavior described in paragraph (1), may assert
any of the protections provided for in this part if the local educational agency had knowledge (as
determined in accordance with this paragraph) that the child was a child with a disability before the
behavior that precipitated the disciplinary action occurred.
(B) BASIS OF KNOWLEDGE- A local educational agency shall be deemed to have knowledge that a
child is a child with a disability if—
(i) the parent of the child has expressed concern in writing (unless the parent is illiterate or has a
disability that prevents compliance with the requirements contained in this clause) to personnel of the
appropriate educational agency that the child is in need of special education and related services;
(ii) the behavior or performance of the child demonstrates the need for such services;
(iii) the parent of the child has requested an evaluation of the child pursuant to section 614; or (iv) the
teacher of the child, or other personnel of the local educational agency, has expressed concern about the
behavior or performance of the child to the director of special education of such agency or to other
personnel of the agency.
(C) CONDITIONS THAT APPLY IF NO BASIS OF KNOWLEDGE(i) IN GENERAL- If a local educational agency does not have knowledge that a child is a child with a
disability (in accordance with subparagraph (B)) prior to taking disciplinary measures against the child,
the child may be subjected to the same disciplinary measures as measures applied to children without
disabilities who engaged in comparable behaviors consistent with clause (ii).
(ii) LIMITATIONS- If a request is made for an evaluation of a child during the time period in which the
child is subjected to disciplinary measures under paragraph (1) or (2), the evaluation shall be conducted
in an expedited manner. If the child is determined to be a child with a disability, taking into consideration
information from the evaluation conducted by the agency and information provided by the parents, the
agency shall provide special education and related services in accordance with the provisions of this part,
except that, pending the results of the evaluation, the child shall remain in the educational placement
determined by school authorities.
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(9) REFERRAL TO AND ACTION BY LAW ENFORCEMENT AND JUDICIAL AUTHORITIES(A) Nothing in this part shall be construed to prohibit an agency from reporting a crime committed by
a child with a disability to appropriate authorities or to prevent State law enforcement and judicial
authorities from exercising their responsibilities with regard to the application of Federal and State law to
crimes committed by a child with a disability.
(B) An agency reporting a crime committed by a child with a disability shall ensure that copies of the
special education and disciplinary records of the child are transmitted for consideration by the appropriate
authorities to whom it reports the crime.
(10) DEFINITIONS- For purposes of this subsection, the following definitions apply:
(A) CONTROLLED SUBSTANCE- The term ‘controlled substance’ means a drug or other substance
identified under schedules I, II, III, IV, or V in section 202(c) of the Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C.
812(c)).
(B) ILLEGAL DRUG- The term ‘illegal drug’—
(i) means a controlled substance; but
(ii) does not include such a substance that is legally possessed or used under the supervision of a
licensed health-care professional or that is legally possessed or used under any other authority under that
Act or under any other provision of Federal law.
(C) SUBSTANTIAL EVIDENCE- The term ‘substantial evidence’ means beyond a preponderance of
the evidence.
(D) WEAPON- The term ‘weapon’ has the meaning given the term ‘dangerous weapon’ under
paragraph (2) of the first subsection (g) of section 930 of title 18, United States Code.
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